Living Nations of the World to-Day (part 3)

The opera house is one of the finest in the world; all the theaters must by law be lighted by electricity. The bull ring, situated outside the gates on the east, is a solid structure seating fourteen thousand.

Iron founding and the manufacture of furniture, carriages, and fancy articles are carried on on a small scale. The manufacture of tobacco employs many persons, chiefly women. The publishing trade is important, and books are well printed and cheap. The old tapestry factory still turns out beautiful work, as do the potteries at Moncloa.

THE ESCURIAL

is thirty-two miles from Madrid. It is called by the Spaniards the eighth wonder of the world. Philip II. built it in 1685 to commemorate the taking of St. Quentin, and to accomplish a vow which he made to St. Lawrence. This vast building has fifteen principal entrances, and more than one thousand one hundred windows. It is entirely built of granite, and its appearance is monotonous and cold. It contains a church, the Capilla Mayor, filled with royal monuments, the sacristy, a vast vaulted hall with a marble altar ornamented with bronze, the choir, and the pantheon or vault, where the kings of Spain are buried. The pantheon is reached by a magnificent staircase of colored marbles. The urn containing the remains of Charles V. was opened in 1870, and the body was even then in perfect preservation. The library of books and the manuscript library attracts the attention of scholars. The main entrance to the palace is in the middle of the north façade. The Hall of Battles, is covered with frescos representing Spanish conquests; and the apartments in which Philip II. lived and died. The Pavilion of Charles IV., called the Casa del Principe, is a charming little museum of paintings, sculptures, and mosaics. The King’s Seat, where Philip II. came to sit when presiding over the work of the palace, is also to be seen.

History.—Spain was originally occupied by Iberian tribes (akin to the present Basque inhabitants of the north), who were partially overlaid by invading Celts. The Carthaginians established themselves in the south of Spain in the third century B. C. The Romans appeared in force in the next century, but it was not till after a fierce and prolonged resistance from Iberians and Celtiberians that, under Augustus, the Roman conquest was complete. Soon Spain, thoroughly Romanized, was contributing largely to Latin literature and Roman culture.

The Germanic invaders from the north, Suevi, Vandals, and Visigoths, crushed the Roman power in the fifth century A. D., and Spain became a province of the Visigothic kingdom (573 A. D.). Then followed the Moorish conquest, which was very rapid (714-732) and complete, except in the north and northwest. The several Christian kingdoms of Spain: Castile, Leon, Navarre, Aragon, etc., as well as Portugal—were formed by the gradual depression of the Moors; but Moorish Granada was not conquered till 1492, and Spain was not united under one rule till 1512.

Spain became a European state with the union of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469, and the New World was discovered for them. Under the Emperor Charles V., in the sixteenth century, Spain was the most important country in Europe; but the population was unequal to the drain upon it caused by constant warfare, emigration, and adverse economical and industrial conditions.

With Philip II., Charles’s son, the decline of Spain set in, though now for sixty years Portugal was under the Spanish crown. The Bourbon dynasty brought complication in the wars of Louis XIV., and little advantage from the recovery of Naples and Sicily. The nadir of Spanish history is in the time of Napoleon, when Spain, in spite of some national efforts, was nominally a kingdom, but really a mere province of the French empire.

In spite of the valiant patriotism shown in resisting the French, and the ultimate recovery of national independence through the overthrow of Napoleon, the history of Spain in the nineteenth century was in the main inglorious. In Cuba there had been trouble since 1895, the final outcome of which was the disastrous Spanish-American war, leading to the loss of the greater colonies. The twentieth century has seen gradual recovery, growing toleration, a breach with the Vatican, revolutionary and repressive movements, and ambitions in northwest Africa.

In June, 1911, the situation in Morocco led to the dispatch of a Spanish force to Alcazar. But the indignation aroused in France at this action was quite overshadowed by the sensation caused when it became known that Germany had sent a warship to Agadir. Labor troubles in Spain broke out in September, 1911. Martial law was proclaimed throughout the country, and a royal decree suspended the constitutional guarantees, which were not re-established until October 22. In March, 1912, the ministry was reconstituted, but, in 1916, during the European war, again gave way over grave questions over neutrality and internal conditions.

Sweden

SWEDEN (Swedish Sverige), a kingdom of northern Europe, occupies the eastern side of the Scandinavian peninsula. From 1814 till the amicable but definitive separation in 1905, it was associated with Norway under one crown. Its greatest length, north to south, is close to 1000 miles, its greatest breadth 300; its area 170,970 square miles; and its coast line 1550 miles. Besides many skerry islands, Sweden owns Gothland and Œland.

Surface.—The country may be generally described as a broad plain sloping southeastward from the Kjölen Mountains to the Baltic. The only mountainous districts adjoin Norway; the peaks sink in altitude from seven thousand feet in the north to three thousand eight hundred feet at the southern end of the chain. Immediately south of this point a subsidiary chain strikes off to the southeast, and, threading the lake region of central Sweden, swells out beyond into a tableland with a mean elevation of eight hundred and fifty feet and maximum of twelve hundred and forty feet. Fully two-thirds of the entire surface lies lower than eight hundred feet, and one-third lower than three hundred feet, above sea level.

Sweden is separated popularly and geographically into three great divisions—Norrland, Svealand, and Gothland. Norrland, in the north, is a region of vast and lonely forests and rapid mountain streams, often forming fine cascades and ribbon-like lakes before they reach the Gulf of Bothnia.

The central division of Svealand, or Sweden proper, is a region of big lakes, and contains most of the mines. Lakes occupy nearly fourteen thousand square miles, or eight and two-tenths per cent of the total area; several of the largest, as Vener, Vetter, Hjelmar, Mälar, are connected with one another and the sea by rivers and canals. Lake Mälar contains some thirteen hundred islands, many beautifully wooded, with royal palaces or noblemen’s castles; and its shores are studded with prosperous towns, castles, palaces, and factories.

Gothland, the southern division, contains a much higher proportion of cultivated land, and its wide plains are all under agriculture.

Climate.—The climate of Sweden is continental in the north, along the Norwegian frontier, and on the southern plateau. The lakes in the colder districts of the north are ice bound for some two hundred and twenty days in the year; in the south only for about ninety days. The rainfall is greatest on the coast of the Cattegat.

Production and Industry.—The principal articles of cultivation are the various cereals—oats, rye, barley, wheat—and potatoes. The forests are very extensive, covering one-half of the surface of the country, and consisting of pine, birch, fir; these are of great importance, supplying timber, pitch, and tar, and also the chief fuel.

The mineral products are extremely rich: iron of excellent quality, that known as the Dannemora iron, being converted into the finest steel; gold and silver in small proportions; copper, lead, nickel, zinc, cobalt, alum, sulphur, porphyry, and marble. There is a railroad opening up the rich iron ore districts of Lapland, and mineral trains run from Gellivare and Kiruna to Lulea on the Gulf of Bothnia and to Narvik on the Atlantic. Considerable mines of coal are worked in Scania.

The chief articles of export are timber, butter, iron, steel, wood pulp, paper, matches, stone, iron and zinc ores, etc.

People.—The Swedes are a Germanic people, tall and strong, but with more variety of characteristics than the Norwegians. The Swedish language, allied closely to Norse and Danish, appears in very many dialects. It has had, especially since the sixteenth century, an extensive literature.

Almost the whole population is Protestant, adhering to the Lutheran Church, members of which alone are permitted to hold public offices. Education is well advanced in both countries, public instruction being gratuitous and compulsory. Sweden has the Universities of Upsala, which dates from 1477, and of Lund, founded in 1668, besides the many scientific and educational institutions of Stockholm.

Government.—The constitution of Sweden dates from 1809, but in 1866, when the separate meetings of the four estates—nobles, clergy, burghers, and peasants—were done away, the legislative system was much modified. The executive power is vested in the king, acting under the advice of a Council of State; the legislative in the two Chambers of the Diet, both of which are elected by the people—the first for nine years from proprietors, the second for three years from a lower class. The administration of justice is entirely independent of the government.

Cities.—The capital, Stockholm, has a population (1913) of 382,085. In addition to the capital, there are fourteen towns with above 20,000 population, viz.: Göteborg, 178,030; Malmö, 95,821; Norrköping, 46,180; Gefle, 35,736; Helsingborg, 37,385; Örebro, 33,182.

Malmö, on the sound opposite Copenhagen, is the outlet of the corn granary of the southern plain; Norrköping, on an inlet of the Baltic, after Stockholm, is the busiest manufacturing town of Sweden, its mills being driven by the rapids of the Motala; Gefle lies north of Stockholm, and is second only to it as a seaport on the Baltic side of the country; and Karlskrona, on the south coast, is the naval arsenal and headquarters of the fleet of Sweden.

PANORAMA OF STOCKHOLM, CAPITAL OF SWEDEN

Within recent years a network of railways has been formed over southern Sweden and Norway, connecting the capital towns with the ports of Göteborg, Malmö, and many other points.

Stockholm (l pronounced), stands on several islands and the adjacent mainland, between a bay of the Baltic and Lake Mälar, in a situation that is accounted one of the most picturesque in Europe.

Its nucleus is an island in mid-channel called “the Town”; on it stand the imposing royal palace; the chief church (St. Nicholas), in which the kings are crowned; the House of the Nobles; the town house; the ministries of the kingdom; and the principal wharf, a magnificent granite quay, fronting east.

Immediately west of the central island lies the Knights’ Island (Riddarholm); it is almost entirely occupied with public buildings as the old Houses of Parliament; the old Franciscan church, in which all the later sovereigns of Sweden have been buried; the royal archives, and the chief law-courts.

North of these two islands lie the handsomely built districts of Norrmalm, separated from them by a narrow channel, in which is an islet with the new Houses of Parliament. In Norrmalm are the National Museum with valuable prehistoric collections, coins, paintings, sculptures; the principal theaters; the Academy of Fine Arts; the barracks; the Hop Garden, with the Royal Library, two hundred and fifty thousand volumes and eight thousand manuscripts, and with the statue of Linnæus; the Academy of Sciences; the Museum of Northern Antiquities; the Observatory, etc.

Ship Island (Skeppsholm), immediately east of “the Town” island, is the headquarters of the Swedish navy, and is connected with a smaller island on the southeast, that is crowned with a citadel. Beyond these again, and farther to the east, lies the beautiful island of the Zoological Gardens. Immediately south of “the Town” island is the extensive district of Södermalm, the houses of which climb up the steep slopes that rise from the water’s edge. Handsome bridges connect the central islands with the northern and southern districts; quick little steamboats go to the beautiful islands in Lake Mälar on the west, and eastward toward the Baltic Sea, forty miles distant.

Sugar, tobacco, silks and ribbons, candles, linen, cotton, and leather are produced, and there are large iron foundries and machine shops. Though the water approaches are frozen up during winter, Stockholm exports iron and steel, oats and tar.

Stockholm was founded by Birger Jarl in 1255, and grew to be the capital only in modern times.

History.—Sweden was originally occupied by Lapps and Finns, but probably (1500 B. C.) Teutonic tribes drove them into the forests of the north, and at the dawn of history we find Svealand occupied by Swedes (Svea) and Gothland by the Goths.

Gothland was christianized and also conquered by the Danes in the ninth century, while Svealand remained fanatically heathen till the time of St. Eric (twelfth century), who conquered Finland, henceforth a Swedish possession. For a century Goths and Swedes had different kings, but gradually melted into one people toward the end of the thirteenth century.

Now arose bitter feuds between king, nobility, peasants, and universal turbulence prevailed; agriculture, industry, literature and culture progressed not at all or hardly existed. Even after the union of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark under one monarch (1397), Sweden was torn by conflicts which lasted down to the expulsion of Danish oppressors, and the restoration of Swedish autonomy by the national rising under Gustavus Vasa (1524), the ablest prince who had yet ruled the Swedes. Under him the reformation was heartily accepted. Gustavus Adolphus and the Swedes were its bulwark, not merely at home but in Germany in the Thirty Years’ war; and by the acquirement of Bremen, Verden, and Pomerania, Sweden became (1648) a member of the empire.

GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS PLACE AND THE ROYAL THEATER, STOCKHOLM

NEW UNIVERSITY, UPSALA, SWEDEN

Upsala is best reached by boat from Stockholm. Here the celebrated university, founded 1477, by Jacob Ulfson, now magnificently housed, stands in the Drottninggatan. Library, the largest in Sweden, with three hundred thousand volumes, including the Codex Argenteus, or Gothic Gospel of Bishop Ulphilas (318-388), written in silver letters on purple vellum, also the Atlantica of Rudbeck, and the sacred book of the Druses, with the Edda Manuscript. An Observatory is attached to the University. The Botanical Garden has many rare plants and a bust of Linnæus (Linné), who was professor and physician here, living at Hammarby.

Under Charles XII. and his successor, the enmity of Denmark, Poland, and Russia wrested her new conquests from Sweden, and gave Livonia, Esthonia, Ingermanland, and Karelia (which had long been Swedish) to Russia; thus reducing Sweden from the rank of a first-rate European power. After a bloody struggle Sweden had to cede Finland (1809) to Russia. Norway was united by a personal union (i. e., by the monarch) with Sweden in 1810; and in 1818 the French general Bernadotte was elected king (as Charles XIV.).

Norway’s demand for a larger measure of home rule led in 1905 to a complete separation.

Switzerland

SWITZERLAND (Ger. Schweiz; Fr. Suisse), is a confederation of twenty-two cantons, lying practically in the very center of Europe, between France, Germany, Austria, and Italy. No part of it is within one hundred miles of the sea. It is also a very small country (sixteen thousand square miles), not much larger than the half of Scotland. The greatest length from east to west is two hundred and sixteen miles, the width from north to south being one hundred and thirty-seven miles. The population in 1910 was 3,741,971.

Surface.—The southern boundary lies for the most part along the highest crests of the Alps, which descend by the Italian valleys to the plain of Lombardy; the summits of the Matterhorn and Monte Rosa rise on the boundary line, which is crossed by the Great St. Bernard, Simplon, and Splügen passes. North of this mass of heights the deep valleys of the Upper Rhone flowing west to the Lake of Geneva, and of the Upper Rhine flowing northeast to that of Constance, mark a deep trench all across the country. In the heart of the country rises the mass of the Bernese Alps or Oberland, the Alps of Uri and Glarus, with the summits of the Finsteraarhorn and Jungfrau. Still farther north the country descends gradually by less elevated mountains and hills to the undulating lowland of Switzerland (still one thousand five hundred feet above the sea), which extends in a curve from the Lake of Constance on the northeast along the Valley of the Aar, by the Lakes of Biel (Bienne) and Neuchâtel to that of Geneva. Beyond this the long parallel ranges of the Jura close in the country on the northwestern frontier.

More than half of the whole country is covered by rocks, glaciers, forest, and mountain pasture, and cannot be permanently inhabited.

Rivers and Lakes.—All the northern part of the country belongs to the basin of the Rhine flowing to the North Sea. That river, having purified its waters in its passage through the Boden-See or Lake of Constance (partly in Switzerland), is joined by the Aar, which rises near the Grimsel, and flows through the lakes of Brienz and Thun. To this basin also belong the lakes of Zürich and Zug, Luzerne, Neuchâtel, and Biel or Bienne. The southwestern district drains by the Rhône to the Mediterranean, through the Lake of Geneva or Leman, which is partly in Switzerland, partly in France.

The smaller part of the southern boundary that laps over the Italian valleys of the Alps includes the head of Lake Maggiore, in Switzerland, and the upper Ticino, which flows through it to the plain of Lombardy and the Adriatic. In the east the boundary embraces only one valley, which drains to the Danube, the Engadine, through which the Upper Inn flows northeastward.

From the elevation at which they rise, and their rapids, the rivers of Switzerland are of no value in navigation. The Rhine only begins to be freely navigable at Basel, where it leaves the country. The larger lakes, however, have little steamers plying from shore to shore; that of Geneva, forty-seven miles long, has a considerable traffic.

Climate and Scenery.—The climate naturally varies with the elevation above the sea level, from that of the perennial snows at an elevation of about nine thousand feet, downward through the pastoral alpine region and the tall pine forests, to the lower lands in which the chestnut flourishes, and where orchard fruits, the vine, mulberry, and wheat can be grown. There is a variation of about thirty-four and one-half degrees in the mean temperature—between fifty-four and one-half degrees Fahrenheit at Bellinzona, and twenty degrees on the Theodule Pass.

Switzerland has been called the playground of Europe, and is visited by large numbers of tourists from all parts of the world, attracted by its magnificent mountain and lake scenery.

The amount of money brought annually by tourists is estimated at twenty million dollars.

STATUE OF TELL, ALTDORF, SWITZERLAND

Altdorf, near the southern end of Lake Luzerne, and capital of the canton of of Uri, is in the mountain-walled valley, and is the reputed scene of Tell’s shooting the apple. The side is marked by a fountain. The colossal statue of Tell is near by. His birthplace, near Bürglen, is occupied by a frescoed chapel.

Geneva and Lausanne, on the beautiful lake of Geneva, Interlaken (between the lakes of Thun and Brienz), Luzerne and the Rigi, Schaffhausen at the Rhine fall, Zermatt beneath Monte Rosa, Lugano in the heart of the Italian lake district, are notable tourist stations; St. Moritz in the Engadine, and Leuk (Louèche) in the Rhone Valley, Pfäffers in that of the Upper Rhine, are famous for their baths. Switzerland as a whole—with its mountains, lakes, glaciers, waterfalls, valleys and cities—has been described by an American poet as a “cluster of delights and grandeurs.”

Production and Industry.—The forests, which cover about a sixth of the surface, are of immense value to the country, where most of the houses are built of wood. The mountain pastures give the characteristic employments of the people of the Alps and Jura, as herdsmen and shepherds, tending their cattle and making cheese in the mountain châlets during summer.

Agriculture is followed chiefly in the valleys, where wheat, oats, maize, barley, flax, hemp, and tobacco are produced.

The textile industries are the most important, the chief centers being Zürich, Basel, Glarus, and St. Gall. The chief are silk, cotton, and linen fabrics, besides raw silk. Next comes the clock and watchmaking industry, established at Geneva in 1587, which spread to the cantons of Neuchâtel, Berne and Vaud.

Wood carving was introduced in the Oberland about 1820. Other manufactures are chemicals, chocolate, and condensed milk.

Salt, obtained on the banks of the Rhine, is the only valuable mineral of the country.

People.—Three-fourths of the population of Switzerland, occupying all the center and north of the country, are Germanic; the remaining fourth belongs to three branches of the Romanic family—the French in the west, the Italian in the south, and the Rhæto-Romanic in the southeast. A little more than half of the population is Protestant, the remainder, chiefly in the mountain region, Roman Catholic.

Education is widely diffused, especially in the Protestant districts of the northeast, where the law of compulsory education is rigidly enforced. There are universities at Basel, Berne, Zurich, Geneva, and Lausanne.

Government.—At the close of the political storms which raged in Europe from 1789 till 1815, the affairs of Switzerland were re-arranged by the Congress of Vienna, which provided for the perpetual neutrality and independence of Switzerland in its twenty-two cantons. Since 1848 the independent states or cantons of Switzerland have become a united confederacy (Bundes Staat), the supreme legislative and executive authority of which is vested in a parliament of two chambers, sitting at Berne—the Stände Rath or States Council, and the National Rath, the first composed of two members for each canton, the second of representatives of the people according to numbers. The cantons are still, however, in a great measure, independent democracies, each making its own laws and managing its local affairs.

Referendum and Initiative.—These are two political institutions peculiar to Switzerland, the furthest developments of democracy yet attained.

The referendum, which has now spread throughout the whole Confederation, and by means of which all legislative acts passed in the Federal or Cantonal Assemblies may be referred to the people en masse, was fully developed in 1874, and it has been put in operation on an average once a year. The decisions have generally shown a conservative rather than a radical tendency on the part of the people.

Initiative is the exercise of the right granted to voters to initiate proposals for the enactment of new laws or for the alteration or abolition of the old ones.

Cities.—The capital of the Swiss Confederation is Berne, population (1910) 85,650. In 1910 there were twelve communes with populations exceeding 20,000: Zürich, 190,733; Bâle, 132,280; Geneva, 123,160; Berne, 85,650; Lausanne, 63,296; St. Gall, 37,657; Chaux-de-Fonds, 37,626; and Luzerne, 39,152.

THE BERNE CATHEDRAL

was built in 1421-1573, and restored in 1850, with a richly sculptured portal, some good stained glass of the fifteenth century, and a famous organ. From the Terrace in the rear of the Cathedral, the snowy peaks of the Bernese Alps are seen in a glorious panorama.

Berne, since 1849 the capital of Switzerland, sixty-eight miles by rail southwest of Basel, is situated on a lofty sandstone promontory formed by the winding Aar, which surrounds it on three sides. It is one of the best and most regularly built towns in Europe, as it is the finest in Switzerland. The houses are massive structures of freestone, resting upon shop-lined arcades. Rills of water flow through the streets. The view of the Alpine peaks from the city is magnificent.

The principal public buildings are a Gothic cathedral, the magnificent Federal Council Hall, the mint, the hospital, and the university. Berne has an interesting museum, and a valuable public library of fifty thousand volumes.

It was founded in 1191, was made a free imperial city in 1218, under Frederick II.; and between 1288 and 1339 successfully resisted the attacks of Rudolf of Hapsburg, Albert, his son, and Louis of Bavaria. The “Disputation of Berne” between Catholics and Reformers in 1528 prepared the way for the acceptance of the reformed doctrine.

On account of the traditionary derivation of its name (Swabian bern, “a bear”), bears are maintained in a public bear-pit.

History.—The original inhabitants of Switzerland were the Celtic Helvetii, and the Rhætii of doubtful affinity. Both were conquered by Julius Cæsar and the generals of Augustus, and Romanized. Overrun by the Burgundians in the west, and their Germanic kinsmen the Alemannians in the east, Helvetia became subject to the Frankish kings and were christianized in the seventh century.

Most of the country was subsequently part of the Holy Roman Empire; and in 1273 a Swiss noble, Rudolf of Hapsburg in Aargau, became German emperor. Soon after his death (in 1291) the inhabitants of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden formed a league to defend their common interests, and in 1315 crushed an Austrian army at Morgarten. In 1332 Luzerne joined the alliance, and in 1353, Berne, Zürich, Glarus, and Zug. The Austrians were again routed in Sempach in 1386, and in 1388 at Näfels.

The Swiss next had a fierce but triumphant struggle with Charles the Bold of Burgundy, whom they routed at Grandson and Morat in 1476, and finally at Nancy (where Charles was slain) in 1477.

When the Reformation began there were thirteen cantons, and the cantons took opposite sides from the beginning, not without serious turmoil and bloodshed. The treaty of Westphalia in 1648 recognized Switzerland as an independent state. Some of the cantons were strictly aristocratic and some highly democratic, and there was much discontent long before the French Revolution, when, in 1798, between civil strife and French armies, the old republic (or rather alliance) came to an end.

The Helvetic Republic of nineteen cantons, under French auspices, endured till 1805; then a new republican constitution was adopted, the Federal Pact of twenty-two cantons. On Napoleon’s downfall, Valais, Neuchâtel, and Geneva, which had been incorporated with France, were restored, and Swiss neutrality and inviolability were recognized by the treaty of Vienna in 1815. Religious troubles led to a Catholic league in 1844, which was suppressed by the Federal forces in 1847. The present constitution was adopted in 1848, but revised in 1874. In 1891 a demand for popular initiative for measures was carried. In 1908 Switzerland entered into an international convention for compulsory arbitration at the court of the Hague.

BERNE CLOCK TOWER,

famous for its Bear Chimes—figures which perform every time the clock strikes.

Turkey, or Ottoman Empire

TURKEY, or Ottoman Empire, comprises the wide but heterogeneous territories really or nominally subject to the Osmânlî Sultan, in Europe, Asia, and Africa. These territories, which once extended from the Danube to the cataracts of the Nile, and from the Euphrates to the borders of Morocco, have been greatly reduced in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Asiatic Turkey is now the true center of gravity of the empire; it includes Anatolia (the great plateau of Asia Minor), the lowlands of Mesopotamia, the highlands of Kurdistan and Armenia, and the island of Samos. The total area of the empire has been estimated as follows:

Area in Square Miles

Turkey in Europe 12,000

Turkey in Asia:

Anatolia 193,800

Armenia and Kurdistan 72,600

Mesopotamia and Syria 244,460

Turkish Arabia 172,000

Total 694,860

Estimated Population

Turkey in Europe 2,755,000

Turkey in Asia:

Anatolia 9,175,000

Armenia and Kurdistan 2,500,000

Mesopotamia and Syria 4,650,000

Turkish Arabia 1,100,000

Total 20,150,000

Of the above totals only 700,000 square miles (with a population of 21,000,000) are directly under Turkish government.

European Turkey consists of the provinces of Adrianople, Constantinople and Chatalja, and is separated from Asia by the Bosphorus at Constantinople and by the Dardanelles (Hellespont), the only political neighbor being Bulgaria, on the northwest.

PANORAMA OF THE BOSPHORUS AT THE NARROWEST PART

The Bosphorus, the straight connecting the Sea of Azov with the Black Sea, is so-called after Io, who swam over it in the shape of a heifer. On the western shore is the city of Constantinople. The Bosphorus at this point is about five hundred and fifty yards wide.

Physical Features.—Turkey in Europe is a mountainous country and the chief physical features as it is now limited is the strait of Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. The Bosphorus, which guards the approach to the Black Sea from the Sea of Marmora, is at the same time the focus of all maritime trade between the Mediterranean and Russia, etc., as well as of the overland routes from Europe into Asia Minor. It has fitly been likened to a tortuous river valley over whose wooded banks are scattered forts and towers, cities and villages, castles and parks. The southern gate of the Sea of Marmora is the Dardanelles, which gives an opening into the Ægean.

