← The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers, Volume 2

Living Nations of the World to-Day (part 4)

A little farther to the northeast, through the Eagle Gate, is Brigham Young’s grave, surrounded by an ornamental iron railing.

The imposing City and County Building is in Washington Square, and the Federal Building is in Main Street, between Third and Fourth South Streets. A new Capitol is in contemplation in Capitol grounds, near Prospect Hill. Among the educational establishments are the Utah State University, to the east of the city, near Fort Douglas, and the High School, in Union Square. The Roman Catholic Cathedral and several other religious edifices also are represented, including Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and Methodist churches. St. Mark’s Cathedral is a handsome building. Other noteworthy edifices are those of the museum, the Mining Institute, St. Mary’s Hospital, the University of Utah, and the theaters and opera house.

The city is more important as a trading center than for manufactures. The leading industries are beet-sugar refining, smelting, salt making, and the manufacture of boots and shoes, glass, woolens, paper, cutlery, pottery, etc. A large business is done in bullion and mining stocks. The city has a large jobbing trade, being the distributing center for an immense mining agricultural and stock raising region in Utah, West Wyoming, South Idaho, and East Nevada.

Salt Lake City was founded in 1847 by Brigham Young and incorporated in 1851. Until 1870 it was almost wholly a Mormon city.

San Antonio (săn ăn-to´nĭ-ō), Texas. [Named for the Roman Catholic mission, San Antonio de Valero, otherwise the Alamo.]

After Dallas it is the largest city in the state, and is located on the San Antonio River, two hundred and ten miles by railroad west of Houston, one hundred and eighty-eight miles west of Galveston, on both banks of the San Antonio Creek, at the mouth of San Pedro River. Built on a level plateau, with an elevation of six hundred and sixty feet above the sea, it includes the old Mexican town of San Fernando, west of San Pedro Creek, inhabited chiefly by Americans and largely rebuilt since 1860. The San Antonio River winds for thirteen miles through the city, and San Pedro Creek for ten miles. These are spanned by numerous little bridges. It is one of the most interesting in the United States.

The first object of interest in San Antonio is the Church of the Mission del Alamo, situated in the Alamo Plaza, in the quarter to the east of the San Antonio River. The church, which seems to have derived its name from being built in a grove of alamo or cottonwood trees, is a low and strong structure of adobe, with very thick walls. It was built in 1744, but has lost many of its original features. It is now preserved as a national monument for its historical interests.

At the north end of the Alamo Plaza, in Houston Street, is the handsome Federal Building. On the west side of the plaza is the building containing the San Antonio Club and the Grand Opera House.

Houston Street towards the west crosses the San Antonio and reaches Soledad Street, which leads to the left to the Main Plaza (Plaza de Las Yslas), pleasantly laid out with gardens. On its south side rises the imposing Court House and on its west side stands the Cathedral of San Fernando, dating in its present form mainly from 1868 to 1873, but incorporating parts of the earlier building, where Santa Ana had his headquarters in 1836. To the west of the Cathedral is the Military Plaza (Plaza de Armas), with the City Hall.

The Military Post (Fort Sam Houston), on Government Hill, one mile to the north of the city, costing over two million dollars, is one of the largest in the United States and deserves a visit. The tower (eighty-eight feet high), in the center of the quadrangle, commands a splendid view of the city and its environs.

The old Spanish Missions near the city most often visited are the First and Second Missions, but, the Third and Fourth Missions have much interest also.

The Mission of the Conception, or First Mission, lies about two and a quarter miles to the south of the city (reached via Garden Street), dates from 1731 to 1752, and is well preserved. The church has two towers and a central dome. The Mission San Jose de Aguayo, or Second Mission, four miles to the south of the city, dates from 1720 to 1731 and is the most beautiful of all.

OLD SPANISH CHURCH OF THE ALAMO, SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS

During the war of Texan independence, the Alamo, then converted into a fort, was the scene of an extraordinary conflict, the fort being held by Colonel David Crockett and Colonel James Bowie. Though almost continually assailed from February 23 to March 6, 1836, it only yielded when the defenders were all slain but five; these were captured by the Mexicans and cruelly slain. “Remember the Alamo,” thereafter became a war cry, and the place itself has been called the “Thermopylæ of America.”

Among the educational institutions are St. Louis College (Roman Catholic), St. Mary’s Hall, St. Mary’s College, Wolfe Memorial School, and the Ursuline Convent and School.

San Antonio is the natural trading center for an immense area, its jobbing houses have an extensive trade in Mexico as well as in Texas. The industrial establishments are machine shops, foundries, breweries, flour mills, binderies, cotton presses, ice plants, tanneries, marble works, cement works, and manufactories of brooms, carriages and wagons, candy, soda and mineral waters, mattresses, bricks and tiles. It is a leading cattle, horse, and mule market, ships large quantities of cotton, wool, and hides; and is the financial center of the largest stock raising interests of the Southwest. The surrounding district, irrigated by water, obtained from deep artesian wells, is extensively engaged in truck farming for Northern markets.

Although the Spaniards built a fort at San Antonio in 1689, its real settlement began in 1714. In 1718 the Franciscan mission of San Antonio de Valero was founded, and, about 1722, on another site was built the Alamo, the “cradle of Texans’ liberty,” in which in 1836 a garrison of about one hundred and eighty men, among them Davy Crockett and James Bowie, for eleven days resisted General Santa Ana’s Mexican army, numbering thousands of men. Eight battles for independence were fought in or near San Antonio between 1776 and 1836, successively under Spanish, French, Mexican, and Texan flags. It received a city charter in 1873.

San Francisco, Cal. [The “City of the Golden Gate”; said by some to have been named for the old Spanish mission of San Francisco de Assisi, by others to have been named for the founder of the order to which Father Junipero, the discoverer of the bay, belonged.]

It is grandly situated at the north end of a peninsula thirty miles long, separating the Pacific Ocean from San Francisco Bay, two thousand four hundred and thirty-four miles west of St. Louis, and three thousand four hundred and fifty-two miles from New York. The city lies mainly on the shore of the bay and on the steep hills rising from it, but is gradually extending across the peninsula (here six miles wide) to the ocean. On the north it is bounded by the famous Golden Gate, the narrow entrance (one mile across and about five miles long) to San Francisco Bay. The commercial part of the town is fairly level and lies along the bay. The chief business thoroughfare is Market Street, three and one-half miles long, with which the streets from the north and west hills intersect. This feature gives the city a striking skyline.

San Francisco Bay, a noble sheet of water, gives San Francisco one of the finest harbors in the world and affords numerous charming excursions. It gives the city much of its commercial importance, also, and extends from Fort Point past the city in a southerly direction for about fifty miles, varying in width from six to twelve miles. Northward this bay connects by a strait with San Pablo Bay, ten miles in length, having at its northerly end Mare Island and the United States Navy Yard.

Across the bay are Oakland, Alameda, and Berkeley.

In 1906 a large part of the city was destroyed by earthquake and fire, the estimated loss reaching over three hundred million dollars. The business district has since been largely rebuilt, and many costly buildings of marble, granite, and terra cotta, and iron and steel-framed “skyscrapers” have been constructed. Before the earthquake of 1906 the most conspicuous public buildings were the City Hall, erected at a cost of six million dollars, and which occupied twenty-five years in building; the Post Office, completed at a total cost of five million dollars; the Hall of Justice, the Custom House, a Mint and a Sub-treasury; the building of the Society of California Pioneers, and stock and merchants’ exchanges; and the Ferry Building containing a display of the mineral resources of California.

NIGHT VIEW, SHOWING ILLUMINATION OF SOUTH GARDENS AND MAIN ENTRANCE, PANAMA-PACIFIC INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION, SAN FRANCISCO, 1915

The Panama-Pacific International Exposition at San Francisco was open from February 20 to December 4, 1915. The total attendance was 18,871,957. The last day made the record, 458,558 persons having passed through the turnstiles. The Fine Arts Palace remained open until May 1, 1916.

Market Street, the chief business thoroughfare, extends to the southwest from the Union Ferry Depot, a handsome structure, with a tower two hundred and fifty feet high, to a point near the twin Mission Peaks, a distance of about three and one-half miles.

Following Market Street towards the southwest, at the intersection with Battery Street is the Labor Monument, a vigorous bronze group dedicated to the memory of Peter Donahue of the Union Iron Works. At the southwest corner of Market and Montgomery Streets stands the Palace Hotel, opposite which is the Union Trust Building, the first of the buildings whose steel and concrete frame withstood the fire. Close by, at the corner of Montgomery and Post Streets, are the Crocker Building, another survivor, and the new stone structure of the First National Bank.

At the corners of Kearney and Third Streets rise the Chronicle Building and the tall Spreckels or Call Building, the top of either of which affords a good bird’s-eye view of the city.

Market Street, towards the southwest from the Chronicle Building, contains many large office buildings, including the tall Humboldt Savings Building. At the corner of Fourth Street is the Pacific Building, a huge structure of re-enforced concrete, with a facade of green and brown tiles. In the same block is the Emporium, which has been rehabilitated since the disaster of 1906. On the right, at the corner of Powell Street, is the large Flood Building, another survivor of the fire. It is chiefly occupied by railway offices.

Powell Street leads to Union Square, with the St. Francis Hotel and a Naval Monument commemorating the exploits of the United States fleet in the Philippines during the war with Spain (1898).

At the junction of Market Street with Mason Street is a monument commemorating the admission of California to the Union (1850). To the left, at the corner of Seventh Street, we catch a glimpse of the long frontage of the Post Office with its fine granite carvings. Just beyond this corner, in a small triangular park, is the large Californian Monument, presented to the city by James Lick. The stately monument erected in honor of the achievements of the navy in the Spanish-American war remains uninjured.

The district containing the United States Appraisers Stores and the large new Custom House was spared by the great fire.

The United States Branch Mint, in Fifth Street, at the corner of Mission Street, contains interesting machinery and a collection of coins and relics. The effect of the fire may be clearly seen on the granite at the north end of the building.

Montgomery Street and the southern part of Sansome Street, form the center of the banking district. On the former is the Union Trust Building, and a series of large office buildings, of which the most important are the Mills Building, corner of Montgomery and Bush Streets; the Merchants Exchange, California Street, near Montgomery Street; Kohl Building, corner Montgomery and California Streets; Italian-American Bank, a one-story building with Doric columns, corner Montgomery and Sacramento Streets; and the Bank of Italy, corner Montgomery and Clay Streets. At the northeast corner of Sansome and California Streets rises the tall Alaska Commercial Building, with the handsome Bank of California opposite.

Nob Hill was the name given about 1870 to that section of California Street, between Powell Street and Leavenworth Street, containing many of the largest private residences in San Francisco. Most of these were of wood, and no expense was spared to make them luxurious dwellings, but with unfortunate architectural results. Few relics of these are now extant. The hill is crowned by the huge Fairmont Hotel, opposite which is the Hopkins Institute of Art.

The present fashionable residential quarter is on Pacific Heights, including the western parts of Jackson Street, Washington Street, Pacific Avenue, and Central Avenue.

The educational institutions of San Francisco, include the Academy of Sciences, endowed by James Lick; the Hopkins Art Academy, situated on Nob Hill; Memorial Museum, in Golden Gate Park; Mechanics’ Institute, which contains property valued at two million dollars, and a library of seventy thousand volumes. Other fine libraries are the Sutro library of two hundred thousand volumes, the public library of one hundred thousand volumes, while the California Historical Society, San Francisco Medical Society, the San Francisco Law Library; the French and Mercantile libraries all have collections of more than thirty thousand volumes. The California School of Mechanical Arts, Cooper Medical College, Cogswell Polytechnic School, College of Notre Dame, Sacred Heart Academy, Irving Institute, the medical and law faculties of the University of California, are also located here.

The city was always conspicuous for its fine churches. The most prominent of these were the Roman Catholic Cathedral, the Jesuit Church of St. Ignatius, and the Mission Dolores, a survival of Spanish occupation.

The largest of the city parks is Golden Gate Park, covering more than one thousand acres and redeemed from a waste of sand-dunes, now one of the most beautiful in the country. It extends from Stanryan Street to the Pacific Ocean, a distance of three miles. Its fine trees and shrubbery, semi-tropical plants and flowers, artificial lakes and Japanese tea gardens combine to make it a veritable wonderland. Through the park a broad, smooth, and well-kept speedway runs out to the ocean beach, and the famous old Cliff House, the Sutro Heights, on the hills of the west or ocean side, from which is a magnificent view of the Seal Rocks and Pacific Ocean.

To the north of the park, beyond the intervening Richmond district, lies the Presidio, the United States military reservation. Here are the harbor fortifications with their big and powerful rapid fire machine guns, the officers’ quarters with picturesque gardens and hedgerows, and the hospital and barracks for the soldiers, while down at the water’s edge is old Fort Mason, a circular brick structure now used as a storehouse.

The population is very heterogeneous, every European nationality being represented here, to say nothing of the Mexicans, Chinese, Japanese, Negroes (relatively few), Filipinos, Hawaiians, and other non-European races.

The Chinese Quarter, rebuilt since the fire, is still one of the most interesting and characteristic features of San Francisco. It lies, roughly defined, between Stockton, Sacramento, Kearney, and Pacific Streets, and now consists mainly of large modern store buildings in a modified Oriental style, and of tall tenements, swarming with Chinese occupants. Chinatown contains about ten thousand inhabitants.

To the north of Chinatown, spreading about the base of Telegraph Hill, is the so-named Latin Quarter, peopled by Italians, Greeks and Mexicans. Their houses, shops, and restaurants are most characteristic. The Japanese Quarter is bounded by Van Ness, Fillmore, Geary, and Pine Streets.

In the pretty park that separates busy Kearney Street from Chinatown, the beautiful golden galleon monument to Robert Louis Stevenson still stands.

San Francisco as the western terminus of the great continental railroads and of many short lines, has important steamship communication with the ports of the world. The bay is accessible to the largest vessels. It is one of the most important grain ports in the United States; and gold and silver, wine, fruit, and wool are exported. There are large sugar refineries, foundries, shipyards, cordage works, wood factories, woolen mills, and many others.

A Spanish post and mission station were established on the site of San Francisco in 1776. The mission was secularized in 1834, and a town was laid out in 1835. A United States man-of-war took possession of it in 1846, and it became an important place in 1849 on account of the discovery of gold (1848). It was devastated by fires, 1849-1851. In 1850 it was incorporated as a city. The original name of the place was Yerba Buena (Spanish, “good herb”). It was changed to San Francisco in 1847. In 1869 railway connection was established with the eastern United States. In 1877 Denis Kearney began a violent agitation against the competition of Chinese labor. This was known as the “sand lots” movement, from the name of the place where the meetings were held. On April 18, 1906, the city was visited with a severe shock of earthquake, and the resultant fires destroyed much of the business section and one-third of the residence portion of the city.

Berkeley, across the Bay from San Francisco, is the seat of the Colleges of Letters and Science of the University of California. The University, founded in 1868, has played a very important part in the educational development of California and of the Pacific Slope. Its other departments are at San Francisco and the Lick Observatory, with the great telescope, is at Mt. Hamilton.

A number of the buildings at Berkeley are handsome, and the picturesque grounds, two hundred and fifty acres in extent, command a splendid view of the Golden Gate and San Francisco. The very interesting open-air Greek Theater, built in 1903 on the general type of the theater at Epidaurus, accommodates twelve thousand spectators and is used for university meetings, commencement exercises, and concerts. The museums, the library, and the laboratories are admirably adapted to their uses.

At Palo Alto, thirty-four miles south of San Francisco, one mile from the station is the Leland Stanford, Jr. University, founded by Mr. and Mrs. Leland Stanford in memory of their only son and endowed by them with upwards of thirty million dollars. The buildings were mainly designed by H. H. Richardson, who took the motif of their architecture from the cloisters of the San Antonio Mission. The material is buff, rough-faced sandstone, surmounted by red-tiled roofs, producing brilliant effects of color in conjunction with the live oak, white oak, and eucalyptus trees outside, and tropical plants in the quadrangle, and the blue sky overhead. In the earthquake of 1906 the buildings suffered severely, the damage done being estimated at nearly two million dollars. Much, however, has been restored or rebuilt. The buildings include a low quadrangle, enclosing a court five hundred and eighty-six feet long and two hundred and forty-six feet wide, with a beautiful colonnade on the inner side; an outer, two-storied quadrangle, with cloisters on the outside; a Chapel; various dormitories; an Art Museum; a mechanical department; and a village of professors’ houses.

Seattle (sē-ăt´t´l), Wash. [Named for the chief of the Duwamish tribe of Indians, See-aa-thl.]

It is finely situated on Elliot Bay, an arm of Puget Sound, one thousand eight hundred and twenty-eight miles from St. Paul. It occupies a series of terraces rising from the shore of the Sound, with steep hills rising from the water, the heights commanding superb views of the snow-crowned Olympic Mountains and the Cascades, including Mounts Rainier and Baker.

The residence streets run up the slope of a hill, with the business portion built on the level ground at the foot, stretching along the excellent harbor, with its many wharves.

Among the finest edifices are the Roman Catholic Cathedral, the Union or King Street Passenger Station, with Carnegie Library, the American Bank, and the Alaska, Lowman, White, Central, and Empire Buildings.

Its notable buildings include, also, the County Court House, County Almshouse, Opera House, High School, and Hospital. The city is beautified with monuments and statues, unique among which is the Totem Pole, in Pioneer Square, near the Union Station, which was brought from Alaska and is one of the best examples of its kind. There is a good statue of Wm. H. Seward, by Richard Brooks, and in the campus of the University of Washington is a colossal statue of Washington, by Lorado Taft.

The University has grounds three hundred and fifty-five acres in extent, and furnished the site for the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition of 1909.

Other leading educational institutions are Seattle Seminary (Methodist), Seattle Female College, College of the Immaculate Conception and Academy of the Holy Name (both Roman Catholic).

There are several fine parks connected, together with the lakes, by a system of boulevards. Fort Lawton, a military post, is within the city limits.

The harbor, which is in Lake Washington and is four miles long and two miles wide, admits the largest vessels at all times. As the terminal of two transcontinental railroads and as an oceanic seaport, Seattle has extraordinary commercial advantages. It has direct steamship lines to Japan, China, the Philippines, and to Honolulu, and is also connected with European and South American ports. It is the chief outfitting port for the Yukon and Alaskan gold fields, and the chief trading center for the numerous ports on the extensive coast-line of Puget Sound. It has abundant electric power generated by falls in the rivers of the Cascades at a very low cost. Snoqualnite Falls, nineteen miles distant, are one hundred and twenty-six feet higher than Niagara, and supply an immense power.

Seattle largely owes its phenomenal growth to the lumber trade. The manufactures include beside, flour, iron and steel products, boots and shoes, beer, etc. Other industries are bridge-works, shipyards, meat-packing, and fish-canning. The city has also smelting and refining works, and a United States assay office. The chief exports are lumber, coal, meats, fruits, wheat, and hops.

Seattle was first settled in 1852. The place was laid out in 1853 and was incorporated in 1865 as a town and in 1880 as a city. In 1889 it was almost wiped out by fire, but one business building escaping destruction. From June 1 to November 30, 1909, the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition was held here, the average daily attendance being twenty-eight thousand. In the spring of 1910 a Municipal Plans Commission of twenty-one members was created by an amendment to the city charter of Seattle, and in 1911 their report was issued containing sketches and plans illustrating their proposals for the beautification and future growth of the city.

St. Louis (sānt lōō´ĭs or lōō´ĭ), Mo. [Named in honor of Louis XV. of France; the name originally applied to a depot established at this point February 15, 1764, by Pierre Láclede Liguest.]

It is the principal city of Missouri, and is located on the west bank of the Mississippi River, twenty-one miles south of the mouth of the Missouri River, and by rail one thousand one hundred and eight miles southwest of New York, two thousand four hundred and thirty-four miles east of San Francisco, and six hundred and ninety-six miles north of New Orleans. It has a frontage of nearly twenty miles on the river and rises from it in three terraces, the third of which is about two hundred feet above the river level.

The city is regularly laid out, on the Philadelphia plan, Market Street running east and west, being the dividing line between north and south. The streets running north and south are numbered, though many of them are also known by names. Broadway or Fifth Street is the chief shopping thoroughfare, while other important business streets are Fourth Street, Olive Street, Washington Avenue, Third Street, and First Street (or Main) and Second Streets. The city is also divided into a north and south section by the valley of Mill Creek (now filled in), which is spanned by seven bridges. The city has recently extended greatly to the west, and commerce is steadily encroaching on the residential quarters.

The Court House, in Broadway, between Market and Chestnut Streets, is a substantial building in the form of a Greek Cross. It is surmounted by a dome, one hundred and seventy-five feet high, the gallery of which commands an excellent view of the city and river. A little to the east, in Third Street, corner of Chestnut Street, is the Merchants’ Exchange, the main hall of which, with a painted ceiling, is two hundred and twenty feet long. The grand ball of the Veiled Prophet is held here. The Cotton Exchange is at the corner of Main and Walnut Streets.

By following Market Street to the west from the Court House, the square, named Washington Park, is reached, and also the City Hall. A little to the south, in the square enclosed by Clark Avenue and Spruce, Eleventh and Twelfth Streets, are the so-called Four Courts, built on the model of the Louvre, in Paris, with a large semi-circular jail at the back. A little to the north of the City Hall runs the busy Olive Street, which toward Broadway, passes the Post Office on the left. Among the numerous substantial business buildings in this part of Olive Street are the Star, Century, Frisco, Chemical, Missouri Trust, Commercial, Laclede, Commonwealth Trust, National Bank of Commerce, and Third National Bank, a large and very fine structure. In Broadway, at the corner of Locust Street, is the Mercantile Library, which contains one hundred and fifty thousand volumes, statues by Harriet Hosmer, and others.

Other important buildings in this business section of the city are the Security Building (at the southwest corner of Fourth and Locust Streets); the Mercantile Trust Co., at the northeast corner of Eighth and Locust Streets (with vaults closed by a circular steel door of marvelous mechanism weighing four and one-half tons); the St. Louis Union Trust Co., at the northwest corner of Fourth and Locust Streets; the Mercantile Club, southeast corner of Seventh and Locust Streets; the Public Library, Locust Street, corner of Ninth Street; the Lincoln Trust and Wainwright Buildings, corner of Seventh and Chestnut Streets; and the Missouri Pacific Building, northwest corner of Market and Seventh Streets.

On the block between Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Olive and St. Charles Streets is the new Carnegie Central Library, erected at a cost of one million dollars.

At the corner of Locust and Nineteenth Streets is the handsome School of Fine Arts, which is connected with Washington University.

The Episcopal Cathedral, the Roman Catholic Cathedral, old and new, and many of the new Protestant churches in the West End are architecturally striking.

The parks of St. Louis are among the most notable in the United States, and their area (two thousand three hundred acres) is exceeded by those of Philadelphia alone. The finest are Forest Park (one thousand three hundred and seventy acres); Tower Grove Park (two hundred and sixty-six acres); Carondelet Park, O’Fallon Park, and the Missouri Botanical Garden, which is one of the foremost in North America.

To the west of Forest Park is the new home of Washington University, forming one of the most successful and appropriate groups of collegiate buildings in the New World. They were designed by Messrs. Cope & Stewardson in a Tudor-Gothic style and enclose several quadrangles. The material is red Missouri granite. Among the buildings already completed are University Hall, the Chemical and Physical Laboratories, the Architectural and Engineering Buildings, the Chapel (resembling King’s College Chapel at Cambridge, England), the library (with a fine reading room), various dormitories, and the gymnasium. The university grounds are one hundred and ten acres in extent.

The other institutions of higher education are St. Louis University, the College of the Christian Brothers, Maria Consilia Convent, training school for nurses, several medical colleges, dental college, the theological seminaries, manual training school, the State School for the Blind, and the St. Louis Day School for Deaf Mutes.

In Forest Park, not far from the University, is the handsome Museum of Fine Arts, originally erected as the Fine Arts Building of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. In front of the entrance is a colossal equestrian bronze statue of St. Louis.

The great St. Louis or Eads Bridge, across the Mississippi, is deservedly one of the monuments of the city. It was designed by Capt. James B. Eads and was constructed in 1869-1874 at a cost of ten million dollars. It consists of three steel spans (center five hundred and twenty feet, others five hundred and two feet each) resting on massive limestone piers. The total length is two thousand and seventy yards. The bridge is built in two stories, the lower for the railway, the upper for the roadway and foot passengers. Trains enter the lower track by a tunnel, one thousand six hundred and thirty yards long, beginning near the corner of Twelfth and Cerre Streets. The highest part of the arches is fifty-five feet above the water.

The Merchants’ Bridge, three miles farther up the river, is a steel truss bridge, and was built in 1889-1890, at a cost of three million dollars. It is used by railways only. It has three spans, each five hundred feet long and seventy feet high.

St. Louis ranks fourth among the manufacturing cities of the United States. It is the largest tobacco manufacturing city in the world, and also has a large production of malt liquors, flour, boots and shoes, hardware, stoves, railways and electric cars, woodenware, brick, biscuit, crackers, etc. The city is also the largest mule mart in the world, and noted as a drug market.

Founded from New Orleans in 1764, by Pierre Làclede-Liguest and Auguste Chouteau, St. Louis remained a fur-trading post until the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Its first era of marked development began with the arrival of the first steamboat, 1817. Steam navigation of its river connection made it the most important point in the settlement of the trans-Mississippi West. It had repeatedly doubled its population before the first period of German immigration, following the German revolution of 1848. In 1875 St. Louis was separated from the County of St. Louis and given an independent government of its own. In 1896 the city was swept by a destructive tornado. In 1903 an exposition was held in St. Louis to celebrate the Louisiana Purchase.

Its population of American birth heavily predominates, but its German population is large and every element of European population is represented, with a recent increase from Southern Europe and Russia in excess of all other elements.

St. Paul, Minn. [Named from the Chapel of St. Paul, a log chapel erected here by Roman Catholics. Indian name, imnijaska, “white rock,” a reference to the sandstone bluff on which the city stands.]

It is the capital of Minnesota, and located on both banks of the Mississippi River, immediately below Minneapolis, the suburbs of the “Twin Cities” being contiguous.

It has a picturesque site at an elevation of six hundred and seventy to eight hundred and eighty feet above sea level on a series of terraces, the highest of which is two hundred and sixty-six feet above the river. The two divisions of the city are connected by three municipal bridges. In addition to these there are a number of railway bridges and scores of smaller bridges over ravines, valleys, railway crossings, etc. The municipal limits include the suburbs of Merriam, St. Anthony, Union, Groveland, Macalester, and Desnoyer Parks, Arlington Hills, and others.

Of the three plateaus, the first contains the railway yards, Union Station, wholesale houses and factories. Above the flats are the business section and part of the residential district; still higher are the bluffs, the most fashionable residential quarter, with extensive views of the river and the lower terraces.

The business part of the town is well built and regularly laid out, and the suburban quarters contain many fine streets and handsome residences.

The new State Capitol, erected in 1898-1906, at a cost of four million five hundred thousand dollars, is a large and handsome edifice of granite and Georgia marble, with an unusually successful central dome.

The most impressive parts of the interior are the central rotunda, the two great staircases, the Supreme Court, and the Senate Chamber. The dominant note in the color scheme is furnished by Minnesota yellow limestone. The mural paintings are by La Farge, Simmons, Blashfield, Garnsey, Kenyon Cox, and H. O. Walker. In the Governor’s reception room are paintings by F. P. Millet, Howard Pyle, Douglas Volk, and others. The State Law Library and that of the State Historical Society are both housed in the Capitol.