Turkey in Asia is still more mountainous. The two almost parallel ranges, Taurus and Anti-Taurus, which are the basis of its mountain system, cover almost the whole of the peninsula of Asia Minor or Anatolia with their ramifications and offshoots, forming the surface into elevated plateaus, deep valleys, and enclosed plains. From the Taurus chain the Lebanon range proceeds southwards parallel to the coast of Syria, and, diminishing in elevation in Palestine, terminates on the Red Sea coast at Sinai.

The Euphrates, Tigris, Orontes, and Kizil-Ermak are the chief rivers. (See Asia Minor.)

Climate.—The climate of Turkey in Asia is as varied as the physical features. The great plateau on the north has a distinctly continental climate, rigorous severe winters with intense scorching heat in summer; in the eastern part of the plateau region the mountains are covered with snow for two-thirds of the year, and some of the principal ranges are capped with perpetual snow; here the peasants build their dwellings underground to escape the severity of the seasons. Towards the west the winters are not quite so severe, but the variations of temperature are excessive.

Products and Industry.—The soil of European Turkey is for the most part very fertile, and the cultivated products include most of those usual in central and southern Europe—maize, rice, rye, barley, millet, besides tobacco madder, and cotton. The mineral products are iron in abundance, argentiferous lead ore, copper, sulphur, salt, alum, and a little gold; some deposits of coal have been found, but none are worked. Sheep-breeding is largely carried on.

In Asiatic Turkey the mineral wealth is great; coal and iron are found together in considerable quantities; rich mines of copper exist in the mountains on the south of the Black Sea, and in the Taurus near Diarbekir lead and silver are found at intervals along a line connecting Angora, Sivas, and Trebizond in the north, and the eastern Taurus in the south; green, black, and white marble, and the finest quality of granite, are to be had in many parts of the mountain section.

With a fertile arable soil and a suitable climate, nearly every agricultural product flourishes. Oats, barley, and wheat are produced in great abundance. Almost all kinds of garden produce and orchard fruits abound, grapes and oranges are to be had all round the Mediterranean coast, as well as the choicest tobacco, opium, valonia and madder.

The mulberry is everywhere cultivated for feeding the silkworms, and cotton is grown in most of the western valleys. Vast groves of boxwood and other valuable trees clothe the seaward slopes of the hills. Dates are produced for export in the Babylonian plain, where wheat is indigenous. Petroleum and bitumen springs are found in the Euphrates valley.

Angora is famous for its flocks of goats, which produce the mohair of commerce, and enormous quantities of wool come from the countless flocks of sheep tended by the wandering Bedouin and Kurd shepherds.

There are at present no manufactures worth mention. The sponge fisheries of the Mediterranean are a source of great wealth.

Commerce.—The exports include tobacco, cereals, fruits, silk, opium, mohair, cotton, coffee, skins, wool, oil-seeds, valonia, carpets, etc., and are largely derived from the Asiatic provinces. Recently large quantities of wine and of raisins for the manufacture of wine have been exported. Since the establishment of the Anatolian railway by German enterprise the export of cereals, chiefly malting barley, has largely increased.

People.—The population consists of a singular mixture of races. Turks, Greeks, Slavs, and Albanians are largely represented, besides Armenians, Kurds, Arabs, Tartars, Jews, Circassians, and Frank residents. (See Book of Races.)

The established religion is Islam or Mohammedanism, but most other creeds are recognized and tolerated. The Protestant religion was for the first time officially recognized in 1845.

Education in all departments has of late been notably improved and has largely contributed to the complete overthrow of the antiquated and despotic system of government.

Government.—Until 1908 the government of Turkey was a pure despotism. An amazing change was swiftly and peacefully carried through in the autumn of that year. In connection with the troubles in Macedonia between Christians and Moslems, Greeks and Bulgarians, a Turkish military revolt took place, which, under the guidance of the “Young-Turkish” party (mostly educated abroad), became a great national movement. The sultan, overawed, had to acquiesce; parliamentary government was planned and carried out; equality before the law proclaimed to all races and religions of the empire; and a large measure of local self-government promised not merely to Turks but to Greeks, Bulgarians, Albanians, Armenians, Syrians, Kurds and Arabs.

The enormous difficulties of the crisis were complicated by Bulgaria proclaiming its independence, and Austria-Hungary annexing the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. But government by a national assembly has taken root in Turkey.

The term “Sublime Porte,” sometimes given to the Turkish government, is derived from the name of the chief gate of Constantinople.

Cities.—Of the towns by far the most populous is the capital, Constantinople (1,200,000), while after it come Adrianople (83,000), which by reason of its central position in the Maritza valley, commands an extensive inland commerce, Midia, and Gallipoli, the chief port on the Dardanelles.

The principal towns of Asiatic Turkey are Smyrna, 260,000; Bagdad, 150,000; Damascus, 150,000; Aleppo, 125,000; Beyrout, 120,000; Scutari in Anatolia, 80,000, and Broussa, 80,000.

Constantinople was founded in 330 A. D. by Constantine the Great, from whom it derives its name, on a site partly occupied by the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium. The Turks call it Istambol or Stambol.

The city stands on a hilly promontory of triangular shape, having the Sea of Marmora and the Bosphorus on the south and east, and on the north the Golden Horn, an arm of the Bosphorus. It is thus surrounded by water on all sides but the west, where a strong wall shuts the city off, from the mainland. Like Rome, the city is built on seven hills, six of them being separated portions of one long ridge.

As in the case of all great cities, Constantinople has spread far beyond its original bounds, and may be said to include towns originally quite separate from itself.

Constantinople is excellently situated, more advantageously, perhaps, than any European city but Naples.

From the outside its appearance is most picturesque and imposing. At the taking of the city in the fifteenth century most of the churches were destroyed, and mosques were erected in the most prominent situations. Cupolas and minarets, with graceful curves and soaring spires, combine with lofty cypresses to give the city an air of unique grace, and to invest it with the mysterious glamour of the oriental world.

Within, however, the appearance is not so pleasing. The streets form a labyrinth of dirty, crooked, and ill-paved alleys, while most of the houses are low and are built of wood or rough stone. During the last half century the aspect of things has become much more European. The streets, under western influence, have been widened and improved, lighting at night is common, and a European style of building has been introduced, even for the sultan’s palace. Cabs and electric cars are to be seen in most parts, while the old camel service has entirely disappeared. The dress of the people has changed in the same direction. The streets are generally dull in appearance, almost all animation being concentrated in the bazaars.

Constantinople consists of two distinct parts, besides more distant suburbs—Constantinople proper or Stambol, and what may be termed Christian Constantinople because it is there that the Christian colonies chiefly congregate. The two are separated by the Golden Horn, a safe harbor, capable of accommodating twelve hundred vessels, and so deep that the largest ironclads of the Turkish navy find enough water for their draught quite close to the shore.

Stambol or Turkish Constantinople lies on the south side of the Golden Horn, and Christian Constantinople lies on the north side; the two are connected by bridges. Stambol is on the site of Byzantium, and the old walls run a circuit of fourteen miles from the grim but now ruined and disused castle of the Seven Towers—where many sultans met their deaths at the hands of their mutinous soldiery, and where foreign ambassadors were imprisoned upon declaration of war—to the Golden Horn, then along its south shore to Seraglio Point, and so back to the Seven Towers, close along the margin of the Propontis. Here are nearly all the monuments and antiquities worth seeing in Constantinople.

First, next the Seraglio, stands Agia Sophia, Saint Sophia, the church dedicated by Constantine to “Eternal Wisdom,” and rebuilt with added splendor by Theodosius and by Justinian, and now converted into a cathedral mosque. Outside it is not worth a second glance, but within, the airy grace of its stupendous dome, and the beauty of its marbles and mosaics fascinate and amaze the vision.

PANORAMA OF CONSTANTINOPLE

As the steamer runs up the Bosphorus, the white buildings and glittering minarets of Constantinople come into view; with the mosque of Santa Sophia, Galata Tower and Pera, the Sultan’s Palaces at Beshiktash, with Scutari Suburb on the right, and then, rounding Seraglio Point, it glides at half speed into the Golden Horn, or harbor of Constantinople. At this moment, if the weather be fine and clear, a striking panorama opens to the eye of the voyager. The Golden Horn divides the city into two sections; Stamboul to the left, and Galata and Pera to the right. It is a bay, or amphitheater, surrounded by hills which are covered with buildings, domes, minarets, and palaces, embosomed by cypress groves, with hundreds of vessels and caiques skimming in all directions.

Next, but not less beautiful, is the Suleymaniya, the mosque which the Great Suleyman and his architect Sinan erected on the model of St. Sophia, but with Saracenic ornament and a loftier though not quite so expansive dome. Some of the monolithic columns are remarkable for their size and beauty, and the general effect is even more imposing than that of St. Sophia.

Scarcely less stately is the Mosque of Sultan Ahmed I. in the Hippodrome; distinguished without by its six minarets (instead of the usual four), and within by the four gigantic columns which support the dome. Here the official celebrations and formal processions take place at the great festivals.

The mosque of the conqueror, Mohammed II., is also notable, though it has been greatly altered in restoration.

There are altogether some eight hundred mosques in Constantinople, and numerous chapels; but very few of them present features of special interest, except sometimes in the beauty of their wall tiles, of the Rhodian style, for the manufacture of which the suburb of Eyyûb was famous.

The remains of the Greek churches are more interesting, and the Fanar, or Greek quarter of Stambol, recall the memories of many distinguished Fanariote statesmen; but among the relics of ancient Constantinople none is more striking than the Hippodrome or “Horse Manège”, originally a circus surrounded by marble seats, long since removed, but still showing remains of antiquity, such as the famous column of the Three Serpents which once stood at the Temple of Delphi, and supported a gold tripod made out of the spoils taken by the Greeks at the battle of Platæa, but was removed to his new capital by Constantine.

Christian Constantinople, on the north side of the Golden Horn, comprises Galata, Pera, and Tophâna. Galata is pre-eminently the merchant quarter, founded by a colony of Genoese merchants in 1216. The Tower of Galata, a Genoese erection, serves the same purpose as the Seraskier’s Tower on the opposite side in giving alarms of fires. A tunnelled railway drags passengers up the steep ascent to Pera.

Pera is the aristocratic quarter; here are all the embassies and consulates. The steep and badly paved Grande Rue is lined with fair if expensive shops, and has an opera house, many cafés and restaurants, besides most of the principal hotels. Turks preponderate at Tophâna, which is so named from its cannon foundry.

The magnificent palace of Dolmabagché is on the brink of the Bosphorus. Other suburbs are Kâsim Pasha, on the Golden Horn, the seat of the admiralty; Hasköi, and the picturesque village of Eyyûb.

Along the European shore of the Bosphorus are the summer resorts of Therapia and Biyukderé.

The Asiatic shore is also lined with settlements from Scutari to Candili. The new palace of Yildiz Köshki stands at the top of the hill of Beshiktâsh, beyond Pera.

The commerce of Constantinople is increasing rapidly, though most of it is in the hands of foreigners, especially of Greek and Armenian merchants. Exports are chiefly cereals, carpets, silk, wool, hides, and all kinds of refuse and waste materials such as horns, hoofs, skins, bones, old iron, etc. Several hundreds of tons of the sweetmeat known as “Turkish delight” are also sent yearly to countries of Europe and America.

The manufactures have all taken their rise during the last twenty years or so, and even now only that of cloth making has made much headway.

ENTRANCE TO DOLMA-BAGTCHE PALACE

This palace, on the shore of the Bosphorus, was built and inhabited by Abdul-Medjid (1839-1861), is beautifully decorated in the interior and has a splendid throne room.

History.—The Osmanlis or Ottoman Turks sprang from a small clan of the Oghuz, who assisted the Seljûk sultan of Iconium, early in the thirteenth century, to resist the Mongol avalanche.

In the fourteenth century, the Turks under Osmân or Othmân conquered the Seljûk kingdom, and became known as Osmânlis or Ottomans. By 1336 they pushed their way to the Hellespont; under Murâd I. (Amurath) they occupied Adrianople and Philippopolis, received homage from the kings of Servia and Bulgaria, and practically held all the Balkan peninsula except Constantinople, which, after much fighting, fell before Mohammed II. in 1453. In the same century they conquered Albania, Greece, and the Crimea; and in the sixteenth century Syria, Egypt, Tunis, Hungary, and South Russia, and had wars with the Russians, Persians, and Venetians.

Their star began to decline in the seventeenth century; in 1682 they were driven back from Vienna, and lost Hungary, Transylvania, and Podolia. In the eighteenth century the Russians were their most successful enemies, wresting from them the territories from the Dniester to the Caspian. Greece attained independence in 1828, though Egypt failed to throw off its allegiance. The Crimean war (1854-1857) was fought in aid of the Turks against the Russians.

The next great crisis was the Russian war of 1877-1878. The worst Armenian massacres were in 1895-1896. Turkey held her own against Greece in 1897.

Abdul Hamid was deposed and constitutional government nominally established in 1908. But unrest and intrigue still prevent settled conditions.

Until the disastrous war of 1912-1913 with the States of the Balkan League (Bulgaria, Greece, Servia, and Montenegro) the European dominions of Turkey extended westwards to the Adriatic and northwards to Bosnia-Herzegovina (Austria). Under the Treaty of London in 1913 the northwest portion of Turkey was a line drawn from Enos, in the Ægean, to Midia, in the Black Sea, thus excluding Adrianople, which had capitulated to the Bulgarians after a prolonged siege.

During the second Balkan war (Bulgaria against the other members of the Balkan States) Turkey took advantage of the military difficulties of Bulgaria and reoccupied Adrianople, thus recovering a considerable portion of the province of that name. In 1911-1912 Turkey lost the remaining portion of her African possessions through the occupation by Italy of Tripoli and Cyrenaica, which were ceded under the Treaty of Ouchy(1912).

Turkey joined forces with the Austro-Germans in November, 1914, and attacked Russia and invaded Egyptian territory. Far more important than any of the Turkish operations, however, was the attempt of England and France, in 1915, to force the passage of the Dardanelles, so as to take much needed supplies of arms and ammunition to Russia and in turn enable her to export the enormous stocks of wheat which had piled up at her Black Sea ports.

EGYPTIAN OBELISK, CONSTANTINOPLE

This Obelisk from Thebes, of rose colored granite, sixty feet high, was transported hither by Theodosius the Great, A. D. 390-395, and shows traces of bas-reliefs of that date, and Egyptian hieroglyphs thirty centuries old.

A combined English and French fleet, therefore, attempted to force the passage of the Dardanelles, battering at the Turkish forts from February 21 to March 18, when they attempted to force the Narrows, but were repulsed, with the loss of the British battleships Irresistible and Ocean, and the French battleships Bouvet and Gaulois, in addition to serious injury to a number of other warships engaged.

YILDIZ PALACE AND THE BEAUTIFUL HAMIDIEH MOSQUE,

in the Beshiktash suburb, some distance north of Galata. The present Sultan resides in the Palace of Yildiz.

A joint land and sea expedition was subsequently sent to accomplish what the fleets had failed to achieve.

The most desperate fighting continued there from the beginning of May. The allies employed British and French regulars—the famous Foreign Legion of France, British colonials from Australia and New Zealand, and troops from Egypt, the Soudan and North Africa—but they failed to capture the summits of the hills that command the Narrows and the great Turkish forts.

The land forces had the constant support of British and French fleets, which engaged the defenses at close range.

On May 11 the British battleship Goliath was sunk, and two weeks later a German submarine made its way through the straits of Gibraltar, succeeded in torpedoing the British battleship Triumph and the Majestic and Agamemnon.

On January 9, 1916, the British and French forces entirely withdrew from the Gallipoli Peninsula, and the attempt to force the Dardanelles was abandoned.

Internal Communications.—The railways of Turkey have made great strides in recent years. Constantinople is now in direct communication with Salonica and Monastir by means of a coastal line, and with Sophia, Nisch, and Belgrade, by means of a line passing up the Maritza Valley, through Adrianople and Philipopolis, and thence over a pass between the Balkans and Rhodope Mountains. Salonica is further united with Uskub and Mitrevitza.

The postal and telegraphic services are a long way behind those of other European countries, and foreign nations still find it necessary to maintain their own post-offices in the large towns and ports.

Bagdad Railroad.—The most important step in the industrial progress of Turkey in modern times is the concession for the construction of the Bagdad Railroad, which, when completed, will connect the Mediterranean with the Persian Gulf.

By a provisional convention, preference was given to a German company in 1903. England had a particular interest in the proposed scheme, as the line suggested would provide a short route to India; accordingly, in 1903, the British government objected to the railway being placed under German control, and discussion followed with a view to putting the line under international control. By the agreement of 1903 it was decided the German group should control forty per cent of the capital, the French, through the Imperial Ottoman Bank, thirty per cent, the Austrian, Italian, Swiss, and Turkish twenty per cent, and the Anatolian Railway ten per cent. In 1904, one hundred and twenty-four miles of the line were completed, from Konieh, through Eregli, to Bugurlu. In 1908 sanction was given to extend the line eastwards from Bugurlu across the Taurus to Adana.

The total length of the line will be one thousand five hundred and fifty miles and will run through Aintab and Berejik to Mosul, thence along the right bank of the Tigris to Bagdad.

The Continent of North America

Since the beginning of the sixteenth century America has been the general name for the two continents and adjacent islands, forming the main body of land found in the western hemisphere.
Position and Extent.—North America forms the northern section of the “New World” discovered by Columbus. It is separated from Europe by a sea nine hundred and thirty miles broad, from Asia by Bering Strait sixty miles across, and extends from the Arctic Ocean nearly to the equator.
The main mass is triangular in shape, and its outline varied by large peninsulas, broad gulfs and numerous inlets. Development of coast-line, twenty-eight thousand one hundred and thirty miles. Length, four thousand five hundred miles; breadth, three thousand one hundred miles. The area of the continental mainland is estimated at seven million one hundred and forty-six thousand six hundred and forty-one square miles; the entire area, including Greenland, the Arctic Archipelago, the West Indies, Newfoundland, and other islands, at over nine million square miles.
Islands.—It is customary to regard Greenland as a part of America, while the adjacent island of Iceland, though partially in the western hemisphere, is usually associated with Europe. The other principal American islands in the Atlantic are Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Anticosti, Prince Edward Island, Long Island, the Bermudas, the Antilles or West Indies, Joannes, Staten Island and South Georgia.
In the Pacific are the Aleutian Islands, Kadiak, the Alexander and Queen Charlotte groups, Vancouver and other British-Columbian Islands, the Santa Barbara group, Bevilla-Gigedo, the Pearl Islands, and others in the Gulf of Panama, the Galápagos, Juan Fernandez and the associated islets, Chiloe and the Chonos Archipelago. In the Arctic Ocean there are many large but unimportant islands. (See Map of Comparative Size of Islands and Table of Areas.)
Coast-line.—The coast-line of North America on the west is almost everywhere high and rocky. To the south of Puget Sound good harbors are rare, but British Columbia and Alaska have great numbers of good seaports, the coast-line being, in many places, deeply cut with high-walled fjords, or “canals,” and elsewhere sheltered by ranges of high and well-wooded islands. The Atlantic coast, north of New York Bay, is generally rocky and well sheltered with islands, and has abundance of good natural harbors; but south of the parallel of New York the coast of the mainland is almost everywhere low and sandy. Many of the best ports are formed by river-mouths, and have sandbars across their entrances. Nowhere else in the world is there any such extent of low and sandy coast as on the Atlantic and Gulf seaboards of the United States.
Surface.—The western mountain-system of North America comprises a very great number of minor ranges, mostly having a north and south direction. The main chain (Sierra Madre) cannot be said to preserve an unmistakable identity throughout. The Coast Range, the Sierra Nevada, and the Cascade Mountains are the most noted of the western parallel ranges; they all lie on the Pacific slope, and contain some of the highest of North American peaks. The elevated plateau called the Great Basin (chiefly in Utah and Nevada), contains the Great Salt Lake and several smaller bodies of strongly saline water, evidently the remains of a much larger lake which once sent its waters to the sea. The eastern or great Appalachian mountain-system has a general direction nearly parallel with the Atlantic coast-line.
North of the St. Lawrence River is seen the vast and complicated Laurentian mountain-system, which extends from the Atlantic westward to near Lake Superior.
The highest summits are Mt. McKinley, in the north; Mt. Harvard, in the Rocky mountains; Mt. Whitney, in the Sierra Nevadas; and Mt. Popocatepetl or Peak of Orizaba, in Mexico. (See Tables of Mountain Peaks.)
Rivers and Lakes.—In the Rocky Mountain region of Canada, the great rivers, Yukon, Fraser, Columbia, Saskatchewan, and Mackenzie, take their rise. Between these mountains and Hudson Bay, a girdle of vast lakes, or inland seas (Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca, Deer Lake, Winnipeg, and others), form a regular succession running from the Arctic Circle to Lake Superior, the first of a wonderful chain of great sea-like expansions of the Upper St. Lawrence (the others being Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario). North of the St. Lawrence system almost the whole country is thickly studded with lakes, which, with their connecting streams, form a network of important waterways traversable by canoes and boats.
The Atlantic slope of the United States is well supplied with water, and many of its streams afford extensive navigation. The Hudson is noted for its fine scenery; the Potomac is one of the noblest of American rivers; and important streams flowing to the Atlantic are the St. John, the Penobscot, the Kennebec, the Merrimac, the Connecticut, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, the James, and the St. John’s, nearly all navigable in their lower courses.
The chief rivers flowing to the Gulf of Mexico are the Appalachicola, the Mobile, the Pearl, the great Mississippi, the Sabine, the Trinity, the Brazos, the Colorado of Texas and the Rio Grande.
Of the many large Alaskan rivers the principal are the Yukon and the Kuskoquim. The Fraser is a swift and strong river; the great river Columbia is noted alike for its navigation, its salmon fisheries, and its enormous cataracts. The Rio Colorado, whose waters flow to the Gulf of California, traverses a desert plateau. Here nearly every watercourse runs in a deep-walled cañon, a narrow valley with precipitous sides, often of prodigious height.
In the plateau of Central America the largest lake is that of Nicaragua, nearly equal to Ontario in extent, and only one hundred and thirty-one feet above the level of the sea. (See further under the respective countries of North America.)
Climate.—Largely determined by the direction of the mountain ranges. Five climatic regions, viz., an arctic region, whose mean temperature is less than thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit; an Atlantic temperate region, extending as far as the Mississippi, with abundant rains and dense woods; an inland temperate region, dry, with steppes or prairies; a Pacific coast region, and a tropical region.
Political Divisions.—The political divisions of North America are:
(1) Danish America, which includes Greenland and three small islands of the Virgin group in the West Indies.
(2) British North America, in which division we may place the Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland, Labrador, the Bermudas, the numerous British West Indian islands, and British Honduras.
(3) The United States, including the detached territory of Alaska.
(4) Mexico.
(5) The Central American republics of Honduras, Guatemala, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, together with Panama—unless its southern part be regarded as belonging to the South American continent.
(6) The West Indian republics of Hayti and San Domingo.
(7) The Dutch West Indies.
(See the articles on the separate states and colonies.)

The United States

The republic of the United States is by far the most populous, wealthy, and progressive country of all the New World.

Location and Extent.—It occupies the most valuable portion of the North American continent, the whole of it (with the exception of the territory of Alaska) lying within the temperate zone, between Canada on the north and Mexico on the south, and reaching across from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean.

Its boundary toward the Canadian Dominion passes through the Haro, or northern channel of the Strait of San Juan de Fuca, south of Vancouver Island, and thence along the forty-ninth parallel of latitude to Lake Superior; then midway through the center of the Great Lakes to the St. Lawrence, and down that river to the forty-fifth parallel, and an irregular boundary which separates New Brunswick from the States of New York and Maine, terminating at Passamaquoddy Bay.

In the south, the Mexican frontier runs from the Pacific coast, northward of the peninsula of California, to the Rio Grande del Norte, which it follows to the Gulf of Mexico.

From Atlantic to Pacific, the breadth of the United States is not less than twenty-five hundred miles; and from north to south the country extends nearly seventeen hundred miles.

Surface.—The surface of the United States from east to west may be divided as follows: (1) The Atlantic Plain, which extends from the coast to the Allegheny Mountains. (2) The Mississippi Valley and Great Central Plain, which extends from the Allegheny Mountains west to the Rocky Mountains. (3) The Western Highlands. (4) The Pacific slope, which extends from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean.

Mountains and Plains.—The chief mountain systems are the Appalachian region in the east and the Rocky Mountains in the west.

The Appalachian System begins in the northern part of New England (in Maine without the appearance of regular ranges) and New York, and extends southwestward to Alabama and Georgia, being divided by the Hudson River valley and Lake Champlain, and that of the Mohawk River into three distinct sections.

A coast-plain extends from its eastern base to the Atlantic. It is narrow in Maine, where it terminates in a bold rocky coast indented by bays, and broken into projecting promontories and islands. South of Massachusetts the coast becomes lower and more sandy, and the plain grows gradually wider, with the exception of a narrow belt at New York, until in North Carolina it attains a width of two hundred miles.

In the southern part of New England it is characterized by hills, and below New York by a distinct coast region and a more elevated slope. This higher region, which is in Virginia and thence southward, is marked by a somewhat abrupt terrace, varies in altitude from a few hundred to more than a thousand feet, and is known as the Piedmont plateau. The lower coast region is seldom more than one hundred feet above the sea. It has a sandy soil, and in many places there are large swamps near the coast. Much of this swampy country is uninhabitable, but when reclaimed, as it has been in many parts of North and South Carolina, it makes valuable rice-land. Many acres of fertile agricultural land have also been secured in Florida by draining its swamps. The middle elevated region is diversified by hills and valleys, and has a productive soil. The dividing line between it and the low coast-plain marks the head of navigation of most of the streams, and also determines the sites of many important towns.