Four blocks to the south of the Old Capitol are the Custom House and the City Hall, the latter a handsome building erected at a cost of one million dollars. Among other important buildings in the business quarter are the Public Library; the Auditorium, a hall for meetings and theatrical performances; the new Y. M. C. A. Building; the New York Life Insurance Building, corner Sixth and Minnesota Streets; the Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Paul, Sixth Street, corner of St. Peter Street; the High School, corner Tenth and Minnesota Streets; the Globe Building, Fourth Street, corner Cedar Street; the Germania Life Insurance Office; the former Bank of Minnesota, now used for various offices; the Manhattan Building, corner of Fifth and Robert Streets; the Gilfillan Building; the Endicott Arcade; the Central Presbyterian Church; the Bethel Hotel, resembling the Mills House of New York; the Minnesota Club House; the People’s Church; the Field, Mahler & Co. Building, Fourth Street; and the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific Railway Offices.

The finest residence street is Summit Avenue. It begins at Wabasha Street and runs from Summit Park along a high ridge. The most prominent dwelling is the large brown stone mansion of the late James J. Hill, containing a good collection of paintings by Corot, Delacroix, Courbet, Troyon, Decamps, etc.

A Roman Catholic Cathedral is being erected at Summit Park; and to the west of the town, near the west end of Summit Avenue, by the river, is the extensive Roman Catholic Seminary of St. Thomas Aquinas. On the bluff above, at the end of Grand Avenue (parallel to Summit Avenue) are the various buildings of the Hill Seminary.

It is also the seat of Hamline University (Methodist Episcopal), Concordia College (Lutheran), Macalester College (Presbyterian), several medical colleges, a State Reform School, and an Academy of Natural Sciences.

St. Paul has a park system of remarkable beauty. Como and Phalen Parks have picturesque lakes, and Indian Mound Park is said to have views unsurpassed anywhere else on the Mississippi River. Harriet Island, in the river opposite the business district, is provided with public baths. There are twenty-two miles of park and boulevard driveways, not including the River Boulevard. The total park area is one thousand two hundred and four acres. Fort Snelling, attractively located at the mouth of the Minnesota River, occupies a large tract adjacent to the city on the southwest.

The manufactures of St. Paul include machinery, farming implements, furniture, carriages, boots and shoes, and malt liquors. Here also are located the extensive meat packing plants of Swift & Co., and quarries of fine limestone. It is the center of the wholesale grocery and dry-goods business in Minnesota. It is also an important printing and publishing center, and has large car shops, lumber and planing mills, and breweries.

In 1841 Father Galtier, a French Canadian, induced the settlers, chiefly French Catholic hunters and traders in furs and whiskey, to build a log church which was dedicated to St. Paul. In 1849 the town became the capital of the newly organized territory of Minnesota, and was incorporated. It received its city charter in 1854.

WASHINGTON, AMERICA’S CITY BEAUTIFUL

1. THE CAPITOL
2. MEMORIAL TO LINCOLN 3. THE WHITE HOUSE, (SOUTH FRONT)
4. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS

Washington, D. C. [The “City of Magnificent Distances,” from its being laid out on a large and regular scale; originally named Georgetown, but when selected in 1790 as the Federal Capital was re-named Washington in honor of the first President of the United States.]

The City of Washington, the Capital of the United States, lies on the left bank of the Potomac River, in the District of Columbia, one hundred and fifty-six miles from Chesapeake Bay, one hundred and eighty-five miles from the Atlantic Ocean, two hundred and twenty-six miles southwest of New York, one hundred and thirty-six miles of Philadelphia, and forty miles of Baltimore.

The city lies on a plain with slight elevations and surrounded by hills, and is generally accepted as the most beautiful in the United States, being finely laid out, with wide asphalted streets, opening up vistas of handsome public buildings, monuments, or leafy squares, with the Capitol and the Washington Monument dominating the entire view.

The original plan of Washington City was made by L’Enfant, a French engineer, who had adopted America as his residence. Based largely upon the topography of Versailles, its characteristic features are the crossing of the rectangular streets by frequent broad transverse avenues, one hundred and twenty to one hundred and sixty feet wide, lined with trees and named for various States of the Union. The streets running north and south are numbered, those running east and west are named by the letters of the alphabet. The circles formed by the intersection of the streets and avenues are one of the most charming features of the city.

Pennsylvania Avenue, between the Capitol and the White House (a distance of one and one-third miles), is the chief thoroughfare, and other important business streets are Seventh Street, Fourteenth Street, Ninth Street, and F Street. Among the finest residence streets are New Hampshire Avenue, Massachusetts Avenue, Vermont Avenue, Connecticut Avenue, and Sixteenth Street.

The new Union Railway Station, completed in 1908 at a cost of fifteen million dollars, including grounds and tunnels, is undoubtedly one of the most successful buildings in the country. It is situated at the junction of Massachusetts and Delaware Avenues, about one-third of a mile, and in full view of the Capitol. In front is a large plaza, embellished with shrubbery, fountains, and the finely sculptured Columbus monument.

The Capitol, splendidly situated on a hill ninety feet above the level of the Potomac, dominates the entire city with its soaring dome and ranks among the most beautiful buildings in the world. It stands in a park of about fifty acres, is seven hundred and fifty-one feet in length and one hundred and twenty-one to three hundred and twenty-four feet wide, and consists of a main edifice of sandstone, painted white, and of two wings of white marble. The building covers an area of three and one-half acres.

The cornerstone was laid by Washington in 1793. The main building, with its original low-crowned dome, was completed in 1827; the wings and the new iron dome were added in 1851-1865. The general style is classic, with Corinthian details. The principal facade looks towards the east, as the city was expected to spread in that direction, and the Capitol thus turns its back upon the main part of the city and on the other government buildings.

A fine marble terrace, eight hundred and eighty-four feet long, approached by two broad flights of steps, has been constructed on the west side of the Capitol and adds great dignity to this view of the building. The dome, which is two hundred and sixty-eight and one-half feet high, is surmounted by a figure of Liberty, nineteen and one-half feet high. The total cost of the building has been sixteen million dollars.

The front or east facade is preceded by three porticos, the main entrance being in the center. To the right of the central portico is the Settlement of America, a marble group by Greenough; to the left is the Discovery of America, a figure of Columbus by Persico. In the pediment above the portico is a relief of the Genius of America, by Persico; and in the pediment above the north portico is a group representing the Civilization of the United States, by Crawford.

The inauguration of the Presidents of the United States takes place on the broad steps in front of the main doorway.

In the interior beside the rotunda with its historical paintings, are the Senate Chamber in the north wing; the House of Representatives in the south wing, the Supreme Court in the central building, and the old Hall of Representatives, now used for historical statues.

To the north and south of the Capitol and connected with it by subways are the Senate and House of Representatives office buildings, two white marble edifices in a classic style, containing offices for senators and representatives.

To the southeast of the Capitol stands the Library of Congress, an enormous structure in the Italian renaissance style, four hundred and seventy feet long and three hundred and forty feet wide, erected in 1888-1897, at a cost of six million one hundred and eighty thousand dollars. It is in the form of a quadrangle, enclosing four courts and a central rotunda surmounted by a flat gilded dome and lantern. The main entrance, on the west side, is preceded by a broad flight of steps and a granite terrace, against the retaining wall of which is an effective fountain.

The interior of the Congressional Library is sumptuously adorned with paintings, sculptures, colored marbles, and gilding. To the right and left are massive marble staircases, richly adorned with sculptures and with bronze figures as lamp-bearers. The ceiling of the hall, seventy-two feet above the marble flooring, is resplendent in blue, green, and yellow.

The reading room rotunda is perhaps the finest and most thoroughly satisfactory part of the whole building. The chamber, which is one hundred feet in diameter and one hundred and twenty-five feet in height, accommodates about three hundred readers, is richly adorned with dark marble from Tennessee, red marble from Numidia, and yellow marble from Siena. The eight massive piers are surmounted by symbolical female figures.

At the foot of the flights of steps descending from the terrace on the west side of the Capitol is an heroic statue of Chief Justice Marshall, by Story. The broad walk to the north leads to the Naval or Peace Monument, by Simmons. The walk to the south leads to the statue of President Garfield, by J. Q. A. Ward.

Diagonally to the southwest and northwest extend two grand avenues as far as eye can see—Maryland Avenue to the left leading down to the Potomac and carrying the line of the Pennsylvania Railroad to the river, where it crosses over the Long Bridge into Virginia; and Pennsylvania Avenue to the right stretching to the distant colonnade of the Treasury Building and the tree covered park south of the Executive Mansion. Between these diverging avenues and extending to the Potomac, more than a mile away, is the Mall, a broad inclosure of lawns and gardens. Upon it in the foreground is the government Botanical Garden, and behind this the spacious grounds surrounding the Smithsonian Institution; and the National Museum; while beyond, near the river bank, rises the tall, white shaft of the Washington Monument with its pointed apex; on either side spreads out the city, the houses bordering the foliage lined streets and having at frequent intervals the tall spires of churches and the massive marble, granite, and brick edifices that are used for government buildings.

The Smithsonian Institution is a red stone building in the late Norman style, erected in 1847-1856 at a cost of four hundred and fifty thousand dollars. The loftiest of the nine towers is one hundred and forty-five feet high. In front of it is a statue of Prof. Joseph Henry, the first secretary of the Institution, by Story.

CORCORAN ART GALLERY, WASHINGTON

New buildings for the National Museum, on the Mall between Ninth and Twelfth Streets, and the new one million five hundred thousand dollar marble building of the Department of Agriculture, west of the Smithsonian grounds, are notable. The former, originally established to exhibit the rich contributions given to the government by various countries from the Centennial at Philadelphia in 1876, has become a most extensive and instructive collection of antiquities, ethnology, geology, and natural history generally; and there are many museums, libraries and art galleries.

The Bureau of Engraving and Printing, where the paper money, bonds and stamps of the United States are printed, is at the corner of B Street and the Mall, southwest.

The national monument to Washington, popularly known as the “Washington Monument,” is a towering obelisk of white marble, on the bank of the Potomac, erected at a cost of one million two hundred and thirty thousand dollars. It has a total height of five hundred and fifty-five feet, an area at the foundation of sixteen thousand feet, and a weight of thirty-six thousand nine hundred and twelve gross tons. The apex has an aluminum point, and there is an elevator and an iron stairway of nine hundred steps in the interior of the shaft.

From the Washington Monument the Treasury Department at Pennsylvania Avenue and Fifteenth Street comes into full view. It is an immense edifice, five hundred and ten feet long and two hundred and eighty feet wide, with an Ionic colonnade on the east front and porticos on the other three sides. The materials are freestone and granite, and it cost seven million dollars to erect the edifice. Among the chief objects of interest are the United States Cash Room, in the north corridor; the Redemption Division, in the basement; the Silver Vaults, containing bullion and coin to the value of hundreds of millions of dollars; and the Secret Service Division, with its collection of forged money and portraits of forgers.

On the south, opposite the Treasury, is the fine equestrian monument of General Sherman, by Rohl-Smith, erected in 1903. The pedestal is embellished with bronze reliefs, medallions, and figures of Indian women, and at the corners are four sentinels.

Following Pennsylvania Avenue towards the west, Lafayette Square, is approached. Here are bronze statues of General Andrew Jackson, by Clark Mills; the Rochambeau Monument, by F. Hamar; and the Lafayette Monument, by Falguiére and Mercié. On the east side of the square is the Belasco Theater, occupying the site of the house in which an attempt was made to assassinate Secretary Seward in 1865.

Opposite Lafayette Square is the entrance to the White House or Executive Mansion of the President of the United States. The White House is a two-story stone building, painted white, one hundred and seventy feet long and eighty-six feet deep, with an Ionic portico. It was first built in 1792, occupied by President Adams in 1800, burned by the British in 1814, and rebuilt in 1818. In 1902-1903 the whole building was admirably restored, within and without. The esplanade or terrace on the west side connects the house with the new Executive Offices and Cabinet Room. The large East Room (eighty by forty by twenty-two feet) is open to the public from ten to two. The Reception Rooms, which contain portraits of Presidents and valuable gifts, and the handsome Dining Room are shown by special order only. The rest of the house is private. The grounds surrounding the house are seventy-five acres in extent.

To the west of the White House is the huge building of the State, War, and Navy Departments, enclosing two courts and measuring five hundred and sixty-seven feet in length by three hundred and forty-two feet in breadth. It is a granite building, in Renaissance style, the largest public edifice in Washington, covering four and one-half acres, has five hundred and sixty-six rooms, and cost eleven million dollars. The north and west wings are occupied by the War Department. The Navy Department is in the eastern part of the building.

The Department of State occupies the southern part of the building. Among the finest rooms are the Diplomatic Reception Rooms, containing portraits of the Secretaries of State from 1789 to the present day, and the Library, with Jefferson’s original draft of the Declaration of Independence and other relics.

In Seventeenth Street, to the southwest of the State Building, between New York Avenue and E Street, is the Corcoran Gallery of Art, built and endowed by the late W. W. Corcoran. The present building, erected in 1894-1897, is a handsome white marble structure in a Neo-Grecian style, by Ernest Flagg. The semicircular hall at the north end is used for occasional exhibitions, while the rest of this part of the building is occupied by a School of Art. The steps to the main entrance are flanked by colossal bronze lions, modeled after those by Canova at the tomb of Pope Clement XIII. The Gallery contains more than two hundred paintings, the finest collection of Barye bronzes, Power’s Greek Slave, and Vela’s Dying Napoleon in marble.

Also in Seventeenth Street, south of the Corcoran Gallery, are the new Continental Hall, built by the Daughters of the American Revolution, and the new building of the International Bureau of the American Republics, erected at a cost of one million dollars by Andrew Carnegie.

The Interior Department occupies an entire square in the heart of the city, and is constructed of white marble in pure Doric, costing three million dollars. The General Land Office opposite is a Corinthian marble edifice.

In Judiciary Square on the north side stands the Pension Office, an enormous structure of brick, four hundred feet long and two hundred feet wide. It is surrounded by a terra cotta frieze illustrating military and naval operations. The interior, with its mammoth columns (seventy-five feet high), can accommodate about twenty thousand people at an inauguration ball, or other occasions.

ST. JOHN’S CHURCH, WASHINGTON

Nearby, in B Street, is the large Census Bureau, in which a large staff is constantly at work. The enumerating machines are especially interesting.

To the northeast of this point, at the corner of North Capitol and H Streets, is the Government Printing Office, a twelve-story building erected at a cost of two million dollars.

Ford Theater, in which President Lincoln was assassinated by Booth on April 14, 1865, is in Tenth Street. A house opposite bears a tablet stating that Lincoln died there, and contains a collection of Lincoln relics.

On the south side of Pennsylvania Avenue, between Eleventh and Twelfth Streets, is the Post Office Department, with a tower three hundred feet high. At the corner of Pennsylvania Avenue and Fourteenth Streets is the new District or Municipal Building, a fine marble structure completed in 1908, and occupied by the District Commissioners and other officials of the local government.

At the intersection of Massachusetts Avenue and New York Avenue is Mt. Vernon Square, containing the Public Library, a white marble building, presented by Mr. Andrew Carnegie.

Beyond the Capitol to the southeast are the Washington Barracks, at the junction of the Potomac and its Eastern Branch, an artillery post, and the War College, a fine brick building, erected 1903-1908. In front of the latter is a statue of Frederick the Great by T. Uphues, presented to the United States by Emperor William II.

About one mile to the northeast, on the Anacostia River, is the Washington Navy Yard, with a museum, an important gun foundry, and manufactories of naval stores.

There are more than two hundred and fifty churches in Washington, of which the more important are St. John’s (the “President’s Church”), and St. Thomas’ Episcopal; the New York Avenue, and Church of the Covenant, Presbyterian; the Metropolitan and Foundry, Methodist; St. Matthew’s and St. Aloysius’, Roman Catholic; Calvary, Baptist; Garfield Memorial, Christian; and Mount St. Sepulchre, with its reproduction of the sacred places of the Holy Land.

The National Soldiers’ Home, two miles above the city, founded in 1851, has six hundred acres of park and forest, which serve as a public driving park and rural resort. To the north lies the National Military Cemetery, with the graves of General Logan, General Kearney, and seven thousand soldiers. On the west this is adjoined by Rock Creek Cemetery, containing Saint-Gauden’s beautiful monument to Mrs. Henry Adams. To the east of the Soldiers’ Home Park is the important Catholic University of America, around which has grown up a somewhat remarkable group of ecclesiastical establishments, including a Franciscan Convent, houses of the Dominicans, Paulists and Marists, and Trinity College for young women. The university has a number of fine stone buildings of striking architectural effect. The other colleges of note are: George Washington University, with academic, scientific, graduate, medical, and technological departments, and a famous law school; Georgetown University, a Jesuit institution with academic and professional schools; American University, for graduate instruction only; and the National Deaf-Mute College, founded in 1864, a government institution for the education of deaf and dumb pupils from the army, the navy, and the District of Columbia. Its fine stone buildings lie just north of the city.

Among the more important private buildings may be mentioned those of the Washington Post and Evening Star, and the Munsey buildings, all on Pennsylvania Avenue; the Riggs National Bank, American Security and Trust Company, Washington Loan and Trust, Union Trust and Storage Company, and the National Metropolitan Bank. The larger office buildings are the Bond, the Colorado, the Ouray, the Southern, and Woodward buildings. The Masonic Temple, the Scottish Rite Temple, and the Y. M. C. A. buildings, are important structures.

More and more Washington is becoming the home of a class of wealthy Americans, many of whom have erected beautiful residences, and among those of conspicuous architectural value are the Leiter, Townsend, Walsh, McLean, Belmont, Hale, Anderson, Boardman, Patterson, Thomas Nelson Page, Wayne McVeagh, Henderson, and Gale houses. Of similar interest are the embassy buildings of the British, Chinese, French, Russian, and other nations. The Metropolitan, the Cosmos, the Army and Navy, University, National Press, and the Washington (for women) are the principal clubs, and have homes of their own.

An elaborate park system is in course of development, which will ultimately surround the city with parks and connecting boulevards. The principal park is Rock Creek Park, to the north of the city, containing two thousand acres extending along both sides of Rock Creek. Its natural beauties are very great. On Mt. St. Alban, near Woodley, to the northwest of Georgetown, is the Peace Cross, a large Celtic cross erected at the close of the war with Spain (1898) on the grounds of the new Episcopal Cathedral, of which the cornerstone was laid in 1907. It affords a fine view of Washington. On the Chevy Chase Road, to the northwest of the Zoölogical Park, are the National Bureau of Standards and the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, the administration building of which latter is in Sixteenth Street.

South of Rock Creek Park, on Rock Creek, lies the National Zoölogical Park of one hundred and seventy acres, reached from Washington in a half hour.

On a commanding site overlooking Rock Creek, north of Georgetown, in handsome grounds, is the United States Naval Observatory, of white marble, with its twenty-six-inch equatorial telescope.

Scattered throughout the city are numerous squares, circles, and small parks, nearly all of which contain statues.

Of bronze statues erected in honor of famous men, Washington has an abundance—mainly to military characters. Equestrian statues of Washington, Jackson, Greene, Scott, Thomas, and McPherson are erected, besides full-length statues of Lafayette, Luther, Franklin, Chief Justice Marshall, Lincoln, Garfield, Professor Henry Farragut, General Rawlins, and Admiral Dupont.

ARLINGTON HOUSE, HOME OF GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE

At Arlington, across the river from Washington, on commanding heights, is the National Cemetery containing the graves of about sixteen thousand soldiers. Arlington House, in the middle of the grounds, two hundred feet above the river, was once the residence of George Washington Parke Custis (step-grandson of Washington) and afterwards of General Robert Lee, who married Miss Custis. Near the house are the graves of General Sheridan, Admiral Porter, General Lawton, General Wheeler, and other distinguished officers.

To the south is a tomb containing the remains of two thousand one hundred and eleven unknown soldiers. The sailors destroyed by the blowing up of the “Maine” in 1898 and other victims of the war with Spain are buried in the southern part of the cemetery.

The cornerstone of a splendid military memorial or Hall of Fame was laid here in 1916, to be erected in classic style, of marble, and to cost several millions of dollars.

MOUNT VERNON

WASHINGTON’S TOMB, MT. VERNON

Mount Vernon, Washington’s home and burial place, is in Fairfax County, Va., about fifteen miles below the city. It is in full view, standing among the trees on the top of a bluff rising about two hundred feet above the river. As the steamboat approaches, its bell is tolled, this being the universal custom on nearing or passing Washington’s tomb. The estate was originally a domain of about eight thousand acres, and Augustine Washington, dying in 1743, bequeathed it to Lawrence Washington, who, having served in the Spanish wars under Admiral Vernon, named it Mount Vernon in his honor. General Washington, in 1752, inherited Mount Vernon from Lawrence. After his death the estate passed to his nephew, Bushrod Washington, subsequently descending to other members of the family.

Congress repeatedly endeavored to have Washington’s remains removed to the crypt under the rotunda of the Capitol, originally constructed for their reception, but the family always refused, knowing it was his desire to rest at Mount Vernon.

In 1856 the mansion and surrounding property were saved from the auctioneer’s hammer, and secured as a national possession by the Ladies’ Mount Vernon Association, assisted principally by Edward Everett, at a cost of two hundred thousand dollars.

Washington, originally called Federal City, was named after Washington in 1791, and became the capital in 1800. In 1814 the Capitol, White House, and other public buildings, were burned by the British.

Leading Events in the Colonial History of the United States in the Form of Parallel Outlines

I. PERIOD OF AUTHENTIC DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION, FROM 1492 TO 1607

Preceding this Period there are some legendary accounts of discoveries by Norsemen, Irish missionaries and even Asiatics. Little importance attaches to any except those of the Norse discoverers, chief of which was Lief Ericsson and his brother Thorwald who came upon the mainland of North America about 1000 to 1004. The discoveries of Columbus and Vasco da Gama opened a new era, during which the Spaniards explored and settled the West Indies, Mexico, and the southern part of the present United States; while the English and French explored, claimed, and made unsuccessful attempts at settlement in the North.

Dates Spanish Explorers and Rulers Portuguese Explorers and Rulers English Explorers and Rulers European Events Dates

Ferdinand and Isabella, 1474-1516. Emanuel I., the Great, 1469-1521. Henry VII., 1485-1509

1492 1492. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, an Italian, supported by Ferdinand and Isabella, set sail from Palos, Spain (August 3), and discovered America (October 12), landing at one of the Bahamas, which he named San Salvador. During the following three months he visited the islands of Cuba and Hayti. 1492. End of the Moorish dominion in Spain. Death of Lorenzo de Medici, the “Magnificent” at Florence. 1492

1494. Beginning of a series of Italian wars, lasting till 1539.

1497. JOHN CABOT, an Italian in the service of Henry VII. of England discovered the coast of NORTH AMERICA, probably at Labrador. He was accompanied by his son, Sebastian.

1498. Columbus made a THIRD voyage, discovering the island of Trinidad and the mainland of South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco River. 1498. Sebastian Cabot, on a SECOND voyage, probably explored the Atlantic coast from Labrador to Carolina. These voyages were not followed by any attempt at colonization.

1499-1507. Amerigo Vespucci wrote a letter to a friend claiming to have discovered a part of the South American coast in 1499, and an account of this voyage was published. The new continent, therefore, was named after him by the German geographer Waldseemüller, who had read the account. 1499. Vasco Da Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope and reached India. Another route to India was thus revealed. 1499. The Swiss gain their independence from the Emperor Maximilian.

1500 1500. Cortereal, a Portuguese, explored the coast from Labrador to Nova Scotia. 1500

1502. Columbus made a FOURTH voyage. He explored the coast of Central America and Panama, returned to Spain discouraged and died four years later in the belief that he had discovered India by sailing west. 1502. Outbreak of war between France and Spain in Italy.

1510 Henry VIII., 1509-1547. 1510

1512. Ponce De Leon, seeking a legendary fountain of youth, discovered Florida, so named because he landed on Easter Sunday, the Spanish “Feast of Flowers.” 1511. Pope Julius II. forms the Holy League against France and Spain.

1513. Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific, which he took possession of, with its coast and islands, for Spain.
Charles I. of Spain and Charles V. of Germany, Emperor. 1516-1556. French Explorers and Rulers 1513. James IV. of Scotland invades England, and is killed at battle of Flodden Field.

Francis I., 1515-1547.

1515. Wolsey appointed Chancellor by Henry VIII. of England.

1519-1521. Cortez conquered Mexico for Spain. This conquest led to the establishment of Spain’s Empire in the new world. The mines brought great wealth to Spain and formed thebasis of Spanish prosperity in the following years. 1519. The German Empire, Spain, Netherlands, Two Sicilies and the Spanish Indies united under Charles V.

1520 1520. Magellan, a Portuguese in Spain’s service, discovered the strait named after him. He reached and named the Pacific Ocean. 1520

1521. Magellan discovered the Philippine Islands. His followers, after his death, continued westward and completed the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1522.
1524. Verrazano, sailing in the service of France, traced the American coast northward from Cape Fear, and discovered New York harbor. 1521. Beginning of the wars between Charles V. of Germany and Francis I. of France.

1527. Captain John Rut explores the coast of North America. 1527. Expulsion of the Medici from Florence.

1530

1539. Coronado and a force of Spaniards marched northward from Mexico to Colorado and Kansas and discovered the Grand Canon of the Colorado River.
De Soto, at the same time, led an army of about a thousand into northwest Florida. He reached the Mississippi in 1541.
1535. Cartier, in search of a northwest passage, ascended the St. Lawrence to Lachine Rapids and Mont Réal (Montreal).
1535. Henry VIII. of England assumes the title of supreme head of the Church in England. 1530

1540
1541. Roberval and Cartier made an unsuccessful attempt to establish a French colony on the St. Lawrence.

1543. England enters into an alliance with Charles V. against France. 1540

1550
Philip II., 1556-1598. Elizabeth 1558-1603. 1550

1560 Charles IX., 1560-1574. 1560

1562. Jean Ribault establishes a Huguenot settlement at Port Royal. 1562. Beginning of the Huguenot wars.

1565. The Spaniards, under MENENDEZ, founded ST. AUGUSTINE, Florida. 1565. The Huguenot settlement destroyed by Menendez.

1570 1570

1576-1578. Frobisher, in the interest of England, made three attempts to find a northwest passage to Asia.

1578. Drake explored the Pacific coast as far north as the state of Washington. He had previously doubled Cape Horn. He claimed the land for England.

1580

1582. Spanish monks planted missions in New Mexico and Arizona.
1581. Declaration of independence by the Dutch. 1580

1583. Humphrey Gilbert landed at St. John’s, Newfoundland, and took possession of the country for England. Queen Elizabeth was financially interested in many of the expeditions which followed, and she knighted most of the men who commanded expeditions.

1584. Sir Walter Raleigh sent out an expedition under Captain Arthur Barlow. The expedition landed at Pamlico Sound and the region was named Virginia in honor of Elizabeth.

Henry IV., 1589-1610. 1587. Raleigh despatched another expedition, consisting of two ships with one hundred and fifty men and women, to Roanoke Island. John White was the Governor. Virginia Dare, the first white child born in America, was born here. 1587. Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots.
1588. Battle of the Spanish Armada.