The surface of this region today is a series of parallel ranges divided by fertile valleys. The various ridges are named as follows: The Blue Ridge, which lies nearest the Atlantic; the Kittatinny Chain; the Allegheny Mountains, which lie in the western part of Virginia and the central part of Pennsylvania; the Cumberland Mountains, on the eastern boundary of Tennessee and Kentucky; the Catskill Mountains, in the State of New York, which are continued in the Sacondago Chain; the Green Mountains, in the State of Vermont; the Hudson River Highlands, and the hills of New Hampshire. There is no peak of marked elevation in the Appalachian region, the highest point being Mt. Washington, in New Hampshire, which reaches a height of nearly seven thousand feet.

Great Central Plain.—West of the Appalachian system and lying between it and the western highland is a great central valley, forming part of the continental depression which extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. It is almost an absolute plain, rising gradually from the Gulf toward the chain of Great Lakes in the north, and toward the mountains on the east and west. The only important departure from its uniform level character is an elevation of from five hundred to two thousand feet, running from southern Missouri through northwestern Arkansas into eastern Oklahoma, and known as the Ozark Mountains.

This great valley occupies about one-half the entire area of the United States, and the fertile prairies and bottom-lands of the eastern and central portions make it the most important agricultural basin of the globe. From an irregular line west of the Mississippi River the land rises in an almost imperceptible slope till it reaches the base of the western plateau.

The Rocky Mountain System extends a distance of about two thousand miles. The system is continued in Canada. The Rocky Mountains are not a single range, but are double and sometimes threefold. These ranges are the edge of a region of plateaus and hills which extends to the coastal mountains. The chief mountain ranges belonging to the United States Rockies are the Bitter Root Mountains, the Blue Mountains, and the Big Horn Mountains in the north; the Wahsatch Mountains, the Wind River Mountains, and the White Mountains in the center; and the Sierra Madre and the Sangra de Cristo Range in the south. In the western part of the southern Rockies lies the Great Basin of Colorado, with the Wahsatch Mountains on the east and the Sierra Nevada on the west. This basin is extremely arid, has suffered much volcanic action.

The Western or Pacific System forms a part of the vast elevation which extends from the northern to the southern extremity of the western continent. In the United States it is a great plateau of four thousand to ten thousand feet surmounted by a complex system of ranges, in its widest part more than one thousand miles broad. Of this Cordilleran region the Rocky Mountains form the eastern and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains and the Coast Ranges the western border.

In the ranges of central Colorado alone nearly forty of the summits have an altitude of more than fourteen thousand feet. In the Wind River Mountains, in Wyoming, are the head-waters of the Colorado, the Columbia, and the Mississippi, the three great river-systems of the United States; and in the northwestern corner of the same state is situated the National Park, famous for its hot springs and geysers as well as for its magnificent scenery (see Yellowstone).

Between the Wahsatch Range and the lofty masses of mountains in Colorado is a region of peculiar interest, consisting of level plateaus in which the changes of elevation from one plain to another are marked by abrupt descents and steep cliffs. It is furrowed by cañons or gorges, whose sides are nearly vertical; and the bed of the Colorado is in some places more than a mile and a quarter below the surface of the plateau. (See Grand Cañon under Colorado River.)

Between the Wahsatch Range and the Sierra Nevada lies the Great Basin, an immense tract having at best but little rainfall, except upon the summits of the ranges by which it is traversed, and none of whose waters are drained to either ocean. The saline swamps, salt lakes, and sinks of Nevada indicate the former location of one of these lakes; Great Salt Lake is all that now remains of the other.

The Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Range are topographically continuous, and constitute a great mountain-wall, which so far as the height of the peaks and the grandeur of the scenery are concerned, is one of the most striking portions of the Cordilleran system. Most of the peaks of the Sierras are, however, of granite and metamorphic rock, while those of the Cascade Range are volcanic. The greatest altitude is attained with Mt. Whitney as the culminating point. The lofty character of the range is maintained throughout the greater part of California, and the sublimity of the scenery is justly celebrated. (See Yosemite Valley.)

From this point there extends northward one of the most remarkable groups of extinct or faintly active volcanoes to be found anywhere in the world: the lava overflows in this region cover an area of above two hundred thousand square miles. The most prominent peaks are Mt. Shasta, in California, and Mt. Rainier, in Washington. In three separate places rivers have cut a passage through the volcanic portion of the range. The most notable is the passage of the Columbia River in a grand cañon more than three thousand feet in depth.

The Coast Ranges of Washington, Oregon, and northern California consist of numerous and approximately parallel chains, which as a rule pitch off abruptly toward the sea, leaving no coast-plain. Between the Coast Ranges and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range is a series of broad valleys, occupied mainly in Oregon by the Willamette River, and in California by the Sacramento and San Joaquin. In southern California the mountains of the Coast Ranges diminish in height, but throughout their whole extent they are interspersed with picturesque and fertile valleys.

Coast.—The Atlantic coast has a length of about twelve thousand three hundred and sixty miles; the Gulf Coast of five thousand seven hundred and fifty miles, and the Pacific Coast of three thousand two hundred and fifty miles.

On the coast of the New England states there are many indentations which, though small, furnish commodious harbors. Long Island Sound adds greatly to the commercial importance of New York harbor, and farther south are Delaware and Chesapeake Bays; Albemarle and Pamlico sounds, and several small indentations, such as those which form the harbors of Charleston and Savannah. The Chesapeake Bay is the largest indentation of the Atlantic Coast and runs inland in a northward direction for more than one hundred and eighty miles, with an average breadth of about fifteen miles. From Cape Hatteras to Cape Sable, however, the coast is swampy, and, especially in Florida, fringed with lagoons. The harbors of this part of the coast are not good naturally. The coast of the Gulf of Mexico is low and very swampy, but is of special climatic and commercial importance.

The Pacific Coast of the United States has a very narrow Continental Shelf, and few bays or capes. With the exception of Puget Sound, the Bay of San Francisco, and the harbor of San Diego, there is scarcely a noticeable break in the continuity of the coast line.

Islands.—There are many small rocky islands along the coast of Maine, and on the southern New England Coast is a group to which belongs Long Island, the largest of the islands of the United States. Farther south, off the Atlantic Coast, and also in portions of the Gulf of Mexico, are many low sand-spits lying parallel to the coast and having behind them shallow channels, lagoons and swamps. On the Pacific Coast there are no islands of importance except the Santa Barbara group off the southern coast of California.

Rivers.—The rivers of the Atlantic Plain rise in the Appalachian system, and are comparatively short. In many cases they are too rapid to be of much value for navigation, but are valuable for supplying water power. These rivers almost without exception have good harbors at their mouths. The chief are: the Hudson, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, the Potomac, the James, and the Savannah.

The Great Central Plain is drained by the Mississippi-Missouri river system, the basin of which covers half the area of the United States, and is equal in area to about one-third the area of Europe.

The Mississippi rises in Lake Itasca, in Minnesota, at about fifteen hundred feet above sea-level. After flowing for about one hundred miles in an easterly direction it turns south, and is joined by numerous tributaries. The chief are: St. Peter’s River, which joins the main stream nine miles above St. Anthony’s Falls; the Missouri, which enters the Mississippi just above St. Louis; the Ohio, which joins the main river at Cairo; the Arkansas, the Wisconsin, the Illinois, and the Red River.

The Mississippi-Missouri has made a broad flood plain, varying in width from thirty to sixty miles. This plain is subject to severe inundations, for it slopes very gently away from the river bed, which is in many parts of the river above the level of the surrounding plain. The river carries a vast amount of silt, which it deposits at its mouth, thus forming a delta which stretches a series of long, narrow, tentacle-like arms seaward.

Other rivers falling into the Gulf of Mexico are the Mobile and the Rio Grande. The Mobile, which enters the gulf at the town of Mobile, is the union of the Alabama and the Tombigbee. The Rio Grande forms the boundary between Texas and Mexico.

The rivers flowing into the Pacific are comparatively short, owing to the nearness of the coast ranges to the sea. The Colorado River flows into the Gulf of California, after crossing an arid plateau. (See description below.)

The San Joaquin and the Sacramento rivers unite and flow into the harbor of San Francisco; these and the Columbia are the only important rivers entering the Pacific.

The Great Basin of California is largely an area of inland drainage. The rivers flow into lakes with no outlets to the sea.

Colorado River (Spanish for “red” or “reddish”), is a remarkable river formed by the union of the Grand and Green Rivers, and flowing through the great plateau region. Below the junction of the Green and Grand, the main affluent in Utah is the San Juan, which drains an interesting region in the southwest of Colorado and the northwest of New Mexico. In Arizona the main affluents are the Colorado Chiquito or Flax River, the Bill Williams, and the Rio Gila, all from the left. The only important affluent the Colorado receives from the right is the Rio Virgen. From the junction of the Grand and Green the general course of the stream is to the southwest through the southern part of Utah and northwestern Arizona; and it afterwards separates Arizona from Nevada and California. The lower part of its course is in Mexican territory, where it flows into the northern extremity of the Gulf of California.

The most striking features of the Colorado basin are its dryness, and the deeply channeled surface of the greater part of the country. Almost every stream and watercourse, and most of all the Colorado itself, has cut its way through stratum after stratum of rock, until now it flows in a great part of its course, at the bottom of a deep trench or cañon.

The Grand Cañon.—The main stream, for nearly four hundred miles below the mouth of the Colorado Chiquito, thus makes its way through a great plateau, forming what is called the Grand Cañon of the Colorado, the most extensive and marvelous example of the kind anywhere known.

Throughout the upper part of the great cañon the walls are from four thousand to seven thousand feet in height, and are often nearly perpendicular. Frequently they are terraced and carved into a myriad of pinnacles and towers, tinted with various brilliant colors. At some points the walls on either side rise sheer from the water; at others there is a talus of fallen rock, or occasionally a strip of fertile soil, on one or both banks. There are two main trails by which the bottom of the cañon may be reached. The Bright Angel Trail is seven miles down from the rim to the river and requires three hours for the descent. The Grand View Trail is somewhat longer and more difficult.

This over-drained river basin has an area of two hundred and twenty-five thousand square miles. The whole course of the river below the junction is about nine hundred miles; to its remotest sources it is over two thousand miles. Navigation is possible for light-draft steamers for over six hundred miles. The river is subject to vast and frequent changes of volume, and except where confined by cañon-walls, the river channel shifts to and fro in a very remarkable degree.

Hudson River, one of the most beautiful and important in America, rises in the Adirondack Mountains, four thousand three hundred and twenty-six feet above the level of the sea, where its head-streams are the outlets of many mountain-lakes. At Glens Falls it has a fall of fifty feet, and soon after, taking a southerly course, runs nearly in a straight line to its mouth, at New York City. It is tidal up to Troy, one hundred and fifty-one miles from its mouth, and magnificent steamboats ply daily between New York and Albany.

Below Newburg, sixty miles from New York, the river enters the highlands, which rise abruptly from the water to the height of sixteen hundred feet. Here historical associations add to the interest of varied scenery of singular beauty and grandeur: here was the scene of Arnold’s treason and of André’s fate; and at West Point, the seat of the United States military academy, eight miles below Newburg, are the ruins of Fort Putnam, built during the War of Independence.

Emerging from the highlands the river widens into a broad expanse called Tappan Bay, which is four and one-half miles wide and thirteen miles long. Below, on the right bank, a steep wall of trap rock, called the Palisades, rises from the river’s brink to a height of three hundred to five hundred and ten feet, and extends for nearly twenty miles to the upper portion of the city of New York.

The river from here is known as the North River, and is from one to two miles wide; and after passing between New York and Hoboken and Jersey City, it falls into New York Bay. Its whole length is about three hundred and fifty miles, and its principal tributaries are the Sacondaga, Mohawk, and Walkill.

The Hudson has valuable shad and sturgeon fisheries, and has large commercial value. It is connected by the Erie Canal with Buffalo and the Great Lakes, while the Richelieu Canal connects it with Montreal. The Hudson River Railroad, connecting New York with Albany, runs along the east bank.

The river is named for the English navigator who explored it in 1609. Robert Fulton’s first successful experiment in steamboat navigation was made on this river in 1807.

The St. Lawrence, issuing from Lake Ontario, flows northeast for some seven hundred and fifty miles—part of the way forming the boundary between Canada and the United States—and falls into the Gulf of St. Lawrence by a broad estuary. But in its widest acceptation the name includes the whole system of the Great Lakes and their connecting streams, with a total length from source to mouth of two thousand miles, and a drainage basin of five hundred and sixty-five thousand two hundred square miles. It pours more fresh water into the ocean than any other river except the Amazon.

This mighty artery rises, under the name of the St. Louis, on the spacious plateau which sends forth also the Mississippi toward the Gulf of Mexico, and the Red River of the North toward Hudson Bay. Lake Superior (six hundred and two feet above sea-level), the next link in the chain, finds its way to Lake Huron through St. Mary’s River, whose rapids have a fall of twenty and one-half feet. Below Lake Huron, which receives Lake Michigan from the south, St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, Detroit River, and Lake Erie, maintain pretty nearly the same level (there is a fall of some eight feet, however, in Detroit River) till the river Niagara descends three hundred and twenty-six feet to Lake Ontario, which is itself still two hundred and forty-seven feet above the sea-level.

The St. Lawrence proper, with a number of lakelike expansions (such as the Lake of the Thousand Isles, of St. Francis, St. Peter, etc.), presents the character first of a river, and then of an estuary, down to the gulf. What is known as the Lake of the Thousand Islands contains about seventeen hundred islands, big and little, many of them extremely picturesque. This is a famous tourist region, with numerous hotels and other resorts as well as many fine private estates.

Prior to 1858 only vessels drawing not more than eleven feet of water could pass up the river above Quebec, but since then a channel has been made in the shallow parts of the river, three hundred feet wide and twenty-seven and one-quarter deep, which permits the passage up to Montreal of large vessels.

Between Lake Ontario and Montreal there are several rapids, which, however, may be all avoided by means of canals that have been constructed at a very great expense. Immediately above the island of Montreal, the St. Lawrence is joined by its principal auxiliary, the Ottawa, from the northwest; and a little more than half-way between this confluence and Three Rivers, the highest point of tidal influence, the Richelieu from the south brings in the tribute of Lake Champlain. Other principal tributaries are the St. Maurice, the Saguenay, and the Batiscan. The width of the St. Lawrence varies from less than one to four miles; the estuary at its mouth is above one hundred miles across. During winter the river is frozen over and navigation closed.

Lakes.—Of the Great Lakes of North America, Lake Michigan lies within the United States, and the southern shores of Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, Lake Huron, and Lake Superior are United States territory. These lakes were formed by the action of the glacier which once covered the continent as far south as the forty-second parallel, roughly speaking. They are remainders of much larger lakes and are of the utmost importance as waterways.

New England has very many smaller lakes, which are also the result of glacial action. The largest lake of the United States apart from the Great Lakes is the Great Salt Lake of Utah. The extremely low rainfall of this region and the intense evaporation consequent upon the high temperature are responsible for the salinity of the waters of the lake.

The Great Lakes.—The five Great Lakes cover a total area of over ninety thousand square miles, forming the largest collective mass of fresh water in the world.

Lake Superior.—The northern shores of Superior are mostly precipitous cliffs ranging from three hundred to one thousand feet in height. On the southeast sandy coasts prevail. The coast on the south and southwest is composed largely of sandstone cliffs, rich in iron and other metal deposits. The bed of Superior is supposed to be an ancient volcanic crater. Its depth of one thousand and eight feet represents a depression extending four hundred feet below sea-level. Superior is, therefore, distinct in origin from the other lakes of the group, whose beds represent ancient river systems and date from the glacial period. The basin of the lake, closely circumscribed by the Mississippi and Hudson Bay watersheds, receives many streams, but all of them short.

Lake Huron, the second of the Great Lakes, is bounded north, east and south by the Province of Ontario, and south and west by the State of Michigan, including Georgian Bay (five thousand six hundred and twenty-six square miles), and North Passage, one thousand five hundred and fifty-six square miles. It is connected with Lake Michigan by the Straits of Mackinac, three and one-half miles broad and one hundred and thirty-five feet deep.

The discharge of Lake Huron is about two hundred and seventeen thousand cubic feet per second. By reason of evaporation and rainfall, the level of the lake varies annually between four and five feet, but much greater local variation is caused by the strong winds. The densely wooded northeast is broken by many low islands of limestone and glacial débris. Elsewhere the shores are almost unbroken and low, except when cliffs of one hundred or one hundred and fifty feet high rise from the northeast border and afford good sites for the many Canadian towns and villages. Nearly all the harbors on this coast are protected by breakwaters.

Lake Michigan.—The area of Lake Michigan includes Green Bay on the northwestern shore, and Grand Travers Bay directly on the eastern shore. Many islands lie in the lake between these two breaks in the shore, which elsewhere is low and unbroken.

About the southern and eastern borders are immense heaps of sand which have been piled up by waves and currents, and drift inland by the winds, sometimes, as at Sleeping Bear bluffs, completely burying the heavy forests.

The level of Michigan varies, but not as greatly as does that of Huron, according to the direction and force of the winds, the changes in rainfall, evaporation, atmospheric pressure, etc. Except when caused by protracted gales blowing steadily in one direction, this variation rarely exceeds one and three-tenths feet. The lake has a lunar tide with accompanying variation of from one and one-half inches neap to about three inches spring tide, and the water is warmer than the air in winter and cooler in summer, and visibly ameliorates the climate of the shores, as may be shown in the quantity and rich quality of the Michigan fruits. Like all the Great Lakes, Michigan abounds in fish, such as whitefish and trout.

Lake Erie has a northeast and southwest direction, bounded on the entire upper shore by the Province of Ontario, and on the southern and eastern shores by Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York. At its southwestern end it is connected with Lake St. Clair by the Detroit River. At its northwestern end it discharges into Lake Ontario through the Niagara River. It is connected by the Welland Canal with Lake Ontario and by other canals with the Hudson and Ohio Rivers, making it thus a link in the waterway from east to west.

Besides the drainage from the Lake Superior system, Lake Erie receives the Grand River, the Maumee from the west, and the Sandusky and Cuyahoga from the south. The west coast is broken by the islands of Put-in-Bay.

Lake Ontario is the most eastern, with a northeast and southwest direction, like Lake Erie. It is the lowest of the Great Lakes, and has naturally the largest discharge, three hundred thousand cubic feet per second. The shores are flat, except in the Bay of Quinte, which extends on the northeast fifty miles inland. There are many harbors and flourishing ports. The waters have a surface current, due to the fact that the larger axis of the lake coincides with the direction of the prevailing westerly winds. This, added to frequent violent storms, keeps the lake from freezing, except a few miles in width along the shores.

Lake Ontario is connected with the Erie Canal and Hudson River by the Oswego Canal and with the Ottawa River by the Rideau Canal.

Great Salt Lake, in Utah, stretches along the western base of the Wahsatch Mountains, about four thousand two hundred feet above the sea, forming a principal drainage center of the Great Basin. Well-marked shore-lines on the mountains around, reaching one thousand feet higher than the present level, show that the lake had formerly a vastly greater extent; this prehistoric sea has been named Lake Bonneville. Great Salt Lake is over eighty miles long and from twenty to thirty-two broad, but for the most part exceedingly shallow. It contains several islands, the largest Antelope I., about eighteen miles long. Its tributaries are the Bear, Ogden, Jordan and Weber, the Jordan bringing the fresh waters of Lake Utah; but Great Salt Lake has no outlet save evaporation, and its clear water consequently holds at all times a considerable quantity of saline matter in solution. Several species of insects and a brine-shrimp have been found in its waters, but no fishes; large flocks of water-fowls frequent the shores.

The first mention of Great Salt Lake was by the Franciscan friar Escalante in 1776, but it was first explored and described in 1843 by Fremont.

Champlain is a beautiful lake separating the states of New York and Vermont, and penetrating, at its north end, about six miles into the Dominion of Canada. Lying ninety-one feet above sea-level, it is one hundred and ten miles long, by from one to fifteen broad, empties itself into the St. Lawrence by the Richelieu River, and has communication by canal with the Hudson. The lake, now an important trade channel, was the scene of several incidents of the French and Indian revolutionary wars; and here a British flotilla was defeated by the Americans September 11, 1814. It was discovered by Champlain in 1609, and in 1909 tercentenary celebrations of its discovery were held along its shores.

Natural Wonders.—Of the great natural wonders the chief are the Niagara Falls, the Grand Cañon of Colorado, and Yellowstone Park. The Sequoia, General Grant and Calaveras Parks—all reservations of the famous big trees, many thousands of years old, have also great scenic interest. Mt. Ranier Park, in Washington, encloses the noblest and most interesting mountain of our Pacific Coast. The chief feature of Crater Lake Park, in southern Oregon, is a lake two thousand feet deep, occupying the crater of an extinct volcano on the summit of the Cascade Range, with walls one thousand to two thousand feet high. The latest addition is Glacier Park, in northwestern Montana. It is named from its glaciers, of which there are over sixty within an area of five square miles, and contains numerous snow-capped peaks seven thousand to twelve thousand feet high. It also contains Lake McDonald, one of the most beautiful alpine lakes. Among the national monuments are the petrified forests in Arizona.

GARDEN OF THE GODS, COLORADO,

is a tract of land about five hundred acres in extent, thickly strewn with grotesque rocks and cliffs of red and white sandstone. Among the chief features are the Cathedral Spires, the Balanced Rock, etc. The Gateway of the Garden of the Gods consists of two enormous masses of bright red rock, three hundred and thirty feet high and separated just enough for the roadway to pass between.

Garden of the Gods, a region in Colorado, is noted for its view of Pike’s Peak, and its weird and grotesque rock pinnacles, needles, etc., some of which receive descriptive names such as Cathedral Spires. The region is about five hundred acres in extent, and in 1908 was presented to Colorado Springs city.

Grand Canyon.—See under Colorado River.

Mammoth Cave, in Kentucky, is eighty-five miles by railroad southwest of Louisville. The cave is about ten miles long; but it is said to require upwards of one hundred and fifty miles of traveling to explore its multitudinous avenues, chambers, grottoes, rivers and cataracts. It is the largest cavern in the world. The main cave is only four miles long, but it is from forty to three hundred feet wide, and rises in height to one hundred and twenty-five feet. Lucy’s Dome is three hundred feet high, the loftiest of the many vertical shafts that pierce through all the levels.

It is estimated that there are more than four thousand sink-holes and five hundred open caverns. Some avenues are covered with a continuous incrustation of the most beautiful crystals; stalactites and stalagmites abound.

There are several lakes or rivers connected with Green River outside the cave, rising with the river, but subsiding more slowly, so that they are generally impassible for more than six months in the year. The largest is Echo River, three-fourths of a mile long, and in some places two hundred feet wide. The air of the cave is pure; the temperature keeps at about fifty-four degrees.

Among the most striking facts which exploration has revealed are the following: there is a pit, named the Bottomless Pit, one hundred and five feet deep, besides Scylla, one hundred and thirty-five feet deep. Crevice Pit, with Klett’s Dome, which forms a part of it, is one hundred and fifty feet in total vertical measurement. Cleveland Avenue is two miles long, Silliman’s one and one-half miles and in places two hundred feet in width. Large stretches of water have been christened Dead Sea, Lake Lethe; also there are the Styx, and Roaring and Echo rivers. In the outer galleries of the cave millions of bats are congregated. There are also blind fish, crayfish, crickets, and other abnormal insect inhabitants of the cave.

BIG TREE, CALIFORNIA

The Mariposa Grove of Big Trees (six thousand five hundred feet), so-called from its situation in Mariposa (“butterfly”) County, occupies a tract of land four square miles in area, reserved as a State Park, and consists of two distinct groves, one-half mile apart. The Lower Grove contains about two hundred and forty fine specimens of the Sequoia Gigantea, including the “Grizzly Giant,” the largest of all, with a circumference of ninety-four feet and a diameter of thirty-one feet. Its main limb, two hundred feet from the ground, is six and one-half feet in diameter. In ascending to the Upper Grove, which contains three hundred and sixty big trees, the road goes through a tunnel, ten feet high and nine and one-half feet wide (at the bottom), cut directly through the heart of a living Sequoia, twenty-seven feet in diameter. (See illustration.) About ten of the trees exceed two hundred and fifty feet in height and about twenty trees have a circumference of over sixty feet, three of these being over ninety feet. The Calaveras Grove has taller trees than any in the Mariposa Grove, but the latter has those of greatest circumference. At Santa Cruz there is a grove which contains about a score of the genuine Redwood with a diameter of ten feet and upwards. The largest is twenty-three feet across; one of the finest, named the Giant, has a circumference of seventy feet. Here is a large hollow tree in which General Fremont camped for several days in 1847. Another stump is covered with a platform, which holds twelve to fourteen people.

Niagara Falls.—See under Famous Waterfalls.

Yosemite Valley is the name of a cleft in the west slope of the Sierra Nevada, about the center of California, and one hundred and forty miles east of San Francisco. The name Yosemite is an Indian word which signifies “large grizzly bear.” This celebrated valley, noted for the sublimity and beauty of its scenery, is about six miles long and from one-half to nearly two miles in breadth, and is traversed by the Merced River. The beholder is awed and impressed by the massiveness of its mountain elevations, the nearly perpendicular granite walls, from three thousand to six thousand feet high, by which it is shut in throughout its entire length, and the grandeur of its waterfalls, which are in some respects the most remarkable in the world.