1590

1598. A Spanish settlement was planted by Oñate near Santa Fe, New Mexico.
1595. France declares war against Spain. 1590

1600
1602. Gosnold, an English merchant, made a settlement at Buzzard’s Bay, R. I.
James I., 1603-1625. 1600

1603. Champlain entered the St. Lawrence. The French occupation of Canada began with Champlain. His maps, reports, and settlements stimulated French enterprise. 1603. Martin Pring enters the present harbor of Plymouth.
1604. Charles IX. ascends throne of Sweden.

1605. Champlain founded Port Royal (Annapolis, N. S.), and sailed in an exploring expedition as far south as Cape Cod.
1606. In England there was organized the Virginia Company for the purpose of establishing trading colonies in America.

Dates Spanish Explorers and Rulers Portuguese Explorers and Rulers English Explorers and Rulers European Events

Ferdinand and Isabella, 1474-1516. Emanuel I., the Great, 1469-1521. Henry VII., 1485-1509

1494. Beginning of a series of Italian wars, lasting till 1539.

1497. JOHN CABOT, an Italian in the service of Henry VII. of England discovered the coast of NORTH AMERICA, probably at Labrador. He was accompanied by his son, Sebastian.

1500 1500. Cortereal, a Portuguese, explored the coast from Labrador to Nova Scotia.

1510

Francis I., 1515-1547.

1515. Wolsey appointed Chancellor by Henry VIII. of England.

1520 1520. Magellan, a Portuguese in Spain’s service, discovered the strait named after him. He reached and named the Pacific Ocean.

1521. Magellan discovered the Philippine Islands. His followers, after his death, continued westward and completed the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1522.
1524. Verrazano, sailing in the service of France, traced the American coast northward from Cape Fear, and discovered New York harbor. Henry VIII., 1509-1547. 1521. Beginning of the wars between Charles V. of Germany and Francis I. of France.

1527. Captain John Rut explores the coast of North America. 1527. Expulsion of the Medici from Florence.

1530

1540
1541. Roberval and Cartier made an unsuccessful attempt to establish a French colony on the St. Lawrence.

1543. England enters into an alliance with Charles V. against France.

1550
Philip II., 1556-1598. Elizabeth 1558-1603.

1560 Charles IX., 1560-1574.

1562. Jean Ribault establishes a Huguenot settlement at Port Royal. 1562. Beginning of the Huguenot wars.

1565. The Spaniards, under MENENDEZ, founded ST. AUGUSTINE, Florida. 1565. The Huguenot settlement destroyed by Menendez.

1570

1576-1578. Frobisher, in the interest of England, made three attempts to find a northwest passage to Asia.

1578. Drake explored the Pacific coast as far north as the state of Washington. He had previously doubled Cape Horn. He claimed the land for England.

1580

1582. Spanish monks planted missions in New Mexico and Arizona.
1581. Declaration of independence by the Dutch.

1584. Sir Walter Raleigh sent out an expedition under Captain Arthur Barlow. The expedition landed at Pamlico Sound and the region was named Virginia in honor of Elizabeth.

1590

1598. A Spanish settlement was planted by Oñate near Santa Fe, New Mexico.
1595. France declares war against Spain.

1600
1602. Gosnold, an English merchant, made a settlement at Buzzard’s Bay, R. I.
James I., 1603-1625.

II. THE COLONIAL PERIOD OF UNITED STATES HISTORY, INCLUDING ITS SETTLEMENT (1607 TO 1689); AND ITS CONSOLIDATION (1689 TO 1763)

The real history of the United States begins with this period. Within it the original Thirteen Colonies were established; New England and Virginia grew in influence and population; the Indian power in the East was subdued; the Colonies increased in strength and self-reliance, and the struggle between England and France for control of the New World was settled in favor of the English.

THE SOUTHERN COLONIES NEW ENGLAND COLONIES THE MIDDLE COLONIES Progress and Population English Rulers and Events

Virginia Massachusetts New York

1603-1625. James I.
1603. Union of England and Scotland.

1607. The London Company made THE FIRST PERMANENT ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN AMERICA, AT JAMESTOWN, VIRGINIA (May 13). Jamestown was named after the English King, James I. 1607. The Plymouth Company established a colony on the Kennebec River, in Maine under Sir Ferdinando Gorges. The colony failed.
1609. Henry Hudson, employed by the Dutch East India Company, sailed up the Hudson River searching for a passage to the Indies.

1614. The Dutch established trading stations on Manhattan Island and at Fort Orange (Albany) on the Hudson. They called their possessions New Netherland.
1616. Tobacco first cultivated by the English in Virginia.

1619. Virginia settlers establish the FIRST REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY IN AMERICA, called The House of Burgesses.
The FIRST SLAVES were sold in Virginia.
1620. The Pilgrim Fathers landed at Cape Cod November 11, and formed the FIRST SETTLEMENT IN NEW ENGLAND AT PLYMOUTH (December 22), under the FIRST REPUBLICAN FORM OF GOVERNMENT IN AMERICA.

1622. An Indian attack was made on Jamestown. New Hampshire New Jersey

1624. Virginia was made into a royal colony. 1623. First settlement on Piscataqua River, by John Mason. 1623. The Dutch founded a settlement on Manhattan Island which they called NEW AMSTERDAM (later New York City). 1623. Ft. Nassau (now Gloucester, N. J.) established by the Dutch.

1625-1649. Charles I.

1626. Peter Minuit, director-general of New Netherland, purchased Manhattan Island from the Indians for $24. Delaware

1628. The permanent settlement of Massachusetts Bay Colony began by the settlement of Salem under John Endicott. 1627. Swaanendael (now Lewis, Del.) founded. 1627. War with France, over the Huguenots.

Maryland 1629-1640. The “Great Migration” of Puritans to Massachusetts. 1629. Establishment of the patroon system to encourage settlement in New Netherland.

1630. BOSTON WAS FOUNDED by the English Puritans. The first general court in New England met there October 19. Connecticut

1632. Lord Baltimore obtained a charter to Maryland.
1633. Settled at Windsor by Pilgrims.
1633-1636. Colonization of Connecticut River valley.

1634. First permanent settlement made at St. Mary’s by Calvert. Rhode Island

1636. Roger Williams settles at Providence.
1637. Pequot Indian War. 1636. Wealthy colonists from Holland settle at Ft. Orange. 1636. First college in America founded by Massachusetts. Two years later it is named Harvard in honor of John Harvard.

1638. Ann Hutchinson settled in Rhode Island. 1638. A Swedish settlement was made near Wilmington, on the Delaware.

1639. Newport founded. 1639. First press in America set up at Cambridge. Stephen Daye was the printer, and the first American Book was The Bay Psalm Book.

1640. Provisional government established at Dover. 1640. English settlements begun on Salem Creek. 1640. Whole number of emigrants to New England previous to this time about 21,200. 1640. Meeting of the Long Parliament.

1642-1652. William Berkeley governor of Virginia, which became a refuge for Cavaliers from England. 1641. Massachusetts Bay Colony adopted laws known as the Body of Liberties.
1642. Civil war begins.

1643. THE FIRST INTER-COLONIAL UNION IN New England. It was formed for protection.

1645. Maryland Catholics and Virginia Puritans engaged in rebellion.
1647-1664. Peter Stuyvesant governor of New Netherland. 1645. Massachusetts established free schools supported by the State.

1649. The Maryland Assembly passed a TOLERATION Act. 1649. Execution of Charles I.
1649-1660. The Commonwealth under Cromwell.

1652. Puritan Commissioners with an army compelled Virginia to accept the rule of the Puritan Commonwealth. Carolinas

1653. Settlement of Albemarle, North Carolina, by Virginia pioneers.

1658. Massachusetts made it a capital offense for Quakers to return to the colony after expulsion.
1657. Proclamation issued against the Quakers. 1655. The Swedish settlements on the Delaware conquered by the Dutch.

1660. The restoration of Charles II. in England brought about the return of Berkeley in Virginia.
The restoration was welcomed by the Cavaliers of Virginia, but the Massachusetts Puritans delayed a year before proclaiming Charles king. A second influx of Puritan immigrants followed the restoration.

1663. Carolina granted to a company of proprietors.
1661. Charles Calvert appointed governor.

1663. Charter granted to Rhode Island.

1662. Charter granted to Connecticut.
1661. Eliot’s “Indian Testament” printed at Cambridge. 1660. Restoration of the Stuarts.
1660-1685. Charles II.

1669. John Locke drafts a constitution for Carolina. 1664. Delaware passes under English rule. 1664. New Jersey granted to Berkeley and Carteret. 1664. Eliot’s “Indian Bible” printed at Cambridge.
1668. Triple alliance of England, Sweden and Holland against France.

1670. Charleston, S. C., settled and territory divided into North and South Carolina. 1670. Staten Island purchased from the Indians.

1675. KING PHILIP’S WAR broke out in New England.

Pennsylvania

1676. BACON’S REBELLION broke out in Virginia.
1677. Maine became part of Massachusetts by purchase. 1676. Population of New England estimated at 60,000.

1680. New Hampshire declared a royal province.
1681. Grant of Pennsylvania to William Penn. 1680. John Buckner brings a printing press to Virginia and prints the session laws.

1684. Massachusetts becomes a royal colony.
1683. First Assembly in New York under English rule. 1682. Philadelphia laid out by Penn, and Quaker emigration encouraged.
Penn’s treaty with the Indians. 1682. Delaware becomes part of Pennsylvania.

1685-1689. James II.

1686-1689. Andros governor of all New England by royal appointment.

1689-1690. Leisler’s rebellion in New York.

1689. First American newspaper published in Boston; suppressed by Massachusetts government.
1688-1689. The “Glorious Revolution.”
1689-1702. William III. and Mary.

1689-1697. KING WILLIAM’S WAR. The FIRST INTER-COLONIAL WAR. This marked the beginning of a contest which continued with little intermission until the downfall of French power in America.

1691-1693. Salem witchcraft.
1692. The College of William and Mary was established in Virginia.

1700. Population of colonies about 260,000.

1701. Penn granted a Charter of Privileges to Pennsylvania which remained in force until 1776. 1701. Yale College was established in Connecticut. 1701. War of the Spanish succession.

1702-1714. QUEEN ANNE’S WAR. The SECOND INTER-COLONIAL WAR began between France and England. This war was confined mainly to the east; the French attacking New England, and the New Englanders retaliating.

1702. Joseph Dudley appointed governor.
1703. Delaware is made a separate colony. 1702. New Jersey becomes a royal province under the governor of New York.

1704. Appearance of “The Boston News Letter,” the first newspaper in America. 1702-1714. Queen Anne.
1702. Queen Anne war against France and Spain.

1710. First post office in America at New York.
1714-1727. George II.

1719. First Spinning-wheel and cultivation of potatoes introduced by the settlers of Londonderry, N. H. 1718. War with Spain.

1721-1729. The Carolinas are royal colonies. 1720. Tea begins to be used in New England.

1728. Boundary established between Virginia and North Carolina.

1729. North and South Carolina permanently divided into two provinces.

1729. Baltimore founded.
1728-1731. Final boundaries established with New York and Rhode Island.

1729. “Pennsylvania Gazette” started by Franklin. 1727-1760. George II.

Georgia

1733. Last of the thirteen original colonies settled by Oglethorpe at Savannah.
1734. Assembly meets for first time at Greenwich.

1735. Zenger’s trial and acquittal in New York, establishes freedom of the press. 1733. Treaty with the “Six Nations.” 1733. Delaware boundaries defined after twenty years’ litigation.

1736. Appearance of “The Virginia Gazette,” first newspaper in the South.

1740. Boundaries of New Hampshire determined. 1738. Separate charter granted to New Jersey.

1740. University of Pennsylvania founded.
1739. War with Spain.

1742. Spaniards attacked Georgia; defeated by Oglethorpe.
1742. Peter Faneuil builds “Faneuil Hall.”

1743. Sir George Clinton, governor. 1741. Moravians first settle in United States at Bethlehem.

1744-1748. KING GEORGE’S WAR. The THIRD INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out between England and France. Louisburg was restored to France, much to the dissatisfaction of the New England colonists.

1744. Treaty with the “Six Nations.”
1745. One thousand men sent against Louisburg. 1744. George Whitefield preaches in New Hampshire.

1746. Thomas and Richard Penn sole proprietors of Pennsylvania.

1746. New Jersey College, afterwards Princeton. 1744. War between England, France and Austria.

1749. First English ship reaches Georgia. 1749. Famous Indian treaty renewed at Falmouth.
1750. Trenton public library founded. 1749. White population of the colonies 1,046,000.

1753. GEORGE WASHINGTON was sent by Governor Dinwiddie to order the French out of the Ohio valley.
1753. The Potomac River explored to its source.

1754. Providence library chartered.

1754. Convention at Albany to consider a colonial confederacy. 1752. English Bible first printed in America.
Franklin experiments in electricity.

1754-1763. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. The FOURTH and LAST INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out between the French and English, which was ended by THE TREATY OF PARIS in 1763. 1754. King’s College (now Columbia), New York City, founded.
1756-1763. Seven Years’ war.

THE SOUTHERN COLONIES

Virginia

1607. The London Company made THE FIRST PERMANENT ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN AMERICA, AT JAMESTOWN, VIRGINIA (May 13). Jamestown was named after the English King, James I.

1619. Virginia settlers establish the FIRST REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY IN AMERICA, called The House of Burgesses.
The FIRST SLAVES were sold in Virginia.

1622. An Indian attack was made on Jamestown.

1624. Virginia was made into a royal colony.

Maryland

1632. Lord Baltimore obtained a charter to Maryland.

1634. First permanent settlement made at St. Mary’s by Calvert.

1642-1652. William Berkeley governor of Virginia, which became a refuge for Cavaliers from England.

1645. Maryland Catholics and Virginia Puritans engaged in rebellion.

1649. The Maryland Assembly passed a TOLERATION Act.

1652. Puritan Commissioners with an army compelled Virginia to accept the rule of the Puritan Commonwealth. Carolinas

1653. Settlement of Albemarle, North Carolina, by Virginia pioneers.

1663. Carolina granted to a company of proprietors.
1661. Charles Calvert appointed governor.

1669. John Locke drafts a constitution for Carolina.

1670. Charleston, S. C., settled and territory divided into North and South Carolina.

1676. BACON’S REBELLION broke out in Virginia.

1689-1697. KING WILLIAM’S WAR. The FIRST INTER-COLONIAL WAR. This marked the beginning of a contest which continued with little intermission until the downfall of French power in America.

1721-1729. The Carolinas are royal colonies.

1728. Boundary established between Virginia and North Carolina.
1729. North and South Carolina permanently divided into two provinces.
1729. Baltimore founded.

Georgia

1733. Last of the thirteen original colonies settled by Oglethorpe at Savannah.

1742. Spaniards attacked Georgia; defeated by Oglethorpe.

1744-1748. KING GEORGE’S WAR. The THIRD INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out between England and France. Louisburg was restored to France, much to the dissatisfaction of the New England colonists.

1744. Treaty with the “Six Nations.”

1749. First English ship reaches Georgia.

1753. GEORGE WASHINGTON was sent by Governor Dinwiddie to order the French out of the Ohio valley. 1753. The Potomac River explored to its source.

1754-1763. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. The FOURTH and LAST INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out between the French and English, which was ended by THE TREATY OF PARIS in 1763.

NEW ENGLAND COLONIES

Massachusetts

1607. The Plymouth Company established a colony on the Kennebec River, in Maine under Sir Ferdinando Gorges. The colony failed.

1620. The Pilgrim Fathers landed at Cape Cod November 11, and formed the FIRST SETTLEMENT IN NEW ENGLAND AT PLYMOUTH (December 22), under the FIRST REPUBLICAN FORM OF GOVERNMENT IN AMERICA.

New Hampshire

1623. First settlement on Piscataqua River, by John Mason.

1628. The permanent settlement of Massachusetts Bay Colony began by the settlement of Salem under John Endicott.

1629-1640. The “Great Migration” of Puritans to Massachusetts.

1630. BOSTON WAS FOUNDED by the English Puritans. The first general court in New England met there October 19. Connecticut

1633. Settled at Windsor by Pilgrims.
1633-1636. Colonization of Connecticut River valley.

Rhode Island

1636. Roger Williams settles at Providence.
1637. Pequot Indian War.

1638. Ann Hutchinson settled in Rhode Island.

1639. Newport founded.

1640. Provisional government established at Dover.

1641. Massachusetts Bay Colony adopted laws known as the Body of Liberties.

1643. THE FIRST INTER-COLONIAL UNION IN New England. It was formed for protection

1658. Massachusetts made it a capital offense for Quakers to return to the colony after expulsion.

1663. Charter granted to Rhode Island. 1662. Charter granted to Connecticut.

1675. KING PHILIP’S WAR broke out in New England.

1677. Maine became part of Massachusetts by purchase.

1680. New Hampshire declared a royal province.

1684. Massachusetts becomes a royal colony.

1686-1689. Andros governor of all New England by royal appointment.

1689-1697. KING WILLIAM’S WAR. The FIRST INTER-COLONIAL WAR. This marked the beginning of a contest which continued with little intermission until the downfall of French power in America.

1691-1693. Salem witchcraft.

1702. Joseph Dudley appointed governor.

1728-1731. Final boundaries established with New York and Rhode Island.

1734. Assembly meets for first time at Greenwich.

1740. Boundaries of New Hampshire determined.

1742. Peter Faneuil builds “Faneuil Hall.”

1744-1748. KING GEORGE’S WAR. The THIRD INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out between England and France. Louisburg was restored to France, much to the dissatisfaction of the New England colonists.

1745. One thousand men sent against Louisburg. 1744. George Whitefield preaches in New Hampshire.

1749. Famous Indian treaty renewed at Falmouth.

1754. Providence library chartered.

1754-1763. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. The FOURTH and LAST INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out between the French and English, which was ended by THE TREATY OF PARIS in 1763.

THE MIDDLE COLONIES Progress and Population English Rulers and Events

New York

1603-1625. James I.
1603. Union of England and Scotland.

1609. Henry Hudson, employed by the Dutch East India Company, sailed up the Hudson River searching for a passage to the Indies.

New Jersey

1623. The Dutch founded a settlement on Manhattan Island which they called NEW AMSTERDAM (later New York City). 1623. Ft. Nassau (now Gloucester, N. J.) established by the Dutch.
1625-1649. Charles I.

1626. Peter Minuit, director-general of New Netherland, purchased Manhattan Island from the Indians for $24. Delaware

1627. Swaanendael (now Lewis, Del.) founded. 1627. War with France, over the Huguenots.

1629. Establishment of the patroon system to encourage settlement in New Netherland.

1636. Wealthy colonists from Holland settle at Ft. Orange. 1636. First college in America founded by Massachusetts. Two years later it is named Harvard in honor of John Harvard.

1638. A Swedish settlement was made near Wilmington, on the Delaware.

1639. First press in America set up at Cambridge. Stephen Daye was the printer, and the first American Book was The Bay Psalm Book.

1640. English settlements begun on Salem Creek. 1640. Whole number of emigrants to New England previous to this time about 21,200. 1640. Meeting of the Long Parliament.

1642. Civil war begins.

1647-1664. Peter Stuyvesant governor of New Netherland. 1645. Massachusetts established free schools supported by the State.

1649. Execution of Charles I.
1649-1660. The Commonwealth under Cromwell.

1657. Proclamation issued against the Quakers. 1655. The Swedish settlements on the Delaware conquered by the Dutch.

1661. Eliot’s “Indian Testament” printed at Cambridge. 1660. Restoration of the Stuarts.
1660-1685. Charles II.

1664. Delaware passes under English rule. 1664. New Jersey granted to Berkeley and Carteret. 1664. Eliot’s “Indian Bible” printed at Cambridge.
1668. Triple alliance of England, Sweden and Holland against France.

1670. Staten Island purchased from the Indians.

Pennsylvania

1676. Population of New England estimated at 60,000.

1681. Grant of Pennsylvania to William Penn. 1680. John Buckner brings a printing press to Virginia and prints the session laws.

1683. First Assembly in New York under English rule. 1682. Philadelphia laid out by Penn, and Quaker emigration encouraged.
Penn’s treaty with the Indians. 1682. Delaware becomes part of Pennsylvania.

1685-1689. James II.

1689-1690. Leisler’s rebellion in New York.
1689. First American newspaper published in Boston; suppressed by Massachusetts government. 1688-1689. The “Glorious Revolution.”
1689-1702. William III. and Mary.

1689-1697. KING WILLIAM’S WAR. The FIRST INTER-COLONIAL WAR. This marked the beginning of a contest which continued with little intermission until the downfall of French power in America.

1692. The College of William and Mary was established in Virginia.

1700. Population of colonies about 260,000.

1701. Penn granted a Charter of Privileges to Pennsylvania which remained in force until 1776. 1701. Yale College was established in Connecticut. 1701. War of the Spanish succession.

1703. Delaware is made a separate colony. 1702. New Jersey becomes a royal province under the governor of New York.

1704. Appearance of “The Boston News Letter,” the first newspaper in America. 1702-1714. Queen Anne.
1702. Queen Anne war against France and Spain.

1710. First post office in America at New York.
1714-1727. George II.

1719. First Spinning-wheel and cultivation of potatoes introduced by the settlers of Londonderry, N. H. 1718. War with Spain.

1720. Tea begins to be used in New England.

1729. “Pennsylvania Gazette” started by Franklin. 1727-1760. George II.

1735. Zenger’s trial and acquittal in New York, establishes freedom of the press. 1733. Treaty with the “Six Nations.” 1733. Delaware boundaries defined after twenty years’ litigation.

1736. Appearance of “The Virginia Gazette,” first newspaper in the South.

1738. Separate charter granted to New Jersey.

1740. University of Pennsylvania founded.
1739. War with Spain.

1743. Sir George Clinton, governor. 1741. Moravians first settle in United States at Bethlehem.

1744-1748. KING GEORGE’S WAR. The THIRD INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out between England and France. Louisburg was restored to France, much to the dissatisfaction of the New England colonists.

1746. Thomas and Richard Penn sole proprietors of Pennsylvania.
1746. New Jersey College, afterwards Princeton. 1744. War between England, France and Austria.

1750. Trenton public library founded. 1749. White population of the colonies 1,046,000.

1754. Convention at Albany to consider a colonial confederacy. 1752. English Bible first printed in America.
Franklin experiments in electricity.

History of the United States

When first visited by Europeans, the country now comprised within the United States was exclusively inhabited by the race commonly called American Indians.

Period of Discovery.—According to the Scandinavian sagas, Leif, a Norwegian, sailed about 1001 from Iceland for Greenland, but was driven southward by storms till he reached a country called Vinland, which is supposed to have been Rhode Island or some other part of the coast of New England.

It is possible that some vague rumors of the Norse journeys had come to Christopher Columbus when he set out on Friday, August 3, 1492, to discover the western route to India. He sighted one of the Bahama Islands on October 12, and landed the following day. After cruising about for some time, he returned to Spain. He made in all four voyages to the New World for treasure-getting and discovery. His discoveries, it should be remembered, did not extend to the territory now occupied by the United States, but were confined to certain of the West India Islands, and parts of Central, and possibly, South America. (See further, under Outlines of American History.)

Among the earliest of his followers was Amerigo Vespucci, who in 1497-1498 explored the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico, and who has given his name to the whole continent.

In 1497, about five years after the discovery of America by Columbus, John Cabot sailed westward from Bristol, England, and on June 24 discovered land (Labrador), along which he coasted to the southwest nearly one thousand miles. In 1498 his son, Sebastian Cabot, sailed from the same port in search of a northwest passage to China, but finding the ice impenetrable, he turned to the south and coasted as far as Chesapeake Bay.

In 1513 the Spaniard Ponce de Leon discovered Florida. In 1539 took place the expedition of the Spaniard De Soto, who in the course of two years penetrated overland from Tampa Bay on the west coast of Florida to a point two hundred miles beyond the Mississippi.

FOREFATHERS’ ROCK, PLYMOUTH, MASS.

Plymouth is of abiding interest as the landing place of the Pilgrim Fathers (December 21st, 1620) and the site of the first settlement in New England. Pilgrim Hall contains numerous interesting relics of the Pilgrims, paintings of their embarkation and landing, old portraits, etc. North Street leads to the so-called Plymouth Rock, a granite boulder enclosed by a railing and covered with a canopy. This, however, is only a fragment (broken off in 1774) of the flat rock where the Pilgrims landed, which lies nearer the sea and is now covered by a wharf. Cole’s Hill, opposite the rock, was the burial-place of the early settlers (1620-1621). Leyden Street was the site of the first house. From the Town Square a path ascends to the right to the ancient Burial Hill, with the graves of many of the early settlers, including Governor Bradford. A fortified church was erected here in 1622. To the south is Watson’s Hill, where the Pilgrims made a treaty with Massasoit in 1621. The National Monument to the Pilgrims, consisting of a granite pedestal forty-five feet high, surmounted by a figure of Faith, thirty-six feet high, and surrounded by seated figures twenty feet high, representing Law, Morality, Freedom and Education is about one-fourth mile from the railway station, on Allerton Street. The three hundredth anniversary of the landing of the Pilgrims will be elaborately celebrated here in 1920.

Period of Settlement.—In 1565 the Spaniards founded St. Augustine, the first permanent settlement in the United States. In 1585 an expedition sent by Sir Walter Raleigh made a settlement on Roanoke Island, N. C., which failed. In 1607 the English founded Jamestown on James River, Virginia, their first permanent settlement. The master spirit of this enterprise was Captain John Smith. Plymouth, Mass., was founded in 1620 by the “Pilgrim Fathers,” a body of Puritans led by John Carver and others, who sailed from England in the Mayflower. Salem was settled by John Endicott in 1628. In 1630 John Winthrop settled Boston. In 1692 Plymouth colony was united to Massachusetts. Portsmouth and Dover, in New Hampshire, were settled in 1623. The first permanent English settlements in Maine were made about the same time. These settlements ultimately fell under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. Connecticut was colonized in 1635-1636 by emigrants from Massachusetts, who settled at Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield. Rhode Island was first settled at Providence in 1636 by Roger Williams. In 1623 permanent settlements were made by the Dutch at Fort Orange (now Albany) and at New Amsterdam on the present site of New York. The Swedes settled on the Delaware in 1638, and were expelled in 1655 by the Dutch army. The English seized New Amsterdam in 1664, and with it the whole of New Netherland, which they named New York from the Duke of York, to whom it had been granted by Charles II. New Jersey at this time acquired its distinctive name. In 1681 the territory west of the Delaware was granted to William Penn, who colonized it chiefly with Friends or Quakers, and founded Philadelphia in 1682. Maryland was settled in 1634 by Roman Catholics sent out by Lord Baltimore. The first permanent settlement in North Carolina appears to have been made about 1663, on Albemarle Sound, by emigrants from Virginia. The first permanent settlement in South Carolina was made in 1670 by colonists from England on the Ashley River, near the site of Charleston, which began to be settled about the same time. Georgia was settled by General James Oglethorpe, who in 1733 founded Savannah.

How Europe First Divided the American Colonies.—It will thus be seen that what is now the territory of the United States has been derived from six European nations. Resting on the discovery by Columbus and the bulls of the popes, Spain claimed the whole continent, but has been in actual possession only of the Gulf coast from Florida to Texas, and of the interior from the Mississippi to the Pacific. The Swedes once had settlements on the Delaware. The Dutch, following up the voyage of Hudson to the river bearing his name, claimed and held the country from the Delaware to the Connecticut. The French discovered the St. Lawrence and explored and held military possession of the valleys of the Mississippi and Ohio and the Great Lakes. The English, by virtue of the voyages of the Cabots, claimed the Atlantic coast, and there founded the colonies which grew into the thirteen United States.

In the course of the struggle, sometimes peaceful, often bloody, by which the rule of these nations has been thrown off, the Dutch conquered the Swedes; the English conquered the Dutch and the French; the United States expelled the English, and in time, by purchase or conquest, drove out the Spaniards and the Mexicans.

Struggle of England and France for America.—The first serious struggle for possession occurred in the middle of the eighteenth century, when the English, moving westward, met the French moving eastward at the source of the river Ohio. In that struggle, which has come down to us as the “French and Indian war,” France was worsted, and, retiring from this continent, divided her possessions between England and Spain. To England she gave Canada and the islands and shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and, entering what is now the United States, drew a line down the middle of the Mississippi River, and gave all to the east of that line (save the island on which is the city of New Orleans) to Great Britain, and all to the west of it to Spain; Spain at the same time gave Florida to England as the price of Cuba.

Oppression of the Colonies under British Rule.—Having thus come into possession of all the country to the east of the Great River, King George determined to send out an army of ten thousand men to defend the colonies, and have the latter bear a part of the expense. This part he attempted to collect by duties on goods imported, and by a Stamp Tax (1765) on legal documents and printed matter. No tax for revenue had before been laid on America by act of Parliament. The colonists, therefore, resisted this first attempt, and raising the cry, “No taxation without representation,” they forced Parliament to repeal the Stamp Tax in 1766. The right to tax was at the same time distinctly asserted, and in 1767 was again used, and duties laid on paints, oils, lead, glass, and tea. Once more the colonists resisted, and, by refusing to import any goods, wares, or merchandise of English make, so distressed the manufacturers of England that Parliament repealed every tax save that on tea. All the tea needed in America was now smuggled in from Holland. The East India Company, deprived of the American market, became embarrassed, and, calling on Parliament for aid, was suffered to export tea, a privilege never before enjoyed.

Selecting commissioners in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston, cargoes of tea were duly consigned to them by the East India Company; but the people agreed not to buy any of this tea or allow it to be sold. At Boston men disguised as Indians boarded the tea ships, overcame the guards, and destroyed the tea by throwing the boxes into the harbor. This has gone down in history as the “Boston Tea Party.”

The Continental Congress and the Revolution.—As a punishment for this, Parliament shut the port of Boston and deprived the people of Massachusetts of many functions of local government. The Assembly of Massachusetts thereupon called for a General Congress to meet at Philadelphia on September 5, 1774. The colonies gladly responded and this congress, having issued a Declaration of Rights and Addresses to the king, to Parliament, and to the people of England, adjourned to await the result.

The day for the reassembling of Congress was May 10, 1775; but, before that day came, the attempt of General Gage to seize military stores brought on a fight at Lexington, April 19, 1775. The fight at Lexington was followed by the siege of the British in Boston, by the formation of the “Continental Army,” by the appointment of George Washington to command it, by the battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775, and by an expedition against Quebec, which came to naught, on the last day of the year.

General William Howe meantime had succeeded Gage in command of the British at Boston, and, finding himself hard pressed by Washington, evacuated the city and sailed for Halifax. Believing New York was to be attacked, Washington now hurried to Long Island, where, August 27, 1776, Howe defeated him, took possession of New York, and drove him first up the Hudson and then southward across New Jersey.

American Independence Declared.—Congress, which, July 4, 1776, at Philadelphia, had declared the colonies to be free and independent states, now fled from that city to Baltimore. But Washington, turning in his retreat, surprised and captured the British outpost at Trenton. Cornwallis instantly hurried toward that town, but Washington, passing around the British rear, attacked and captured at Princeton, January 3, 1777, a detachment on its march to Trenton, and then went into winter quarters at Morristown.

With the return of spring Howe, finding that he could not reach Philadelphia by land without passing in front of the Continental army stretched out on a strongly intrenched line across New Jersey, went by sea. Washington met him at Chadd’s Ford on the Brandywine, was defeated, and on September 25, 1777, Howe entered Philadelphia. In the attempt to dislodge him Washington fought and lost the battle of Germantown, October 4, 1777; the loss of Philadelphia was more than made good by the capture of Burgoyne and his army at Saratoga, October 17, 1777, while on his way from Canada to New York City.

The fruits of this victory were the recognition of the independence of the United States by France, the treaty of alliance with France, February 8, 1778, and the evacuation of Philadelphia by General Clinton, who had succeeded Howe. Washington, who had spent the winter at Valley Forge, instantly followed, and overtaking Clinton at Monmouth fought and won the battle at that place, June 29, 1778. Clinton escaped to New York, and Washington, drawing his army in a circle about the city from Morristown on the south to West Point on the north, awaited further movements.

PRINCIPAL CAMPAIGNS AND BATTLES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
The leading battles are indicated in bold-face; successful commanders in italics

Names, Dates and Places
of Campaigns and Battles Commanders Engaged

American British Amer. British

1775-1776
Campaign in New England

Lexington, Concord (April 19, 1775) Barret and Butterick Smith and Lord Percy ... 1,700

Ticonderoga (May 10, 1775) Ethan Allen and Eaton Delaplace 83 48

Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775) Warren, Prescott and Putnam Howe and Pigot 3,000 4,500

Quebec (December 6-31, 1775) Schuyler, Montgomery and Arnold M’Lean and Carleton 900 1,200

Norfolk, Va. (Dec. 9, 1775) Woodford Lord Dunsmore ... ...

Boston (March 17, 1776) The British evacuate the city and harbor. ... ...

Charleston (Ft. Moultrie) (June 28, 1776) Moultrie, Lee and Armstrong Clinton 400 4,000

1776-1778
Campaign in Middle States

Brooklyn, L. I. (Aug. 26, 1776) Green and Sullivan Howe, Clinton, and Cornwallis 10,000 20,000

Harlem Plains, N. Y. (Sept. 16, 1776) Washington ... ... ...

White Plains, N. Y. (Oct. 28, 1776) Washington Howe 1,600 2,000

Fort Washington, N. Y. (Nov. 16, 1776) Magaw Howe 3,000 5,000

Trenton, N. J. (Dec. 26, 1776) Washington Lord Cornwallis and Rahl 2,400 1,000

Princeton, N. J. (Jan. 3, 1777) Washington Mawhood 3,000 1,800

Bennington, Vt. (Aug. 15, 16, 1777) Stark and Warner Baum and Beyman ... 1,200

Brandywine, Pa. (Sept. 11, 1777) Washington Howe 11,000 18,000

Bemis Heights, N. Y. (Sept. 19, 1777) Gates Burgoyne 2,500 3,000

Germantown, Pa. (Oct. 4, 1777) Washington Howe 11,000 15,000

Stillwater (Saratoga) (Oct. 7, 1777) Gates Burgoyne 8,000 6,000

Monmouth, N. J. (June 28, 1778) Washington Sir Henry Clinton 12,000 11,000

1778-1781
Campaign in the South

Savannah, Ga. (Dec. 29, 1778) Robert Howe Campbell 900 2,000

Brier Creek, Ga. (Mar. 3, 1779) Ashe Prevost 1,200 1,800

Stony Point, N. Y. (July 16, 1779) Wayne Clinton 1,200 600

Chemung, N. Y. (Aug. 29, 1779) Sullivan Brant 4,000 1,500

Savannah, Ga. (Oct. 9, 1779) Lincoln Prevost 4,500 2,900

Charleston, S. C. (May 12, 1780) Lincoln Clinton 3,700 9,000

Camden, S. C. (Sanders Creek) (Aug. 15, 1780) Gates Cornwallis 3,000 2,200

King’s Mountain, S. C. (Oct. 7, 1780) Campbell Ferguson 900 1,100

Cowpens, S. C. (Jan. 17, 1781) Morgan Cornwallis and Tarleton 900 1,100

Guilford C. H., N. C. (Mar. 15, 1781) Greene Cornwallis 4,400 2,400

Hobkirk’s Hill, S. C. (April 25, 1781) Greene Rawdon 1,200 900

New London, Conn., Fort Griswold (Sept. 6, 1781) Ledyard Benedict Arnold and Eyre 150 800

Eutaw Springs, S. C. (Sept. 8, 1781) Greene Lord Rawdon 2,000 2,800

Yorktown, Va. (Oct. 17-19, 1781) Washington Cornwallis 16,000 7,500

Treason of Arnold and Execution of André.—Turning towards the Southern states, the British commander now dispatched an expedition which took Savannah and overran the State of Georgia. The year which followed (1779) is memorable for the capture of Stony Point by Anthony Wayne; for the treason of Benedict Arnold; for the execution of Major John André; for the capture of the “Serapis” by Paul Jones after one of the most desperate naval battles on record, and by the failure of an attempt by the Americans to retake Savannah. In 1780 Clinton led an expedition from New York to Charleston, took the city, swept over South Carolina, and, leaving Cornwallis in command, hurried back to New York. Gates, who now attempted to dislodge the British, was beaten. Greene now succeeded Gates, and Morgan, the commander of his light troops, won the battle of the Cowpens, January 17, 1781. This victory brought up Cornwallis, who chased Greene across the State of North Carolina to Guilford Court House, where Greene was beaten and Cornwallis forced to retreat to Wilmington. Moving southward, Greene was again beaten in two pitched battles, but forced the British to withdraw within their lines at Charleston and Savannah.

Cornwallis meantime moved from Wilmington into Virginia and took possession of Yorktown. And now Washington, who had long been watching New York, again took the offensive, hurried across New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and, while a French fleet closed the Chesapeake Bay, he besieged Cornwallis by land, till, October 19, 1781, the British general surrendered. This practically ended the war.

The treaty of peace, at Paris, in 1783, actually ended it, secured the independence of the United States, and fixed her boundaries, roughly speaking, as the Atlantic Ocean on the east, the Mississippi on the west, New Brunswick, the St. Lawrence, and the Great Lakes on the north, and the parallel of thirty-one degrees on the south.

Articles of Confederation and their Weakness.—While the war was still raging Congress had framed an instrument of government, which the states ratified and put in force on March 1, 1781. This instrument of government which bound the thirteen states in perpetual union was known as the Articles of Confederation, and established a government as bad as any yet devised by man. There was no executive, no judiciary, and only the semblance of a legislature. The Congress consisted of not more than seven nor less than two delegates from each state; sat in secret session; was presided over by a president elected from its own members; and could not pass any law unless the delegates of nine states assented. It could wage war, make treaties, and borrow money; but it could not lay a tax of any kind whatsoever; nor regulate commerce between the states, or with foreign powers; and was dependent entirely on the liberality of the states for revenues. This defect proved fatal. Inability to regulate foreign commerce by duties stripped the country of its specie. Lack of specie forced the states to issue paper money. Paper money was followed by tender acts and force acts, and in some places by a violent stoppage of justice to the debtor class. A commercial and financial crisis followed and the people of the states, reduced to desperation, gladly acceded to a call for a national trade convention, which met in Philadelphia in May, 1787. The instructions of the delegates bade them suggest amendments to the Articles of Confederation. But the convention, considering the Articles too bad to be mended, framed the Constitution, which the people, acting through conventions in the various states, ratified during 1787 and 1788.

Adoption of the Constitution and Organization of Parties.—On March 4, 1789, the Constitution became the supreme law of the land. In the first Congress no trace of party lines is visible. But the work of establishing government had not gone far when differences of opinion sprang up; when the cry of partial legislation was raised, and the people all over the country began to divide into two great parties—those who favored and those who opposed a liberal construction of the language of the Constitution and the establishment of a strong national government.

The friends of national government took the name of Federalists, and under the lead of Alexander Hamilton, who as Secretary of the Treasury marked out the financial policy of the administration, they funded the foreign and domestic debt occasioned by the war for independence, assumed the debts incurred by the states in that struggle, set up a national bank with branches, and laid a tax on distilled liquors.

Each one of these acts was met with violent opposition, as designed to benefit a class, as unconstitutional, and as highly detrimental to the interests of the South. Against the Federalists were now brought charges of a leaning towards monarchy and aristocracy. Great Britain, it was said, has a funded debt, a bank, and an excise. These things are, therefore, monarchial institutions. But the Federalists have introduced them into the United States. The Federalists, therefore, are aristocrats, monarchists, and monopolists.

Of all who believed these charges, none believed them more sincerely than Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State. Seeing in these acts a wide departure from the true principles of democracy, he set himself to work to organize a party of opposition, and was soon looked up to as the recognized leader of the Federal Republicans.

Hardly had the two parties thus been called into existence by difference of opinion on questions of home affairs, when they were parted yet more widely, and the dispute between them intensely embittered by questions of foreign affairs.

Effect of the French and English Affairs Upon the New Nation.—In 1793 the French Republic declared war against England, and sent a minister to the United States. As the United States was bound to France by the treaty of alliance and by a treaty of amity and commerce, and was not bound to Great Britain by any commercial treaty whatever, it seemed not unlikely that she would be dragged unwillingly into the war. But Washington, with the advice of his secretaries, proclaimed neutrality, and from that time every Republican was the firm friend of France and every Federalist the ally of England. Then began a seven years’ struggle for neutrality. France threw open her colonial ports to neutral commerce; Great Britain asserting the “Rule of the War of 1756,” a rule prescribing that no neutral should have in time of war a trade it did not have in peace, declared this trade was contraband, and seized the ships of the United States engaged in it. The Republicans denounced neutrality and attempted to force a war. The Federalists in alarm dispatched John Jay, the Chief Justice, to London, with offers of a commercial treaty. England responded and on February 29, 1796, the first treaty of amity and commerce between her and the United States became law. At this France took offense, rejected the new minister (C. C. Pinckney) from the United States, and drove him from her soil, suspended the treaties, insulted a special commission (sent out in the interest of peace), with demands for bribes and tribute, and almost brought on war.

Never since the days of Bunker Hill had the country been so stirred as this act of the French Directory stirred it in the summer of 1798. Then was written our national song, “Hail Columbia.” Then was established the department of the navy. Then, under the cry, “Millions for defense; not a cent for tribute,” went forth that gallant little fleet which humbled the tri-color in the West Indies and brought France to her senses.

Causes and Events of the War of 1812.—With the elevation of Napoleon to the First Consulship came peace in 1800. In that same year the Federalists fell from power, never to return. Once in power, the Republicans began to carry out the principles they had so long preached. They reduced the national debt; they repealed the internal taxes. They sold the navy; boldly assaulted the Supreme Court; and in 1811, when the charter of the National Bank expired, refused to renew it. Their doctrine of strict construction, however, was ruined, when, in 1803, they bought the Province of Louisiana from France and added to the public domain that splendid region which lies between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains.

At that moment it seemed as if the people were about to enter on a career of unwonted prosperity. But Napoleon suddenly made war on England, and by 1806 the United States was involved in a desperate struggle of nine years, both with France and England, for commercial independence. Great Britain searched our ships, impressed our sailors, violated the neutrality of our ports, and by the decisions of her admiralty courts and by orders in council sought to ruin our neutral commerce with Europe, unless carried on through her ports and under her license. Napoleon attacked us with his decrees of Berlin and Milan, and sought to ruin our neutral commerce with England. The United States retaliated by means of the embargo and non-intercourse, and, in 1812, declared war.

CAMPAIGNS AND BATTLES OF THE WAR OF 1812-1815

Principal Land Battles

1812.—August 16, the surrender of Detroit by Hull to Brock.

October 13, defeat of Van Rensselaer by Brock at Queenstown.

1813.—January 18-22, the Americans were defeated at Frenchtown by General Proctor, whose Indians massacred the wounded Americans.

April 27, York (Toronto) was captured by the Americans under General Pike.

October 5, General Harrison forced General Proctor to retreat into Canada, and October 5 at the battle of the Thames routed the British and their Indian allies. Tecumseh was killed, the territory lost by Hull regained, and Upper Canada was retained to the end of the war.

November 11, the Americans moved on Montreal, but were defeated at Chryslers Field, and retreated.

1814.—July 25, Winfield Scott again invaded Canada and gained victories at Chippewa (July 5) and at Lundy’s Lane.

August 24, capture of Washington and burning of the Capitol, the White House, and other buildings.

1815.—January 8, a large body of English veterans were landed in Louisiana, and attacked New Orleans; in this battle, which took place before the news of the treaty of peace reached the combatants, Jackson won a decisive victory.

Principal Naval Battles

1812.—August 19, the Constitution destroys the British Guerriere, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

October 18, the American Wasp captures the Frolic.

October 25, Captain Decatur in the United States took the Macedonian.

December 29, the Constitution captures the Java.

1813.—February 24, the American Hornet captures the Peacock.

June 1, the Chesapeake is captured by the British Shannon.

September 10, Commodore Perry with a fleet of nine vessels destroys the British squadron of six vessels on Lake Erie.

1814.—September 3, naval attack on Fort McHenry by the British fails.

September 11, Captain Macdonough, on Lake Champlain, completely defeated a British fleet stronger than his own; this checked a serious invasion of the enemy.

Treaty and Results of the War

December 24, 1814, a treaty of peace was made at Ghent, the end of the Napoleonic wars having removed the cause for England’s offensive policy at sea.
The provisions included:
(1) A return of captured territory.
(2) Nothing was said about impressment.
(3) No compensation was secured by the Americans for ships captured previous to 1812.
The results of the war were:
(1) An increase of debt.
(2) An outburst of national patriotism.
(3) The removal of America from participation in European politics.
(4) The development of manufacturing.
(5) The establishment of the protective tariff policy.

With the Cessation of Hostilities Another Epoch in Our History Begins.—From the day when Washington proclaimed neutrality in 1793, to the day when the people celebrated, with bonfires and with fireworks, and with public dinners, the return of peace, in 1815, the political and industrial history of the United States is deeply affected by the political history of Europe. It was questions of foreign policy, not of domestic policy, that divided the two parties, that took up the time of Congress, that raised up and pulled down politicians. But after 1815 foreign affairs sank into insignificance, and for the next thirty years the history of the United States is the history of political and economic development of the country to the east of the Mississippi River.

Fall of the Federalists, or Pro-British Party.—The opposition which the Federalists made to the war completed their ruin. In 1816 for the last time they put forward a presidential candidate, carried three states out of nineteen, and expired in the effort. During the eight years of Monroe’s administration (1817-1825) but one great and harmonious party ruled the political destinies of the country. This remarkable period has come down to us in history as the “era of good feelings.” It was indeed such an era, and so good were the feelings that in 1820 when Monroe was re-elected no competitor was named to run against him. Every state, every electoral vote save one was his. Even that one was his. But the elector who controlled it threw it away on John Quincy Adams lest Monroe should have the unanimous vote of the presidential electors, an honor which has been bestowed on no man save Washington.

Rise of the Protective Tariff Policy.—In the midst of this harmony, however, events were fast ripening for a great schism. Under the protection offered by the commercial restrictions which began with the embargo and ended with the peace, manufactures had sprung up and flourished. If they were to continue to flourish they must continue to be protected, and the question of free trade and protection rose for the first time into really national importance.

The rush of population into the West led to the admission of Indiana (1816), Mississippi (1817), Illinois (1818), Alabama (1819), and Missouri (1820) into the Union, and brought up for serious discussion the uses to be made of public lands lying within them.

The steamboat, which had been adopted far and wide, had produced a demand for some improved means of communication by land to join the greater water highways of the country and opened the era of internal improvements.

The application of Missouri for admission into the Union brought up the question of the admission of slavery to the west of the Mississippi. A series of decisions of the Supreme Court, setting aside acts of the state legislatures, gave new prominence to the question of state rights.

A Decade of Great Political Contests.—The Missouri question was settled by the famous Compromise of 1820 (the first great political compromise), which drew the line thirty-six degrees thirty minutes from the Mississippi to the hundredth meridian, and pledged all to the north of it, save Missouri, to freedom. But the others were not to be settled by compromise, and in the campaign of 1824 the once harmonious Republican party was rent in pieces. Each of the four quarters of the Republic put a candidate in the field and “the scrub-race for the presidency” began.

The new manufacturing interests of the East put forward John Quincy Adams. The West, demanding internal improvements at public expense, had for its candidate Henry Clay. William H. Crawford of Georgia (nominated by a caucus of Congressmen) represented the old Republican party of the South. Andrew Jackson of Tennessee stood for the new Democracy, for the people, with all their hatred of monopolies and class control, their prejudices, their half formed notions, their violent outbursts of feeling.

Behind none of them was there an organized party. But taking the name of “Adams men” and “Clay men,” “Crawford men” and “Jackson men,” the friends of each entered the campaign and lost it. No candidate secured a majority of the electoral college, and the House of Representatives chose John Quincy Adams.

The Triumph of Democracy and Industrial Expansion.—Under the administration of Adams (1825-1829) the men who wished for protection and the men who wished for internal improvements at government expense united, took the name first of National Republicans, and then of Whigs, and, led on by Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, carried through the high protection tariffs of 1828 and 1832. The friends of Jackson and Crawford took the name of Democrats, won the election of 1829, and during twelve years governed the country.

In the course of these years the population of the United States rose to seventeen million, and the number of states to twenty-six. Steam navigation began on the ocean; two thousand miles of railroad were built in the land; new inventions came into use; and the social and industrial life of the people was completely revolutionized. The national debt was paid; a surplus accumulated in the Treasury; the sale of public lands rose from three million dollars in 1831 to twenty-five million dollars in 1836; and the rage for internal improvements burned more fiercely than ever. A great financial panic spread over the country; the charter of the National Bank expired, a hundred “wild-cat banks” sprang up to take its place, and the question of the abolition of slavery became troublesome.

Early Troubles in Our System of Public Finance.—On the great questions which grew out of this condition of affairs the position of the two parties was well defined. The Democrats demanded a strict construction of the Constitution; no internal improvements at public expense; a surrender of the public lands to the state in which they lay; no tariff for protection; no National Bank; no agitation of the question of the abolition of slavery; the establishment of subtreasuries for the safe keeping of the public funds, and the distribution of the surplus revenue. The Whigs demanded a recharter of the National Bank; a tariff for protection; the expenditure of the surplus on internal improvements; the distribution of the money derived from the sale of public lands; a limitation of the veto power of the President; and no removals from office for political reasons.

The Democrats, true to their principles, and having the power, carried them out. They destroyed the Bank; they defeated bill after bill for the construction of roads and canals; they distributed thirty-eight million dollars of the surplus revenue among the states, and by the cartage of immense sums of money from the East to the far distant West, hastened that inevitable financial crisis known as the “panic of 1837.”

Andrew Jackson had just been succeeded in the presidency by Martin Van Buren (1837-1841) and on him the storm burst in all its fury. But he stood it bravely, held to a strict construction of the Constitution, insisted that the panic would right itself without interference by the Government, and stoutly refused to meddle. Since the refusal of Congress to recharter the Bank of the United States, whose charter expired in 1836, the revenue of the Government had been deposited in certain “pet banks” designated by the Secretary of the Treasury. Every one of them failed in the panic of 1837. Van Buren therefore recommended “the divorce of Bank and State,” and after a struggle of three years his friends carried the “subtreasury” scheme in 1840. This law cast off all connection between the state banks and the Government, put the collectors of the revenue under heavy bonds to keep the money safely till called for by the Secretary of the Treasury, and limited payments to or by the United States to specie.

National Conventions and Rise of Slavery Issue.—The year 1840 was presidential year, and is memorable for the introduction of new political methods; for the rise of a new and vigorous party; and for the appearance of a new political issue. The new machinery consisted in the permanent introduction of the national convention for the nomination of a president, now used by the Democrats for the second time, and by the Whigs for the first; in the promulgation of a party platform by the convention, now used by the Democrats for the first time; and in the use of mass meetings, processions, songs, and all the paraphernalia of a modern campaign by the Whigs.

The new party was the Liberty Party, and the new issue the “absolute and unqualified divorce of the general Government from slavery, and the restoration of equality of rights among men.” The principles of that party were: slavery is against natural right, is strictly local, is a state institution, and derives no support from the authority of Congress, which has no power to set up or continue slavery anywhere; every treaty, every act, establishing, favoring, or continuing slavery in the District of Columbia, in the territories, on the high seas, is, therefore, unconstitutional.

The Short-lived Era of the Whigs.—The candidate of this party was James Gillespie Birney. The Democrats nominated Martin Van Buren. The Whigs put forward William Henry Harrison and elected him. Harrison died one month after his inauguration, and John Tyler, the Vice-President and a Democrat of the Calhoun wing, became President.

The Whig policy as sketched by Clay was the repeal of the Subtreasury Act; the charter of a National Bank; tariff for protection; and the distribution of the sales of public lands. To the repeal of the Subtreasury Act Tyler gladly assented. To the establishment of a bank even when called “Fiscal Corporation,” he would not assent, and, having twice vetoed such bills, was read out of the party by a formal manifesto issued by Whig congressmen.

It mattered little, however, for the question of the hour was not the bank, nor the tariff, nor the distribution of the sales of lands, but the annexation of the republic Texas. Joined to the demand for the reoccupation of Oregon, it became the chief plank in the Democratic platform of 1844. The Whig platform said not a word on the subject, and the Liberty Party, turning with loathing from the cowardice of Clay, voted again for Birney, gave the State of New York to the Democrats, and with it the presidency.

The Annexation of Texas, and Wilmot Proviso.—Accepting the result of the election as “instruction from the people,” Congress passed the needed act and Tyler in the last hours of his administration declared Texas annexed.

The boundary of the new state was ill-defined. Texas claimed to the Rio Grande. Mexico would probably have acknowledged the Nueces River. The United States attempted to enforce the claim of Texas, sent troops to the Rio Grande, and so brought on the Mexican war.

At the close of the Mexican war the boundary of the United States was carried south from forty-two degrees to the Gila River, and what is now California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and more than half of Wyoming and Colorado were added to the public domain. While the war was still raging, Polk, who had succeeded Tyler, asked for two million dollars to aid him in negotiating peace. Well knowing that the money was to be used to buy land from Mexico, David Wilmot moved in the House of Representatives that from all territory bought with the money slavery should be excluded. This was the famous Wilmot proviso. It failed of adoption and the territory was acquired in 1848, with its character as to slavery or freedom wholly undetermined.

The Preliminary Struggle over the Slave Problem.—And now the old parties began to break up. Democrats who believed in the Wilmot proviso, and Whigs who detested the annexation of Texas, the war with Mexico, and the extension of slavery went over in a body to the Liberty Party, formed with it the Freesoil Party, nominated Martin Van Buren, and gave him three hundred thousand votes. In their platform they declared that Congress had no more power to make a slave than to make a king; that they accepted the issue thrust on them by the South; that to the demand for more slave states and more slave territories they answered, no more slave states, no more slave territories; and that on their banner was inscribed “Free Soil, Free Speech, Free Labor, and Free Men.” As the defection of Whigs to the Liberty Party in 1844 gave New York state to the Democrats and elected Polk, so the defection of Democrats to the Free Soilers in 1848 gave New York to the Whigs and elected Taylor. As Harrison, the first Whig president, died one month after taking office, so Taylor, the second Whig president, died suddenly when a little over one year in office, just as the great Whig compromise of 1850 was closing. The imperative need of civil government in the new territory, the discovery of gold in California, the rush of men from all parts of the earth to the Pacific Coast forced Congress to establish organized territories. The question was: shall they be opened or closed to slavery? But, as the soil had been free when acquired from Mexico, the question really was: shall the United States establish slavery?