At the lower end of the valley stands the striking cliff known as El Capitan, three thousand three hundred feet high, while from near its lower corner the Virgin’s Tears Fall descends one thousand feet. But the eye turns from it to the remarkable fall opposite, happily named the Bridal Veil, which leaps from the brow of a cliff nine hundred feet high, and descends in a broad sheet of spray and finally mist, swaying in the wind and constantly changing its form of fleecy beauty. Farther up the valley are Cathedral Rock (two thousand six hundred and sixty feet), the Three Brothers (three thousand eight hundred and thirty feet), Sentinel Rock (three thousand and forty-three feet), and directly opposite it the grand Yosemite Falls. (See Famous Waterfalls.) Above the falls are the North Dome (three thousand five hundred and sixty-eight feet) and the vast Half Dome, nearly one mile (four thousand seven hundred and thirty-seven feet) high, whose summit can now be reached by a long climb. Two miles above the great falls the stream enters the main valley in two arms, coming out of two canyons. In that of the south fork is the Illilouet Fall, some six hundred feet high; in the main canyon are Vernal Fall and Nevada Fall, the latter one of the finest in the world.

(See Famous Waterfalls.)

The country surrounding the valley and constituting the National Park is a rolling and hilly region varying from eight thousand to ten thousand feet above sea-level. There is little soil or vegetation except a scattered forest growth. Small glaciers still remain near the summits of some of the adjacent mountains. Bare granite peaks rise still higher from this surface.

Yellowstone National Park comprises a tract of land originally comprising three thousand five hundred and seventy-five square miles in northwestern Wyoming, set apart by act of Congress in 1872 as a national park to preserve from destructive molestation the most wonderful group of natural features and phenomena known within the boundaries of the United States. It is readily reached over the Northern Pacific Railroad, which has a branch from Livingston to Gardiner, just outside the north park boundary, thirty-six hours’ ride from St. Paul; or it may be reached from the Oregon Short Line R. R. from the west side by a more difficult stage connection.

The whole park plateau lies between six thousand and eight thousand feet above sea-level. The mountains rise in great grandeur upon this plateau, giving evidence of their volcanic origin, though now extinct, by their form, and their rock structure, and the many evidences of pent-up heat that one sees in the hot springs and geysers for which the locality is justly famous. Twenty-four peaks rise over ten thousand feet, several over eleven thousand. Electric Peak on the border is eleven thousand one hundred and fifty-five feet. Many have been glaciated. Just outside the Teton Range peaks rise to nearly fourteen thousand feet. It is a part of the continental divide and from Two-ocean Pond the waters may flow into either the Atlantic or the Pacific. The Yellowstone, Snake and Madison rivers are fed by the waters from this area.

The surface of the park is dotted with lakes, the largest being Yellowstone Lake, standing seven thousand seven hundred and forty-one feet above sea-level, ten by twenty miles in average dimensions, the largest body at so great elevation in the United States.

The streams contain numerous falls and rapids, twenty-five of special interest, some as picturesque as the Falls of the Yellowstone, though not on such a grand scale, and some far removed from the usual routes of travel. The falls and canyons of the Yellowstone are considered among the most wonderful in the world. The canyon is cut more than two thousand feet deep into the lavas and sediments, exhibiting the most fantastic carvings of erosion, modified by an exquisite blending of colors. Into it plunges the river by two great leaps, the Upper and the Lower Falls, one hundred and twelve and three hundred and ten feet high respectively, and then flows on as a narrow ribbon scarcely more than one hundred and sixty to two hundred feet wide for twelve miles of this wonderfully beautiful chasm.

Yellowstone Park includes within its borders the largest geysers in the world. There are about seventy in all, included in six groups or geyser basins. Norris, Upper, Middle and Lower basins, ten to fifteen miles apart, are on the headwaters of the Madison, here called Five Hole River. The Upper is most active and is called the Great Geyser Basin. A group is also found at Shoshone Lake, at the head of Snake River, and another group at Heart Lake. Fifty geysers spout water and steam from thirty to two hundred and fifty feet into the air. Some spout from open bowl-shaped basins, and others have built cones or tubes by their deposits. Extinct geysers are marked by the remains of these cones, among which is Liberty Cap. Excelsior geyser is the largest of all. It has a bowl-shaped opening two hundred by three hundred feet, flows four thousand gallons of boiling hot water per minute, and throws a fifty-foot column of water and steam seventy-five feet to two hundred and fifty feet high. Giant throws a five-foot column over two hundred feet high for an hour. Old Faithful, so named because of its exceptional regularity, every sixty-four to sixty-five minutes without a failure within the memory of the oldest observers, discharges a column one hundred and fifty feet high amounting to one and a half million gallons of water at each eruption. There is every gradation in size and violence and periodicity.

In the Mammoth Hot Springs area, near the northern boundary, where there are fifty active springs within an area of one hundred and seventy acres, there is a travertine accumulation of one thousand feet. Others deposit silica in similar manner, both types aided much by algous plant growth in the mineralized warm waters. In some places sulphur has been deposited.

Nine-tenths of the whole area is forest. The tree limit varies from nine thousand four hundred to nine thousand seven hundred feet. Few of the plateau localities are bare. Pine, poplar, balsam, cedar and spruce grow abundantly and many to large size. In the spring and geyser localities the trees are often covered by deposits and buried. Whole forests have been thus entombed. Petrified trees are common. Wild animals are wholly unmolested. Deer, elk, buffalo and bear may be seen and approached near enough to photograph. Trout abound in the waters throughout.

NATURAL BRIDGE OF VIRGINIA

The Natural Bridge of Virginia (one thousand five hundred feet above the sea) is a huge monolithic limestone arch, two hundred and fifteen feet high, one hundred feet wide, and ninety feet in span, crossing the ravine of the Cedar Creek. It seems to be a remnant of a great horizontal bed of limestone rock that entirely covered the gorge of the brook, which originally flowed through a subterranean tunnel. The rest of this roof has fallen in and been gradually washed or worn away. The bridge is finely situated in a beautiful amphitheater, surrounded by mountains, on land originally granted by George III. to Thomas Jefferson, who built a cabin here for the use of visitors. Among the names upon the smooth side of the archway is that of George Washington (west side, about twenty-five feet up), which was the highest of all until a student named Piper actually climbed from the bottom to the top of the arch in 1818.

The first white man to attempt an exploration of the region was a trapper named Coulter, who in 1805 traversed a part of this district. His tales were disbelieved, but were confirmed thirty years later by the discoveries of Bridger. In 1870 the first official survey was made, and in 1871 Hayden’s famous expedition revealed the glories of the Yellowstone district.

Climate and Irrigation.—The United States, stretching over such a vast area and having such great tracts of mountain and plain, must necessarily present a great variety of climate. The mean annual temperature ranges from under forty degrees to seventy-five degrees. The isotherm of fifty-five degrees mean annual temperature crosses the center of the country from east to west, passing through St. Louis. The mean annual rainfall for the whole country is about thirty inches, but there is a great difference in this respect between different parts. The rainfall is most abundant on the northwest Pacific Coast, on the Gulf Coast, and on the higher mountain ranges. On the great plains it is only ten to twenty inches, and there are large desert stretches in the Rocky Mountain region with a rainfall of less than ten inches.

Irrigation.—As far as lack of rainfall is concerned in the so-called rainless regions of the United States, this has been notably offset by great works of irrigation that have been steadily going forward. Agriculture, horticulture and vitaculture are, therefore, no longer dependent on chance but science, as the National Irrigation Congress expresses it.

Modern irrigation in the United States began in 1750 with the watering of the gardens in the hills and deserts of the coast of California by the adventurous missionaries from Mexico. Irrigation by English-speaking people had its origin in Utah one hundred years later. There the Mormons, separated by one thousand miles of untrodden desert from all cultivated land, found in irrigation their only means of escape from starvation.

In 1870 there were twenty thousand acres under irrigation, followed by a rapid development of small ditches, until in 1880 there were one million acres irrigated. Today (1917) upward of fifty million acres are included in reclamation projects, and it is estimated that there are upward of four hundred and fifty million acres still awaiting the scientific use of water.

The diversity of methods used in irrigation in the United States is remarkable. Practically every system to be found in the world can be seen in some part of the arid west. This is due to the fact that many of the irrigators have come from distant parts of the world and each seeks to introduce on his farm customs and practices of his old environments. This is particularly noticeable in California, where the Chinese irrigate their truck gardens in Chinese fashion, and Italians, Spaniards and Mexicans imitate for a time at least the practices of their forefathers.

Upward of one hundred and fifty thousand miles of irrigation canals, with reservoirs and supplementary works, have been built at a cost of more than six hundred million dollars. These projects are distributed through the States of Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Washington and Wyoming. The most notable among them are: the Truckee-Carson Canal and Reservoir, in Nevada; the Minidoka project, in southern Idaho; that of the Uncompahgre Valley, in Colorado; the Roosevelt Dam, in the Salt River Valley, Arizona; the Klamath Reservoir, on the Oregon-California boundary; the Boisé project, Idaho; that of Yuma, on the Arizona-California boundary; North Platte, on the Nebraska-Wyoming boundary; and the gigantic Elephant Butte Reservoir, in New Mexico—the second largest in the world.

Political Divisions.—Under its present organization the United States comprises fifty-one political divisions. Of these forty-eight are states enjoying the full privileges afforded by the federal constitution. The three territories—Alaska, Hawaii and Porto Rico—all are organized but not yet admitted to statehood. The Philippines have a modified territorial government.

(See Tables appended.)

It is worthy of remark that the center of population advanced westward during the ten decades since 1790 in a nearly uniform line along the thirty-ninth parallel of latitude.

THE CENTER OF POPULATION

Census
Year Approximate Location by Important Towns From Point
to Point
in Direct
Line

1790 Twenty-three miles east of Baltimore, Md. ...

1800 Eighteen miles west of Baltimore, Md. 40.6

1810 Forty miles northwest by west of Washington, D. C. 36.9

1820 Sixteen miles north of Woodstock, Va. 50.5

1830 Nineteen miles west by southwest of Moorefield, W. Va. 40.4

1840 Sixteen miles south of Clarksburg, W. Va. 55.0

1850 Twenty-three miles southeast of Parkersburg, W. Va. 54.8

1860 Twenty miles south of Chillicothe, Ohio 80.6

1870 Forty-eight miles east by north of Cincinnati, Ohio 44.1

1880 Eight miles west by south of Cincinnati, Ohio 58.1

1890 Twenty miles east of Columbus, Ind. 48.6

1900 Six miles southeast of Columbus, Ind. 14.6

1910 In the city of Bloomington, Ind. 39.0

Public Lands.—The United States originally owned nearly all the area of the states, with the exception of the original thirteen. Homesteads have been given, or sold at a nominal price, to all bona fide settlers. Vast areas have been given to railroad companies and in aid of education. The country’s Indian wards have been provided with ample reservations. The government has established great national parks, and it has reserved more than seventy-two thousand square miles of forest land.

The following tabulations give numerous important facts concerning the states and territories:

TABLE OF STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES

Date of Admission Into Union State or Territory
Origin and Meaning of Name
Area and Population
Motto and Meaning Settlement Where, When, By Whom
Original Territory from Which Derived Capitals and Populations
Chief Productions of State

1819 Alabama (Indian—Here we rest).
51,998 sq. miles. Pop. 2,138,093.
Motto: Here we rest. Mobile Bay, 1702, by the French.
From Louisiana, Georgia, Mississippi and Alabama territories. Montgomery: Pop. 38,136.
Corn, oats, wheat, rice, cotton, sugar, iron, lumber, manufactures, potatoes.

1867 ‡Alaska (Al-ay-eska, meaning “the great country”).
590,884 sq. miles. No motto. Three Saints, 1784, by the Russians.
Purchased from Russia in 1867 for $7,200,000. Juneau: Pop. 1,864.
Seals, salmon, gold, copper, silver, lumber, tin, lead, coal.

1911 Arizona (Indian—Sand Hills).
113,956 sq. miles. Pop. 204,354.
Motto: Ditat deus (Founded by God). Tucson, 1580, by the Spanish.
From New Mexico territory. Phoenix: Pop. 11,134.
Copper, gold, silver, alfalfa, fruits, live stock, wheat, barley.

1836 Arkansas (From a tribe of Indians).
53,335 sq. miles. Pop. 1,574,449.
Motto: Regnat populi (The people rule). Arkansas Post, 1685, by the French.
From Louisiana, Missouri and Arkansas territories. Little Rock: Pop. 45,941.
Cotton, lumber, corn, oats, wheat, fruits, wool, coal, tobacco.

1850 California (From an old Spanish romance).
158,297 sq. miles. Pop. 2,377,549.
Motto: Eureka (I have found it). San Diego, 1768, by the Spanish.
From New Albion, Upper California. Sacramento: Pop. 44,696.
Gold, silver, copper, lead, petroleum, borax, lumber, fruits, wine, olives, beet sugar.

1876 Colorado (Spanish—Red, or Ruddy). 103,948 sq. miles. Pop. 799,024.
Motto: Nil sine numine (Nothing without providence). Auroria, 1859, by the Americans.
From Louisiana and Mexican cession. Colorado territory. Denver: Pop. 213,381.
Gold, silver, coal, copper, vegetables, fruits, live stock, wheat, beet sugar, oats, corn.

* 1788 Connecticut (Indian—Long River).
4,965 sq. miles. Pop. 1,114,756.
Motto: Qui transtulit sustinet (He who transplanted still sustains). Windsor, 1636, by the English.
From North Virginia, New England. Hartford: Pop. 98,915.
Manufactures, woolen, cotton, notions; tobacco, iron, granite, cereals.

* 1787 Delaware (In honor of Lord De La Warr).
2,370 sq. miles. Pop. 202,322.
Motto: Liberty and independence. Wilmington, 1637, by the Swedes.
From New Sweden, New Netherlands, three lower counties on the Delaware. Dover: Pop. 3,720.
Corn, wheat, tomatoes, fruits, manufactures, leather, iron, steel, machinery.

1791 District of Columbia (In honor of Columbus).
70 sq. miles. Pop. 331,069.
Motto: Justitia omnibus (Justice to all). Rome, 1663, by the English.
Ceded to government by Maryland and Virginia. Washington: Pop. 331,069.
Flour mills, manufactures.

1845 Florida (Spanish—Blooming).
58,666 sq. miles. Pop. 752,619.
Motto: In God is our trust. St. Augustine, 1565, by the Spanish.
From Florida territory. Tallahassee: Pop. 5,018.
Fruits, vegetables, tobacco, rice, cotton, lumber, turpentine, resin, fish, phosphate.

* 1788 Georgia (In honor of George II.).
59,265 sq. miles. Pop. 2,609,121.
Motto: Obverse: Wisdom, justice, moderation. Reverse: Agriculture and commerce. Savannah, 1733, by the English.
One of the original thirteen states. Atlanta: Pop. 154,839.
Cotton, corn, rice, oats, tobacco, oysters, peaches, melons, marble, clay; cotton goods, lumber, fertilizers, tar.

... ‡Hawaii (From the native Owhyhee).
6,449 sq. miles. No motto. Honolulu, 1820, by the Americans.
From Sandwich Islands. Honolulu: Pop. 52,183.
Sugar, fruits, rice, coffee, hides, wool, honey, sisal.

1890 Idaho (Indian—Gem of the Mountains).
84,313 sq. miles. Pop. 325,594.
Motto: Salve (Hail). Coeur d’Alene, 1842, by the Americans.
From Oregon, Washington and Idaho territories. Boise City: Pop. 17,358.
Gold, silver, copper, lead, lumber, flour, wheat, oats, barley, live stock.

1818 Illinois (Indian—The Men).
56,665 sq. miles. Pop. 5,638,591.
Motto: National union, state sovereignty. Kaskaskia, 1682, by the French.
From Northwest, Indian and Illinois territories. Springfield: Pop. 51,678.
Corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, hay, live stock, wool, meat, manufactures.

1816 Indiana (Indian’s Ground).
36,354 sq. miles. Pop. 2,700,876.
No motto. Vincennes, 1702, by the French.
From Northwest and Indiana territories. Indianapolis: Pop. 233,650.
Corn, wheat, tobacco, vegetables, fruits, wool, coal, clay, flour, machinery.

1846 Iowa (Indian—Drowsy Ones).
56,147 sq. miles. Pop. 2,224,771.
Motto: Our liberties we prize and our rights we will maintain. Dubuque, 1833, by the Americans.
From Louisiana, Missouri, Michigan, Wisconsin and Iowa territories. Des Moines: Pop. 86,368.
Corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, hay, live stock, butter, coal, lumber, poultry.

1861 Kansas (Indian—Smoky Water).
82,158 sq. miles. Pop. 1,690,949.
Motto: Ad astra per aspera (To the stars through difficulties). Leavenworth, 1854, by the Americans.
From Louisiana, Kansas territory. Topeka: Pop. 43,684.
Corn, wheat, hay, live stock, fruits, coal, petroleum, salt, meats, Kaffir corn.

1792 Kentucky (Indian—Dark and Bloody Ground).
40,598 sq. miles. Pop. 2,289,905.
Motto: United we stand, divided we fall. Boonesboro, 1769, by the English.
From Virginia. Frankfort: Pop. 10,465.
Tobacco, hemp, wheat, cotton, live stock, lumber, coal, sorghum, flour.

1812 Louisiana (In honor of Louis XIV.).
48,506 sq. miles. Pop. 1,656,388.
Motto: Union, justice, and confidence. New Orleans, 1718, by the French.
From Louisiana, Territory of Orleans. Baton Rouge: Pop. 14,897.
Cotton, corn, rice, sugar, lumber, oysters, salt, sulphur.

1820 Maine (The Main Land).
33,040 sq. miles. Pop. 742,371.
Motto: Dirigo (I direct). Saco, 1623, by the English.
From New England, Laconia and Massachusetts. Augusta: Pop. 13,211.
Hay, grains, dairying, potatoes, wool, granite, ice, lumber, apples, paper.

* 1788 Maryland (In honor of Queen Henriette Maria).
12,327 sq. miles. Pop. 1,295,346.
Motto: Fatti maschii, parole femine (Manly deeds, womanly words). St. Mary’s, 1632, by the English.
From one of the original states. Annapolis: Pop. 8,609.
Wheat, hay, corn, vegetables, fruits, oysters, coal, wool, canned fruits, vegetables.

* 1788 Massachusetts (The Place of Great Hills).
8,266 sq. miles. Pop. 3,366,416.
Motto: Ense petit placidam sub liberate quietem (With the sword she seeks calm peace under liberty). Plymouth, 1620, by the English.
From North Virginia, New England, Massachusetts Bay. Boston: Pop. 670,585.
Manufactures (woolen, cotton), boots, shoes, fish, tobacco, granite, marble.

1837 Michigan (Indian—Great Lake).
57,980 sq. miles. Pop. 2,810,173.
Motto: Si quaeris peninsulam amoenam, circumspice (If you seek a beautiful peninsula, behold it here). Sault Ste. Marie, 1668, by the French.
From Northwest, Indiana and Michigan territories. Lansing: Pop. 31,229.
Corn, wheat, oats, hay, fruits, vegetables, iron, copper, clay, lumber, manufactures.

1858 Minnesota (Indian—Cloudy Water).
84,682 sq. miles. Pop. 2,075,708.
Motto: L’étoile du nord (The star of the north). St. Paul, 1838, by the Americans.
From Louisiana and Northwest and Minnesota territories. St. Paul: Pop. 214,744.
Corn, wheat, oats, barley, flaxseed, wool, live stock, flour, iron, lumber, dairying.

1817 Mississippi (Indian—Great River, or Father of Waters).
46,865 sq. miles. Pop. 1,797,114.
No motto. Biloxi, 1699, by the French.
From Louisiana and Georgia, Mississippi territory. Jackson: Pop. 21,262.
Cotton, corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, rice, tobacco, oysters, shrimps.

1821 Missouri (Indian—Great Muddy).
69,420 sq. miles. Pop. 3,293,335.
Motto: Salus populi suprema lex esto (The welfare of the people is the supreme law). St. Genevieve, 1755, by the French.
From Louisiana and Louisiana and Missouri territories. Jefferson City: Pop. 11,850.
Corn, wheat, oats, rye, cotton, swine, honey, zinc, lead, tobacco, meats.

1889 Montana (Spanish—A Mountain).
146,572 sq. miles. Pop. 375,053.
Motto: Oro y plata (Gold and silver). Yellowstone River, 1809, by the Americans.
From Louisiana and Nebraska, Idaho, Dakota and Montana territories. Helena: Pop. 39,165.
Wheat, wool, live stock, fruit, oats, barley, lumber, copper, lead, silver, coal.

1867 Nebraska (Indian—Shallow Water).
77,520 sq. miles. Pop. 1,192,214.
Motto: Equality before the law. Bellevue, 1847, by the Americans.
From Louisiana, Nebraska territory. Lincoln: Pop. 43,973.
Corn, wheat, oats, live stock, hay, chicory, sugar beets, fruits, potatoes.

1864 Nevada (Spanish—Snow-covered).
110,690 sq. miles. Pop. 81,875.
Motto: All for our country. Genoa, 1850, by the Americans.
From Upper California and Utah and Nevada territories. Carson City: Pop. 2,466.
Gold, silver, copper, zinc, wool, live stock, lumber, borax.

* 1788 New Hampshire (Hampshire, England).
9,341 sq. miles. Pop. 430,572.
No motto. Portsmouth, 1623, by the English.
From North Virginia, New England, Laconia. Concord: Pop. 21,497.
Hay, corn, potatoes, oats, apples, granite, mica, manufactures.

* 1787 New Jersey (In honor of governor of Jersey Island).
8,224 sq. miles. Pop. 2,537,167.
No motto. Elizabethtown, 1617, by the Dutch.
From New Netherland. Trenton: Pop. 96,815.
Market garden crops, cereals, fruits, fisheries, manufactures, textiles, machinery.

1911 New Mexico (From Old Mexico).
122,634 sq. miles. Pop. 327,301.
Motto: Crescit eundo (It increases by going). ... Santa Fe: Pop. 5,072.
Gold, silver, fruits, vegetables, live stock, wool, lumber, copper, coal, turquoise.

* 1788 New York (In honor of Duke of York).
49,204 sq. miles. Pop. 9,113,614.
Motto: Excelsior (Higher). New York, 1614, by the Dutch.
From New Netherland. Albany: Pop. 100,253.
Market garden crops, fruits, corn, wheat, dairying, manufactures, clothing, textiles, books, magazines, papers.

* 1789 North Carolina (In honor of Charles II.).
52,426 sq. miles. Pop. 2,206,287.
Motto: Esse quam videri (To be, rather than to seem). Albemarle Sound, 1653, by the English.
From Albemarle colony. Raleigh: Pop. 19,218.
Cotton, corn, tobacco, wheat, shad, oysters, lumber, mining.

1889 North Dakota (Indian—Allied).
70,837 sq. miles. Pop. 577,056.
Motto: Liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable. Pembino, 1859, by the Americans.
From Louisiana, Minnesota and Nebraska and Dakota territories. Bismarck: Pop. 5,443.
Wheat, oats, barley, flaxseed, live stock, wool, minerals.

1803 Ohio (Indian—Beautiful River).
41,040 sq. miles. Pop. 4,767,121.
No motto. Marietta, 1788, by the Americans.
From Northwest territory. Columbus: Pop. 181,548.
Corn, wheat, oats, hay, potatoes, fruits, tobacco, live stock, wool, dairying, coal, petroleum, salt, iron, steel, machinery, flour.

1907 Oklahoma (Indian—Beautiful Land).
70,057 sq. miles. Pop. 1,657,155.
Motto: Labor omnia vincit (Labor conquers everything). Guthrie, 1890, by the Americans.
From Indian and Oklahoma territories. Oklahoma City: Pop. 64,205.
Corn, wheat, oats, cotton, flax, live stock, petroleum, minerals.

1859 Oregon (Spanish—Wild Marjoram).
96,699 sq. miles. Pop. 672,765.
Motto: The union. Astoria, 1811, by the Americans.
From Oregon territory. Salem: Pop. 14,094.
Lumber, live stock, wheat, hay, fruits, hops, wool, salmon, gold, silver, paper making.

* 1787 Pennsylvania (Latin—Penn’s Woods).
45,126 sq. miles. Pop. 7,665,111.
Motto: Virtue, liberty and independence. Chester, 1638, by the Swedes.
From original state. Harrisburg: Pop. 64,186.
Manufactures, steel, machinery, textiles, coal, coke, petroleum, natural gas, iron, grains, wool, leather.

... ‡Philippines (In honor of Philip II.).
115,026 sq. miles. Cebu, 1565, by the Spanish.
From Archipelago de San Lazaro. Manila: Pop. 250,000.
Cocoa, coffee, tobacco, cotton, hemp, cocoanuts, corn, sugar, rice, timber, dyewoods.

... Porto Rico (Spanish—Rich Port).
3,435 sq. miles. San Juan, 1510, by the Spanish.
Ceded by Spain. San Juan: Pop. 50,000.
Coffee, sugar, tobacco, cotton, citrus fruits, bananas, pineapples, salt.

* 1790 Rhode Island (Rhodes, an island in the Ægean Sea).
1,248 sq. miles. Pop. 542,610.
Motto: Hope. Providence, 1636, by the English.
From Providence and Rhode Island plantations. Providence: Pop. 224,326.
Manufactures, worsted, cotton, jewelry, machinery, rubber, minerals.

* 1788 South Carolina (In honor of Charles II.).
30,989 sq. miles. Pop. 1,515,400.
Motto: Dum spiro, spero. Spes (While I breathe, I hope. Hope). Ashley River, 1670, by the English.
From Carteret colony. Columbia: Pop. 26,319.
Cotton, wheat, corn, oats, tobacco, rice, oysters, turpentine, lumber, phosphates.

1889 South Dakota (Indian—Allied).
77,615 sq. miles. Pop. 583,888.
Motto: Under God the people rule. Southeast part, 1859, by the Americans.
From Louisiana, Minnesota and Nebraska and Dakota territories. Pierre: Pop. 3,656.
Corn, wheat, oats, flax, potatoes, live stock, wool, gold, silver, tin, dairying.