THE MEXICAN WAR, 1846-1848

Causes of the War

(1) Long-standing irritation over claims of American citizens upon Mexico, which the latter refused to pay.
(2) The annexation by the United States of Texas, which Mexico claimed as still a part of her territory.
(3) Disputes as to whether the Rio Grande or Nueces River was the boundary of Texas.

Results of the War

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, in 1848, closed the war. Its chief provisions were:
(1) The Rio Grande was made the boundary between Texas and Mexico.
(2) California and New Mexico were ceded to the United States.
(3) The United States paid Mexico $15,000,000, and assumed $3,500,000 due American citizens.
The slavery question was intensified in American politics.

PRINCIPAL BATTLES
NOTE: The Americans were victorious in every conflict.

Place of Battle Dates Commanders Engaged

American Mexican American Mexican

Bracite Dec. 25, 1846 Doniphan Ponce de Leon 500 1,200

Buena Vista Feb. 23, 1847 Taylor Santa Anna 4,700 17,000

Cerro Gordo April 18, 1847 Scott Santa Anna 8,500 12,000

Chapultepec Sept. 13, 1847 Scott Santa Anna 7,200 25,000

Contreras Aug. 20, 1847 Scott Valencia 4,000 7,000

Churubusco Aug. 20, 1847 Scott Santa Anna 8,000 25,000

Huamantla Oct. 9, 1847 Lane Santa Anna 500 1,000

Mexico Sept. 14, 1847 Scott Santa Anna 6,000 ...

Molino del Rey Sept. 8, 1847 Worth Alverez 3,500 14,000

Monterey Sept. 24, 1846 Taylor Ampudia 6,600 10,000

Palo Alto May 8, 1846 Taylor Arista 2,300 6,000

Resaca de la Palma May 9, 1846 Taylor Arista 2,000 5,000

Sacramento Feb. 28, 1847 Doniphan Trias 900 4,000

Vera Cruz Mar. 27, 1847 Scott Landero 12,000 6,000

The only naval engagements of importance during the war with Mexico were the bombardment
of Vera Cruz, by Commodore Conner, which lasted four days, and the bombardment of Monterey,
Commodore Sloat, both cities being forced to surrender.

The Democrats, holding that slaves were property, claimed the right to take them into any territory, and asserting the principle of “squatter sovereignty,” claimed the right of the people living in any territory to settle for themselves whether it should be slave or free. The Free Soilers demanded that the soil having been free when a part of Mexico, should be free as a part of the United States. Between these two Clay now stepped in to act as pacificator. Taking up the grievances of each side, he framed and carried through the measure known as the Compromise of 1850, the third great political compromise in our history. The fruit of this was the admission of California as a free state; the passage of a more stringent law for the recovery of fugitive slaves; the abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia; and the organization of Utah and New Mexico on the basis of “squatter sovereignty.”

This done, senators and representatives of all parties joined in a manifesto declaring that the issues resting on slavery were dead issues, and that they would neither vote for, nor work for any man who thought otherwise. But thousands did think otherwise. The action of Clay pleased none. Anti-slavery men deserted him in the North; pro-slavery men deserted him in the South; and in 1852 the Whig party carried but four states out of thirty-one and perished. Even its two great leaders, Clay and Webster, were, by that time, in their graves.

Excited by such success, the Democrats, led on by Stephen A. Douglas, now broke through the compromise of 1820 and in 1854 applied “squatter sovereignty” to the organization of the territories of Kansas and Nebraska. Against this violation state legislatures, the people, the pulpit, and the press protested vigorously, for every acre of Kansas and Nebraska lay to the north of 36° 30′ and was solemnly pledged to freedom. But the Democratic leaders would not listen and drove from their ranks another detachment of voters. The effect was soon manifest. The little parties began to unite and when, in 1856, the time came to elect another president, the Republican Party of to-day was fully organized and ready. Once more and for the last time for twenty-eight years the Democrats won.

Buchanan’s Administration the Prelude to the Civil War.—The administration of James Buchanan (1857-1861) marks an epoch. The question before the country was that of the extension of slavery into the new territories. Hardly had he been inaugurated when the Supreme Court handed down a decision on the case of Dred Scott, which denied the right of Congress to legislate on slavery, set aside the compromises of 1820 and 1850 as unconstitutional, and opened all the territories to slavery.

Rise of the Republican Party and Election of Lincoln.—From that moment the Whig and Democratic parties began to break up rapidly till, when 1860 came, four parties and four presidential candidates were in the field. The Democratic party, having finally split at the national convention for nominating a president and vice-president, the southern wing put forward Breckenridge and Lane and demanded that Congress should protect slavery in the territories. The northern wing nominated Stephen A. Douglas and declared for squatter sovereignty and the compromise of 1850. A third party, taking the name of “Constitutional Union,” declared for the Constitution and the Union at any price and no agitation of slavery, nominated Bell and Everett, and drew the support of the old Whigs of the Clay and Webster school. The Republicans, declaring that Congress should prohibit slavery in the territories, nominated Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin and won the election.

Secession, and the Formation of the Confederacy.—The State of South Carolina immediately seceded and before the end of February, 1861, was followed by Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. Taking the name of the Confederate States of America, they formed first a temporary and then a permanent government, elected Jefferson Davis president, raised an army, and besieged Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. The attempt to relieve the fort brought on the bombardment and surrender (April 19, 1861). The Confederate States were now joined by Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Richmond was made the capital, and the Civil war opened.

Civil War between the Union and the Confederacy.—The line of separation between the states then became the Potomac River, the Ohio River, and a line across southern Missouri and Indian Territory to New Mexico. Along this line the troops of the Union were drawn up in many places under many commanders. Yet there were in the main but three great armies. That of the East or Potomac under General McClellan, that of the Center or the Ohio under General Buell, that of the West or Missouri under General Halleck. In command of all as Lieutenant-General was Winfield Scott. Confronting them were the troops of the Confederacy, drawn up in three corresponding armies: that of North Virginia under Johnston and Lee, that of the Cumberland under Albert Sidney Johnston, and that of the trans-Mississippi under McCulloch and Price.

Yielding to the demand of the North for the capture of Richmond before the Confederate Congress could meet there (July 20, 1861), McDowell went forth with thirty-eight thousand three-months volunteers to the ever memorable field of Bull Run.

The Union Successes in the Southwest.—But the serious campaigning did not begin until January, 1862. Then the whole line west of the Alleghanies (made up of the armies of Ohio and Missouri), turning on Pittsburgh as a center, swept southward, captured Forts Henry and Donelson, defeated the Confederates at Shiloh, captured Corinth, took Island Number 10, and drove them from Fort Pillow. Meantime Farragut entered the Mississippi from the Gulf, passed Forts Jackson and St. Philip, captured New Orleans, and sent Commodore Davis up the river to take Memphis. Memphis fell June 6, 1862, and, save for Vicksburg, the Mississippi was open for navigation. When the year closed the Confederates had been driven to the east into the mountains of Tennessee, where, December 31, 1862 to January 2, 1863, was fought the desperate and bloody battle of Murfreesboro. The Union troops won, and the Confederate army fell back to Chattanooga.

The Peninsular Campaign Favors Confederate Arms.—With the Army of the Potomac meantime all had gone ill. The affair at Bull Run in July, 1861, had been followed by the transfer of the army to McClellan. But McClellan wasted time, wore out the patience of the North, and forced Lincoln to issue General Order Number One for the forward movement of all armies on February 22, 1862. Obedient to this McClellan began his Peninsular Campaign against Richmond, was out-generaled by Lee, and in the second battle of Bull Run suffered so crushing a defeat that Lee ventured to cross the Potomac and enter Maryland, and encountered McClellan, on the field of Antietam. In that battle Lee was beaten and fled across the Potomac. But McClellan failed to follow up the victory and was removed, the command of the Army of the Potomac passing to Burnside. Burnside led it across the Potomac and the Rappahannock and on December 13, 1862, lost the battle of Fredericksburg. For this he was replaced by Hooker, who, May 1-4, 1863, fought and lost the battle of Chancellorsville.

The Turning Point of the War.—Lee now again took the offensive, crossed the Potomac, entered Pennsylvania, and at Gettysburg met the Army of the Potomac under Meade. On that field was fought the decisive battle of the war. Then (July 1-4, 1863) the backbone of the Confederacy was broken, and the two armies returned to their old positions in Virginia.

While Meade was beating Lee at Gettysburg, Grant captured Vicksburg, July 1-3, 1863. For this he was sent to command the army of Rosecrans, then besieged by Bragg at Chattanooga. Again success attended him, and in November he stormed Lookout Mountain, defeated Bragg in the famous “Battle above the Clouds,” and drove him in disorder through the mountains. For these signal victories he was raised to the rank of Lieutenant General in 1864, and placed in command of the armies of the United States.

That year is memorable for the great march of Sherman to the east from Chattanooga to the sea, for the victories of Sheridan in the valley of the Shenandoah, for the Wilderness Campaign of Grant, the shutting up of Lee in Richmond, and by the re-election of Lincoln. His competitor was General McClellan, whom the northern Democrats put forward on the platform that the war was a failure, and that peace should be made with the South. In the spring of 1865 came the retreat of Lee from Richmond, and, on April 9, his surrender at Appomattox Court House.

THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, 1861-1865

Causes of the War Influencing Events Results of the War

Real, but remote: The invention of the cotton gin, 1793.

(1) The doctrine of popular
sovereignty. Different con-
structions of the Constitution. Fugitive slave laws, 1793 and 1850. The Union was preserved.

Protective tariff laws.

Missouri compromise, 1820. Slavery was abolished.

Nullification act in South Carolina, 1832.

(2) Slavery. Different systems
of labor in the North and the
South. Annexation of Texas, 1845. Secession as a working
program was shown to be
impracticable.

Omnibus bill, 1850.

Kansas-Nebraska bill, 1854

Dred Scott decision, 1857.

(3) Lack of intercourse between
the North and the South. Personal liberty bills, 1857. The war cost the lives of
nearly one million able-
bodied men.

John Brown raid, 1859.

Anti-slavery papers, books, and speeches.

(4) The increase of territory. New England Anti-Slavery Society was
organized, 1832. The national debt was in-
creased to $2,750,000,000.

Anti-slavery parties:

Immediate: Liberty party, 1840-1848. An incalculable amount of
property was destroyed.

The secession of the states. Free-Soil party, 1848-1856.

Republican party, 1854.

CAMPAIGNS AND BATTLES
Naval engagements are printed in italics; names of victorious commanders in bold-face type.

LAND AND SEA ENGAGEMENTS

Name, Location and Date of Battle Commanders Casualties

Union Confederate

Killed Wounded Killed Wounded

1861

Bombardment of Fort Sumter (April 13-14) Gen. Beauregard vs. Maj. Anderson. No casualties on either side

Bull Run, Virginia (July 21) Gen. Beauregard and Gen. Johnston vs. Gen. McDowell. 481 1,011 362 1,390

Wilson Creek, Missouri (August 10) Gen. Price vs. Gen. Lyon. 223 721 331 764

1862

Pea Ridge, Arkansas (March 6-8) Gen. Curtis and Gen. Franz Sigel vs. Gen. Van Dorn. 203 972 1,040 3,638

Monitor and Merrimac, Hampton Roads, Virginia (March 9) Lt. J. L. Worden vs. Capt. Franklin Buchanan. 0 1 0 2

Fort Donelson, Tennessee (February 15) Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Floyd, Gen. Pillow and Gen. Buckner. 560 746 466 1,534

Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee (April 6-7) Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Johnston and Gen. Beauregard. 1,735 7,882 1,128 8,012

Drury’s Bluff, Virginia (May 15) Gen. Beauregard vs. Gen. Butler. 422 2,380 514 1,086

Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks, Virginia (May 31) Gen. Johnston vs. Gen. McClellan. 891 3,627 1,987 2,233

Gaines Mill, Virginia (June 27) Gen. A. Elzey vs. Gen. F. J. Porter. 3,000 4,500 2,000 4,000

Malvern Hill, Virginia (July 1) Gen. McClellan vs. Gen. Lee. 2,860 3,500 3,023 4,077

Cedar Mountain, Virginia (August 8-9) Gen. Jackson vs. Gen. Banks. 450 660 223 1,060

Bull Run No. 2, or Manassas, Virginia (August 29-30) Gen. Lee and Gen. Jackson vs. Gen. Pope. 798 4,023 1,090 6,154

Antietam, Maryland (September 16-17) Gen. McClellan vs. Gen. Lee. 2,010 9,416 1,842 9,399

Corinth, Mississippi (October 3-4) Gen. Rosecrans vs. Gen. Van Dorn. 315 1,812 1,423 5,692

Perrysville, Kentucky (October 8) Gen. Buell vs. Gen. Bragg. 916 2,943 980 1,520

Fredericksburg, Virginia (December 11-13) Gen. Lee vs. Gen. A. E. Burnside. 1,152 9,101 505 4,061

Murfreesboro, or Stone River, Tennessee (December 30, 1862, to January 2, 1863) Gen. Rosecrans vs. Gen. Bragg 1,533 7,245 1,384 6,892

1863

Chancellorsville, Virginia (April 30 to May 4) Gen. Lee and Gen. Jackson vs. Gen. Hooker. 1,512 9,518 1,718 10,563

Vicksburg, Mississippi (May 19-25) Gen. Pemberton vs. Gen. Grant. 1,848 2,378 1,420 2,151

Gettysburg, Pennsylvania (July 1-3) Gen. George G. Meade vs. Gen. Lee. 2,834 13,709 4,000 14,000

Chickamauga, Georgia (September 18-20) Gen. Bragg vs. Gen. Rosecrans. 1,644 9,262 6,000 10,000

Chattanooga, including Orchard Knob, Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, Tennessee (November 23-25) Gen. Grant, Gen. Sherman and Gen. Hooker vs. Gen. Bragg. 757 4,529 850 2,150

1864

Wilderness, Virginia (May 5-7) Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee. 2,309 12,188 1,956 10,444

Spottsylvania, Virginia (May 8-11) Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee. 3,288 19,278 3,342 20,187

Spottsylvania, Virginia (May 18) Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee. 2,031 7,956 1,752 7,248

Bermuda Hundreds, Virginia (May 26-30) Gen. Butler, vs. Gen. D. H. Hill. 201 998 864 2,136

Cold Harbor, Virginia (June 2-3) Gen. Lee vs. Gen. Grant. 1,905 10,570 364 1,336

Petersburg, Virginia (June 15-19) Gen. Lee vs. Gen. Smith, Gen. Hancock and Gen. Burnside. 1,298 7,474 984 6,721

Petersburg, Virginia (June 20-30) Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee. 112 506 801 1,417

Peach Tree Creek, Georgia (July 20) Gen. Thomas vs. Gen. Hood. 301 1,411 880 3,916

Atlanta, Georgia, Hood’s First Sortie (July 22) Gen. Logan vs. Gen. Hood. 499 2,142 1,162 7,337

Petersburg, Virginia (from July 1, exclusive of losses at the Crater and Deep Bottom) (July 31) Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee. 419 2,076 799 4,023

Petersburg, Virginia (August 1-31) Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee. 87 484 101 605

Opequan, Virginia (September 19) Gen. Sheridan vs. Gen. Early. 653 3,719 1,632 3,868

Cedar Creek, Virginia (October 19) Gen. Sheridan vs. Gen. Early. 588 3,516 961 3,239

Fair Oaks, Virginia (October 27-28) Gen. McClellan vs. Gen. Johnston. 120 783 150 301

Petersburg, Virginia (Sept. 1 to Oct. 30) Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee. 170 822 240 761

Franklin, Tennessee (November 30) Gen. Hood vs. Gen. Schofield. 189 1,033 1,141 5,113

Nashville, Tennessee (December 15-16) Gen. Thomas vs. Gen. Hood. 399 1,741 584 3,021

1865

Petersburg, Virginia (April 2) Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee. 298 2,565 341 3,092

Appomattox, Virginia (April 9) Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee. 203 297 189 386

Lincoln Assassinated, and Beginning of Reconstruction.—On April 14, 1865, Lincoln was assassinated and Andrew Johnson became president. With the succession of Johnson the era of reconstruction, political and social, begins. The outcome of political reconstruction was the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth amendments to the Constitution of the United States, the impeachment of Andrew Johnson, and a long list of acts to protect and assist the freedmen of the South. The outcome of social reconstruction was the rise of the Ku Klux Klan, the passage and use of the Force Act, and the dreadful condition of affairs which ruined the South for a decade.

In the North the effect of such measures was to split the Republican party and put seven presidential candidates in the field in 1872. One represented the Temperance party; another the Labor party, denouncing Chinese labor and the non-taxation of Government land; a third was the Liberal Republican, demanding union, amnesty, and civil rights, accusing Grant of packing the Supreme Court in the interests of corporations, and calling for a repeal of the Ku Klux laws. The Liberal Republicans having chosen Horace Greeley as their candidate, the Democrats accepted and indorsed him. But he pleased neither party, and the discontented Liberals and the discontented Democrats each chose a candidate of their own. The Republicans nominated Grant and elected him.

Election of Hayes Decided by an Electoral Commission.—His second term (1873-1877) was the nadir of our politics, both state and national, and ended with the disputed election and the rise of the Independent or “Greenback party,” demanding the repeal of the act for the resumption of specie payments and the issue of the United States “greenback” notes, convertible into bonds, as the currency of the country. Double returns and doubtful returns from the Southern states put the votes of thirteen electors in dispute. As the House was Democratic and the Senate Republican, the joint rule under which the electoral votes had been counted since 1865 could not be adopted. A compromise was necessary, and on January 29, 1877, the Electoral Commission of five Senators, five Representatives, and five judges of the Supreme Court was created to decide on the doubtful returns. Of the fifteen, eight were Republicans and seven Democrats, and by a strict party vote the thirteen electoral votes were given to the Republicans and Rutherford B. Hayes declared elected.

Resumption of Specie Payments by the Government.—The memorable events of his term (1877-1881) were the resumption of specie payments on January 1, 1879; the passage of the Bland Silver Bill, restoring the silver dollar to the list of coins, making it legal tender, and providing for the coinage of not less than two million nor more than four million each month; and the rapid growth of the National or Greenback Labor party. Hayes was followed in 1881 by James A. Garfield, whose contest with the Senators from New York over the distribution of patronage led to his assassination by the hand of a crazy applicant for office. Chester A. Arthur then became President, was followed in 1885 by Grover Cleveland, who was succeeded in 1889 by Benjamin Harrison, who was in turn succeeded in 1893 by Grover Cleveland.

The presidential campaign of 1896 was one of the most exciting and important that has ever taken place. It was a contest respecting principles, and party platforms never received more attention. The amount of financial and political literature distributed and read was enormous, and political speeches, almost without number, were delivered. The cooperation of very many gold standard Democrats greatly increased the Republican strength and McKinley and Hobart were elected by a large majority of the electoral votes and by a plurality of over six hundred thousand of the popular vote.

McKinley and the Spanish-American War.—The administration of President McKinley was notable in many respects, and marked a new era in the foreign policy of the United States. Chief of the events was the Spanish-American war, which was precipitated in 1898, largely through the cruel treatment of the Cuban people by the mother country, Spain. Public opinion in the United States had been much divided in regard to the Cuban difficulties, but the division was in no sense sectional and a majority believed that war was not only justifiable but inevitable.

On February 15, 1898, the United States battleship Maine was destroyed in Havana harbor, and many believed this to have been the work of the Spaniards. Thereupon a congress was held, and a resolution passed demanding the withdrawal of Spain from Cuba. But before the message could be delivered, the American minister in Madrid received his passports and the Spanish government declared war. On April 22, Rear-Admiral Sampson began the blockade of Havana and the northern coast of Cuba with his North Atlantic squadron.

Meanwhile Dewey, who had been stationed at Hong-Kong with the American squadron, was ordered to begin operations, and sailed to Manila Bay in the Philippines. He entered Manila Bay early Sunday morning, May 1, 1898. The Spanish fleet lying in the harbor was protected by the guns of the batteries at Cavité, a few miles from Manila.

The Spaniards knew that he had left Hong-Kong, but he came sooner than he was expected and caught them unawares. He had planned to do this so that he might choose his own time for attack. As soon as he reached Manila Bay he opened upon the Spanish fleet a terrible fire of shot and shell. His fire was answered vigorously from the war vessels and the shore batteries, but the guns of the enemy were not well aimed and their shot did little damage. After a sharp fight of about two hours Dewey withdrew his fleet, in order, it is said, to give his men time for breakfast, but more likely to see how his ammunition was holding out.

After three hours he returned to the attack. By this time most of the Spanish vessels were in flames. An hour later the Spanish batteries “were silenced and the ships sunk or burned and deserted.” In the conflict the Spaniards lost every vessel and hundreds of men were killed, wounded, and missing. No American was killed and but seven wounded; while no American vessel was seriously damaged.

The battle of Manila is one of the great naval actions of history; never before had so much been won with so little loss of life and ships. Congress made Dewey a Rear Admiral, gave him a vote of thanks, and voted him a sword. Soon after the war he was made Admiral, the highest rank in the navy.

About the same time the Spanish Admiral, Cervera, had left the Cape Verde Islands en route for Santiago, where he arrived on May 19. Strict watch was kept by Sampson to prevent the escape of the enemy, and the Merrimac was sunk at night to block the Spanish squadron in the harbor, but the ship drifted too far to prevent Cervera’s exit. This difficult feat was intrusted to Ensign Richmond P. Hobson and six men. They performed their dangerous task, notwithstanding a severe fire from the Spanish land batteries. They were captured, but Admiral Cervera was so moved by their bravery that he sent word to the Americans that they were safe and would be well treated.

SUMMARY OF SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, 1898

Causes

Underlying:

Sympathy for the oppressed Cubans. The “reconcentrados,” people driven into the towns by Weyler, died by thousands, and Americans who aided them are arrested and their property destroyed.
The proximity of Cuba and its geographical position make its situation of great importance to the United States.
Destruction of American property.
Publication of a letter of the Spanish Minister, in which he speaks slightingly of President McKinley.

Immediate:

The blowing up of the battleship Maine.

Treaty and Results

The Treaty of Paris, December 10, 1898, stipulated as follows:

Spain gives up title to Cuba.
Spain cedes Porto Rico, Guam and the Philippines to the United States.
The United States gives Spain $20,000,000.
The direct cost of the war to the United States is about $130,000,000.
Soldiers killed, 430. A large number die of disease.
The United States becomes the guardian of Cuba.
An increase in our navy and standing army.
The war in the Philippines.
The question of territorial expansion in our politics.

LAND AND SEA ENGAGEMENTS

Name, Location and Date of Battle Commanders Casualties

United States Spanish

Killed Wounded Killed Wounded

THE ARMY

Guantanamo (June 11-20, 1898) ... 6 16 ... ...

Bombardment of Santiago (June 22, 1898) ... ... ... ... ...

Las Guasimas, Cuba (June 24, 1898) Gen. Wheeler vs. Gen. Linares. 16 50 28 124

El Caney, Cuba (July 1, 1898) Gen. Lawton and Gen. Chaffee vs. Gen. Vara de Rey. 88 356 120 400

San Juan, Cuba (July 1-3, 1898) ... 151 1,007 204 1,340

Santiago, Cuba (July 10-12, 1898) Gen. Shafter. 2 13 ... ...

Santiago Campaign (June 21 to July 17, 1898) Gen. Shafter vs. Gen. Toral. 260 1,341 ... ...

Porto Rico Campaign (July 25-28, 1898) Gen. Miles. 3 40 ... ...

The Reduction of Manila (August 13, 1898) Gen. Merritt. 17 106 ... ...

THE NAVY

Manila Bay, Philippine Islands (May 1, 1898). American Commander: Geo. Dewey.
Spanish Commander: Admiral Montijo. American Casualties:
Seven men slightly injured.
No damage to ships.
Spanish Casualties:
All ships destroyed. 450 men killed and wounded.

American Vessels:

Olympia, Baltimore, Raleigh, Boston, Concord, Petrel.

Spanish Vessels:

Reina Cristina, Castella, Don Antonio de Ulloa, Isla de Luzon, Isla de Cuba, General Lezo, Marquis de Duero, Cano Velasco, Isla de Mindanao, Sandoval, José Garcia, Leyte and torpedo boat Barcelona.

Bombardment of Cienfuegos, Cuba (May 11, 1898). By torpedo boat Winslow. 1 11 ... ...

Bombardment of San Juan (May 12, 1898) Admiral Sampson. 1 7 ... ...

Before Santiago (July 3, 1898) American Commander: Winfield Schley.
Spanish Commander: Admiral Cervera. American Casualties:
One man killed.
Brooklyn struck thirteen times, Texas once, but neither badly damaged.
Spanish:
All ships destroyed, more than 600 men killed and wounded, and rest surrendered.

American Vessels:

Brooklyn, Texas, Oregon, Iowa, Gloucester.

Spanish Vessels:

Almirante, Oquendo, Christobal Colon, Vizcaya, Infanta Maria Teresa, and torpedo boats Pluton and Furor.

The total number of vessels captured from Spain during the war of 1898 was 58.

On June 21, Major-General Shafter arrived off Santiago and successfully landed his troops at Baiquiri, and three days later the Spaniards were driven back from Sevilla. General Shafter then began his attack on Santiago, whither the Spaniards had retreated. Operations began on July 1. The severest fighting took place at San Juan Hill and El Caney, a garrisoned post, where a body of five hundred Spaniards offered a desperate resistance for some hours. By sundown the hills on which the enemy were posted, including San Juan, were occupied by the Americans. The attacking force consisted of regular infantry and dismounted cavalry, with an irregular corps of mounted men known as the Rough Riders. The latter, under the command of Colonels Leonard Wood and Roosevelt, took a prominent part in the fight. On July 4 the city was summoned to surrender, but without success. In the meanwhile Admiral Cervera’s squadron had been ordered to sea by the Madrid government. He accordingly left Santiago harbor the same day at nine a. m. with the object of effecting its escape by keeping close to the western shore. The American fleet, temporarily under Schley’s command, at once engaged the Spaniards, and by two o’clock succeeded in burning, beaching, or capturing all the enemy’s vessels. After this Santiago surrendered, July 17, and Spain sued for peace. It was arranged that Spain should evacuate Cuba, should cede Porto Rico to the United States, as well as her islands in the Antilles, and one of the Ladrones, and should leave the United States in the possession of Manila. In 1899 a treaty was signed, and Spain evacuated Cuba, the Philippines, and other islands for an indemnity of twenty million dollars.

Insurrection in the Philippine Islands.—A day or two after the final vote on the treaty a body of Philippines under Amilio Aguinaldo, a native of great ability, attacked the American defenses at Manila. The next day the Americans returned the attack, and for nearly a year there was a resistance to the American rule on the part of the tribes which Aguinaldo represented. These tribes belonged to the Tagals, a Malay race. They are in a minority as regards the whole population, but are among the most intelligent. By the close of the year 1899 the organized resistance on the part of the Tagals appeared to be nearly ended, and the army of Aguinaldo reduced to marauders and bandits, and the insurrection against the authority and sovereignty of the United States was ended in July, 1902, after the capture and surrender of the insurgent leader.

Assassination of McKinley and Succession of Roosevelt.—Shortly after his re-election to a second term, on September 6, 1901, the country was shocked by the assassination of President McKinley by an anarchist named Czolgosz. This was the third time in the history of the country that the chief executive was stricken down by the hand of an assassin. The Vice-President, Theodore Roosevelt, then succeeded to the presidency and continued, in all essential details, the policy of his lamented predecessor.

Under President Roosevelt, a champion of administrative reform and the regulation of commercial trusts, the status of Cuba was settled; progress was made in the Philippines; the navy was very greatly strengthened; the Isthmian Canal question was solved in favor of the Panama route, and the Republic of Panama recognized; and the President reasserted with emphasis the Monroe Doctrine as the key to foreign policy. The Alaska boundary was fixed by a mixed commission. The United States took part with the European powers in armed intervention at Peking in 1899; and an arbitration treaty with Great Britain and other countries was arranged for.

In a second term (1905-1909) President Roosevelt maintained his popularity by the same policy. In 1906 an insurrection broke out in Cuba, and in October American troops again took possession of the island. When confidence had been restored the United States authorities withdrew.

President Taft and the Rise of the Progressives.—In 1908 the Republican, Taft, defeated Bryan, the Democratic candidate. Mr. Roosevelt had refused to be a candidate again and was instrumental in securing Mr. Taft’s nomination. President Taft was elected on a Rooseveltian programme of anti-trust legislation and promises of a reduced tariff. In 1910-1911 attempts were made at a Reciprocity of Duties Treaty with Canada, so as to establish freer trade between the two countries. The Canadian general election of 1911 gave an emphatic negative to the proposal.

During the latter part of 1912 a renewed insurrection in Mexico brought about strained diplomatic relations with that country.

In Ohio, Minnesota, and Indiana, however, Democratic governors were elected, and these results pointed to a political reaction in the West, largely owing to supposed inequities in the tariff and to the dominance of trusts.

In 1910 an “insurgent” or progressive section, to which Mr. Roosevelt adhered, formed itself within the Republican party; and the state elections in November resulted in a Democratic triumph without a parallel since that of the year 1890.

Democrats Restored to Power under Leadership of Woodrow Wilson.—In 1913 Woodrow Wilson swept the country on a Democratic programme, having a clear majority over the two Republican ex-presidents (Roosevelt and Taft) opposed to him. His election was fought chiefly on the tariff question, his main argument being that some industries were receiving unfair protection at the expense of others.

Shortly after the inauguration of President Wilson (May 31, 1913), the Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, providing for the direct election of Senators by the people of the states, instead of by their respective legislatures, became effective. On October 3, of the same year, the Underwood Tariff Act became a law. Following this, on December 23, the Currency and Banking Bill, providing regional reserve banks throughout the country, was signed.

In 1914 the continued insurrectionary conditions in Mexico led to the seizure of the custom house at Vera Cruz by a United States fleet, resulting in an American loss of eighteen marines killed and seventy wounded. Subsequently diplomatic representatives of the republics of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile (popularly known as the “A B C powers”) offered their services as mediators, were accepted by the United States and the troops withdrawn. The temporary lull, however, thus brought about was soon succeeded by a series of struggles between the provisional Mexican government and the insurrectionists, led by Francisco Villa, which have ever since continued with little abatement. In 1916 the border raids of the Mexican bandits resulted in so many outrages upon American lives and property that the President was compelled to order United States troops to the Rio Grande for the protection of our citizens, and finally a detachment under General Pershing was sent into Mexican territory.

The important La Follette Seaman’s bill, to promote the welfare of American seamen and provide for their safety at sea, was approved March 4, 1915; and, in the same year (February 20), the Panama-Pacific Exposition was opened at San Francisco. On November 12, the United States assumed a protectorate of the Republic of Hayti.

PRESIDENT WILSON LEAVING THE EXECUTIVE OFFICES

During 1916 the Republic of Santo Domingo likewise passed under an American protectorate and the Rural Credits Bill became a law, whereby a system of Farm Loan Banks was created.

From the very beginning of the European war the administration of President Wilson was brought face to face with numerous intricate and several critical diplomatic situations growing out of that titanic conflict. The relationship of the United States, as a neutral nation, to the belligerent countries engaged in this war gave rise to more difficult and significant issues than any other president was compelled to meet since the time of Lincoln, if indeed, it has not been unprecedented in our entire history.

President Wilson Re-elected and His Policies Approved.—At the national election, in November, 1916, President Wilson was re-elected over his opponent, Charles E. Hughes. Following his re-election (December, 1916) the President proffered the services of this government to the belligerent powers of Europe in an effort to re-establish peace between these great contending coalitions. In spite of foreign complications, the year 1916 closed a period of unparalleled industrial and commercial prosperity for the United States, and more than ever confirmed its position as a great world power, with an immense field of new possibilities and corresponding duties.

On January 2, 1917, Congress re-assembled and began the consideration of important questions of national defense, railroads, and foreign policy growing out of the European war. In February, diplomatic relations were severed by the United States with Germany, and was succeeded in March by a declaration of armed neutrality on the part of our government.

Meanwhile great activity characterized all departments of the national government along lines of military preparedness, supported by unprecedented appropriations by Congress.

The supreme national industrial event of the Wilson administration, however, was the opening of the Panama Canal for navigation on August 14, 1914, and its use since that time as an instrumentality of world traffic.

Panama Canal.—This gigantic engineering project was designated by Count de Lesseps, of France, in 1879, and actual work began by the French Panama Canal Company, in 1881. Negotiations extending from 1901 to 1904 resulted in the taking over of the holdings of the French company by the United States, and work was started by United States government engineers in May of the latter year. Since that time the project has been steadily carried forward to completion.

The Canal is about fifty miles in length from deep water in the Caribbean Sea to deep water in the Pacific Ocean. The channel ranges in width from three hundred to one thousand feet. The average bottom width of the channel in this project is six hundred and forty-nine feet, and the minimum width is three hundred feet. The Canal has a minimum depth of forty-one feet. The time required for the passage of a ship of medium size through the entire length of the Canal is estimated at from nine and one-half to ten hours, and for larger vessels from ten and one-half to eleven hours.

The actual construction cost at present estimated for completing the Canal is $325,201,000, which includes $20,053,000 for sanitation and $7,382,000 for civil administration. These figures do not include the $50,000,000 paid to the New French Canal Company and to the Republic of Panama for property and franchises. Hence it is estimated that the total construction cost of the Canal to the United States will approximate $375,000,000.

CONTOUR MAP OF THE PANAMA CANAL AND CONNECTIONS

This map shows the general direction of the canal to be north and south; how it is brought into direct communication with the ports of the United States; and how it facilitates shipping to all parts of the world.

Large map (535 kB)

TABLE OF STATE AND TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT

In all the States except Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington and Wyoming and the Territory of Alaska, the right to vote at general elections is restricted to males of twenty-one years of age and upward. Women in Illinois, Iowa and Michigan have a restricted vote and in several States may vote at school elections.

States and Popular Name Requirements as to Citizenship
Persons Excluded from Suffrage (in italic) Previous Residence Required Governors Legislatures Members’ Terms Elec-
toral Vote, 1916

In State In Co. In Town In Pre-
cinct Salaries Length Term Years Ann. or Bien. Limit of Session Salaries of Members Sena-
tors Repre-
senta-
tives

Alabama
“Lizard” Citizen of United States or alien who has declared intention.
Convicted of treason or other felonies, idiots, vagrants, insane. 2 years 1 year 3 mos. 3 mos. $ 7,500 4 Quad. 50 days $4.00 per diem 4 4 12

Alaska Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Aliens and Indians. 1 year ... 30 days 30 days 7,000 4 Bien. 60 days $15.00 per diem 4 2 0

Arizona Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiot, insane, felon* (b). 1 year 30 days 30 days 30 days 4,000 2 Bien. 60 days $7.00 per diem 2 2 3

Arkansas
“Bear” Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention.
Idiots, insane, convicted of felony, failure to pay poll tax. 1 year 6 mos. 30 days 30 days 5,000 2 Bien. 60 days $6.00 per diem 4 2 9

California
“Golden” Citizen, male or female, by nativity, naturalization 90 days prior to election (d).
Idiots, insane, embezzlers of public moneys, convicted of infamous crime.* 1 year 90 days ... 30 days 10,000 4 Bien. None $1,000 term 4 2 13

Colorado
“Centennial” Citizen, native or naturalized, male or female.
Felons, insane. 1 year 90 days 30 days 10 days 5,000 2 Bien. 90 days $1,000 term 4 2 6

Connecticut
“Nutmeg” Citizen of the United States.
Convicted of heinous crime. 1 year ... 6 mos. ... 5,000 2 Bien. None $300 term 2 2 7

Delaware
“Diamond” Citizen of the United States.
Insane, paupers, felons.* 1 year 3 mos. ... 30 days 4,000 4 Bien. 60 days $5.00 per diem 4 2 3

Dist. of Col. See foot note on following page. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0

Florida
“Flower” Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, duelists, felons. 1 year 6 mos. 6 mos. 6 mos. 6,000 4 Bien. 60 days $6.00 per diem 4 2 6

Georgia
“Cracker” Citizen of the United States.
Felons, idiots and insane. 6 mos. 6 mos. ... ... 5,000 2 Ann. 50 days $4.00 per diem 2 2 14

Hawaii Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, insane, felons (j). 1 year ... ... 3 mos. 7,000 4 Bien. 60 days $600 session 4 2 0

Idaho Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, insane, felons, bigamists. 6 mos. 30 days ... ... 5,000 2 Bien. 60 days $5.00 per diem 2 2 4

Illinois
“Prairie” Citizen of the United States (e).
Convicted of crime. 1 year 90 days 30 days 30 days 12,000 4 Bien. None $3,500 annum 4 2 29

Indiana
“Hoosier” Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention (g).
Convicted of infamous crime. (b) 6 mos. ... 60 days 30 days 8,000 4 Bien. 61 days $6.00 per diem 4 2 15

Iowa
“Hawkeye” Citizen of the United States (k).
Idiots, insane, felons. 6 mos. 60 days 10 days 10 days 5,000 2 Bien. None $1,000 session 4 2 13

Kansas
“Sunflower” Citizen of the United States, male or female, or alien who has declared intention.
Convicted of treason or felony, insane. 6 mos. 30 days 30 days 10 days 5,000 2 Bien. 50 days $3.00 per diem 4 2 10

Kentucky
“Blue Grass” Citizen of United States (a).
Felons, idiots and insane. 1 year 6 mos. ... 60 days 6,500 4 Bien. 60 days $10.00 per diem 4 2 13

Louisiana
“Creole” Citizen of United States (c).
Idiots, insane, felons.* 2 years 1 year ... 6 mos. 5,000 4 Bien. 60 days $5.00 per diem 4 4 10

Maine
“Pine Tree” Citizen of the United States.
Paupers, insane, Indians.*‡ 3 mos. 3 mos. 3 mos. 3 mos. 3,000 2 Bien. None $300 annum 2 2 6

Maryland
“Old Line” Citizen of the United States.
Felons, lunatics, bribers. 1 year 6 mos. 6 mos. 1 day 4,500 4 Bien. 90 days $5.00 per diem 4 2 8

Massachusetts
“Bay” Citizen (a).
Paupers.* 1 year 6 mos. 6 mos. 6 mos. 10,000 1 Ann. None $1,000 annum 1 1 18

Michigan
“Wolverine” Citizen of the United States or alien who declared intention two years and six months prior to November 8, 1894 (c).
Indians with tribal relations. 6 mos. 20 days 20 days 20 days 5,000 2 Bien. None $800 annum 2 2 15

Minnesota
“North Star” Citizen of United States (a).
Felons, insane, Indians.‡ 6 mos. 30 days 30 days 30 days 7,000 2 Bien. 90 days $1,000 session 4 2 12

Mississippi
“Bayou” Citizen of the United States.
Insane, idiots, Indians not taxed, felons, bigamists.* 2 years 1 year 1 year 1 year 5,000 4 Bien. None $500 session 4 4 10

Missouri Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention.
Felons(b). 1 year 60 days 60 days ... 5,000 4 Bien. 70 days $5.00 per diem 4 2 18

Montana
“Mountain” Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Felons, idiots, insane‡ (b). 1 year 30 days ... ... 5,000 4 Bien. 60 days $10.00 per diem 4 2 4

Nebraska Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention (a).
Felons, insane. 6 mos. 40 days 10 days 10 days 2,500 2 Bien. 60 days $10.00 session 2 2 8

Nevada
“Silver” Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, insane, felons. 6 mos. 30 days 30 days 30 days 7,000 4 Bien. 60 days $600 term 2-4 2 3

New Hampshire
“Granite” Citizen of United States (a).
Paupers, insane, idiots, felons. 6 mos. 6 mos. 6 mos. 6 mos. 3,000 2 Bien. None $200 term 2 2 4

New Jersey
“Jersey Blue” Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, paupers, insane, felons (b). 1 year 5 mos. ... ... 10,000 3 Ann. None $500 annum 3 1 14

New Mexico Citizen of United States (a).
Idiots, insane, felons.† 1 year 90 days ... 30 days 5,000 5 Bien. 60 days $5.00 per diem 4 2 3

New York
“Empire” Citizen who shall have been a citizen for ninety days prior to election. 1 year 4 mos. 30 days 30 days 10,000 2 Ann. None $1,500 annum 2 1 45

North Carolina
“Old North” Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, lunatics, felons. 2 years 6 mos. 4 mos. 4 mos. 5,000 4 Bien. 60 days $4.00 per diem 2 2 12

North Dakota
“Sioux” Citizen of United States (a).
Felons, insane, tribal Indians. 1 year 6 mos. 90 days 90 days 5,000 2 Bien. 60 days $5.00 per diem 4 2 5

Ohio
“Buckeye” Citizen of United States (a).
Idiots, insane, and felons (b). 1 year 30 days 20 days 20 days 10,000 2 Bien. None $1,000 annum 2 2 24

Oklahoma Citizen of United States (a).
Felons, idiots, insane*‡ 1 year 6 mos. ... 30 days 4,500 4 Bien. 60 days $6.00 per diem 4 2 10

Oregon
“Sunset” Citizen of the United States, male or female, or alien who declared intention more than one year prior to election.
Idiots, insane, convicted of felony, U. S. soldiers and sailors. 6 mos. 30 days ... 30 days 5,000 4 Bien. 40 days $3.00 per diem 4 2 5

Pennsylvania
“Keystone” Citizen of the United States at least one month.
Felons, non-taxpayers. 1 year ... ... 2 mos. 10,000 4 Bien. None $1,500 session 2 2 38

Porto Rico Citizen of United States (f).
Felons, insane (b). 1 year ... 1 year ... 8,000 4 Ann. 60 days $5.00 per diem 4 2 0

Rhode Island
“Little Rhody” Citizen of the United States.
Paupers, lunatics, felons. 2 years ... 6 mos. ... 3,000 2 Ann. 60 days $5.00 per diem 2 2 5

South Carolina
“Palmetto” Citizen of United States (h).
Felons, insane, paupers. 2 years 1 year 4 mos. 4 mos. 3,000 2 Ann. 40 days $200 term 4 2 9

South Dakota
“Coyote” Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention.
Insane, felons, U. S. soldiers, seamen and marines. 6 mos. 30 days 10 days 10 days 3,000 2 Bien. 60 days $5.00 per diem 2 2 5

Tennessee
“Volunteer” Citizen of the United States.
Felons, failure to pay poll tax. 1 year 6 mos. ... ... 4,000 2 Bien. 75 days $4.00 per diem 2 2 12

Texas
“Lone Star” Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention.
Idiots, lunatics, felons, U. S. soldiers, marines and seamen. 1 year 6 mos. 6 mos. ... 4,000 2 Bien. 90 days $5.00 per diem 4 2 20

Utah Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, insane, felons (b). 1 year 4 mos. ... 60 days 6,000 4 Bien. 60 days $4.00 per diem 4 2 4

Vermont
“Green Mountain” Citizen of the United States.
Those lacking approbation of local board of civil authority. 1 year 3 mos. 3 mos. 3 mos. 2,500 2 Bien. None $4.00 per diem 2 2 4

Virginia
“Old Dominion” Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, lunatics, paupers (b) (i). 2 years 1 year 1 year 30 days 5,000 4 Bien. 60 days $500 session 4 2 12

Washington
“Evergreen” Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, lunatics, felons.‡ 1 year 90 days 30 days 30 days 6,000 4 Bien. 60 days $5.00 per diem 4 2 7

West Virginia
“Panhandle” Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, lunatics, felons. 1 year 60 days 60 days ... 5,000 4 Bien. 45 days $4.00 per diem 4 2 8

Wisconsin
“Badger” Citizen of United States (a).
Insane, felons, tribal Indians. 1 year ... 10 days 10 days 5,000 2 Bien. None $500 annum 4 2 13

Wyoming Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, insane, felons, unable to read State Constitution. 1 year 60 days 10 days 10 days 4,000 4 Bien. 40 days $8.00 per diem 4 2 3

States and Popular Name Requirements as to Citizenship
Persons Excluded from Suffrage (in italic) Previous Residence Required

In State In Co. In Town In Precinct

Alabama
“Lizard” Citizen of United States or alien who has declared intention.
Convicted of treason or other felonies, idiots, vagrants, insane. 2 years 1 year 3 mos. 3 mos.

Alaska Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Aliens and Indians. 1 year ... 30 days 30 days

Arizona Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiot, insane, felon* (b). 1 year 30 days 30 days 30 days

Arkansas
“Bear” Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention.
Idiots, insane, convicted of felony, failure to pay poll tax. 1 year 6 mos. 30 days 30 days

Colorado
“Centennial” Citizen, native or naturalized, male or female.
Felons, insane. 1 year 90 days 30 days 10 days

Connecticut
“Nutmeg” Citizen of the United States.
Convicted of heinous crime. 1 year ... 6 mos. ...

Delaware
“Diamond” Citizen of the United States.
Insane, paupers, felons.* 1 year 3 mos. ... 30 days

Dist. of Col. See foot note on following page. ... ... ... ...

Florida
“Flower” Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, duelists, felons. 1 year 6 mos. 6 mos. 6 mos.

Georgia
“Cracker” Citizen of the United States.
Felons, idiots and insane. 6 mos. 6 mos. ... ...

Hawaii Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, insane, felons (j). 1 year ... ... 3 mos.

Idaho Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, insane, felons, bigamists. 6 mos. 30 days ... ...

Illinois
“Prairie” Citizen of the United States (e).
Convicted of crime. 1 year 90 days 30 days 30 days

Indiana
“Hoosier” Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention (g).
Convicted of infamous crime. (b) 6 mos. ... 60 days 30 days

Iowa
“Hawkeye” Citizen of the United States (k).
Idiots, insane, felons. 6 mos. 60 days 10 days 10 days

Kansas
“Sunflower” Citizen of the United States, male or female, or alien who has declared intention.
Convicted of treason or felony, insane. 6 mos. 30 days 30 days 10 days

Kentucky
“Blue Grass” Citizen of United States (a).
Felons, idiots and insane. 1 year 6 mos. ... 60 days

Louisiana
“Creole” Citizen of United States (c).
Idiots, insane, felons.* 2 years 1 year ... 6 mos.

Maine
“Pine Tree” Citizen of the United States.
Paupers, insane, Indians.*‡ 3 mos. 3 mos. 3 mos. 3 mos.

Maryland
“Old Line” Citizen of the United States.
Felons, lunatics, bribers. 1 year 6 mos. 6 mos. 1 day

Massachusetts
“Bay” Citizen (a).
Paupers.* 1 year 6 mos. 6 mos. 6 mos.

Minnesota
“North Star” Citizen of United States (a).
Felons, insane, Indians.‡ 6 mos. 30 days 30 days 30 days

Mississippi
“Bayou” Citizen of the United States.
Insane, idiots, Indians not taxed, felons, bigamists.* 2 years 1 year 1 year 1 year

Missouri Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention.
Felons(b). 1 year 60 days 60 days ...

Montana
“Mountain” Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Felons, idiots, insane.‡ (b). 1 year 30 days ... ...

Nebraska Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention (a).
Felons, insane. 6 mos. 40 days 10 days 10 days

Nevada
“Silver” Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, insane, felons. 6 mos. 30 days 30 days 30 days

New Hampshire
“Granite” Citizen of United States (a).
Paupers, insane, idiots, felons. 6 mos. 6 mos. 6 mos. 6 mos.

New Jersey
“Jersey Blue” Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, paupers, insane, felons (b). 1 year 5 mos. ... ...

New Mexico Citizen of United States (a).
Idiots, insane, felons.† 1 year 90 days ... 30 days

New York
“Empire” Citizen who shall have been a citizen for ninety days prior to election. 1 year 4 mos. 30 days 30 days

North Carolina
“Old North” Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, lunatics, felons. 2 years 6 mos. 4 mos. 4 mos.

North Dakota
“Sioux” Citizen of United States (a).
Felons, insane, tribal Indians. 1 year 6 mos. 90 days 90 days

Ohio
“Buckeye” Citizen of United States (a).
Idiots, insane, and felons (b). 1 year 30 days 20 days 20 days

Oklahoma Citizen of United States (a).
Felons, idiots, insane*‡ 1 year 6 mos. ... 30 days

Pennsylvania
“Keystone” Citizen of the United States at least one month.
Felons, non-taxpayers. 1 year ... ... 2 mos.

Porto Rico Citizen of United States (f).
Felons, insane (b). 1 year ... 1 year ...

Rhode Island
“Little Rhody” Citizen of the United States.
Paupers, lunatics, felons. 2 years ... 6 mos. ...

South Carolina
“Palmetto” Citizen of United States (h).
Felons, insane, paupers. 2 years 1 year 4 mos. 4 mos.

South Dakota
“Coyote” Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention.
Insane, felons, U. S. soldiers, seamen and marines. 6 mos. 30 days 10 days 10 days

Tennessee
“Volunteer” Citizen of the United States.
Felons, failure to pay poll tax. 1 year 6 mos. ... ...

Texas
“Lone Star” Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention.
Idiots, lunatics, felons, U. S. soldiers, marines and seamen. 1 year 6 mos. 6 mos. ...

Utah Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, insane, felons (b). 1 year 4 mos. ... 60 days

Vermont
“Green Mountain” Citizen of the United States.
Those lacking approbation of local board of civil authority. 1 year 3 mos. 3 mos. 3 mos.

Virginia
“Old Dominion” Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, lunatics, paupers (b) (i). 2 years 1 year 1 year 30 days

Washington
“Evergreen” Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, lunatics, felons.‡ 1 year 90 days 30 days 30 days

West Virginia
“Panhandle” Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, lunatics, felons. 1 year 60 days 60 days ...

Wisconsin
“Badger” Citizen of United States (a).
Insane, felons, tribal Indians. 1 year ... 10 days 10 days

Wyoming Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, insane, felons, unable to read State Constitution. 1 year 60 days 10 days 10 days

States and Popular Name Governors Legislatures Members’ Terms Elec-
toral Vote, 1916

Salaries Length Term Years Ann. or Bien. Limit of Session Salaries of Members Senators Repre-
sentatives

Alabama
“Lizard” $ 7,500 4 Quad. 50 days $4.00 per diem 4 4 12

Alaska 7,000 4 Bien. 60 days $15.00 per diem 4 2 0

Arizona 4,000 2 Bien. 60 days $7.00 per diem 2 2 3

Arkansas
“Bear” 5,000 2 Bien. 60 days $6.00 per diem 4 2 9

California
“Golden” 10,000 4 Bien. None $1,000 term 4 2 13

Colorado
“Centennial” 5,000 2 Bien. 90 days $1,000 term 4 2 6

Connecticut
“Nutmeg” 5,000 2 Bien. None $300 term 2 2 7

Delaware
“Diamond” 4,000 4 Bien. 60 days $5.00 per diem 4 2 3

Dist. of Col. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0

Florida
“Flower” 6,000 4 Bien. 60 days $6.00 per diem 4 2 6

Georgia
“Cracker” 5,000 2 Ann. 50 days $4.00 per diem 2 2 14

Hawaii 7,000 4 Bien. 60 days $600 session 4 2 0

Idaho 5,000 2 Bien. 60 days $5.00 per diem 2 2 4

Illinois
“Prairie” 12,000 4 Bien. None $3,500 annum 4 2 29

Indiana
“Hoosier” 8,000 4 Bien. 61 days $6.00 per diem 4 2 15

Iowa
“Hawkeye” 5,000 2 Bien. None $1,000 session 4 2 13

Kansas
“Sunflower” 5,000 2 Bien. 50 days $3.00 per diem 4 2 10

Kentucky
“Blue Grass” 6,500 4 Bien. 60 days $10.00 per diem 4 2 13

Louisiana
“Creole” 5,000 4 Bien. 60 days $5.00 per diem 4 4 10

Maine
“Pine Tree” 3,000 2 Bien. None $300 annum 2 2 6

Maryland
“Old Line” 4,500 4 Bien. 90 days $5.00 per diem 4 2 8

Massachusetts
“Bay” 10,000 1 Ann. None $1,000 annum 1 1 18

Michigan
“Wolverine” 5,000 2 Bien. None $800 annum 2 2 15

Minnesota
“North Star” 7,000 2 Bien. 90 days $1,000 session 4 2 12

Mississippi
“Bayou” 5,000 4 Bien. None $500 session 4 4 10

Missouri 5,000 4 Bien. 70 days $5.00 per diem 4 2 18

Montana
“Mountain” 5,000 4 Bien. 60 days $10.00 per diem 4 2 4

Nebraska 2,500 2 Bien. 60 days $10.00 session 2 2 8

Nevada
“Silver” 7,000 4 Bien. 60 days $600 term 2-4 2 3

New Hampshire
“Granite” 3,000 2 Bien. None $200 term 2 2 4

New Jersey
“Jersey Blue” 10,000 3 Ann. None $500 annum 3 1 14

New Mexico 5,000 5 Bien. 60 days $5.00 per diem 4 2 3

New York
“Empire” 10,000 2 Ann. None $1,500 annum 2 1 45

North Carolina
“Old North” 5,000 4 Bien. 60 days $4.00 per diem 2 2 12

North Dakota
“Sioux” 5,000 2 Bien. 60 days $5.00 per diem 4 2 5

Ohio
“Buckeye” 10,000 2 Bien. None $1,000 annum 2 2 24

Oklahoma 4,500 4 Bien. 60 days $6.00 per diem 4 2 10

Oregon
“Sunset” 5,000 4 Bien. 40 days $3.00 per diem 4 2 5

Pennsylvania
“Keystone” 10,000 4 Bien. None $1,500 session 2 2 38

Porto Rico 8,000 4 Ann. 60 days $5.00 per diem 4 2 0

Rhode Island
“Little Rhody” 3,000 2 Ann. 60 days $5.00 per diem 2 2 5

South Carolina
“Palmetto” 3,000 2 Ann. 40 days $200 term 4 2 9

South Dakota
“Coyote” 3,000 2 Bien. 60 days $5.00 per diem 2 2 5

Tennessee
“Volunteer” 4,000 2 Bien. 75 days $4.00 per diem 2 2 12

Texas
“Lone Star” 4,000 2 Bien. 90 days $5.00 per diem 4 2 20

Utah 6,000 4 Bien. 60 days $4.00 per diem 4 2 4

Vermont
“Green Mountain” 2,500 2 Bien. None $4.00 per diem 2 2 4

Virginia
“Old Dominion” 5,000 4 Bien. 60 days $500 session 4 2 12

Washington
“Evergreen” 6,000 4 Bien. 60 days $5.00 per diem 4 2 7

West Virginia
“Panhandle” 5,000 4 Bien. 45 days $4.00 per diem 4 2 8

Wisconsin
“Badger” 5,000 2 Bien. None $500 annum 4 2 13

Wyoming 4,000 4 Bien. 40 days $8.00 per diem 4 2 3

Note.—Residents of the District of Columbia never had the right to vote therein for national officers, or on other matters of national concern after the territory embraced in it was ceded to the United States and became the seat of the general Government.
* Or persons unable to read and write in English. † Or citizens of Mexico who desire to become citizens of Arizona under treaties of 1848 and 1854. ‡ Indians who have not severed tribal relations. (a): Women can vote in school elections. (b): Also soldiers, sailors and marines in United States service. (c): Women taxpayers can vote on tax propositions. (d): Or by Queretaro treaty. (e): Women can vote in all elections except those pertaining to Constitutional officers or Constitutional propositions. (f): Males born in Porto Rico who formally renounced allegiance to a foreign power. (g): One year’s residence in the United States prior to election is required. (h): Who has paid six months before election all taxes then due, and can read and write any section of the State Constitution, or can show that he owns and has paid all taxes due the previous year on property in the State assessed at $300 or more. (i): Failure to pay poll tax. (j): Or those unable to speak, read and write the English or Hawaiian language. (k): Women can vote in school and city elections. (l): Offenders against elective franchise rights, guilty of bribery, betting on elections, and persons convicted of a felony and not restored to citizenship by the Executive. Convicts in House of Refuge or Reformatory not disqualified. (m): All of the States and Territories pay mileage also, except New Jersey, but free transportation is accorded in New Jersey by all railroads to members by law.