1796 Tennessee (Indian—River with the Great Bend).
42,022 sq. miles. Pop. 2,184,789.
Motto: Agriculture, commerce. Fort Loudon, 1757, by the English.
From North Carolina, territory south of the Ohio River. Nashville: Pop. 110,364.
Corn, wheat, cotton, potatoes, tobacco, live stock, coal, iron, marble, lumber.

1845 Texas (From tribe of Indians).
265,896 sq. miles. Pop. 3,896,542.
No motto. San Antonio, 1692, by the Spanish.
From Mexican cession. Austin: Pop. 29,860.
Cotton, corn, oats, wheat, rice, sugar, live stock, wool, fruits, lumber, petroleum, coal.

1896 Utah (Indian—Mountain Dwellers).
84,990 sq. miles. Pop. 373,351.
Motto: Industry. Salt Lake City, 1847, by the Americans.
From Mexican cession, Utah territory. Salt Lake City: Pop. 92,777.
Gold, silver, copper, lead, coal, vegetables, fruits, sugar, wheat, oats, live stock, wool.

1791 Vermont (French—Green Mountain).
9,564 sq. miles. Pop. 355,956.
Motto: Freedom and unity. Fort Dummer, 1724, by the English.
From New Netherland, New Hampshire grants. Montpelier: Pop. 7,856.
Hay, cereals, potatoes, lumber, marble, dairying, maple sugar, manufactures, wood pulp.

* 1788 Virginia (In honor of Elizabeth, the virgin queen).
42,627 sq. miles. Pop. 2,061,212.
Motto: Obverse; Sic semper tyrannis (Ever so to tyrants). Reverse: Perseverando (By perseverance). Jamestown, 1607, by the English.
From South Virginia. Richmond: Pop. 127,628.
Corn, wheat, oats, tobacco, potatoes, cotton, oysters, coal, iron, cotton, manufactures.

1889 Washington (After George Washington, first president).
69,127 sq. miles. Pop. 1,141,990.
Motto: Al-Ki (Bye-bye). Columbia River, 1811, by the English.
From Oregon and Washington territories. Olympia: Pop. 6,996.
Lumber, coal, wheat, barley, oats, fruits, salmon, live stock, minerals.

1863 West Virginia (From Virginia).
24,170 sq. miles. Pop. 1,221,119.
Motto: Obverse: Montani semper liberi (Mountaineers are always free men). Reverse: Libertas et fidelitas (Liberty and fidelity). Berkeley County, 1726, by the Americans.
From Virginia. Charleston: Pop. 22,996.
Corn, oats, hay, wheat, fruits, cattle, sheep, lumber, coal, petroleum, natural gas, mining.

1848 Wisconsin (Indian—Wild Rushing Channel).
56,066 sq. miles. Pop. 2,333,860.
Motto: Forward. Green Bay, 1745, by the French.
From Northwest, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin territories. Madison: Pop. 25,531.
Corn, oats, barley, wheat, hay, potatoes, fruits, beet sugar, dairying, iron, lumber.

1890 Wyoming (Indian—Extensive Plain).
97,914 sq. miles. Pop. 145,965.
Motto: Equal rights. Cheyenne, 1867, by the Americans.
From Louisiana (chiefly), Nebraska, Dakota, Idaho, and Wyoming territories. Cheyenne: Pop. 11,320.
Wool, lumber, coal, copper, petroleum, minerals.

* Original Thirteen States. ‡ Organized Territories.

Cities.—In January, 1917, three cities of the United States, New York, Chicago and Philadelphia, had a population of over one million. St. Louis, Boston, Cleveland, Baltimore, Pittsburgh and Detroit had each over 500,000. Buffalo, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Milwaukee, Cincinnati, Newark, New Orleans, Washington, Minneapolis and Seattle had over 300,000. Forty-seven others had populations ranging from 100,000 to 300,000; while altogether there were one hundred and ninety-eight above 30,000.

The following table gives the approximate population of all cities in excess of 100,000.

POPULATION OF CITIES HAVING OVER 100,000 IN 1917

Cities Est. Pop.
Jan. 1,
1917

Akron, Ohio 106,000

Albany, N.Y. 110,000

Atlanta, Ga. 191,000

Baltimore, Md. 590,000

Birmingham, Ala. 182,000

Boston, Mass. 757,000

Bridgeport, Ct. 150,000

Buffalo, N.Y. 469,000

Cambridge, Mass. 112,000

Camden, N.J. 105,000

Chicago, Ill. 2,498,000

Cincinnati, Ohio 411,000

Cleveland, Ohio 674,000

Columbus, Ohio 215,000

Dallas, Tex. 135,000

Dayton, Ohio. 130,000

Denver, Col. 261,000

Des Moines, Iowa 106,000

Detroit, Mich. 572,000

Fall River, Mass. 130,000

Fort Worth, Tex. 100,000

Grand Rapids, Mich. 141,856

Hartford, Ct. 145,000

Houston, Tex. 148,000

Indianapolis, Ind. 272,000

Jersey, City, N.J. 306,000

Kansas City, Mo. 298,000

Los Angeles, Cal. 504,000

Louisville, Ky. 239,000

Lowell, Mass. 111,000

Memphis, Tenn. 160,000

Milwaukee, Wis. 437,000

Minneapolis, Minn. 364,000

Nashville, Tenn. 135,000

Newark, N.J. 408,000

New Bedford, Mass. 113,000

New Haven, Ct. 150,000

New Orleans, La. 372,000

New York City 5,603,000

Oakland, Cal. 192,000

Omaha, Neb. 166,000

Paterson, N.J. 126,000

Philadelphia, Pa. 1,710,000

Pittsburgh, Pa. 580,000

Portland, Ore. 296,000

Providence, R.I. 255,000

Reading, Pa. 107,000

Richmond, Va. 157,000

Rochester, N.Y. 257,000

Salt Lake City, Utah 125,000

San Antonio, Tex. 125,000

San Diego, Cal. 100,000

San Francisco, Cal. 464,000

Scranton, Pa. 150,000

Seattle, Wash. 349,000

Spokane, Wash. 125,000

Springfield, Mass. 102,103

St. Joseph, Mo. 101,800

St. Louis, Mo. 758,000

St. Paul, Minn. 247,000

Syracuse, N.Y. 155,000

Tacoma, Wash. 108,094

Toledo, Ohio 192,000

Trenton, N.J. 110,000

Washington, D.C. 364,000

Worcester, Mass. 164,000

Youngstown, Ohio 118,000

Atlanta (ăt-lăn´tȧ), Ga. [The “Gate City”; the name Atlanta was suggested by its geographical position, immediately on the dividing ridge, separating the Gulf and Atlantic waters.]

It is situated at the base of the Blue Ridge, near the Chattahoochee River; has an elevation of over one thousand feet, and a remarkably healthful climate.

Atlanta is laid out in the form of a circle, with the Union Depot as its center. A little to the south of the old Union Station is the State Capitol, which contains a library of about sixty thousand volumes and an interesting geological collection. A little to the northwest is the New Court House; and farther to the north, beyond the railway, are the Custom House and the L. & N. Freight House, an enormous concrete structure. The City Hall, the Chamber of Commerce, the Opera House, the Carnegie Library (of white marble), the Century Building, the Empire Building, the Equitable Building, the Jewish Temple, and the First Methodist Church are notable edifices. Among the chief educational establishments are the Georgia School of Technology, the Atlanta University (for colored students), the Agnes Scott Institute, and the Clark University (colored students). The finest private houses are in Peachtree Street.

Several railroads, converging at Atlanta and leading to other important Southern cities, greatly facilitate the city’s extensive and rapidly increasing trade. It has a large export trade in tobacco, cotton, horses, and mules, its mule market being one of the most important in the United States. Its manufactures include implements, fertilizers, cotton goods, other foundry and machine products.

Atlanta was first settled in 1830. In 1843 it was incorporated as a town, and called Marthasville. In 1845 changed its name to Atlanta, and two years later secured a city charter. It was an important city in the Confederacy and the objective point of General Sherman’s campaign. The battle of Atlanta (July 22, 1864) was fought southeast of the city. In September the city was made a military camp by Sherman, and in November he left the city in flames, and started on his “march to the sea.” The city was almost entirely destroyed, but recovered rapidly after the war, and in 1878 became the capital of Georgia.

Baltimore (bôl´tĭ-mōr), Md. [The “Monumental City”; named for the proprietor of a large tract of land in Maryland, Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, who settled the province in 1635.]

It is situated on an estuary of the Patapsco River, at the head of navigation, about fourteen miles from Chesapeake Bay, and is on the Baltimore and Ohio, the Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington, and other railroads. A good harbor and fine geographical situation give Baltimore unusual trade advantages, and it has become one of the great export centers of the United States.

The city is roughly divided into two nearly equal parts by a small stream, Jones Falls, which flows entirely through the city. The portion of the city northeast of the stream is called “Old Town.” Baltimore Street is the chief longitudinal thoroughfare.

The natural center for the visitor is Mt. Vernon Place, a small square, prettily laid out and suggesting Paris in its tasteful monuments and surrounding buildings. In the middle rises the Washington Monument, a column one hundred and thirty feet high, surmounted by a colossal statue of George Washington.

At the northeast corner of the square is the handsome Mt. Vernon Methodist Episcopal Church; at the southeast corner, Peabody Institute, for the encouragement of science, art, and general knowledge.

On the south side of the square is the house of Henry Walters, connected by an overhead bridge with a new picture-gallery containing the celebrated Walters Collection, one of the finest private collections of art in America.

Charles Street, one of the chief thoroughfares of the city, leads to the north from the Washington Monument past the Union Station, near which, at the north end of the B. & O. tunnel, is the Mt. Royal Station. Following Charles Street to the south we pass (right) the First Unitarian Church and the back of the Roman Catholic Cathedral, which faces Cathedral Street. The latter is surmounted by a dome one hundred and twenty-five feet high, and contains some interesting paintings. Adjacent is the residence of the Cardinal.

Farther on Charles Street passes the Masonic Temple, intersects Baltimore Street, the chief business street of the city, and is continued to South Baltimore. In East Fayette Street, to the left, is the Court House, a handsome white marble building, and the Post Office, in front of which rises the Battle Monument, erected in 1815 in memory of the struggles of the war of 1812-1814. The interior of the Court House is adorned with admirable mural paintings. To the east of the Post Office is the City Hall, a large and handsome building, with a dome two hundred and sixty feet high.

To the south of the City Hall, in Gay Street, between Water and Lombard Streets, is the imposing new Custom House, which was damaged by the fire of 1904, but has since been repaired and completed.

A little to the west of Mt. Vernon Place, between Howard St. and Eutaw St., are the unpretentious buildings formerly occupied by Johns Hopkins University, one of the foremost institutions of learning in the country. It was endowed with over three million five hundred thousand dollars by Johns Hopkins, a Quaker. In 1902 a suburban site about two miles north of the Washington Monument was secured for this famous university, and the first of a fine group of buildings was occupied by it in 1914.

The Johns Hopkins Hospital, opened in 1889, is also due to the liberality of Mr. Hopkins, who bequeathed over three million dollars for its foundation.

Both as a scientific and charitable institution, this hospital is an important adjunct to the University; and in the completeness of its equipment and excellence of its system, it ranks with the foremost hospitals in the world. The buildings of the Medical School of Johns Hopkins University adjoin the hospital.

Druid Hill Park, a pleasure-ground of about seven hundred acres, owes its beauty in great part to the fact that is has been preserved as a private park for one hundred years before passing into the hands of the city. Its hills afford beautiful views. Druid Lake, one-half mile long, is one of the reservoirs of the city waterworks.

Baltimore is an important center of the traffic in breadstuffs, and is also the seat of extensive and varied industries—cotton and woolen goods, flour, tobacco and cigars, beer, glassware, boots and shoes, iron and steel (including machinery, car-wheels, iron bridges, stoves, furnaces, etc.), clothing, pianos, organs, and the canning of oysters. Shipbuilding has become an important development, and Sparrows Point, with its immense Bessemer steel plant, is a place of great industrial activity.

The construction of the first important line of railway in the United States was begun at Baltimore in 1828 and carried on by private enterprise, and the first telegraph line was constructed to, and the first message received in, Baltimore. In 1904 Baltimore was visited by a fire which consumed fifty million dollars’ worth of property.

SOME VIEWS IN BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS: RIVER FRONT, PARKS AND NOTABLE BUILDINGS

THE CHARLES RIVER EMBANKMENT

STATE HOUSE BOSTON COMMON TREMONT STREET

Boston (bôs´ton), Mass. [Called the “Hub” and “Athens of America”; name is derived from Boston, a seaport in England, originally called Botalf, or Botolph’s town.]

The capital of Massachusetts, the chief town of New England, Boston is one of the oldest and most interesting cities of the United States. Whether considered from the point of view of its educational and charitable institutions, its trade, manufactures and public buildings, its influence upon the intellectual life and literary culture of the nation, or its historic part as an inspirational center of political liberty and social reform, its record and position command attention.

In no other American city are the civic and other public buildings more closely associated with events of national importance.

CUSTOM HOUSE

TRINITY CHURCH COPLEY-PLAZA HOTEL

PIERCE BUILDING PUBLIC LIBRARY

BUNKER HILL MONUMENT

Boston is situated at the head of Massachusetts Bay, about two hundred miles northeast of New York, and occupies a peninsula between the Charles River and the arm of the bay known as Boston Harbor. Originally the town was founded on three hills, Beacon, Copp’s and Fort, which, however, have been materially cut down. The metropolitan area now includes also East Boston, on Noddle’s or Maverick Island, on the other side of the harbor; South Boston, separated from the old city by an arm of the harbor; Charlestown, on the other side of the river; and the suburban districts of Brighton, Roxbury (or Boston Highlands), West Roxbury (including Jamaica Plain), and Dorchester. Boston is connected with the city of Cambridge by several bridges across the Charles. The old town is cramped and irregular, and its streets are narrow and crooked; but the new parts, especially the so-called Back Bay, formed by filling in the tide-water flats on the Charles, are laid out on a very spacious scale.

The chief retail business streets of Boston are Washington Street and Tremont Street. Among the finest residence streets are Commonwealth Avenue, Beacon Street, Marlborough Street, Mt. Vernon Street, and Bay State Road.

Boston Common, a park of forty-eight acres in the heart of the city, shaded by fine elms and other trees and crossed by many pleasant walks, has been reserved for public use since 1634 and is carefully guarded for this purpose in the charter of 1822. Just across Charles from the Common is the fine Public Garden, reclaimed from what was low-lying waste land.

That part of the Common adjoining Tremont Street and known as the Tremont Street Mall is now occupied by eight small buildings, covering the entrances to the stations of the Boston Subway, a wonderful piece of engineering that facilitates traffic by an underground system of electric cars. The subway was, in part, constructed in 1895-1898, at a cost of about four million one hundred and sixty-five thousand dollars, and since greatly extended by the expenditure of many millions more.

Near the northeast angle of the Common, on Beacon Hill, stands the State House, an imposing building surmounted by a huge gilded dome, and preceded by a Corinthian portico and a flight of steps. On the terrace in front are statues of Daniel Webster and Horace Mann. The dome is illuminated at night.

In Beacon Street, opposite the State House, is the beautiful Shaw Monument, by Saint-Gaudens, erected in honor of Colonel Shaw and his regiment, the first colored regiment raised during the Civil war.

In Pemberton Square is the new County Court House, a massive granite building in the German Renaissance style, with an imposing central hall adorned with emblematic figures. In School Street, to the left, is the City Hall, behind which is the Old Court House. In front of the City Hall are statues of Franklin and Josiah Quincy.

School Street ends at the large Old South Building in Washington Street, the most crowded thoroughfare in Boston, with many of the best shops. Following Washington Street (“Newspaper Row”) to the left, we soon reach, at the corner of State Street, the Old State House, dating from 1748 and restored as far as possible to its original appearance, even to the figures of the British lion and unicorn on the roof.

State Street, the center of financial life, leads to the east, past the Exchange Building (with the Stock Exchange) and other large office buildings, to the Custom House, a massive granite building in the shape of a Greek cross, with lofty tower.

Change Alley (now inappropriately styled “Avenue”), diverging to the left from State Street leads to Faneuil Hall, the “cradle of American liberty,” originally presented to the city in 1742, by Peter Faneuil, a Huguenot merchant, but rebuilt after a fire in 1761 and reconstructed on the original plan in 1898.

Devonshire Street leads to the right from State Street to the Government Building, a huge edifice occupying the entire block between Milk Street, Devonshire Street, Water Street and Post Office Square. The Post Office occupies the ground floor, the basement, and part of the first floor, while the rest of the building is devoted to the United States Sub-Treasury and the United States Courts.

At the corner of Washington Street stands the Old South Meeting House, built in 1729 on the site of an earlier church of wood, which lay near Governor Winthrop’s house.

Boylston Street, another important thoroughfare, diverging from Washington Street to the right, skirts the Common and Public Garden and leads to the Back Bay. At the corner of Berkeley Street (right) stands the Museum of Natural History, with a library of thirty thousand volumes and good zoological, ornithological, entomological and mineralogical collections. Opposite is the Berkeley Building, a structure of a fine commercial type. Adjacent are old buildings of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, one of the leading institutions of the kind in the world. It now occupies a magnificent group of buildings on the Cambridge side of the Charles River, erected at a cost of ten million dollars.

Boylston Street now reaches Copley Square, which offers perhaps the finest architectural group in Boston, including Trinity Church, the Copley-Plaza Hotel, the Public Library, the New Old South Church, and a number of imposing business structures. (See illustrations.)

Trinity Church, on the east side of the square, the masterpiece of H. H. Richardson and a typical example of “Richardsonian” architecture, is deservedly regarded as one of the finest buildings in America. Its style may be described as a free treatment of the Romanesque of Central France.

The Public Library, on the west side of the square, designed by McKim, Mead & White, and erected in 1888-1895, is a dignified, simple and scholarly edifice which forms a worthy mate to the Trinity Church. Its style is that of the Roman Renaissance.

The New Old South Church, so called as the successor of the Old South Church, is a fine building in the Italian Gothic style, with a tower two hundred and forty-eight feet in height. The marbles and ornamental stone work are very fine.

Huntington Avenue, which diverges to the left from Boylston Street at Copley Square, contains many important buildings. This thoroughfare, and the district known as the Back Bay Fens, is celebrated for its cultural institutions. Among them are Mechanics Hall, Horticultural Hall, the imposing Symphony Hall, the New England Conservatory of Music, and the new Opera House—all in Huntington Avenue. Just beyond this is the New Museum of Fine Arts, a large granite edifice by Guy Lowell, admirably adapted for its ends. Farther out, at the corner of Longwood Avenue, are the extensive new buildings of the Harvard Medical School, erected at a cost of five million dollars, and equipped in the most complete and up-to-date manner.

Commonwealth Avenue, which runs parallel with Boylston Street, is one of the finest residence streets in America, with rows of trees and handsome houses. It is two hundred and forty feet wide and adorned with statues.

Beacon Street, beginning on Beacon Hill, skirting the north side of the Common, and then running parallel with Commonwealth Avenue is the aristocratic street of Boston. Its back-windows command a fine view of the Charles River.

The Back Bay, the fashionable west end district traversed by the above-named streets, was at the beginning of the nineteenth century occupied by dreary mud-flats, salt-marshes and water.

The Back Bay Fens have been skillfully laid out on the site of unsightly swamps and form the first link in the splendid chain of parks and boulevards, of which Franklin Park is the chief ornament. The chief entrances to the Fens are marked by a gateway and a fountain; and at the end of Boylston Street is a fine memorial of John Boyle O’Reilly, by D. C. French.

Fenway Court, the residence of Mrs. John L. Gardner, a building in a Venetian style, enclosing a courtyard and incorporating many original balconies, windows, and other details brought from Italy, contains a choice collection of art, which is open to the public from time to time.

Franklin Park is five hundred and twenty acres in extent and lies in West Roxbury (reached by electric car). It abounds in natural beauty and many of its drives and walks are very attractive.

The Public Park System of Boston, as a whole, is almost unique. The City Park System, with a total area of twenty-four hundred acres, forms an almost unbroken line of parks and parkways from the Public Garden to City Point, in Boston Harbor. The Metropolitan System, forming an outer line of parks, has an area of eleven thousand acres, including two large wooded reservations (Blue Hills, and Middlesex Fells), three beaches (Revere Beach, Nantasket Beach, and Lynn Beach), and the boating section of the Charles River. When completed this system will afford fifty miles of drives.

The North End of Boston, embracing the site of Copp’s Hill, now one of the poorer districts and occupied mainly by foreigners, contains some points of considerable historical interest. The Copp’s Hill Burial Ground, dating from 1660, contains the graves of Increase, Cotton and Samuel Mather. Adjacent, in Salem Street, is Christ Church, the oldest church now standing in the city (1723), on the steeple of which the signal-lanterns of Paul Revere are said to have been displayed on April 18th, 1775, to warn the country of the march of the British troops to Lexington and Concord. North Square is the center of what is known as “Little Italy.” The House of Paul Revere has recently been restored and contains some relics.

Within metropolitan Boston are many famous institutions of learning. At the head of these stand Harvard University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Radcliffe College, the greater part of whose schools are in the adjoining city of Cambridge and the remaining in Boston. Among the institutions of higher education are Boston University, with its affiliated colleges, its schools of law, medicine, and theology, and its post-graduate department in philosophy, science, and language; the medical, dental, and agricultural schools of Harvard University; Boston College; the medical and dental schools of Tufts College; Simmons College for Women; the New England Conservatory of Music; the Massachusetts Normal Art School; the Lowell Institute; and the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy.

Wellesley College is situated in the beautiful village of Wellesley, about fifteen miles from Boston, on Lake Waban.

Besides Trinity Church, already referred to, there are upward of three hundred other edifices. Chief of these are the Cathedral of the Holy Cross, on the corner of Washington and Malden Streets, the largest and most noteworthy Catholic church in New England; Arlington Street Church, corner of Arlington and Boylston Streets; First Church of Christ, Scientist, on Falmouth Street, corner of Norway; and Fremont Temple, a Free Baptist Church.

The beauty of the parks, squares, and of many public buildings is enhanced by monuments and statues, of which the following are the chief: Bunker Hill Monument in Charlestown, two hundred and twenty feet high, built of granite and commemorative of the resistance and heroism of American patriots at the Battle of Bunker Hill; the equestrian statue of Washington in the Public Garden; the monument to Colonel Shaw; the Soldiers’ Monument in the Common; the Crispus Attucks monument, a memorial of the Boston Massacre of 1770; statues to General Joseph Warren, Edward Everett, Charles Sumner, Alexander Hamilton, Governor Winthrop, William Lloyd Garrison, Benjamin Franklin, Josiah Quincy, Beethoven, Daniel Webster, Horace Mann, Phillips Brooks and many other notable men.

The principal industries of Boston are the manufacture of food preparations, clothing, building, printing, publishing, and book-binding, distilled liquors, machinery, metals and metallic goods, and furniture. Other important manufactures include musical instruments, woolen goods, boots and shoes, rubber goods, tobacco, and drugs and medicines. As a commercial port, Boston ranks next to New York, the value of foreign trade amounting to two hundred million dollars annually. After London, the city is the leading wool market of the world.

Boston was settled in 1630 by a party of Puritans from Salem. A memorable massacre occurred here in 1770, and in 1773 several cargoes of English tea were thrown overboard in the harbor by citizens. The battle of Bunker Hill was fought on Breed’s Hill, within the present city limits, June 17, 1775. The city charter was granted in 1822.

Cambridge (kām´brĭj), Mass. [So named for the English university town of that name. The English name is supposed to mean “the bridge over the river Cam,” the real name of which is the Granta.]

It is virtually a suburb of Boston, from which it is separated by the Charles River, and with which it is connected by several bridges. The city comprises Old Cambridge, the seat of Harvard University, North Cambridge, East Cambridge, Cambridgeport, and Mount Auburn. The streets are broad and shaded with elms, and there are many places of historical and literary interest, among these the Craigie House and “Elmwood,” the homes of Longfellow and Lowell, respectively; and Mount Auburn Cemetery, containing the graves of Longfellow, Lowell, Prescott, Motley, Agassiz, Holmes, and other noted men.

The chief interest of Cambridge, however, lies in its educational institutions, which include Harvard University, Radcliffe College (for women), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Episcopal Theological School, and Andover Theological Seminary. All these institutions are now in close working alliance with Harvard University.

Harvard University, founded in 1636, is not only the oldest but the richest of American universities, and the roster of graduates contains more than twenty thousand names. Massachusetts Hall is the oldest of the present buildings, being built in 1720. The most notable buildings architecturally (besides the fine Medical School group in Boston) are: Austin Hall and Longdell Hall, devoted to the Law School; Widener Memorial Library, a splendid new building dominating the college yard; Busch Hall, devoted to the art collections of the Germanic Museum; Memorial Hall, containing Sanders Theater; and Sever Hall, containing class-rooms.

The activities of the university require upward of sixty other buildings, including laboratories, lecture halls, museums, residence halls, and a number of fine structures devoted to the social, religious, athletic and art life of the student body.

The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, founded in 1861, is located on the Charles River Parkway, and occupies a newly acquired area of about seventy acres. Here has been erected a magnificent group of buildings, unrivaled, perhaps, in design, adaptation for their respective uses, and general equipment. This institution is devoted to the teaching of science as applied to the various engineering professions—civil, mechanical, mining, electrical, chemical, and sanitary engineering—as well as to architecture, chemistry, metallurgy, physics, and geology.

Among the industrial establishments are foundries, machine shops, and extensive manufactories. The Riverside, Athenæum, and University Presses are well-known printing establishments, and the “Bay Psalm Book,” the first book printed in America, was published in Cambridge in 1640.