GOVERNMENTS OF THE UNITED STATES, BRITISH EMPIRE, GERMANY, AND FRANCE ARRANGED IN PARALLEL COLUMNS

UNITED STATES BRITISH EMPIRE GERMANY FRANCE

Form of Government: Republic. The general plan of the government of the United States is determined by the Constitution. The central government is limited to the exercise of the powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution, or implied therein, while the remaining governmental powers, not denied to the states by the Constitution, are reserved to the states. The general government is in three fairly well defined parts, the legislative, executive, and judicial. Form of Government.—Monarchy in form, but republic in practice. The monarchy is constitutional and limited.
The British Empire consists of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Empire of India, and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, including the self-governing Dominions, and the Crown Colonies, Protectorates, and other Dependencies, the whole forming one Empire. Form of Government.—The Empire, according to the Constitution of April 16, 1871, is a Confederate League, bearing the name German Empire, under the hereditary presidentship of the King of Prussia, who holds the title of German Emperor, and whose eldest son is styled His Imperial and Royal Highness. Form of Government.—France, since the overthrow of Napoleon III., in 1870, has been a republic governed by a President and two Chambers under the Constitution.

I. Constitution.—The present Constitution was adopted September 17, 1787.
Ratification of the Constitution.—The Constitution was ratified by the thirteen original States in the following order:
Delaware, Dec. 7, 1787, unanimously.
Pennsylvania, Dec. 12, 1787, vote 46 to 23.
New Jersey, Dec. 18, 1787, unanimously.
Georgia, Jan 2, 1788, unanimously.
Connecticut, Jan 9, 1788, vote 128 to 40.
Massachusetts, Feb. 6, 1788, vote 187 to 168.
Maryland, April 28, 1788, vote 63 to 12.
South Carolina, May 23, 1788, vote 149 to 73.
New Hampshire, June 21, 1788, vote 57 to 46.
Virginia, June 25, 1788, vote 89 to 79.
New York, July 26, 1788, vote 30 to 28.
North Carolina, Nov. 21, 1789, vote 193 to 75.
Rhode Island, May 29, 1790, vote 34 to 32. I. Constitution.—The British Constitution is mainly unwritten and customary, but its development is marked by certain outstanding and fundamental laws, of which the principal are: Magna Charta, 1215; the Habeas Corpus Act, 1679; the Act of Settlement, 1701; the Act of Union with Scotland, 1707; the Act of Union with Ireland, 1800; and the Parliament Act, 1911. The first secured annual parliaments and the equal administration of justice; the second established the liberty of the person; the third provided for the Protestant succession to the throne; the fourth and fifth created the United Kingdom; and the last enabled the Commons to pass certain Acts without the adherence of the other Chamber. I. Constitution.
Adoption.—Present Constitution adopted April 16, 1871. The Constitution of the German Empire is substantially that of the North German Confederation, which came into force in 1867, and which was adopted by the Empire in 1871, after the southern states of Germany had combined with the northern. I. Constitution.
Adoption.—Present Constitution adopted February 25, 1875. It has undergone but slight modifications. The present French Constitution remains a mixture of monarchical and republican institutions, and it has fully maintained its strong and old-established centralization. The Constitution of 1875 is based on universal suffrage. It was revised in 1875, 1884, 1885 and 1889.

Amendments.—Congress may, by two-thirds vote of both Houses, propose amendments to the Constitution, or upon application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, must be ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof. Amendments.—Amendments to the Constitution can be proposed by either of the legislative bodies, are passed by ordinary legislative process, requiring for their passage a majority simply of the votes of the Reichstag, but they fail if fourteen votes are cast against them in the Bundesrath. Amendments.—Whenever the two Houses agree that revision is necessary, and also agree upon particular points that should be revised, the National Assembly, composed of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, sitting as one body, convenes at Versailles, and acts upon the amendments proposed, the vote of an absolute majority being decisive. The National Assembly also elects the President of the republic.

II. The President.
How Elected.—The several steps in the election of the President are:
State Electors are chosen at a General Election held on the Tuesday following the first Monday of November of every fourth year; the number of Electors of each State being equal to the number of Senators and Representatives to which the State is entitled in Congress.
The Electors meet in their respective States on the second Monday in January following their election, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President; and at the same time make certificates of their vote and transmit the same to the President of the Senate.
The Senate and House of Representatives meet together on the second Wednesday of February next ensuing, and count the votes of the State Electors, when, if there is an election, the President of the Senate declares who is elected President and Vice-President.
In case there is no choice by the State Electors, the President is elected by the House of Representatives from the three candidates who received the most electoral votes for President; in which election the vote is taken by States, each State having but one vote, and a majority of all the States being necessary to a choice.
Term of Office.—Four years.
Eligibility.—A natural born citizen; resident of the United States fourteen years; minimum age thirty-five years. II. The Sovereign.
How Designated.—The King’s legal title rests upon the Act of Settlement, in 1701, under William III., by which the succession to the Crown of Great Britain and Ireland was settled on the Princess Sophia of Hanover and the “heirs of her body, being Protestants.” The throne is hereditary in the English house of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha with mixed succession, the sons of the Sovereign and their descendants having precedence of daughters, but daughters and their descendants preference over lateral lines. The Sovereign is designated King (or Queen) of Great Britain and Ireland, and Emperor (or Empress) of India.
Term of Office.—Holds office for life, by hereditary title, and cannot be removed. II. Chief magistrate, styled the Deutscher Kaiser.
How Designated.—The election of Wilhelm I., King of Prussia, as German Emperor (1871) was by vote of the Reichstag of the North German Confederation, on the initiative of all the reigning Princes of Germany. The Imperial dignity is hereditary in the House of Hohenzollern, and follows the law of primogeniture in the male line. He must be occupant of the throne of Prussia under the provisions of Prussian law.
Term of Office.—Holds office for life,and cannot be removed. II. Chief Magistrate, or President of the Republic.
Term of Office.—Elected for seven years by the National Assembly, and is re-eligible.
The National Assembly meets for the purposes of this election, as for the revision of the Constitution, at Versailles. The revision of the Constitution and the election of President are its only functions.
Qualifications.—Must be a citizen, not a member of any family which has occupied the throne of France.

Salary.—Fixed by law at $75,000 per year. Salary or Civil List.—The Civil List Act, 1910, gave the King $2,350,000. Provision for other members of the Royal Family, $730,000. The Prince of Wales, as the income of the Duchy of Cornwall, $435,000. The King in addition to his Civil List receives the revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster amounting to $320,000. Salary or Income.—Royal Civil List of Emperor, $3,700,000. Salary.—$140,000.
Responsibilities.—May be impeached by the Chamber of Deputies, and tried by the Senate, in case of high treason.

Powers and Duties of the President.—Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy. Communicates with Congress by message. Approves or disapproves Acts of Congress. Makes treaties with advice and consent of the Senate. Appoints Public Officers with the advice and consent of the Senate. Commissions Public Officers of the United States. Grants reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States.
The Vice-President.—Elected by State Electors the same as the President; or by the Senate, in case there is no choice by the State Electors. Term of office same as for the President. Eligibility same as required of the President. Salary fixed by law at twelve thousand dollars per year.
The Presidential Succession.—In case of the removal, death, resignation, or inability of the President, the Vice-President takes the President’s place.
In case of the removal, death, resignation, or inability of both President and Vice-President the heads of the Executive Departments succeed to the Presidency in the order in which the Executive Departments are named below; but such officer must be constitutionally eligible to the Presidency, must have been appointed to the cabinet by the advice and with the consent of the Senate, and be not under impeachment. The Secretary of Agriculture and the Secretary of Commerce and Labor are ineligible to the presidency by reason of the fact that these two cabinet offices were created subsequent to the passage of the act of the forty-ninth Congress in which provision was made for the presidential succession. Powers and Duties.—Has command of army and navy.
Parliament cannot be assembled, prorogued, or dissolved except by the express command of the Sovereign.
At the commencement of a new Parliament must deliver, either in person or by a commission authorized for that purpose, a speech declaring the cause of the summons.
Bills passed by Parliament must receive the assent of the Sovereign in order to become law.
Has legally a veto power; but, because the influence of the Executive over legislation has passed into the hands of the Ministers, the veto of the Crown has been disused since 1707.
Has power to appoint all officers in the army and navy, judges, ambassadors, colonial governors, bishops and archbishops of the Established Church, and grants all degrees of nobility.
May make treaties of any kind.
May grant pardon to any particular offender.
The Privy Council.—The King in Council is the supreme executive authority in the realm. The Privy Council meets as a whole at the beginning of a new reign and on other occasions of state and ceremony, possesses certain administrative powers, and is the Supreme Court of the Empire. Its personnel includes the royal princes and the archbishops, Members of the Cabinet and of the royal household, the Speaker of the House of Commons, the ambassadors, the principal colonial governors, colonial statesmen, certain judges, and members of both political parties who have never been in office.
The important functions of the Council are the bringing into operation by means of orders in council of the provisions of many statutes which Parliament leaves to the executive to enforce, temporarily or permanently, at such time or times as it may deem necessary and desirable. These orders have all the force and validity of law. Powers and Duties.—Commander-in-Chief of the imperial army.
Summons, opens, adjourns, and closes the two Houses. He may dissolve the Reichstag upon advice of the Bundesrath.
All measures passed by the Bundesrath are presented to the Reichstag in the name of the Emperor.
Bills passed by the two Houses must be promulgated by the Emperor.
In cases where he regards them as involving a change in the Constitution, he need not promulgate them if fourteen votes have been cast against them in the Bundesrath.
All official acts of the Emperor require the counter-signature of the Chancellor.
Appoints and may, at his pleasure, remove the Imperial Chancellor. Appoints and may, with the counter-signature of the Chancellor, remove all minor officers in the imperial service.
May declare war if defensive, and make treaties and peace; but for declaring offensive war the consent of the Bundesrath must be obtained.
Has power to grant pardons. Powers and Duties.—Has command of the army and navy.
May convene the Chambers on extraordinary occasions.
May adjourn the Chambers at any time for a period not exceeding one month. Can close a regular session of the Chambers at his discretion after it has continued five months; an extra session when he pleases. Can with the consent of the Senate dissolve the Chamber of Deputies even before the expiration of five months. This puts an end to the session of the Senate also, but not to its life. The President must order a new election in case of dissolution.
At the commencement of a new session of the Chambers the President of the republic sends a message, which is read by one of the Ministers.
Bills passed by the Chambers must be signed by the President, and countersigned by one of his Ministers.
Has no veto power, but is authorized to demand a reconsideration of any measure by the Chambers.
Has power to appoint and remove all officers of the public service, subject to the counter-signature of the Minister whose department is affected in each case.
May make treaties of peace, alliance and commerce, but cannot declare war without the advice of the Chambers.
Has power to grant pardons.
Succession.—In case of his death, resignation, or removal, the Council of Ministers act until the National Assembly can meet and elect a new President.

The Executive Departments The Executive Departments The Executive Departments The Executive Departments

Acts of Congress become laws:— When signed (approved) by the President; or, by his failure to make objection in writing (veto) within ten days after any act is submitted to him, unless Congress by adjournment within that time prevents its return; but Congress has power to pass a law over the President’s veto by a vote of two-thirds of each House.

The Cabinet The Ministry Imperial Chancellor.—He has no counterpart in any other constitutional government. He is the Emperor’s responsible proxy, controlling the politics of the Empire.
Appointment and Tenure of Office.—Appointed by the Emperor. Must be one of Prussia’s seventeen representatives in the Bundesrath. His term is dependent upon the pleasure of the Emperor.
Responsibility.—Does not consist in a liability to be forced to resign, but consists simply in amenability to the laws.
Powers and Duties.—Must give an account of the administration to the Reichstag, and submits the annual budget. He is the center and source of all the administrative departments, dominating the entire imperial service. He superintends the administration of the laws of the Empire by the States. As chairman of the Bundesrath he is simply a Prussian representing the King of Prussia, as the Emperor has no place in the Bundesrath.
The army and navy, however, are not directly controlled by him, but by the General Field-Marshal.
The following are the imperial authorities or Secretaries of State; they do not form a Ministry or Cabinet, but act independently of each other, under the general supervision of the Chancellor:
Chancellor of the Empire.
Secretary for Foreign Affairs.
Imperial Home Office and Representative of the Chancellor.
Imperial Admiralty.
Imperial Secretary of Justice.
Imperial Treasury.
Imperial Post-Office.
Secretary for the Colonies.
And, in addition, the following presidents of imperial bureaus:
Railways.
Imperial Exchequer.
Imperial Bank.
Imperial Debt Commission.
Administration of Imperial Railways.
Imperial Court Martial.
Acting under the direction of the Chancellor of the Empire, the Bundesrath represents also a supreme administrative and consultative board, and as such has twelve standing committees—namely, for army and fortifications; for naval matters; tariff, excise and taxes; trade and commerce; railways, posts and telegraphs; civil and criminal law; financial accounts; foreign affairs; for Alsace-Lorraine; for the Constitution; for the standing orders; and for railway tariffs. Powers and Duties.—As a Cabinet, the Ministers represent the administration in the Chambers; as a Council, they exercise a general oversight of the administration of the laws, with a view of giving unity of direction to the affairs of the State. The President may be present at all Council meetings.
Cabinet and Council of Ministers.—Both the Cabinet and the Council consist of the same persons. The Cabinet is a political body; the Council, an administrative body.
Appointment.—Chosen by the President, generally from among the members of the Chambers.
Members of the Cabinet.—Membership may vary somewhat:
Premier and Foreign Minister.
Ministers of State.
Minister of Justice and Vice-President of the Council.
Minister of War.
Minister of Marine.
Minister of the Interior.
Minister of Finance.
Minister of Agriculture.
Minister of Public Works.
Minister of Commerce.
Minister of Colonies.
Minister of Instruction and Minister of Inventions affecting National Defense.
Council of State.—Gives advice on all projects of law which the Chambers or the Government wish to submit to it, and on administrative regulations and by-laws. Its decision is final in all disputes arising in matters of administration.
Is presided over by the Minister of Justice, and is composed of Councillors, Masters of Requests, and Auditors, all appointed by the President of the republic.
Relations to the Chambers.—Are the leaders of the Chambers.
Whether members of the Chambers or not, they have as Ministers the right to attend all sessions of the Chambers and take a specially privileged part in the debate.

Composed of the heads of the executive departments.
Appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate.
Salary.—Secretary of State, $12,000; all other cabinet members, twelve thousand dollars annually. The Cabinet, or Inner Council, under the presidency of the Prime Minister, consists of Ministers, drawn from the ranks of the party in power and appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister.

Heads of Departments

Members (As reconstituted in June, 1915) and their salaries.

Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury $25,000

Lord High Chancellor (and $20,000 as speaker of the House of Lords) 50,000

Minister without Portfolio unpaid

Lord President of the Council 10,000

Lord Privy Seal unpaid

First Lord of the Admiralty 22,500

Secretaries of State:

Home Affairs 25,000

Foreign Affairs 25,000

Colonies 25,000

War 25,000

India 25,000

Chancellor of the Exchequer 25,000

Minister of Munitions 25,000

Secretary for Scotland 10,000

Chief Secretary to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland 21,125

Presidents of Committees of the Council:

Board of Trade 25,000

Local Government Board 25,000

Board of Education 10,000

First Commissioner of Works 10,000

Attorney-General 35,000

Board of Agriculture 10,000

Department of State.—Has charge of foreign affairs.
Treasury Department.—Has charge of fiscal affairs.
Department of War.—Has charge of the Army and military affairs.
Department of Justice.—Has charge of the legal affairs of the Government.
Post-office Department.—Has charge of postal affairs.
Navy Department.—Has charge of the Navy and naval affairs.
Department of the Interior.—Has charge of domestic affairs, including public lands, pensions, patents, Bureau of Education, etc.
Department of Agriculture.—Has charge of agricultural affairs, including Weather Bureau, etc.
Department of Commerce and Labor.—Has charge of domestic and foreign affairs, relating to commerce, transportation, Department of Labor, etc.

Relations to Parliament.—The Chief of the Cabinet and of the Ministry is called the Prime Minister or Premier. He is the leader of the House of Parliament of which he is a member. He dispenses the greater portion of the patronage of the Crown. Other members of the Cabinet are the leaders of Parliament, shaping and directing the business of the Houses.

Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the will or favor of the President. Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the favor of the House of Commons; for if not sustained, they must all resign. When a Ministry resigns it is the function of the sovereign to call upon some statesman to form another administration. There is no restriction upon the Royal choice, but the statesman usually selected is the leader of the opposing party in one of the two Houses. Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the favor of the Chambers; for, if not sustained, they must all resign.

Powers and Duties.—As stated above, but under the direction of the President. Powers and Duties.—All real authority is with the Cabinet. The executive government is nominally in the Crown, but practically in the Cabinet. The Ministers are at the heads of the administrative departments. The Sovereign does not sit with the Cabinet.
Other Ministers.—The Ministry includes a number of minor posts whose occupants have no seat in the Cabinet.

III. Congress.—Consisting of both the Senate and the House of Representatives as co-ordinate bodies.
Duration.—The term of each Congress is for two years, commencing March 4th of the odd years.
Regular Sessions.—Annual, beginning the first Monday in December.
Special Sessions.—At the call of the President.
Membership.—Each House is the judge of the elections and qualifications of its own members.
Congress has General Powers of Legislation.—To provide for the raising and disbursement of revenue. To borrow money; to coin money and to regulate its value; and to fix the standard of weights and measures. To regulate foreign and interstate commerce. To declare war, and to maintain an army and navy. To establish post-offices and post roads. To enact patent and copyright laws. To enact uniform naturalization and bankruptcy laws. To provide for the punishment of crimes against the United States. To establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court. To provide for organizing and calling out the militia. To admit new States into the Union. To provide for the governments of the Territories. To exercise exclusive jurisdiction over the District of Columbia, public lands, public buildings, forts, and navy yards. To enact all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution all the powers vested by the Constitution in the government of the United States. III. Parliament.—Parliament consists of two Houses, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The Sovereign alone has the power of summoning or proroguing or dissolving Parliament, and gives the Royal Assent to measures which have passed both Houses. Unless it be dissolved by the Crown, Parliament exists five years from the date on which it was first to meet. The demise of the Crown does not dissolve Parliament, but, on the contrary, renders an immediate assembling of the two Houses necessary; and if there be no Parliament in existence, the old Parliament must reassemble, and may sit again for six months, if it be not within that time dissolved by the new Sovereign.
All British dominions are subject (except as regards taxation) to the legislation of the British Parliament; but no Act of Parliament affects a colony unless that colony is specially mentioned. If the legislature of a colony enacts a law which is repugnant to an imperial law affecting the colony, it is to the extent to which it is repugnant absolutely void. III. The Government.
The legislative functions of the Empire are vested jointly in the Bundesrath or Federal Council which represents the several states, and by the Reichstag or Diet of the Realm, which represents the German nation. The Emperor has no veto on laws passed by these bodies. All laws for the Empire must receive the votes of an absolute majority.
The consent of the Federal Council and Reichstag is necessary in regard to certain specified treaties. The Emperor has the right to summon, open, adjourn, and close the Reichstag. The Federal Council and Reichstag must be summoned to meet every year; the Reichstag cannot be summoned without the adherence of the Federal Council. III. The Chambers.—Consist of the Senate and House of Deputies.

THE SENATE.—Composed of two Senators from each State (ninety-six in 1917), chosen by popular vote for six years, one-third retiring every two years. THE HOUSE OF LORDS.—The House at present consists of three Princes of the Blood, two Archbishops, twenty-one Dukes, twenty-six Marquesses, one hundred and twenty-one Earls, forty-six Viscounts, twenty-four Bishops, three hundred and fifty-six Barons, sixteen Scottish Representative Peers elected for each Parliament, and twenty-seven Irish Representative Peers elected for life. The members hold their seats by virtue of hereditary title; by creation of the Sovereign; by virtue of office (English bishops); by election for life (Irish peers); by election for duration of Parliament (Scottish peers). BUNDESRATH, or Federal Council, is composed of sixty-one votes representing the individual states. They are appointed by the governments (i. e. the Executives) of the States for each session.
The apportionments of representation in the Bundesrath among the States of the Empire is as follows: Prussia seventeen votes, Bavaria six, Saxony and Würtemberg four each, Baden, Hesse and Alsace-Lorraine each three, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Brunswick each two, the other States (seventeen) one apiece. THE SENATE is composed of three hundred members chosen by the Departments and Colonies for nine years, one-third of the members retiring every three years.
Until 1884 the Senate contained seventy-five life members, the life list having been originally made up by election by the National Assembly of 1875, and vacancies being filled by the Senate itself. In 1884 this arrangement was abolished, and since that year vacancies in the life roll have been filled by ordinary nine-year Senators.

Qualifications.—Must be at least thirty years of age, must have been a citizen of the United States for nine years, and must be an inhabitant of the State which he represents. Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-one years of age. Qualifications.—Must be a Frenchman, and at least forty years of age.

Remuneration.—Members receive seven thousand five hundred dollars, with mileage. Remuneration.—Receive no pay. Remuneration.—Receive no pay. Remuneration.—15,000 francs ($3,000).

Organization.—The Vice-President of the United States is the President of the Senate. Is elected by the Electoral College. Votes only in case of a tie.
Quorum.—A majority of members. Organization—Quorum.—Three, including the Lord Chancellor; thirty for final vote on a bill. The Lord Chancellor, who is a member of the Cabinet, presides. He is appointed by mere delivery of the Great Seal to him by the Sovereign and is principal legal adviser of the Crown. His patronage is very extensive. He nominates the puisne judges and county court judges; the holder of the office may not be a Roman Catholic. Organization—Quorum.—The Imperial Chancellor or his substitute (at regular meeting). The Imperial Chancellor presides. Votes with the other Prussian representatives, whose votes must be undivided; and, in case of a tie, Prussia’s vote decides. Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own President and Vice-Presidents.

Committees.—Members are divided into standing committees, chosen by the Senate itself, which act in the preliminary examination, and shaping of measures to be voted on. Committees.—Special committees are appointed to make investigations, and report on matters which could not be undertaken by the whole House. Committees.—There are three standing committees and eight commissions, two of which are appointed by the Emperor, five wholly by the Bundesrath, and one in part by the Bundesrath, being made up principally of members ex-officio.
Each commission consists of representatives of at least five States of the Empire. Committees.—Each month the members are divided by lots into “Bureaux.” These select all the special committees to which bills are referred, except when the House chooses itself to elect a committee.

Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the House of Representatives, it makes the laws. It also has power to confirm or reject all appointments to office by the President of the United States, and all treaties. The members constitute a high court for the trial of impeachments. Elects Vice-President of the United States if regular election fails. Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the House of Commons, makes the laws, having a revising power over all bills proposed by the House of Commons, except those relating to public revenue and expenditure, which it must pass or reject without amendment.
It is the highest appellate court of the United Kingdom. It may in certain cases try members of its own body; it tries any person who may be impeached by the House of Commons, and it also decides claims to the peerage. Powers and Duties.—May originate bills to be sent to the Reichstag. Its consent is indispensable to the validity of all legislation. Members may speak on the floor of the Reichstag. Acting under the direction of the Imperial Chancellor, it is the supreme administrative board. It is in some cases the highest court of the Empire. Is the court of appeal between two or more States of the Empire. Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the Chamber of Deputies, makes the laws, and has in law-making the same prerogatives as the Chamber, except that bills relating to revenue originate with the Chamber. It is a court of justice for trying the President of the republic and the Ministers. It may originate, and, in concurrence with the Senate, pass resolutions and bills; but bills relating to finance must be originated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power to bring accusations against the President of the republic and the Ministers.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.—Composed (in 1917) of four hundred and thirty-five members elected every second year for two years by the people of the States in the proportion of one Representative for every 211,877 inhabitants. Each State, however, is entitled to at least one member, whatever its population. HOUSE OF COMMONS.—This body consists of six hundred and seventy elected members representing county, borough, and university constituencies. Roughly speaking, about one-sixth of the population are electors. REICHSTAG, or Imperial Diet, is composed (in 1917) of three hundred and ninety-seven members, and elected for five years by universal suffrage. THE CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES is composed (in 1917) of five hundred and eighty-four Deputies, distributed among the Departments and certain colonies in the proportion of one Deputy to seventy thousand inhabitants. The Deputies are chosen for a term of four years by universal suffrage, the Arrondissements serving as electoral districts.

Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-five years of age, must have been seven years a citizen of the United States, and must be an inhabitant of the State from which he is chosen. Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-one years of age. Clergymen are disqualified from sitting as members, also English and Scottish peers, government contractors, and sheriffs and returning officers for the localities for which they act. Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-five years of age, and have lived at least one year in one of the German States. Qualifications.—Must be a citizen of France, and at least twenty-five years of age.

Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own presiding officer, who is called the Speaker, salary twelve thousand dollars per year. Organization—Quorum.—Forty members, including the Speaker. Elects its own presiding officer, who is called the Speaker, who has a residence in the Palace of Westminster, and receives a salary of $25,000 per annum. Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own presiding officer, who is called the President. Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Chooses its own President, Vice-President and other officers.

Remuneration.—Members receive seven thousand five hundred dollars and mileage. Remuneration.—$2,000 per year (since 1911). Remuneration.—3,000 marks ($750) per session, with deduction of twenty marks ($5.00) for each day’s absence; they have free passes over German railways during session. Remuneration.—15,000 francs ($3,000).

Powers of the House of Representatives.—Elects its Speaker (presiding officer) and its other officers. Elects President of the United States if the regular election fails. Prosecutes impeachments before the Senate. Originates all bills for raising revenue. Powers and Duties.—May originate and, in concurrence with the House of Lords, pass resolutions and bills; but bills relating to the imposition of taxes and the granting of supplies for the service of the State must be originated in the House of Commons. Powers and Duties.—Has power to originate and, with the advice and consent of the Bundesrath, to enact the laws. It also exerts a controlling influence through its power to give or withhold its sanction to certain ordinances to whose validity the Constitution makes its concurrence necessary, through its right to inquire into the conduct of affairs; and in many other ways not susceptible of enumeration. Powers and Duties.—May originate, and, in concurrence with the Senate, pass resolutions and bills; but bills relating to finance must be originated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power to bring accusations against the President of the republic and Ministers.

Committees.—Almost all the acts of the House are under the control of Standing Committees, appointed by the Speaker. Committees.—The business of the House is almost entirely under the direction of the Ministry; however, commissions and select committees are from time to time appointed to make investigations and report on matters which could not be undertaken by the House. Committees.—There are no standing committees, but select committees are occasionally appointed by election from the seven “Sections” into which the members are divided by lot for committee work. Committees.—Each month the members are divided by lot into eleven “Bureaux,” which select all the special committees to which bills are referred, except when the Chamber chooses to appoint a committee directly.

IV. The Judicial Department. IV. Judicial Departments, or Courts of Law. IV. Judicial Department. IV. Judicial Department.

Judges of the United States Courts Privy Council.—The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (which hears appeals from Colonial and Indian Courts, and also from Ecclesiastical Courts) consists of the Lord Chancellor, Lord President, ex-Lords President, the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, and such other members of the Privy Council as shall from time to time hold or have held “high judicial office.” No dissenting judgments are allowed, but the Judicial Committee can grant special leave to appeal.
The English courts of law having jurisdiction in actions between parties are: The laws of the Empire take precedence of the Federated States within the scope of the Constitution of the Empire; they are compulsory on all Governments of the Empire.
A uniform system of law courts exists throughout the Empire, though, with the exception of the Reichsgericht, all courts are directly subject to the Government of the special State in which they exercise jurisdiction, and not to the Imperial Government. The appointment of the judges is also a State and not an Imperial function. The Empire enjoys uniform codes of commercial and criminal law. The judicial system is under direct control of the government. All Judges are nominated by the President of the republic. They can be removed only by a decision of the Court of Cassation constituted as the Conseil Supérieur of the magistracy.

Appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate.
Tenure of Office.—During life or good behavior; but may retire on full salary after reaching the age of seventy years, and after ten years’ service on the bench.

The Supreme Court of the United States House of Lords Imperial Supreme Court. The Court of Cassation.

Members.—A Chief Justice and Eight Associate Justices.
Salaries.—Chief Justice, fifteen thousand dollars; Associate Justices, each fourteen thousand five hundred dollars.
Terms of Court.—One each year, beginning on the second Monday in October.
Original Jurisdiction.—In all cases affecting Ambassadors, Ministers, and Consuls. In all cases in which a State is a party.
Appellate Jurisdiction.—In cases of law and equity where the Inferior Courts have original jurisdiction, with such exceptions and regulations as Congress has made.
The Chief Justice.—Presides over the Senate when it sits as a Court of Impeachment for the trial of the President. Lord High Chancellor and such peers of Parliament as are holding or have held high judicial office. This is the ultimate Court of Appeal from all the courts in the United Kingdom. Reichsgericht (Imperial Supreme Court), to which there is a right of appeal from all inferior courts, sits at Leipzig, and consists of one hundred judges, appointed by the Kaiser on the recommendation of the Bundesrath. The Court of Cassation, which sits at Paris, is the highest court for all criminal cases tried by jury, so far as regards matters of law.
Courts of Appeal.—The highest courts are the twenty-six Courts of Appeal, composed each of one president and a variable number of members, for all criminal cases which have been tried without a jury.

Inferior Courts There are two Courts of Appeal below these divisions:
Lords of Appeal in Ordinary.— Consisting of six Justices.
Court of Appeal.—Ex-Officio Judges, the Lord High Chancellor, the Lord Chief Justice of England, the Master of the Rolls, and the President of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division.
The High Court comprises the King’s Bench, Chancery, and Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Divisions.
High Court of Justice, Chancery Division.—(Administration of trusts, company cases, mortgages, patents, etc.). Consists of the Lord High Chancellor and six other Justices.
High Court of Justice, King’s Bench Division.—(Contracts, torts, bankruptcy, etc.). Consists of the Lord Chief Justice of England and fifteen other Justices.
High Court of Justice, Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division.—(Wills, matrimonial cases, and maritime cases). Consists of two Justices.
Court of Criminal Appeal.—All the Judges of King’s Bench Division.
Court of Arches.—An ecclesiastical court unites the powers of the jus canonicum with new powers conceded by the Church Discipline Act, 1841, and the similar statute of 1874, exercising authority in both provinces. The Judicial Committee of Privy Council is the Court of Final Appeal in ecclesiastical causes.
Bankruptcy Court.—Consisting of one Justice. The Oberlandesgerichte (Supreme Court), which are the first courts of the second instance, have original jurisdiction in serious offenses, and are presided over by seven judges.
The Landgericht (County Courts) have a fairly extensive jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases and in divorce proceedings. There are five judges in the criminal chamber of a Landgericht, four votes being required to make a conviction valid. Three judges from such a court preside at intervals over jury courts (Schwurgerichte), and juries do not, therefore, form a permanent part of the system.
Not the least important work of the Landgerichte is to revise the decisions of the Amtsgerichte, which are the lowest courts of the first instance, being controlled by single judges, who are competent to hear only petty civil and criminal cases.
The Amtsgerichte (Police or District Courts) are the lowest courts, each with a single judge competent to try petty civil and criminal cases, divorce cases, etc. Court of Assizes.—In all cases of a délit or a crime the preliminary inquiry is made in secrecy by an examining magistrate (juge d’instruction), who may either dismiss the case or send it for trial before a court where a public prosecutor (procureur) endeavors to prove the charge. The Court of Assizes is assisted by twelve jurors, who decide by simple majority on the fact with respect to offenses amounting to crimes.
Justices of the Peace (juges de paix) are the courts of lowest jurisdiction in France. They try small civil cases and act also as judges of Police Courts, where all petty offenses (contraventions) are disposed of. The Correctional Courts pronounce upon all graver offenses (délits), including cases involving imprisonment up to five years. They have no jury, and consist of three judges belonging to the civil tribunals of first instance.
For commercial cases there are, in two hundred and twenty-six towns, Tribunals of Commerce and Councils of Experts (prud’hommes). In the towns are police courts.

Jurisdiction.—In cases between citizens of different States. In cases in which the United States is a party. In cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. In trials for crimes against the United States; but the trial of crimes must be by jury, and must be held in the State where the crime was committed.
Appeals to the Supreme Court may be had in all cases of law and equity, with such exceptions and regulations as Congress has made.

Kinds of Inferior Courts

United States Circuit Courts of Appeals.—Organized in 1891 to relieve the United States Supreme Court in Appellate Cases. Number: One in each Judicial Circuit. Members: Three judges selected from the District Courts.
Number.—One in each Judicial Circuit.
Members.—Three judges selected from the District Courts.
United States Circuit Courts.—
Number of Circuits.—Nine.
Number of Judges.—Each Circuit has two, three, or four Circuit Judges, and a Justice of the Supreme Court is assigned to each Circuit. The District Judge also may sit in a Circuit Court.
Salary of Circuit Judges.—Fixed by law at seven thousand dollars per year.
United States District Courts.—
Number of Districts.—One or more in each State. At present there are seventy-three Judicial Districts.
Salary of District Judge.—Fixed by law at seven thousand dollars per year.
United States Court of Claims.—
Jurisdiction.—Claims against the United States, including all claims which may be referred to it by Congress.
Members.—One Chief Justice and four Associate Justices.
Salaries.—Chief Justice, six thousand five hundred dollars; Associate Justices, each six thousand dollars.
In addition to the above named courts, Congress has established courts of local jurisdiction in the District of Columbia and in the Territories.

UNITED STATES

Salary.—Fixed by law at $75,000 per year.

The Executive Departments

The Cabinet

Heads of Departments

Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the will or favor of the President.

Powers and Duties.—As stated above, but under the direction of the President.

THE SENATE.—Composed of two Senators from each State (ninety-six in 1917), chosen by popular vote for six years, one-third retiring every two years.

Qualifications.—Must be at least thirty years of age, must have been a citizen of the United States for nine years, and must be an inhabitant of the State which he represents.

Remuneration.—Members receive seven thousand five hundred dollars, with mileage.

Organization.—The Vice-President of the United States is the President of the Senate. Is elected by the Electoral College. Votes only in case of a tie.
Quorum.—A majority of members.

Committees.—Members are divided into standing committees, chosen by the Senate itself, which act in the preliminary examination, and shaping of measures to be voted on.

Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-five years of age, must have been seven years a citizen of the United States, and must be an inhabitant of the State from which he is chosen.

Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own presiding officer, who is called the Speaker, salary twelve thousand dollars per year.

Remuneration.—Members receive seven thousand five hundred dollars and mileage.

Committees.—Almost all the acts of the House are under the control of Standing Committees, appointed by the Speaker.

IV. The Judicial Department.

Judges of the United States Courts

The Supreme Court of the United States

Inferior Courts

Kinds of Inferior Courts

BRITISH EMPIRE

Form of Government.—Monarchy in form, but republic in practice. The monarchy is constitutional and limited.
The British Empire consists of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Empire of India, and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, including the self-governing Dominions, and the Crown Colonies, Protectorates, and other Dependencies, the whole forming one Empire.

I. Constitution.—The British Constitution is mainly unwritten and customary, but its development is marked by certain outstanding and fundamental laws, of which the principal are: Magna Charta, 1215; the Habeas Corpus Act, 1679; the Act of Settlement, 1701; the Act of Union with Scotland, 1707; the Act of Union with Ireland, 1800; and the Parliament Act, 1911. The first secured annual parliaments and the equal administration of justice; the second established the liberty of the person;the third provided for the Protestant succession to the throne; the fourth and fifth created the United Kingdom; and the last enabled the Commons to pass certain Acts without the adherence of the other Chamber.

Amendments.—Amendments to the Constitution can be proposed by either of the legislative bodies, are passed by ordinary legislative process, requiring for their passage a majority simply of the votes of the Reichstag, but they fail if fourteen votes are cast against them in the Bundesrath.

II. The Sovereign.
How Designated.—The King’s legal title rests upon the Act of Settlement, in 1701, under William III., by which the succession to the Crown of Great Britain and Ireland was settled on the Princess Sophia of Hanover and the “heirs of her body, being Protestants.” The throne is hereditary in the English house of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha with mixed succession, the sons of the Sovereign and their descendants having precedence of daughters, but daughters and their descendants preference over lateral lines. The Sovereign is designated King (or Queen) of Great Britain and Ireland, and Emperor (or Empress) of India.
Term of Office.—Holds office for life, by hereditary title, and cannot be removed.

Salary or Civil List.—The Civil List Act, 1910, gave the King $2,350,000. Provision for other members of the Royal Family, $730,000. The Prince of Wales, as the income of the Duchy of Cornwall, $435,000. The King in addition to his Civil List receives the revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster amounting to $320,000.

Powers and Duties.—Has command of army and navy.
Parliament cannot be assembled, prorogued, or dissolved except by the express command of the Sovereign.
At the commencement of a new Parliament must deliver, either in person or by a commission authorized for that purpose, a speech declaring the cause of the summons.
Bills passed by Parliament must receive the assent of the Sovereign in order to become law.
Has legally a veto power; but, because the influence of the Executive over legislation has passed into the hands of the Ministers, the veto of the Crown has been disused since 1707.
Has power to appoint all officers in the army and navy, judges, ambassadors, colonial governors, bishops and archbishops of the Established Church, and grants all degrees of nobility.
May make treaties of any kind.
May grant pardon to any particular offender.
The Privy Council.—The King in Council is the supreme executive authority in the realm. The Privy Council meets as a whole at the beginning of a new reign and on other occasions of state and ceremony, possesses certain administrative powers, and is the Supreme Court of the Empire. Its personnel includes the royal princes and the archbishops, Members of the Cabinet and of the royal household, the Speaker of the House of Commons, the ambassadors, the principal colonial governors, colonial statesmen, certain judges, and members of both political parties who have never been in office.
The important functions of the Council are the bringing into operation by means of orders in council of the provisions of many statutes which Parliament leaves to the executive to enforce, temporarily or permanently, at such time or times as it may deem necessary and desirable. These orders have all the force and validity of law.

The Executive Departments

The Ministry

The Cabinet, or Inner Council, under the presidency of the Prime Minister, consists of Ministers, drawn from the ranks of the party in power and appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister.

Members (As reconstituted in June, 1915) and their salaries.

Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury $25,000

Lord High Chancellor (and $20,000 as speaker of the House of Lords) 50,000

Minister without Portfolio unpaid

Lord President of the Council $10,000

Lord Privy Seal unpaid

First Lord of the Admiralty 22,500

Secretaries of State:

Home Affairs 25,000

Foreign Affairs 25,000

Colonies 25,000

War 25,000

India 25,000

Chancellor of the Exchequer 25,000

Minister of Munitions 25,000

Secretary for Scotland 10,000

Chief Secretary to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland 21,125

Presidents of Committees of the Council:

Board of Trade 25,000

Local Government Board 25,000

Board of Education 10,000

First Commissioner of Works 10,000

Attorney-General 35,000

Board of Agriculture 10,000

Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the favor of the House of Commons; for if not sustained, they must all resign. When a Ministry resigns it is the function of the sovereign to call upon some statesman to form another administration. There is no restriction upon the Royal choice, but the statesman usually selected is the leader of the opposing party in one of the two Houses.

Powers and Duties.—All real authority is with the Cabinet. The executive government is nominally in the Crown, but practically in the Cabinet. The Ministers are at the heads of the administrative departments. The Sovereign does not sit with the Cabinet.
Other Ministers.—The Ministry includes a number of minor posts whose occupants have no seat in the Cabinet.

III. Parliament.—Parliament consists of two Houses, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The Sovereign alone has the power of summoning or proroguing or dissolving Parliament, and gives the Royal Assent to measures which have passed both Houses. Unless it be dissolved by the Crown, Parliament exists five years from the date on which it was first to meet. The demise of the Crown does not dissolve Parliament, but, on the contrary, renders an immediate assembling of the two Houses necessary; and if there be no Parliament in existence, the old Parliament must reassemble, and may sit again for six months, if it be not within that time dissolved by the new Sovereign.
All British dominions are subject (except as regards taxation) to the legislation of the British Parliament; but no Act of Parliament affects a colony unless that colony is specially mentioned. If the legislature of a colony enacts a law which is repugnant to an imperial law affecting the colony, it is to the extent to which it is repugnant absolutely void.

THE HOUSE OF LORDS.—The House at present consists of three Princes of the Blood, two Archbishops, twenty-one Dukes, twenty-six Marquesses, one hundred and twenty-one Earls, forty-six Viscounts, twenty-four Bishops, three hundred and fifty-six Barons, sixteen Scottish Representative Peers elected for each Parliament, and twenty-seven Irish Representative Peers elected for life. The members hold their seats by virtue of hereditary title; by creation of the Sovereign; by virtue of office (English bishops); by election for life (Irish peers); by election for duration of Parliament (Scottish peers).

Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-one years of age.

Remuneration.—Receive no pay.

Committees.—Special committees are appointed to make investigations, and report on matters which could not be undertaken by the whole House.

Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the House of Commons, makes the laws, having a revising power over all bills proposed by the House of Commons, except those relating to public revenue and expenditure, which it must pass or reject without amendment.
It is the highest appellate court of the United Kingdom. It may in certain cases try members of its own body; it tries any person who may be impeached by the House of Commons, and it also decides claims to the peerage.

HOUSE OF COMMONS.—This body consists of six hundred and seventy elected members representing county, borough, and university constituencies. Roughly speaking, about one-sixth of the population are electors.

Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-one years of age. Clergymen are disqualified from sitting as members, also English and Scottish peers, government contractors, and sheriffs and returning officers for the localities for which they act.

Organization—Quorum.—Forty members, including the Speaker. Elects its own presiding officer, who is called the Speaker, who has a residence in the Palace of Westminster, and receives a salary of $25,000 per annum.

Remuneration.—$2,000 per year (since 1911).

Powers and Duties.—May originate and, in concurrence with the House of Lords, pass resolutions and bills; but bills relating to the imposition of taxes and the granting of supplies for the service of the State must be originated in the House of Commons.

Committees.—The business of the House is almost entirely under the direction of the Ministry; however, commissions and select committees are from time to time appointed to make investigations and report on matters which could not be undertaken by the House.

IV. Judicial Departments, or Courts of Law.

Privy Council.—The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (which hears appeals from Colonial and Indian Courts, and also from Ecclesiastical Courts) consists of the Lord Chancellor, Lord President, ex-Lords President, the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, and such other members of the Privy Council as shall from time to time hold or have held “high judicial office.” No dissenting judgments are allowed, but the Judicial Committee can grant special leave to appeal.
The English courts of law having jurisdiction in actions between parties are:

House of Lords

Lord High Chancellor and such peers of Parliament as are holding or have held high judicial office. This is the ultimate Court of Appeal from all the courts in the United Kingdom.

There are two Courts of Appeal below these divisions:
Lords of Appeal in Ordinary.— Consisting of six Justices.
Court of Appeal.—Ex-Officio Judges, the Lord High Chancellor, the Lord Chief Justice of England, the Master of the Rolls, and the President of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division.
The High Court comprises the King’s Bench, Chancery, and Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Divisions.
High Court of Justice, Chancery Division.—(Administration of trusts, company cases, mortgages, patents, etc.). Consists of the Lord High Chancellor and six other Justices.
High Court of Justice, King’s Bench Division.—(Contracts, torts, bankruptcy, etc.). Consists of the Lord Chief Justice of England and fifteen other Justices.
High Court of Justice, Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division.—(Wills, matrimonial cases, and maritime cases). Consists of two Justices.
Court of Criminal Appeal.—All the Judges of King’s Bench Division.
Court of Arches.—An ecclesiastical court unites the powers of the jus canonicum with new powers conceded by the Church Discipline Act, 1841, and the similar statute of 1874, exercising authority in both provinces. The Judicial Committee of Privy Council is the Court of Final Appeal in ecclesiastical causes.
Bankruptcy Court.—Consisting of one Justice.

GERMANY

Form of Government.—The Empire, according to the Constitution of April 16, 1871, is a Confederate League, bearing the name German Empire, under the hereditary presidentship of the King of Prussia, who holds the title of German Emperor, and whose eldest son is styled His Imperial and Royal Highness.

I. Constitution.
Adoption.—Present Constitution adopted April 16, 1871. The Constitution of the German Empire is substantially that of the North German Confederation, which came into force in 1867, and which was adopted by the Empire in 1871, after the southern states of Germany had combined with the northern.

II. Chief magistrate, styled the Deutscher Kaiser.
How Designated.—The election of Wilhelm I., King of Prussia, as German Emperor (1871) was by vote of the Reichstag of the North German Confederation, on the initiative of all the reigning Princes of Germany. The Imperial dignity is hereditary in the House of Hohenzollern, and follows the law of primogeniture in the male line. He must be occupant of the throne of Prussia under the provisions of Prussian law.
Term of Office.—Holds office for life,and cannot be removed.

Salary or Income.—Royal Civil List of Emperor, $3,700,000.

Powers and Duties.—Commander-in-Chief of the imperial army.
Summons, opens, adjourns, and closes the two Houses. He may dissolve the Reichstag upon advice of the Bundesrath.
All measures passed by the Bundesrath are presented to the Reichstag in the name of the Emperor.
Bills passed by the two Houses must be promulgated by the Emperor.
In cases where he regards them as involving a change in the Constitution, he need not promulgate them if fourteen votes have been cast against them in the Bundesrath.
All official acts of the Emperor require the counter-signature of the Chancellor.
Appoints and may, at his pleasure, remove the Imperial Chancellor. Appoints and may, with the counter-signature of the Chancellor, remove all minor officers in the imperial service.
May declare war if defensive, and make treaties and peace; but for declaring offensive war the consent of the Bundesrath must be obtained.
Has power to grant pardons.

The Executive Departments

Imperial Chancellor.—He has no counterpart in any other constitutional government. He is the Emperor’s responsible proxy, controlling the politics of the Empire.
Appointment and Tenure of Office.—Appointed by the Emperor. Must be one of Prussia’s seventeen representatives in the Bundesrath. His term is dependent upon the pleasure of the Emperor.
Responsibility.—Does not consist in a liability to be forced to resign, but consists simply in amenability to the laws.
Powers and Duties.—Must give an account of the administration to the Reichstag, and submits the annual budget. He is the center and source of all the administrative departments, dominating the entire imperial service. He superintends the administration of the laws of the Empire by the States. As chairman of the Bundesrath he is simply a Prussian representing the King of Prussia, as the Emperor has no place in the Bundesrath.
The army and navy, however, are not directly controlled by him, but by the General Field-Marshal.
The following are the imperial authorities or Secretaries of State; they do not form a Ministry or Cabinet, but act independently of each other, under the general supervision of the Chancellor:
Chancellor of the Empire.
Secretary for Foreign Affairs.
Imperial Home Office and Representative of the Chancellor.
Imperial Admiralty.
Imperial Secretary of Justice.
Imperial Treasury.
Imperial Post-Office.
Secretary for the Colonies.
And, in addition, the following presidents of imperial bureaus:
Railways.
Imperial Exchequer.
Imperial Bank.
Imperial Debt Commission.
Administration of Imperial Railways.
Imperial Court Martial.
Acting under the direction of the Chancellor of the Empire, the Bundesrath represents also a supreme administrative and consultative board, and as such has twelve standing committees—namely, for army and fortifications; for naval matters; tariff, excise and taxes; trade and commerce; railways, posts and telegraphs; civil and criminal law; financial accounts; foreign affairs; for Alsace-Lorraine; for the Constitution; for the standing orders; and for railway tariffs.

III. The Government.
The legislative functions of the Empire are vested jointly in the Bundesrath or Federal Council which represents the several states, and by the Reichstag or Diet of the Realm, which represents the German nation. The Emperor has no veto on laws passed by these bodies. All laws for the Empire must receive the votes of an absolute majority.
The consent of the Federal Council and Reichstag is necessary in regard to certain specified treaties. The Emperor has the right to summon, open, adjourn, and close the Reichstag. The Federal Council and Reichstag must be summoned to meet every year; the Reichstag cannot be summoned without the adherence of the Federal Council.

BUNDESRATH, or Federal Council, is composed of sixty-one votes representing the individual states. They are appointed by the governments (i. e. the Executives) of the States for each session.
The apportionments of representation in the Bundesrath among the States of the Empire is as follows: Prussia seventeen votes, Bavaria six, Saxony and Würtemberg four each, Baden, Hesse and Alsace-Lorraine each three, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Brunswick each two, the other States (seventeen) one apiece.

Remuneration.—Receive no pay.

Organization—Quorum.—The Imperial Chancellor or his substitute (at regular meeting). The Imperial Chancellor presides. Votes with the other Prussian representatives, whose votes must be undivided; and, in case of a tie, Prussia’s vote decides.

Committees.—There are three standing committees and eight commissions, two of which are appointed by the Emperor, five wholly by the Bundesrath, and one in part by the Bundesrath, being made up principally of members ex-officio.
Each commission consists of representatives of at least five States of the Empire.

Powers and Duties.—May originate bills to be sent to the Reichstag. Its consent is indispensable to the validity of all legislation. Members may speak on the floor of the Reichstag. Acting under the direction of the Imperial Chancellor, it is the supreme administrative board. It is in some cases the highest court of the Empire. Is the court of appeal between two or more States of the Empire.

REICHSTAG, or Imperial Diet, is composed (in 1917) of three hundred and ninety-seven members, and elected for five years by universal suffrage.

Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-five years of age, and have lived at least one year in one of the German States.

Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own presiding officer, who is called the President.

Remuneration.—3,000 marks ($750) per session, with deduction of twenty marks ($5.00) for each day’s absence; they have free passes over German railways during session.

Powers and Duties.—Has power to originate and, with the advice and consent of the Bundesrath, to enact the laws. It also exerts a controlling influence through its power to give or withhold its sanction to certain ordinances to whose validity the Constitution makes its concurrence necessary, through its right to inquire into the conduct of affairs; and in many other ways not susceptible of enumeration.

Committees.—There are no standing committees, but select committees are occasionally appointed by election from the seven “Sections” into which the members are divided by lot for committee work.

IV. Judicial Department.

The laws of the Empire take precedence of the Federated States within the scope of the Constitution of the Empire; they are compulsory on all Governments of the Empire.
A uniform system of law courts exists throughout the Empire, though, with the exception of the Reichsgericht, all courts are directly subject to the Government of the special State in which they exercise jurisdiction, and not to the Imperial Government. The appointment of the judges is also a State and not an Imperial function. The Empire enjoys uniform codes of commercial and criminal law.

Imperial Supreme Court.

Reichsgericht (Imperial Supreme Court), to which there is a right of appeal from all inferior courts, sits at Leipzig, and consists of one hundred judges, appointed by the Kaiser on the recommendation of the Bundesrath.

The Oberlandesgerichte (Supreme Court), which are the first courts of the second instance, have original jurisdiction in serious offenses, and are presided over by seven judges.
The Landgerichte (County Courts) have a fairly extensive jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases and in divorce proceedings. There are five judges in the criminal chamber of a Landgericht, four votes being required to make a conviction valid. Three judges from such a court preside at intervals over jury courts (Schwurgerichte), and juries do not, therefore, form a permanent part of the system.
Not the least important work of the Landgerichte is to revise the decisions of the Amtsgerichte, which are the lowest courts of the first instance, being controlled by single judges, who are competent to hear only petty civil and criminal cases.
The Amtsgerichte (Police or District Courts) are the lowest courts, each with a single judge competent to try petty civil and criminal cases, divorce cases, etc.

FRANCE

Form of Government.—France, since the overthrow of Napoleon III., in 1870, has been a republic governed by a President and two Chambers under the Constitution.

I. Constitution.
Adoption.—Present Constitution adopted February 25, 1875. It has undergone but slight modifications. The present French Constitution remains a mixture of monarchical and republican institutions, and it has fully maintained its strong and old-established centralization. The Constitution of 1875 is based on universal suffrage. It was revised in 1875, 1884, 1885 and 1889.

Amendments.—Whenever the two Houses agree that revision is necessary, and also agree upon particular points that should be revised, the National Assembly, composed of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, sitting as one body, convenes at Versailles, and acts upon the amendments proposed, the vote of an absolute majority being decisive. The National Assembly also elects the President of the republic.

II. Chief Magistrate, or President of the Republic.
Term of Office.—Elected for seven years by the National Assembly, and is re-eligible.
The National Assembly meets for the purposes of this election, as for the revision of the Constitution, at Versailles. The revision of the Constitution and the election of President are its only functions.
Qualifications.—Must be a citizen, not a member of any family which has occupied the throne of France.

Salary.—$140,000.
Responsibilities.—May be impeached by the Chamber of Deputies, and tried by the Senate, in case of high treason.

Powers and Duties.—Has command of the army and navy.
May convene the Chambers on extraordinary occasions.
May adjourn the Chambers at any time for a period not exceeding one month. Can close a regular session of the Chambers at his discretion after it has continued five months; an extra session when he pleases. Can with the consent of the Senate dissolve the Chamber of Deputies even before the expiration of five months. This puts an end to the session of the Senate also, but not to its life. The President must order a new election in case of dissolution.
At the commencement of a new session of the Chambers the President of the republic sends a message, which is read by one of the Ministers.
Bills passed by the Chambers must be signed by the President, and countersigned by one of his Ministers.
Has no veto power, but is authorized to demand a reconsideration of any measure by the Chambers.
Has power to appoint and remove all officers of the public service, subject to the counter-signature of the Minister whose department is affected in each case.
May make treaties of peace, alliance and commerce, but cannot declare war without the advice of the Chambers.
Has power to grant pardons.
Succession.—In case of his death, resignation, or removal, the Council of Ministers act until the National Assembly can meet and elect a new President.

The Executive Departments