Cambridge was settled in 1630 by Governor Winthrop under the name of Newtowne. In 1636 Harvard College was founded at Newtowne, and in 1638 Newtowne became Cambridge. The Washington elm, under which Washington received command of the American troops, is still standing.

Under this ancient elm near the Cambridge Common, Washington assumed command of the American Continental army July 3, 1775, by order of the Continental Congress. It is therefore one of the landmarks of the greatest historic interest to every liberty-loving American—man, woman, or child.

MICHIGAN BOULEVARD AND GRANT PARK, CHICAGO, VIEWED FROM THE WEST SHORE OF LAKE MICHIGAN

1. Blackstone Hotel 2. Harvester Building 3. Congress Hotel 4. Auditorium Hotel 5. Fine Arts Building 6. Chicago Club 7. McCormick Building 8. Stratford Hotel 9. Railway Exchange 10. Orchestra Hall 11. Pullman Building 12. Gas Building 13. Lake View Building 14. Illinois Athletic Club 15. Monroe Building 16. University Club 17. Ward Building

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Chicago (shĭ-kä´gō), Ill. [The “Windy City”], probably received its name from the Indian Checagua, meaning “wild onion” and “pole-cat.”

It is the second city and largest railway center of the United States, and is situated on the southwest shore of Lake Michigan, at the mouths of the rivers Chicago and Calumet, five hundred and ninety feet above sea level and fifteen to seventy-five feet above the lake. It is eight hundred and fifty miles from Baltimore, the nearest Atlantic port, and two thousand four hundred and fifteen miles from San Francisco.

Chicago is noted for the magnitude of its commercial enterprises; for the greatness of its financial institutions; for the excellence of its parks and public playgrounds—particularly in the number, equipment, and splendid use of its small parks in congested localities; for its universities, its efficient public-school system, and for other educational, artistic, and morally uplifting institutions that give to it an enlightened, a cultured, and a progressive citizenship.

It is estimated that not more than 350,000 of the inhabitants are of native American parentage; about 550,000 are Germans, 250,000 are Irish, 225,000 Scandinavians, 160,000 Poles, 110,000 Bohemians, 40,000 Italians, 60,000 Canadians, and 100,000 English and Scottish. There are some fourteen languages, besides English, each of which is spoken by ten thousand or more persons.

The city has a water-front on the lake of twenty-six miles and is divided by the Chicago River and its branches into three portions, known as the North, South, and West Sides, to which must be added the “Loop,” or business part of the city. The site of the city is remarkably level, rising very slightly from the lake; and its streets are usually wide and straight. Among the chief business-thoroughfares are State, Clark, Madison, Randolph, Dearborn, and La Salle Streets, and Wabash Avenue. Perhaps the finest residence streets are Prairie and Michigan Avenues and Drexel and Grand Boulevards, on the South Side, and Lake Shore Drive, on the North Side.

A splendid bird’s-eye view of Chicago is obtained by ascending to the top of the tower of the Auditorium on Congress Street and Michigan Boulevard. This huge building, erected in 1887-1889 at a cost of three million five hundred thousand dollars, includes a large hotel and a handsome theater. The Fine Arts or Studebaker Building, adjoining the Auditorium, on Michigan Boulevard, is one of the show buildings of Chicago, and has deservedly been described as the focus of the artistic and intellectual life of Chicago, containing as it does a theater, concert, assembly, and lecture rooms, studios of leading artists, and the meeting-places of several clubs. The beautiful Romanesque building to the north of the Fine Arts Building is the Chicago Club. A little farther to the north, at the corner of Jackson Boulevard, is the tall Railway Exchange Building, erected in 1903-1904, and cased in tiles. Next to this on the north is the new building of the Chicago Orchestra Association, on the roof of which is the house of the “Cliff Dwellers,” a literary and artistic club. A little to the south of the Auditorium, at the corner of Harrison Street, is the Harvester Building, erected in 1907, beyond which is the palatial Blackstone Hotel. A little farther to the south is the Illinois Central Station.

Following Michigan Avenue toward the north from the Auditorium, we reach the Art Institute of Chicago, an imposing building in a semi-classical style, containing a valuable collection of paintings, sculptures, and other objects of art. Opposite is the magnificent People’s Gas Building, erected at a cost of eight million dollars.

Farther to the north, on the opposite side of Michigan Avenue, are the buildings of the Illinois Athletic Club, the University Club, and the Chicago Athletic Club. At the corner of Madison Street is the Montgomery Ward Building, with its tower, and a little farther up, at the corner of Washington Street, is the Chicago Public Library, an imposing building in a classical style, erected in 1893-1897, at a cost of two million dollars.

This fine edifice is worthy to rank with the Library of Congress and the Boston Public Library. The main entrances are to the north and south, in Randolph Street and Washington Street. The interior is sumptuously adorned with marble, mosaics, frescoes and mottoes. It contains three hundred and fifty thousand volumes. On the first floor is a large Memorial Hall, used by the Grand Army of the Republic and covered by a dome; it contains an interesting collection of Civil War and other historical relics.

On the north, Michigan Avenue ends at the Chicago River. Fort Dearborn stood to the left, on the river, at the end of the avenue.

The business quarters of Chicago occupy chiefly the great central district called the “Loop,” which is bounded by the lines of the Elevated Railway. We may follow Randolph Street to the west to the City Hall and County Building, two large adjoining buildings, in a modern classical style with huge Corinthian columns, built at a cost of five million dollars.

La Salle Street, leading to the south from the County Building, contains some of the finest office buildings in the city. Among these are the Chamber of Commerce at the corner of Washington Street; the Tacoma Building at the corner of Madison Street; the Y. M. C. A. Building, a little farther to the south; the New York Life Insurance Building; the low but impressive Northern Trust Co. Building, and the oddly shaped Women’s Temperance Temple, all three at the corners of Monroe Street; the new granite building of the Corn Exchange National Bank, the Home Insurance Co. Building, and the Rookery, with a very attractive interior lined with white marble. Farther on in La Salle Street, at the corner of Jackson Boulevard, is the Illinois Trust & Savings Bank, a massive two-storied edifice, with a fine central court. At the end of La Salle Street stands the granite building of the Board of Trade.

Jackson Boulevard leads hence to the east to the Federal Building, containing the Post Office and Custom House and occupying an entire city square. It is in the Corinthian style, with a large central dome two hundred feet in height.

Other notable buildings within the “Loop” district include: the Continental and Commercial Bank, Hotel La Salle, First National Bank, and the great department store, office, newspaper, and hotel buildings.

The park system of Chicago is without a parallel in America; it embraces Lincoln Park, on the lake shore to the north, and six others, and is divided into three sections, all connected or nearly so by magnificent boulevards, which, with the park drives, measure over sixty miles. In all, Chicago has ninety-three parks, covering more than four thousand four hundred acres. A characteristic feature of the system is the large number of small “People’s Parks” scattered through the poorer districts and provided with baths, gymnasiums and playgrounds. On the north side is Lincoln Park, reached via Lake Shore Drive, one of the finest residence streets in Chicago, containing some very handsome houses. This passes near the Water Works, at the foot of Chicago Avenue, and ends on the north at Lincoln Park, which is at present three hundred acres in area, but is being extended by filling in the adjacent shallows of Lake Michigan.

Among the attractions of this park are the conservatories, palm-house, lily-ponds, and flower-beds; a small zoological collection; a fountain illuminated at night by electric light; the statues of Lincoln (by Saint-Gaudens), Grant (by Rebisso), Beethoven, Schiller, La Salle, a Mounted Indian, and Linnaeus; and the boating lake. Near the main entrance is the Academy of Sciences, containing admirably arranged and classified collections illustrating the various natural sciences.

Grant Park, consisting of a public pleasure ground of two hundred and ten acres, lies between Michigan Boulevard and Lake Michigan. This park has been improved of late by the depression of the tracks of the Illinois Central Railway and by the construction of massive stone viaducts connecting the park proper with the lake shore. The adjoining part of the lake, between the shore and the breakwater, has been filled in and added to the park. In Grant Park, to the south of the Auditorium and opposite Eldredge Place, is an equestrian statute of General John A. Logan, in bronze, by Saint-Gaudens.

The South Side parks are also fine. They are best reached by Michigan Avenue and Drexel Boulevards, two fine residence streets with tasteful houses and ornamental gardens. Michigan Avenue also contains several churches, the Calumet Club, numerous large hotels and apartment houses, and the First Regiment Armory. In Drexel Boulevard is the handsome Drexel Memorial Fountain.

Washington Park (three hundred and seventy-one acres) and Jackson Park (five hundred and twenty-three acres) are connected by a wide boulevard known as the Midway Plaisance, on which is located the University of Chicago.

The West Side parks, Douglas Park, Garfield Park, and Humboldt Park are little inferior to those of the North and South Sides.

The University of Chicago, between Fifty-sixth and Fifty-ninth Streets, occupies probably the finest group of buildings, architecturally, devoted to higher education in the United States. The total value of buildings and equipment is more than thirty million dollars, one-fourth of which was contributed by citizens of Chicago and the balance by John D. Rockefeller. The ground has an area of sixty-six acres, and the university includes faculties of Arts, Literature, Science, Commerce and Administration, Education, Medicine, Law, and Divinity.

Above thirty different buildings have already been erected, mainly of limestone and in a Gothic style, from the designs of H. I. Cobb and Mr. Coolidge. Perhaps the most successful group is that at the corner of Fifty-seventh Street and Lexington Avenue, including an Assembly Hall, a Students’ Club House, the University Tower, and the University Commons. Other important buildings are the Cobb Lecture Hall, the Kent Chemical Laboratory, the Ryerson Physical Laboratory, the Law School, the Anatomy, Physiology, Zoology, and Botany Buildings, the Walker Museum, the Haskell Oriental Museum, the handsome Bartlett Gymnasium, dormitories for women and dormitories for men. On the south edge of the campus stands the main structure of the Harper Memorial Library, an enormous Gothic building by Shepley, Rutan & Coolidge, erected in memory of President Wm. R. Harper. The Yerkes Observatory, at Williams Bay on Lake Geneva, containing one of the largest refracting telescopes in the world, belongs to the University of Chicago. Connected with the University is the large School of Education, facing the Midway Plaisance, between Monroe and Kimbark Avenues.

Other notable educational institutions include the Lewis Institute, founded and endowed by the late Mr. A. A. Lewis and opened in 1896, comprising a School of Arts and a School of Engineering, tuition in which is furnished at a nominal cost; and the Armour Institute, a well equipped institution for higher technical education, endowed by its founder with three million dollars.

Hull House, at the southwest corner of Polk and South Halsted Streets, is a social settlement of men and women, furnishing a social, intellectual, and charitable center for the surrounding district. It includes a free kindergarten, a coffee-house, a residential boys’ club, a theater, a labor-museum, and a free gymnasium, while classes, lectures, and concerts of various kinds are held.

The famous Union Stockyards (“Packingtown”) are in South Halsted Street, five and one-half miles to the southwest of the City Hall, and may be reached by the South Halsted Street or Racine Avenue trolley-lines, both running directly to the main entrance at Forty-first Street. The yards proper cover an area of about five hundred acres, have twenty-five miles of feeding-troughs, and twenty miles of water-troughs, and can accommodate seventy-five thousand cattle, three hundred thousand hogs, fifty thousand sheep, and five thousand horses. From two-thirds to three-fourths of the cattle and hogs are killed in the yards, and sent out in the form of meat. About thirty thousand workers are employed by the packing-houses. Chicago is the greatest live stock and grain market in the world.

Among the more important general manufactures of the city may be mentioned those of railway cars, locomotives, agricultural implements, mining appliances, clothing, electrical apparatus, lumber products, furniture, pianos, organs, leather, cigars, chemicals, beer, spirits, and flour. The steel and iron industry is conducted on a large scale, and the city has some large rolling mills. Chicago is also one of the leading publishing centers of the United States, and is an active jobbing center for the book trade.

As a center of railroad industry Chicago takes precedence over all cities of the world. Twenty-six of the principal trunk-line railroads of the United States run trains into Chicago terminals, and in addition to these there are numerous belt transfer, terminal and industrial lines which have either a part or all of their trackage in the city. Within the corporate limits of the city are eight hundred miles of main line railway and one thousand four hundred miles of auxiliary track. The total mileage of the twenty-six roads entering Chicago approximates ninety-seven thousand miles, or about forty-two per cent of the total mileage of the United States. The land occupied by main line property within Chicago represents nine thousand six hundred acres, or eight per cent of the entire area of the city.

There are six principal passenger terminals in Chicago, located as follows:

Baltimore & Ohio Terminal (Grand Central Station), at Fifth Avenue and Harrison Street. Central Station, at Michigan Avenue and Twelfth Street. Chicago & North Western Passenger Terminal, at North Clinton, West Madison, and North Canal Streets. La Salle Street Station, with entrance on Van Buren Street. Dearborn Station, at Dearborn and Polk Streets. Union Passenger Station, at Adams and Canal Streets.

Present plans are under way, however, to concentrate all roads entering Chicago in three great union stations—the North Western Station (already built, at a cost of $25,000,000), the Illinois Central Station, and the Pennsylvania Station, the two latter involving an expenditure of one hundred and fifty million dollars.

The water carrying trade of Chicago is comparable to that of New York and Boston, and exceeds that of Philadelphia, New Orleans, Baltimore, and San Francisco.

The Chicago Tunnel System involves a labyrinth of small tunnels or subways, six by seven and one-half feet in size, and sixty-two miles long, forty feet under the principal business streets within the Loop district. These tunnels connect with all railway freight depots, passenger stations and, through their sub-basements, with a number of the larger mercantile concerns. They also extend beyond the Loop—north, south, and west—a distance of about two miles. They are not designed for passenger traffic, but are used by cars laden with all sorts of merchandise, coal, ashes, etc.

There are three underground power stations, four universal freight and transfer stations (one of them occupying five floors below the ground), eighty-five ordinary stations, and twelve tunnels, extending sixty feet under the Chicago River or its branches. So far, between thirty million and forty million dollars have been expended on construction and equipment. The bores also contain the cables of the automatic telephone company.

The site of Chicago was first visited by Joliet and Marquette in 1673. The United States Government established there the frontier post of Fort Dearborn in 1804. On October 8 and 9, 1871, occurred the memorable fire which reduced the greater part of the city to ashes. In 1886 occurred the Haymarket riot, in 1893 the World’s Columbian Exposition was held in Chicago, and in 1894 the Pullman strike, the greatest in history, centered in Chicago.

Cincinnati (sin-si-nä´ti), Ohio. [The “Queen City,” named in honor of Cincinnatus, the Roman patriot.]

It is the second city of Ohio, on the north bank of the river Ohio, two hundred and seventy miles southeast of Chicago by rail, opposite the cities of Covington and Newport, in Kentucky. Steam ferries and six lofty bridges connect the city with the Kentucky shore; the suspension bridge by Roebling is two thousand two hundred and fifty feet long, and cost one million eight hundred thousand dollars.

Cincinnati occupies an exceedingly broken and irregular site, the more densely built parts being enclosed between the Ohio River and steep hills. The river front is upwards of fourteen miles in length. A second terrace is fifty or sixty feet higher, and a district between the hills and the Miami Canal, known as “over the Rhine,” is occupied by the large German colony.

The main portion of the city is regularly laid out and its streets are well paved. The chief shopping district is bounded by Fourth, Main, Seventh, and Elm Streets. The best residential quarters are on the surrounding highlands, built on a succession of irregular hills, by whose steepness they are broken into a series of some five and twenty villages, interspersed with parks.

Fountain Square, an expansion of Fifth Street, may, perhaps, be called the business center of the city and from it start most of the street railway lines. In the middle of the square stands the Tyler Davidson Fountain, cast at the Royal Bronze Foundry at Munich. To the north, at the corner of Fifth Street and Walnut Street, is the United States Government Building containing the Post Office, Custom House, and United States Law Courts, erected at a cost of five million dollars. It is of sawed freestone in the Corinthian style.

By following Fifth Street to the west and turning to the left down Vine Street, we pass the entrance to the Emery Arcade and reach, at the corner of the busy Fourth Street, the Chamber of Commerce. Opposite, at the northeast corner of Fourth and Vine Streets, stands the Ingalls Building. On the north side of Fourth Street, between Vine and Race Streets, is the fine Third National Bank.

Following Fourth Street towards the west, we soon reach Plum Street, which we may follow to the right to St. Paul’s Protestant Cathedral, at the corner of Seventh Street; the Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Peter, at the corner of Eighth Street, and the Synagogue, opposite the last. In the block bounded by Central Avenue and Eighth, Ninth and Plum Streets is the City Hall, a large red building in a Romanesque style, with a lofty tower, constructed of brown granite and red sandstone at a cost of one million six hundred thousand dollars. A little to the east, in Vine Street, between Sixth and Seventh Streets, is the Public Library. To the north of this point, “over the Rhine,” is Washington Park, with the Springer Music Hall and the Exposition Building.

Among other buildings may be mentioned the County Court House, St. Xavier’s College, the Oddfellows’ Temple and the Cincinnati Hospital. Recent buildings of the modern type include the Traction Building, the Mercantile Library, the Union Trust Building, and the First National Bank.

The chief park of Cincinnati is Eden Park, which lies on the hills to the east and affords fine views of the city and river. It contains the Art Museum, a storage reservoir of the City Water Works, and the Water Tower. The top of the last affords the best view of the city and its environs, the river, and the Kentucky Highlands.

The Art Museum is a handsome group of buildings on a hill-top, some in a Romanesque, others in a Grecian style. Adjacent is the Art Academy. Both are maintained by a private corporation.

There are more than two hundred and fifty churches, including a Roman Catholic cathedral; besides many handsome theaters, hotels, and public halls, hospitals and asylums, and schools.

The educational institutions are of the highest order. They include the University of Cincinnati, which has associated with it the Cincinnati Hospital and the Cincinnati Observatory, the Ohio and Miami Medical Colleges, St. Joseph’s and St. Xavier’s Jesuit Colleges, the Law Theological Seminary, Cincinnati Conservatory of Music and the Ohio Mechanics’ Institute.

Cincinnati is a center of musical and art culture, and its decorative pottery and wood-carving have a national reputation. It has a large river and canal traffic, and many railways converge here.

Among the factories are clothing factories, foundries, machine shops, coach-works, works for the manufacture of furniture, tobacco, shoes, leather, etc. There is some boat-building and printing; and the slaughter-houses, stockyards, and grain elevators are very extensive.

Cincinnati was settled by white men in 1780, was incorporated as a city in 1819, and early attained the name of “the Queen City of the West;” as also that of “Porkopolis,” from its great trade in pork. Great riots occurred in 1884, and were with difficulty suppressed by the military.

Cleveland, Ohio. [The “Forest City;” named in honor of General Moses Cleveland of Connecticut, who had charge of the surveying of this region, acting as general agent for the Connecticut Land Company.]

It is the largest city of Ohio, and is situated on the south shore of Lake Erie, three hundred and fifty miles by rail east of Chicago. The city is built mainly upon a plain from sixty to one hundred and fifty feet above the lake, and five hundred and eighty feet above sea-level. It is divided into the East and West Sides by the tortuous valley of the Cuyahoga River, which is crossed by two high-level bridges—one mainly of stone, and one of iron, three thousand nine hundred and thirty-one feet long. The former, one thousand and seventy feet long, was completed in 1878 at a cost of two million two hundred thousand dollars. There are three other similar viaducts in different parts of the city.

The chief business street is Superior Avenue, a really fine and wide thoroughfare, the west end of which is lined with substantial business blocks, such as the Perry-Payne Building. A little farther on the street expands into Monumental Park or the Public Square, containing a Soldiers’ Monument and a statue of General Moses Cleveland. The new Federal Building, at the northeast corner of the square, contains the Post Office, the Custom House, and the Court House.

This building is the first of several public buildings comprised in the so-called “Group Plan,” the others being the City Hall, County Building, Public Library, and Union Station. A broad mall connects all these buildings.

At the northwest corner is the Old Court House, adjoined by the American Trust Building. On the north side of the square, at the corner of Ontario Street, is the handsome building of the Society for Savings, established in 1849, and now having deposits of upwards of fifty million dollars. Adjacent is the Chamber of Commerce, containing a handsome auditorium, with a library and reading room. In Superior Avenue, beyond the Federal Building, is the massive City Hall, which is adjoined by the temporary building of the Public Library. A little to the north of this point is the huge Central Armory.

Euclid Avenue, which begins at the southeast angle of the Public Square, is, at its east end, also an important artery of business, and farther out becomes one of the most beautiful residence streets in America, with each of its handsome houses surrounded by pleasant grounds and shady trees. At the northeast corner of the Square and Euclid Avenue is the Williamson Building; a little farther on, also on the north side of the Avenue, is the handsome First National Bank; on the right is the tall, narrow building of the Guardian Savings & Trust Co. To the left is the Arcade, four hundred feet long, one hundred and eighty feet wide, and one hundred and forty-four feet high, with a fine five-balconied interior, running through to Superior Avenue; and to the right is the Colonial Arcade, running through to Prospect Avenue. At the corner of East Sixth Street are the tall Garfield and New England Buildings. Nearly opposite the New England Building is the new Taylor Arcade, just east of which is the Hippodrome Building. Farther on, near east Ninth Street, is the Citizens Building, with the offices of the Citizens Savings & Trust Co., and at the corner is the Schofield Building. Directly opposite the latter, at the southeast corner of East Ninth Street and Euclid Avenue, is the Cleveland Trust Co. At the corner of East Twelfth Street is the handsome Union Club. Farther on are several fine churches. About four and one-half miles from the Public Square Euclid Avenue reaches University Circle, with a statue of Senator M. A. Hanna by Saint-Gaudens, and one of Kossuth, erected by the Hungarians of Cleveland. To the right is the building of the Western Reserve Historical Society, to the left is the Elysium, an artificial ice skating rink. Just beyond the Circle is the entrance to Wade Park, which contains statues of Commodore Perry, and a Goethe-Schiller Monument. Opposite the Park are the buildings of the Western Reserve University (including Adelbert College, Woman’s College, Law, Medical, and Dental Schools, and a Library School, in addition to the graduate department) and the Case School of Applied Science. About one mile farther on the avenue passes Lake View Cemetery, containing the Garfield Memorial, the Rockefeller Monolith, the graves of Senator Hanna and John Hay, and the Wade Memorial Chapel.

Prospect Avenue, which runs parallel to Euclid Avenue on the south, is little inferior to it in beauty.

Cleveland’s rapid growth is due mainly to the fact that nowhere else can the rich iron ores of Lake Superior, the coal of Northern Ohio, and the limestone of the Lake Erie islands, be brought together so cheaply; its position at the north terminus of the Ohio Canal being very advantageous, and seven railways terminate here.

The chief industries of the city are the various manufactures of iron, including steel rails, forgings, wire, bridges, steel and iron ships, engines, boilers, nails, screws, sewing machines, agricultural implements and machinery of all kinds, the refining of petroleum, wood-work, and other manufactures of endless variety. Cleveland is the greatest iron ore receiving point in America, one of the largest lumber markets and extensively engaged in the automobile industry.

Cleveland was founded in 1796 by General Moses Cleveland, under the direction of the Connecticut Land Company. In 1814 Cleveland was incorporated as a village with less than one hundred inhabitants. The opening of the Ohio land served as an impetus to growth, and in 1836 Cleveland was incorporated as a city. Its great prosperity dates from its connection by rail with the cities of the East and the manufacturing establishments set up during the Civil War.

Des Moines (dē-moin´), Iowa. [This name was applied by the Indians to a place in the form of Moingona, which the French shortened into Moin, calling the river “rivière des Moins.” Finally, the name became associated with the Trappist monks, and the river by a spurious etymology was called “la rivière des moines,” “the river of the monks.”]

The capital and largest city of Iowa, it is an important manufacturing and commercial city, and noted especially for its extensive insurance interests and exceptional railroad facilities. It has many important buildings, among them the Capitol, built at a cost of three million dollars, the United States Government Building, the State Arsenal, a State Historical Building, completed in 1908 at a cost of five hundred thousand dollars, Drake University, Highland Park College, Des Moines College, and a state library. A new city hall at a cost of four hundred thousand dollars, and a great coliseum to seat ten thousand are recent additions.

The city has nearly one hundred churches of all denominations. Half a dozen bridges over the two rivers connect the different parts of the town, and there is a public park, with fine groves of forest trees.

Vast bituminous coal fields have contributed to the growth of the manufacturing industries. These include typewriters, wagons, sleighs, cotton and woolen goods, pottery, furniture, and electrical appliances. The city was one of the first to adopt the electric car system.

Des Moines was settled in 1846, incorporated as the town of Fort Des Moines, 1851, chartered as a city and became the capital of the State in 1857. In 1907 Des Moines adopted the commission form of government and attained wide celebrity as a leader in progressive municipal government.

Denver, Colo. [The “Queen City of the Plains”; named after James W. Denver, ex-Governor of Kansas, upon the consolidation in 1860 of the towns of St. Charles and Aurora.]

The capital of Colorado, it is situated on the South Platte River, nine hundred and twenty-two miles west of St. Louis. It lies on a level plain, five thousand one hundred and ninety-six feet above the sea, beyond which rise the snow-capped peaks and deep blue shoulders of the Rocky Mountains.

The Union Depot lies at the foot of Seventeenth Street, one of the chief business thoroughfares, and electric cars start from here for all parts of the city. Near the station is a large bronze Arch, bearing the work “Welcome.” The route up Seventeenth Street and Seventeenth Avenue by electric car to the City Park and then across to Colfax (or Fifteenth) Avenue and return traverses the chief features of the city. On the way out is passed the Equitable Building, the roof of which affords a superb view.

The Rocky Mountains are seen to the west in an unbroken line of about one hundred and seventy miles, extending from beyond Long’s Peak on the north to Pike’s Peak on the south. Among the loftiest of the intervening summits are Grey’s Peak, Torrey’s Peak, and Mount Evans. The bird’s-eye view of the city in the immediate foreground includes the State Capitol and the fine residences of Capitol Hill on the east.

At the corner of Seventeenth and Glenarm Streets is the Denver Club, and at the corner of Sherman Avenue are the University Club and the Central Presbyterian Church. In returning through Colfax (or Fifteenth) Avenue the following buildings may be observed: the State Capitol, an imposing structure erected at a cost of two million five hundred thousand dollars; the new Public Library, between Acoma and Bannock Streets; the United States Mint, at the corner of Cherokee street, and the West Side Court House. The County Court House occupies the block bounded by Court Place and Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Tremont Streets. The Custom House and Post Office, on Sixteenth Street, is another imposing building. In Fourteenth Street is a handsome Auditorium used by the Democratic Convention in 1908.

The other important buildings of the city include the Denver High School, Stout Street, between Nineteenth and Twentieth Streets; the City Hall, corner Fourteenth and Larimer Streets; the Mining Exchange; the Chamber of Commerce; Baptist College (Montclair); the Tabor Opera House Block; the Broadway Theater; the Denver Athletic Club; Trinity Church, Broadway and Eighteenth Street; the Church of Christ, Scientist, Fourteenth and Logan Avenues; the Y. M. C. A., Lincoln and Sixteenth Avenues; Mystic Shrine Temple, Sherman and Eighteenth Avenues; the Westminster University of Colorado, and the Jesuit College of the Sacred Heart (College Avenue, corner of Homer Avenue). On Capitol Hill are the new buildings of St. Mary’s Cathedral (Roman Catholic) and St. John’s Cathedral (Episcopalian). The Art Museum, in Montclair, contains a collection of paintings and other objects of art. The Museum in the City Park includes an interesting collection of Colorado animals. In University Park, eight miles to the southeast of the Union Depot, is the University of Denver.

The city is the center of a great agricultural and mining district, and has a large trade in cattle, hides, wool, and tallow. It is chiefly, however, to its position as the center of a great mining region that Denver owes its marvelous progress; the discovery, in 1878, of the fabulous wealth of the Leadville Hills attracted capital and emigration from all parts of the continent. It has a United States assaying mint, is an important ore market, and is noted for its smelting and refining works, foundry and machine shops.

Denver has an abundant water supply, and the clear invigorating air and dry climate of Denver are famous. It was founded on a barren waste, dry and treeless, in 1858, and the following year incorporated as a city by the Provisional Legislature.

Detroit (dē-troit´), Mich. [The “City of the Straits”; named from the river or strait on which the city is built. Derived from two French words, detroit, “the narrows.”]

It is situated on the Detroit River, eighteen miles from Lake Erie, at an altitude of six hundred feet. The river, sometimes called the “Dardanelles of the New World,” is here the boundary between the United States and Canada. It affords a splendid harbor, with a water-front of about nine miles. Ferries connect with the Canadian side. Many beautiful islands, with those of Lake St. Clair, are popular as places of summer residence and resort.

One of these, Belle Isle, is about seven hundred acres in extent and forms a beautiful public park, with fine trees, and still retaining many of its natural features unimpaired. It contains a statute of Schiller, a small zoological collection, a large aquarium and horticultural building, and a casino.

Woodward Avenue, the principal thoroughfare, divides the city into two very nearly equal parts. It is also the main business street, and at its northern end has many of the city’s most prominent buildings. Its expansion, about half a mile from the river, is known as the Campus Martius, adorned with a handsome fountain, from which Michigan and Gratiot Avenues diverge to the left and right. To the left stands the City Hall, the tower of which contains a clock with a dial eight and one-half feet in diameter. In front of the City Hall is the Soldiers’ Monument.

In Gratiot Avenue, near the Campus Martius, is the Public Library, containing two hundred and twenty thousand volumes and some historical relics. The Chamber of Commerce, at the corner of Griswold and State Streets, is thirteen stories high. The Post Office, in Fort Street, adjoining the site of the old Fort Lernoult, is a handsome building. In the same street, at the southeast corner of Shelby Street, is the State Savings Bank, and adjoining it on the east is the tall Penobscot Building.

Just to the east of the Campus Martius, in Cadillac Square, stands the County Building. It is in a plain renaissance style with a Corinthian portico over the main entrance, sculptures in the pediment, and a tower surmounted by a gilded dome. In front of it is the Cadillac Chair, erected in 1901 to commemorate the two hundredth anniversary of the city’s foundation.

A little farther on Woodward Avenue reaches Grand Circus Park, a square with trees, fountains, and a statue of ex-Governor Pingree. To the north, at the corner of Adams Street, is the Central Methodist Church, with a richly decorated interior. One block to the east, between Adams and Elizabeth Streets, is the new building of the Y. M. C. A. At the corner of Edmund Place, one-half mile farther on, are the First Unitarian and First Presbyterian churches, two fine Romanesque buildings of red stone. Between Erskine and Eliot Streets, to the right, is the Temple Bethel, an effective Jewish synagogue. Also to the right, at the head of Martin Place, is the handsome Harper Hospital; and Grace Hospital is also seen to the right (corner of Willis Avenue and John R. Street) a little farther on. To the left, a little higher up, is the Detroit Athletic Club. The north end of Woodward Avenue and the adjoining streets form the principal residence quarter.

Jefferson Avenue, which runs at right angles to Woodward Avenue, crossing it one-fifth mile from the river, contains many of the chief wholesale houses, and toward its northeast end has also many pleasant residences. The site of Fort Pontchartrain was at the corner of Jefferson Avenue and Griswold Street, two squares to the west of Woodward Avenue. To the east, on the left side of the street, are the Roman Catholic Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul and the Jesuit College, and on the right side the Academy of the Sacred Heart. On the same side, at the corner of Jefferson Avenue and Hastings Street, about one-half mile to the east of Woodward Avenue, stands the Museum of Art, containing paintings, sculptures and oriental curiosities.

The commerce of Detroit is enormous, a number of conditions favoring it as a commercial and industrial center. Its geographical position brings it into relation with an immense lake traffic and with the Canadian trade. About three-fourths of the total trade is with Canada. The principal exports are grain, wool, pork, lard, hides, and copper. It has important lumbering interests and large tanneries.

The manufactures include stoves, freight cars, drugs, varnish, paint, furniture, carriages, cigars, and matches. Other industries are those of iron and steel, foundry and machine shop products, and the manufacture of malt liquors.

The site of Detroit was visited by a party of Frenchmen as early as 1610, and again by La Salle in 1670, but no permanent settlement was made until 1701, when Sieur de la Mothe Cadillac, the first Governor of the French territory in this vicinity, built Fort Pontchartrain and established a small trading village. In 1815 Detroit was incorporated as a village, and in 1824 was chartered as a city by the Legislature of Michigan Territory. It was the capital of the Territory from 1805 to 1837, and of the State from 1837 to 1847.

Hartford, Conn. [Named from Hertford, England.] It is the capital of Connecticut, on the right bank of the Connecticut River, fifty miles from its mouth, and one hundred and twelve by rail northeast of New York. It is a handsome city, finely situated on the navigable Connecticut River, at its confluence with the Park River. The Union Depot is near the center of the town. To the southwest of it, beyond the Park River, lies Bushnell Park, containing the handsome white marble Capitol, a conspicuous object in most views of the town.

The fine sculptural embellishment of the north facade of the Capitol was done under the supervision of Paul W. Bartlett and partly by his own hand. The Senate Chamber contains a good portrait of Washington, by Stuart, and an elaborately carved chair, made from the wood of the “Charter Oak.” In the Library are the Charter of Connecticut and portraits of Connecticut governors. In the east wing of the ground floor is a statue of Nathan Hale, and in the west wing are the tombstone of General Putnam and a statue of Governor Buckingham.

The gateway to the park was erected as a Soldiers’ Memorial.

Following Capitol Avenue to the east and then turning to the left, along Main Street, is the Wadsworth Athenæum, containing a gallery and libraries with one hundred and fifty thousand volumes, and the collections of the Historical Society. Adjacent are the buildings of the Ætna Life Insurance, the Ætna Fire Insurance, and the Travelers Insurance Co. A little farther on is the Post Office, adjoined by the interesting Old State House, erected by Chas. Bulfinch. Opposite is the Connecticut Mutual Life Insurance Co. The State Arsenal is also on Main Street farther along.

Near the State House are the High School, the Hartford Orphan Asylum, and the Hartford Theological Institute. About a mile to the south is Trinity College, with fine buildings and equally fine location. The Colt Firearms factory is in the southeast part of the city, and near it is the handsome Church of the Good Shepherd, erected in memory of Colonel Colt, inventor of the revolver, by his wife.

A tablet at the corner of Charter Oak Place marks the site of the “Charter Oak,” where, in 1687, the charter of Connecticut was concealed to save it from Sir Edmund Andros, a tyrannical British governor. Charter Oak Park is famous for its trotting races. Elizabeth Park has a fine show of flowers.

Among other large buildings are the Retreat for the Insane, the Deaf and Dumb Asylum, the Old Folks Home, the City Hospital, and St. Joseph’s Roman Catholic Cathedral. The last is in Farmington Avenue, which, with its continuation, Asylum Street, contains many fine private residences.

Hartford is a prominent commercial and manufacturing city, and is particularly noted for the importance of its insurance companies, rating third in this regard among the cities of the United States. It is the farthest point, at present, to which large steamers can ascend the Connecticut River. Among the manufactures are firearms—the celebrated Colt manufactory is here—typewriters, rubber goods, especially tires, electrical supplies, automobiles, bicycles, sewing-machines, hardware, tools, carriages, silver plate, woven wire mattresses, book binding machinery, cash registers, knit goods, etc.

The site of a Dutch fort in 1633, and of a colony of Massachusetts settlers as early as 1635-1636, Hartford was incorporated as a city in 1784. Here (January 14, 1639) was adopted the first constitution in writing ever proclaimed by a people organizing a government, therefore Hartford is called the birthplace of American democracy. In 1687 occurred the famous attempt of Governor Andros to seize the charter of Connecticut. Hartford was the capital of Connecticut until 1701, thenceforth until 1873 it divided the responsibility with New Haven. Since 1875 it has been sole capital. Here in 1814 took place the famous meeting of New England delegates known as the Hartford Convention.

About 1780 the “Hartford wits,” of whom Joel Barlow was one, made the city a literary center. Since that time it has been the residence of a large number of literary men and women; among them Harriet Beecher Stowe, Whittier, Trumbull, Charles Dudley Warner, and Samuel L. Clemens. Noah Webster, Henry Barnard, Frederick Law Olmsted, and John Fiske were born here.

Indianapolis (in-di-a-nap´o-lis), Ind. [Literally, the City of Indiana, from Indiana and polis, city.]

It is the capital of Indiana, on the west fork of White River, in a level plain one hundred and ninety-five miles southeast of Chicago by rail. It is a regularly built and beautiful city.

The focus of the city is the circular Monument Place, from which four wide avenues run diagonally to the four corners of the city. The other streets, many of them one hundred feet wide, are laid out at right angles to each other. In the center of this place rises the Soldiers and Sailors’ Monument, two hundred and eighty-five feet high, by Bruno Schmitz of Berlin. Round the monument are statues of General G. R. Clark, Governor Whitcomb, President W. H. Harrison, and Governor Morton. A little to the west is the State Capitol, a large building with a central tower and dome, erected at a cost of two million dollars. At the east entrance to the Capitol is a statue of Governor Morton and near by is that of Governor Hendricks. The Marion County Court House, also an imposing edifice, lies to the east of Monument Place, while to the north of it is the United States Court House and Post Office, erected in 1902-1904. To the southwest of the former is a statue of General H. W. Lawton, by A. O’Connor. In University Park is a statue of Benjamin Harrison, erected in 1908.

The John Herron Art Institute, at the corner of Pennsylvania Avenue and Sixteenth Street, contains a School of Art and a collection of modern paintings. Other large and important buildings are the Blind Asylum; the Propylæum, owned and controlled by a stock company of women for literary purposes; the Deaf and Dumb Asylum; the Union Railway Station; the City Hall; the Public Library; the Masonic Temple; the Oddfellows Building; the Deutsche Haus, a German club-house; the Mænnerchor Building, and several churches. The Winona Technical Institute is installed in buildings erected for the United States Arsenal. The Central Hospital for the Insane lies one and one-half miles to the west of the city, beyond the White River. The Riverside, Broad Ripple, Brookside, Fairview, and Garfield Parks deserve mention.

Indianapolis is one of the chief railroad centers of the United States, fifteen main lines converging here. It is also a great center of electric railways, which radiate hence in all directions, two hundred and fifty cars leaving the terminal station daily. The trade in agricultural produce is very considerable. Pork-packing is the leading industry, but there are also large flour and cotton and woolen mills, numerous foundries, and manufactories of furniture, carriages, tiles, etc.

Indianapolis was first settled in 1819, the city founded in 1821, became the seat of the state government in 1825, was incorporated as a town in 1836, and received its city charter in 1847. In the same year the first railroad in the state was opened.

Los Angeles (los an´je-les, Sp. pron. lōs äng´he-lās), Cal. [Named by the Spaniards Pueblo de la Reina de los Angeles, “The Town of the Queen of the Angels,” hence Los Angeles, “the angels.”]

It is the metropolis of southern California, lies on the Los Angeles River, twenty miles above its mouth and fifteen miles in a direct line from the Pacific Ocean, and four hundred and eighty-three miles southeast of San Francisco by the Southern Pacific Railroad.

It is a splendid city of wide streets and spacious sidewalks, with an extensive residential quarter, one hundred and thirty churches, over sixty public schools, and about one thousand seven hundred manufactories. It publishes newspapers in seven languages.

The city, especially the residential quarters, is embowered in plants, among the characteristic features of which are the swift-growing eucalyptus, the graceful pepper-tree, many palms, Norfolk Island pines, live-oaks, india-rubber trees, orange trees, roses, geraniums, yuccas, century plants, bananas, calla lilies, and pomegranates. A distinguished French traveler pronounces Los Angeles one of the few really beautiful cities in the United States.

Broadway, running parallel to Main Street, is the dividing line for east and west, as First Street is for north and south. Among the many substantial buildings in Main Street are the City Hall, between Second and Third Streets, and the new Chamber of Commerce. The latter contains an interesting collection of California products, the Palmer collection of Indian antiquities, and the Coronel collection, illustrating the Spanish period. Here is also the first cannon brought to California by Padre Junipero Serra in 1769. In Temple Street, near Broadway, stands the County Court House. The Public Library is at the southeast corner of Broadway and Third Street.

Other edifices worthy of mention are the Women’s Club, in the Mission-Renaissance style (940 South Figueroa Street), the State Normal School (corner Grand Avenue and Fifth Street), the Security Savings Bank (corner Spring and Fifth Streets), the Union Trust and Hellman Buildings (opposite corners of Spring and Fourth Streets), the Auditorium (corner Fifth and Olive Streets), the Y. M. C. A. (Hope Street, between Seventh and Eighth Streets), the Y. W. C. A. (corner Hill and Third Streets), the Farmers and Merchants National Bank (corner Fourth and Main Streets), the Grant Building (corner Broadway and Fourth Street), Hamburger’s (corner Broadway and Eighth Street), Merchants Trust (207 Broadway), and the International Bank (corner Temple, Spring and Main Streets). The viaduct of the Electric Railway, in San Fernando Street, spanning the railway tracks on the east side of the city, is an interesting piece of engineering.

Los Angeles also contains many parks, including the Griffith Park of three thousand acres, and the Eastlake Park and Westlake Park, each with a small lake. The University of Southern California is situated at Wesley Avenue and Thirty-fifth Street.

The small plaza, with the Old Mission Church, at the north end of the business-town, is interesting as a survival of the ancient settlement. Just beyond is a genuine Chinatown, keeping many of the original adobe structures. An excellent view of the city can be obtained from the tower at “Angel’s Flight,” corner Hill and Third Streets. Opposite Eastlake Park is an Ostrich Farm, with some two hundred adult birds.

Los Angeles is the center of the orange-growing industry. The residents are principally occupied in the cultivation and export of oranges, grapes, and other fruits, as well as the manufacture of wine. There are rich oil-wells in and near the city and this district now forms part of one of the richest petroleum fields in the world. Many invalids resort to Los Angeles in the winter because of its mild and equable climate. The city has a harbor on the coast, eighteen miles off.

It is one of the oldest towns in the Western states, and was already a thriving place when the Franciscan fathers established a mission there in 1781. Under Mexican rule Los Angeles alternated with Monterey as the capital of California. From 1835 to 1847 it was the capital of the State of California. In 1846 it was occupied by the United States forces. For the first century of its history Los Angeles was only a small pueblo constructed mainly of adobe in the Mexican style, but the advent of the railroad brought a sudden impetus. It was the first city in the United States to be lighted with electricity.

Louisville (lōō´ĭ-vĭl, or lōō´ĭs-vĭl), Ky. [The “Falls City”; named by act of the Virginian Legislature in 1780, in honor of Louis XVI. of France, then assisting the American colonies in their revolutionary struggle.]

It is the largest city of Kentucky, and is situated on the Ohio River, one hundred and thirty miles by water southwest of Cincinnati. The river is here crossed by two railroad bridges, and forms a series of rapids—the “Falls of Ohio”—descending twenty-six feet in two miles.

Louisville covers about forty square miles of a plain, and is nearly enclosed by hills. It is handsomely built and extends for nearly eight miles along the river. Its well-shaded streets are from sixty to one hundred and twenty feet wide, and slope up from the river.

Perhaps the most prominent building in Louisville is the Custom House, in Chestnut Street between Third and Fourth Streets. The Court House is in Jefferson Street between Fifth and Sixth Streets, and is adjoined by the City Hall, with its square clock-tower.

The Louisville Public Library, at the corner of Fourth and York Streets, contains also an art gallery and a small museum, including the Troost Collection of Minerals.

The Farmers’ Tobacco Warehouse, in Main Street, is the center of the tobacco trade and has a large storage capacity. The University of Louisville, at corner of Eighth and Chestnut Streets, is housed in a handsome building. The Lincoln Bank, corner of Fourth and Market Streets, is fifteen stories high, with a splendid view from upper windows and roof.

Fourth Avenue, with many pleasant residences, leads south, passing the pretty little Central Park, to the Racecourse. Louisville possesses three fine parks: Iroquois Park, Cherokee Park, and Shawnee Park, to the south, east and west of the city. The First Regiment Armory has an enormous drill-hall and can seat fifteen thousand persons.

The Louisville Bridge, one mile long, crossing to the west end of Jeffersonville, was built in 1868-1872 and has twenty-seven iron spans supported by limestone piers. The Kentucky and Indiana Bridge, leading to New Albany, is one-half mile long. A third bridge, also leading to Jeffersonville, was constructed in 1892.

President Zachary Taylor (1784-1850) is buried near his old home, five miles to the east of Louisville.

Louisville is the greatest market for tobacco in the world, and has large pork-packing establishments, distilleries, and tanneries, with manufactories of plows, furniture, castings, gas and water pipes, machinery, flour, cement, cotton seed oil and cake, steam railroad cars, and carriages and wagons.

It was founded in 1778 and in 1780 named in honor of Louis XVI. of France, whose troops were then assisting the Americans. A great part of the town, including the tobacco-market and the city hall, was destroyed by a cyclone in March, 1890. Since the Civil War, Louisville has rapidly grown in importance as one of the chief gateways to the southwest.

Milwaukee (mĭl-wau´kē), Wis. [Named from the river, called by the Algonquins Minnwaukee, or Me-ne-wau-kee, “good earth, good country, rich or beautiful country.”]

It is the largest city in Wisconsin, and is situated on the west shore of Lake Michigan at the common mouth of three improved and navigable rivers, which, with a canal, supply twenty-four miles of dockage. An excellent harbor has been formed by the erection of huge breakwaters, and the river admits the largest lake-vessels to the doors of the warehouses.

The city is well built, largely of a light-colored brick, and many of its streets are lined with beautiful shade trees, recalling some of the older eastern cities. Among the finest residence streets are Grand Avenue, Prospect Avenue, Waverly Place, Juneau Avenue, Marshall Street and Astor Street. About two-thirds of the inhabitants are Germans, which may account for its successful cultivation of music and art. There are no fewer than seventy-five musical societies in the city.

Grand Avenue, which runs east and west, contains many of the chief buildings and best shops, while Wisconsin Street and East Water Street are also busy thoroughfares. Among the most prominent buildings is the Federal Building, a handsome structure of granite in a turreted baronial style, occupying the block bounded by Jefferson, Jackson, Michigan and Wisconsin Streets, and containing the Post Office, Custom House and United States Court House. The interior is finely finished in marbles, mosaics, mahogany, and oak. The County Court House, a brown sandstone edifice, is in the square bounded by Jefferson, Jackson, Oneida, and Biddle Streets. The tall Wells Building, at the corner of Milwaukee and Wisconsin Streets; the Chamber of Commerce, Michigan Street; Plymouth Church, a massive building at the corner of Van Buren and Oneida Streets, and St. Paul’s Church, Marshall Street, are other important structures. The Auditorium, in Cedar Street, can accommodate ten thousand people.

The Layton Art Gallery, a well-lighted structure at the corner of Jefferson and Mason Streets, has some interesting pictures and statues. The paintings include examples of Rosa Bonheur, Constable, Corot, Millet, Achenbach, Alma-Tadema, Clays, Inness, Kensett, Mauve, Holmberg, Pradilla, Mesdag, Munkácsy, Van Marcke, and other modern masters. In the Sculpture Hall are works by Hiram Powers and Romanelli. The magnificent Public Library in Grand Avenue, between Eighth and Ninth Streets, contains two hundred thousand volumes and a free museum of natural history, palæontology, etc.

The curiously thin looking City Hall, with one of the largest bells in the world and an illuminated clock-dial, visible for two miles at night, occupies a triangular site bounded by East Water, Market and Biddle Streets.

Other notable structures in the business district are the Germania Building, the Evening Wisconsin Building, the Sentinel, the New Insurance Building, the Mitchell Building and the Pabst Building.

Among the public monuments are statues of Washington, near Ninth Street, and the Soldiers’ Monument.

Juneau Park, laid out on a bluff overlooking Lake Michigan, contains statues of Solomon Juneau, the earliest white settler, and Leif Ericson; it commands fine views. Lake Park, farther to the north, also overlooks the lake. Near it is the North Point Pumping Station, with a tall and graceful water tower. The Forest Home Cemetery, at the southwest corner of the city, deserves notice. The attractions of Washington Park, on the west limits of the city, include a large herd of deer.

The great breweries, such as Pabst’s, which covers thirty-four acres, or Schlitz’s, are wonderfully interesting plants, while the grain elevators, the flour mills, the coal docks, the International Harvester Co., and the workshops of the C. M. St. P. Railway are also great concerns. To the south are the rolling mills of the Illinois Steel Co., covering one hundred and fifty-four acres of ground. To the southwest, chiefly in the valley of the Menomonee, are the large brick yards that produce the light colored bricks which give Milwaukee the name of “Cream City.” To the north, along the Milwaukee River, are extensive cement works.

Sheridan Drive, skirting the lake to the south for two miles, is intended to be prolonged so as ultimately to meet the boulevard of that name running from Chicago to Fort Sheridan.

The other industries include manufactories of leather, machinery, iron and steel goods, tobacco, clothing, stoves, tinware, brick, furnaces, cars, steel and malleable iron. Pork packing is also carried on extensively.

Milwaukee became a village in 1835 and received a city charter in 1846. Its growth has been rapid, particularly in the last twenty-five years.

Minneapolis (min-e-ap´ō-lis), Minn. [The “Flour City”; named from Dakota Indian words, Minni, “water,” ha, “curling,” and the Greek word polis, “a city,” namely “city of the curling water,” alluding to the Falls of St. Anthony.]

It is the largest city of Minnesota, adjoins the capital, St. Paul, and is situated on both sides of the Mississippi, which is here crossed by numerous bridges. The Falls of St. Anthony, with a perpendicular descent of sixteen feet, afford a water power which has been a chief source of the city’s prosperity.

At the corner of Second Avenue South and Third Street stands the Metropolitan Life Building, erected at a cost of one million six hundred thousand dollars. Adjacent is the Post Office, in a Romanesque style.

On Hennepin Avenue, at the corner of North Fifth Street, is the imposing Lumber Exchange. To the right are the West Hotel and the Masonic Temple. At the corner of Eighth Street is the private art gallery of Mr. T. B. Walker, containing good specimens of British portrait painters and of the Barbison school and also works by or ascribed to Raphael, Michael Angelo, Rubens, Rembrandt, Van Dyck, Holbein, and Murillo.

Farther on, at the corner of Tenth Street, is the Public Library and Art Gallery, an ornate Romanesque structure.

At the corner of Sixteenth Street is the new Roman Catholic Cathedral.

Other prominent churches are the First Unitarian Church, at the corner of Mary’s Place and Eighth Street; the Westminster Presbyterian Church, Nicollet Avenue; the Church of the Redeemer; the Fowler Methodist Episcopal Church, on Lowry Hill; the Second Church of Christ, Scientist; Plymouth Church, and St. Mark’s Cathedral.

At the other end of Hennepin Avenue is the Union Depot. Among other prominent buildings in the business quarter are the Court House and City Hall, a handsome building in Fourth Street, completed at a cost of three million dollars, with a tower three hundred and forty-five feet high; the New York Life Insurance Building, Fifth Street and Second Avenue, with an elaborate interior; the Northwestern National Bank; the First National Bank; the Andrus Building; Donaldson’s Glass Block Store; the Security Bank Building, and the Chamber of Commerce, Fourth Street South and Fourth Avenue.

The University of Minnesota lies on the left bank of the river, between Washington and University Avenues, and occupies various well-equipped buildings.

Other notable institutions are the Augsburg Theological School, Minneapolis Normal School, and a Conservatory of Music.

Within the urban limits of Minneapolis are fourteen wooded lakes, while the gorges of the Mississippi and the Minnehaha Creek are very picturesque. These natural features have been made the basis of a fine system of boulevards. From the southeast side of Lake Harriet the road runs to the east along the Minnehaha Creek, passing Lake Amelia, to Minnehaha Park, containing the graceful Falls of the Minnehaha, fifty feet high and immortalized by Longfellow.

The most delightful resort near Minneapolis or St. Paul is Lake Minnetonka (eight hundred and twenty feet above the sea), which lies fifteen miles to the west. The lake is singularly irregular in outline, and with a total length of twelve to fifteen miles has a shore line of perhaps one hundred and fifty miles.

Minneapolis is the foremost city in the world in flour and lumber products. The flour mills, perhaps its most characteristic sight, are congregated on the banks of the Mississippi, near St. Anthony’s Falls. Other important industries are the manufacture of agricultural implements and machinery, bread and baking products, cars and general shop construction, food preparations, foundry products, furniture, fur goods, dressed fur, malt liquors, patent medicines, and printing and publishing.

The Falls of St. Anthony were named in 1680 by Father Hennepin. In 1819 Fort Snelling was built by the United States government. Though a large mill was built as early as 1822, it was not till 1850 that a permanent settlement was made. In 1856 Minneapolis was incorporated as a town on the west bank of the river, and in 1867 it was incorporated as a city. St. Anthony on the east bank was annexed in 1872.

Nashville, Tenn. [The “Rock City”; first named as a settlement, Nashborough, in honor of Francis Nash of North Carolina, a brigadier-general in the Continental Army. In June, 1784, changed to Nashville.]

It is the capital of Tennessee, on the navigable Cumberland River, two hundred miles above the Ohio, and one hundred and eighty-five miles by railroad southwest of Louisville. The city, which is one of the principal railroad centers in the Southern states, is built mainly on the left bank of the river, which is crossed by a suspension bridge and a railroad drawbridge to the suburb of Edgefield. Nashville is a handsome, well-built town, and it is, perhaps, the most important educational center in the South.

The most prominent building in the city is the State Capitol, conspicuously situated on a hill. In its grounds are a bronze equestrian statue of Andrew Jackson, and the tomb of President Polk, whose home stood at the corner of Vine and Union Streets. Among the other chief buildings are the Court House, the Custom House, the Parthenon, used for exhibitions of art, Greek plays by students, etc., the Vendome and Bijou Theaters, the Carnegie Library, the Board of Trade, the First National Bank, and the Stahlman Building.

At the head of the educational institutions stands Vanderbilt University, endowed by Cornelius Vanderbilt with one million dollars. In the campus is a colossal statue of the founder, by Moretti. Other well-known institutions are the Peabody Teachers’ College, Boscobel College, Belmont College, the Saint Cecilia Academy, Radnor College, Buford College and Ward’s Seminary.

There are also several large colleges for colored students.

Among the places of interest near Nashville are the Hermitage, the home of General Andrew Jackson, eleven miles to the east.

Nashville occupies a foremost place among the manufacturing centers of the country. It is the fifth boot and shoe market in the United States, the largest candy and cracker manufacturing city in the South, and does an enormous wholesale dry goods, grocery, and drug business. It carries on an extensive trade in cotton and tobacco; while its manufactures, which are rapidly extending, include cotton, flour, oil, paper, furniture, timber, leather, iron, and spirits. The iron interests of the South are largely controlled here.

Nashville was settled in 1780, received its charter in 1806, and in 1843 was made the permanent capital.

New Haven, Conn. [The “City of Elms”; named by the original settlers the “new haven.” The original Indian name was Quinnippac. The present name substituted “by the court” September 5, 1640.]

It is the chief city and seaport of Connecticut, at the head of New Haven Bay, is situated four miles from Long Island Sound, seventy-three miles by railroad northeast of New York and thirty-five miles southwest of Hartford.

The city is situated on a level plain, with a background of hills. Its broad streets are shaded with elms, and the public squares, parks, and gardens, with its handsome public and private edifices, make it one of the most beautiful of American cities.

From the large Union Station, which adjoins the harbor, Meadow Street leads north to the Public Green, on which are the City Hall, three churches, the Second National Bank, and the Free Public Library, United States Court House and Post Office. At the southeast corner of the Green is the Bennett Fountain, designed by John F. Weir after the monument of Lysicrates at Athens.

In College Street are most of the substantial buildings of Yale University, which, besides the Academic Department, has schools of Science, Theology, Medicine, Law, Forestry, Music, and Fine Arts, and also a Graduate School.

From the Public Green the university “campus” or quadrangle is entered by an imposing tower-gateway known as Phelps Hall. Among the buildings in the campus are the Art School, containing a good collection of Italian, American, and other paintings and sculptures; Connecticut Hall, the oldest Yale building (1750); Osborn Hall; Battell Chapel; Vanderbilt Hall; Alumni Hall; Dwight Hall, and the College Library. At the corner of Elm and High Streets is the Peabody Museum of Natural History, in which the mineralogical collections are especially fine.

Other important buildings of the university are the buildings of the Sheffield Scientific School, the Schools of Law, Medicine, and Divinity, the Chemical and Physical Laboratories, Memorial and other large halls.

Hillhouse Avenue is especially noted for its trees, and Chapel Street, the principal promenade, for the gardens surrounding many of the residences.

The parks have an aggregate area of one thousand two hundred acres. Besides the Green are the parks at East Rock (three hundred and sixty feet high) and West Rock (four hundred feet high), two masses of trap rock near the city which afford fine views. East Rock is surmounted by a soldiers’ monument. West Rock is famous for a cave in which the regicides Goffe and Whalley were for a time concealed. Savin Rock, Morris Cove, and Momaugin are shore resorts accessible from the city by electric car lines.

The railway lines from New Haven to New York City are the only ones of consequence that have been completely electrified.

New Haven is an important industrial city and has considerable commerce. The harbor has a jetty and a breakwater surmounted by a lighthouse, and the port has a large coasting trade. But it is of more consequence as a manufacturing town, employing many thousands of workers producing hardware, wire, locks, clocks, cutlery, firearms, corsets, india-rubber goods, carriages, furniture, paper, matches, musical instruments, etc.

New Haven was settled in 1638 by a company chiefly from London. In 1639 a government was established under a written constitution, and Theophilus Eaton, the pastor of the colony, was chosen and continued in the governorship until 1658. Church membership was a qualification for suffrage and eligibility to office. The New Haven colony was founded in 1643 by the union of Milford, Guilford and Stamford with New Haven. In the same year it became a member of the confederacy of the United Colonies of New England. The charter of Charles II. for Connecticut (1662) included the New Haven colony, but the latter, supported by Massachusetts and Plymouth, stubbornly opposed absorption and was only forced to accede in 1664. Yale College, founded in Saybrook, was removed to New Haven in 1717. The town was captured by the British under Tryon and Garth, July 5, 1779. It was incorporated as a city in 1784. Joint capital with Hartford from 1701; the government was removed from New Haven altogether in 1873.

New Orleans (nū ôr’lē-ănz), La. [The “Crescent City”; its name is a translation of the French name Nouvelle Orleans, given by them in honor of the Duc d’Orleans, then Regent of France.]

It is the chief city of Louisiana, a great port and mart, and is situated on both sides of the Mississippi River—the greater portion on the east bank—one hundred and seven miles from its mouth, and one thousand one hundred and ninety miles southwest of New York. The Mississippi makes two bends here, whence the city was called “The Crescent City,” but it is now shaped like the letter S. The river is from six hundred to one thousand yards wide, and sixty to two hundred and forty feet deep. The bar at its mouth was removed in 1874-1879 by the Eads jetties in South Pass, and vessels of thirty feet now easily reach New Orleans.

A great part of the city is below the level of the river during the high flood tides, which last for a few days each year, and is protected by a levee or embankment, fifteen feet wide and fourteen feet high. The city is laid out with considerable regularity, and many of the chief streets are wide and shaded with trees. The most important business thoroughfare is Canal Street, which runs at right angles to the river and divides the French Quarter, or “Vieux Carré” on the northeast, from the New City, or American Quarter, on the southwest. The finest residences are in St. Charles Avenue, and in Esplanada Avenue, where the wealthy Creoles have their homes. Of the total population about one-quarter are negroes, while the remaining three-fourths include large proportions of French, German, Irish, Italian and Spanish blood.

While it possesses few imposing buildings, New Orleans is a picturesque city. There are several parks, little improved, but with handsome monuments or statues of Jackson, Lee, Franklin, and others. The custom house of granite cost four million five hundred thousand dollars, and is the largest and most imposing building in the city. It is a large granite building in Canal Street, near the river, and contains a large Marble Hall.

Just below the Custom House, Canal Street ends at the Levee, which extends along the west bank of the Mississippi for about six miles and presents a very animated and interesting scene. At the left is Jackson Square, the old Place d’Armes, which retains its ancient iron railing, and contains a statue of General Andrew Jackson, by Mills. It is adjoined by the Cathedral of St. Louis, a good specimen of the Spanish-Creole style, built in 1792-1794, on the site of the first church in Louisiana, but altered in 1850. It contains some paintings and interesting tombs.

The buildings to the right and left are Court Houses, that to the south having been built for the Cabildo, or City Council of the Spanish régime. In it and in front of it were held the ceremonies attending the cession of Louisiana by the French Government to the United States in 1803.

In Orleans Street, near the east end of the Cathedral, is a Convent of Colored Nuns, which contains what was formerly the famous Quadroon Ballroom, mentioned by Cable, the scene of many celebrated festivities.

On the Levee, just beyond Jackson Square, is the French Market, which often reveals a scene of the greatest picturesqueness and animation. A little farther on, at the foot of Esplanade Avenue, is the United States Branch Mint, a large building in the Ionic style. In Royal Street, four blocks from Canal Street, is the new Court House, a handsome structure of white marble and terra cotta.

In the fine French Quarter the chief promenades are Esplanade Avenue, Rampart Street and Bourbon, Toulouse, Conti and Royal Streets. At the corner of Chartres and Hospital Streets is the Archbishop’s Residence, in the unchanged Ursuline Convent, built in 1730.

Following St. Charles Avenue from Canal Street to the south, is the St. Charles Hotel and the Orpheum and, just beyond, Lafayette Square, around which are grouped the City Hall, the new Post Office, St. Patrick’s Church, the First Presbyterian Church, and the Odd Fellows’ Hall. In the square are a statue of Franklin, by Hiram Powers, a monument to John McDonough, and a statue of Henry Clay. Farther on is Lee Circle, with a monument to General Robert E. Lee. At the corner of Camp Street and Howard Avenue, adjoining Lee Circle, stands the Howard Library, the last work of H. H. Richardson, who was a native of Louisiana. Adjacent are Memorial Hall, a museum of Confederate relics, and the new building of the Public Library. To the southwest, in Carondelet Street, is the Jewish Temple Sinai. The monument to Margaret Haughery, the “Orphans’ Friend,” is said to have been the first statue of a woman erected in the United States.

Tulane Avenue, named in honor of the chief benefactor of Tulane University, and its continuation Common Street, contain the Law Department of Tulane University, the House of Detention, the Jesuit Church of the Immaculate Conception in a singular Moorish style, the Parish Prison and Criminal Courts, the Hôtel Dieu, and the large Charity Hospital, originally established in 1784. The large Cotton Exchange is at the corner of Carondelet and Gravier Streets; the Produce Exchange is in Magazine Street, and the Sugar Exchange is at the foot of Bienville Street. The United States Marine Hospital lies near the river.

St. Charles Avenue, extending in a crescent from Lee Circle past Audubon Park to the river, is lined with oaks and magnolias and contains many old and admirable private residences. Among its public buildings are Christ Church, the New Orleans University, the Academy of the Sacred Heart, the Jewish Orphan Home, and the Harmony Club. At the point where the avenue crosses Audubon Park are the newer buildings of the Tulane University, an important and well-equipped institution. A department of Tulane University is the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for Women, founded in 1886. A legacy of John McDonough has built and equipped thirty handsome school houses in different parts of the city.

The City Park, on the Metairie Ridge, is one hundred and fifty acres in extent. The Audubon Park, in which the Great Exhibition of 1884-1885 was held, and which now holds the “Sugar Experimental Station” of the State of Louisiana, is a long segment extending back from the river, being the ground in which the sugar cane was first grown in this state. Both parks contain fine live-oaks.

New Orleans is the largest cotton market in the world except Liverpool, handling annually two million bales. The manufacturing products include machinery, cotton goods, boots and shoes, and amount in a year to sixty million dollars. As the outlet of the Mississippi Valley it commands a large export trade.

The site of New Orleans was first visited in 1699 by Bienville, who in 1718 laid the foundations of the city, and in 1726 made it the capital. In 1763 it was ceded to Spain by France, with the rest of Louisiana; but when in 1765 the Spanish governor attempted to take possession, he was driven out, and the people established a government of their own till 1769, when the Spaniards occupied it. It was ceded to France in 1802, and transferred to the United States a few days later. Incorporated as a city in 1804, it was divided in 1836-1852 into three separate municipalities, in consequence of the jealousies between the Creoles and the Americans. Other outstanding events have been the defeat of the British by Andrew Jackson in 1815; the capture in 1862 by the Federal fleet; serious political troubles with fighting in 1874 and 1877; and the lynching in 1891 of eleven Italian maffiosi. In 1880 the capital of Louisiana was removed from New Orleans to Baton Rouge.

Newport, R. I. [The “City of Mansions”; named in honor of the English admiral Christopher Newport (under James I.).]

It was, until 1900, one of the capitals of Rhode Island, and lies on the west shore of the island, in Narragansett Bay, five miles from the ocean, and sixty-nine miles by railroad southwest of Boston. It has a deep and excellent harbor, defended by Fort Adams.

The town is noted for fine scenery, and is one of the most fashionable watering-places in America, containing some of the finest mansions in the United States. Bathing facilities are unrivaled, and there are many fashionable promenades.

The chief attractions are Touro Park, and the Old Mill, Cliff Walk, Bailey’s Beach, and the Ocean Drive.

The central point of Old Newport is Washington Square, or the Parade, within a few minutes’ walk of the railway station and steamboat wharf. Here are the State House, with portrait of Washington, by Stuart; the old City Hall (new one in Broadway, corner of Bull Street); a statue of Commodore O. H. Perry, the hero of Lake Erie; the Perry Mansion, and the Roman Catholic Church, with an Ionic portico.

Following Touro Street, to the southeast, is the Synagogue built in 1762 and the oldest in the United States; the Newport Historical Society; and, a little beyond, the picturesque Hebrew Cemetery. Touro Street ends here and Bellevue Avenue, the fashionable promenade, begins, running to the south.

The fine Fern-leaf Beech is at the corner of Bellevue Avenue and Redwood Street. Nearly opposite this is Touro Park, containing the Round Tower or Old Stone Mill, the origin of which is still somewhat of a mystery. Some authorities believe that it was built by Governor Arnold in the seventeenth century as a wind-mill, while others regard it as very possibly the central part of a church built by the Norsemen in the eleventh century. Longfellow mentions it in his Skeleton in Armor. The park also contains statues of M. C. Perry and W. E. Channing; and opposite its south side stands the Channing Memorial Church.

A few hundred paces farther on, Bath Road leads to the left from Bellevue Avenue to the First Beach.

Bellevue Avenue soon passes the Casino, a long, low, many-gabled building, containing a club, a theater, etc. The Lawn Tennis Championship of America is decided in the courts attached to the Casino. Farther on, the avenue passes between a series of magnificent villas, and then turns sharply to the right and ends at Bailey’s Beach.

First or Easton’s Beach, a strip of smooth hard sand, three-fourths mile long, affords some of the best and safest surf-bathing on the Atlantic coast. From the east end of the beach a road leads round Easton’s Point to Purgatory, a curious fissure in the conglomerate rocks, one hundred and fifty feet long, seven to fourteen feet wide, and fifty feet deep.

At the west end of Easton’s Beach begins the famous Cliff Walk, which runs along the winding brow of the cliffs for about three miles, with the ocean on one side and the smooth lawns of handsome homes on the other. Here are summer residences, owned by the wealthiest society people of Boston, New York, and other cities.

Across the hill is Bailey’s Beach, a small bay with a long row of bathing-houses, which has become the fashionable bathing-resort of the Newport cottagers.

From Bailey’s Beach begins the beautiful Ocean or Ten Mile Drive, which skirts the coast of the peninsula to the south of the town for about ten miles, commanding magnificent views.

The locality of Newport has many natural curiosities, including the Hanging Rocks, Spouting Cave, and the Glen, or “Purgatory,” already referred to. Newport is the seat of the United States Naval War College, United States Training Station, Torpedo Station, Naval Hospital, Newport Hospital, and Hazard Memorial School.

The manufactures are flour, cotton goods, copper, brass, oil, etc.

Newport was settled in 1638 by eighteen adherents of Roger Williams, and was an important commercial town prior to the Revolutionary war, which effected its ruin and transferred its trade to New York. During the war it was occupied for three years by the British, and for a while by the French under Rochambeau. It was the birthplace of Commodore Perry and William Ellery Channing, and for a while the place of residence of Bishop Berkeley, the English philosopher.

New York City, N. Y. [The “Empire City”; also “Gotham”; named from the State which was named in honor of James, Duke of York, afterwards James II.]

It is the largest and most important city on the American continent, the second wealthiest on the globe, and, next to London, the most populous in the world. Situated on New York Bay at the confluence of the Hudson and East Rivers, about twelve miles from the Atlantic Ocean, it consists of the boroughs of Manhattan, The Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens, and Richmond, which have a joint area of three hundred and twenty-six square miles. Its extreme length, north and south, is thirty-five miles, its extreme width nineteen miles.

Manhattan, or New York proper, consists mainly of Manhattan Island, a long and narrow tongue of land bounded by the Hudson or North River on the west and the East River (part of Long Island Sound) on the east and separated from the mainland on the north and northeast by the narrow Harlem River and Spuyten Duyvil Creek; but also includes several small islands in New York Bay and the East River.

Manhattan Island is thirteen and one-half miles long, with an average breadth of one and three-fifths miles, and with the exception of a small, wild, and rocky portion, which is utilized for ornamental purposes, the entire island is laid out in avenues and streets. It includes several greens and parks, and its area has been considerably extended by filling in on the two river-sides.

The strikingly beautiful landlocked harbor of New York includes the lower bay, the upper bay, the East River, and the North, or Hudson River. Ocean steamships enter it from the sea by Sandy Hook through the Narrows, and coasting ships from the north through Long Island Sound. The North River averages a mile wide; the East River is not so wide, but both are deep enough for the largest ships, and furnish many miles of wharfage. The Harlem River, at the north end of Manhattan Island, connects the two great rivers.

The bar at Sandy Hook, eighteen miles south of the city, which divides the Atlantic Ocean from the outer or lower bay, is crossed by two ship-channels, from twenty-one to thirty-two feet deep at ebb-tide. The lower bay covers eighty-eight square miles. The Narrows, through which all large ships pass on their way to the inner harbor, is a strait between Long Island and Staten Island, about a mile in width, and like other approaches is defended by forts. New York’s harbor or inner bay covers about fourteen square miles; it is one of the amplest, safest, and most picturesque on the globe, open all the year round.

Liberty Island, for a long time known as Bedloe’s Island, is situated in the harbor, about one and three-fourths miles from the lower end of the city. In 1886 the famous Bartholdi statue was erected on this spot, and occupies its central surface. It is a colossal bronze female figure one hundred and fifty-one feet in height, on a pedestal one hundred and fifty-five feet high, and holding aloft a torch which is lit by electricity at night.

Immense bridges span the East River and Harlem River, and there are some thirty steam-ferries.

The New York and Brooklyn Suspension Bridge, opened in 1883, which cost twenty million dollars, was soon found inadequate for the enormous traffic, and a second bridge from Canal Street to Brooklyn was opened in 1909.

The Williamsburg Suspension Bridge, between Manhattan and Williamsburg, was opened in 1903. It cost twelve million dollars.

The Queensboro Bridge, of cantilever type, between Long Island and Fifty-ninth Street, was opened in 1909. Its cost was twenty million dollars.

In 1909 another bridge from Manhattan to Brooklyn, built at a cost of twenty-six million dollars, was completed.

The Harlem River is crossed by several bridges, of which the Washington is noteworthy as being one of the finest in America.

Hell Gate Arch Bridge spans the East River at Hell Gate, between Ward’s Island and Astoria, Long Island. It was designed and built by Gustav Lindenthal for the New York Connecting Railroad to connect the Pennsylvania and New York, New Haven systems, at a cost, including approaches, of twenty-five million dollars. It is the longest arch in the world. The span is one thousand and sixteen feet ten inches between tower faces. The upper chord of the arch is three hundred feet above mean high water at the center and one hundred and eighty feet at the ends of the span; the lower chord is two hundred and sixty feet above mean high water at the center and forty feet at the ends; the roadway is one hundred and forty feet above mean high water.

Old New York is laid out very irregularly. Here the money interests and wholesale traffic are centered; Wall, New, and Broad Streets being the great centers of banking and speculative enterprises.

The newer part of the city, from Fourteenth Street to the end of the island, northward, is divided into twelve great avenues and several smaller ones, from seventy-five to one hundred and fifty feet in width, running north and south. These are crossed at right angles by streets, mostly sixty feet in width, running from river to river.

Fifth Avenue, the great modern central thoroughfare, divides the city into eastside and westside. Here or hereabout are the largest banks, churches, museums, libraries, shops, palaces, and tenements in America.

Fifth Avenue below Fifty-ninth Street is now largely occupied by store and office buildings where once were palatial private houses; and between Madison Square and Fifty-ninth Street contains many hotels and clubs, and the New York Public Library.

The original great thoroughfare, Broadway, runs a northwesterly course through the regular cross street arrangement, making some slight deflections, quite through the middle of the island.

For a distance of two and one-half miles from Fifty-ninth to One Hundred and Tenth Street, Central Park divides the city into two parts.

Other parks are Van Cortlandt, one thousand and sixty-nine acres; Pelham Bay, one thousand seven hundred acres; and Bronx Park, six hundred and sixty-one and sixty-one hundredths acres, containing the Botanical and Zoological Gardens. Prospect Park, Brooklyn, contains five hundred and sixteen and one-quarter acres. A recreation course, skirting the Harlem River, and reserved for fast driving, is the “Speedway,” and extending along the Hudson for three miles is Riverside Drive, with its striking views of the Palisades. On an abrupt elevation is Morningside Park, on which are located the new buildings of Columbia University, St. Luke’s Hospital, and the Cathedral of St. John the Divine. Beyond Morningside Park is a rocky ridge known as Washington Heights.

The most thickly settled part of Brooklyn borough is in the north, and the business portion is that part fronting on East River and the upper harbor. The southern part is largely marshland. At the southwestern extremity of Long Island, in this borough, stretches a sandbar known as Coney Island, on which are the widely-known popular summer resorts. Queensboro has several large population centers, among them Long Island City and Flushing. Richmond borough (Staten Island) contains numerous villages.

Communication throughout the city is afforded by an extensive system of electric surface, electric elevated roads, the great subway railroad system, and by ferries plying between the boroughs.

The subway has, for part of its course, four tracks, two of which are for express trains. It begins at the City Hall and traverses the whole length of Manhattan Island. The first length of eight miles to Washington Heights was opened in 1904. The following year the line was extended to the Battery, and also under the Harlem River into Bronx. In 1908 a further extension was opened between the Battery and Brooklyn by way of a tunnel. In 1909, a double-tube tunnel, the McAdoo, connected the city at Sixth Avenue and Twenty-third Street with Hoboken, N. J.

In 1910 several tunnels under the Hudson and East Rivers were opened. Other great works of development are almost constantly in progress to deal with the traffic requirements, including further subways, a number of river tunnels, and additional railroad terminals. A recent gigantic railway enterprise is the construction of the Pennsylvania tunnel under the Hudson River.

Some of the larger features of New York call for more detailed notice.

The architecture of New York exhibits great contrasts, including styles as diverse as the quaint old Dutch houses, and skyscrapers of twenty-five and thirty stories.

At the extreme south end of the island is the Custom House, a large quadrangular granite building, in the French Renaissance style, which occupies the site of Fort Amsterdam. The facade toward Bowling Green is adorned with colossal groups of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, and with twelve heroic figures representing the great sea-powers.

In Whitehall Street, opposite the Custom House, is the Produce Exchange, a huge brick and terra cotta structure in the Italian Renaissance style, containing numerous offices and a large hall. The tower, two hundred and twenty-five feet high, commands a fine view of the city and harbor.

Broadway begins at the Bowling Green, extending hence all the way to Yonkers, a distance of nineteen miles. Up to Thirty-third Street, Broadway is the scene of a most busy and varied traffic, which reaches its culminating point in the lower part of the street during business-hours. This part of the street is almost entirely occupied by wholesale houses, insurance offices, banks, and the like; but farther up are numerous fine shops. Broadway is no longer the broadest street in New York, but it is still the most important. The number of immensely tall office buildings with which it is now lined give it a curiously canyon-like appearance.

No. 1 Broadway, to the left, is the Washington Building, which is adjoined by the Bowling Green Building (sixteen stories), designed by English architects. Other conspicuous business buildings in the lower part of Broadway are the large Welles and Standard Oil Co. Buildings, Nos. 18, 26, the 42 Broadway Building, twenty stories, and Aldrich Court, on the site of the first habitation of white men on Manhattan Island. At Nos. 64-68 is the Manhattan Life Insurance Co., the tower of which is three hundred and sixty feet high. To the left, at the corner of Rector Street, is the imposing Empire Building, twenty stories, the hall of which forms a busy thoroughfare between Broadway and the Rector Street “L” station.

FAR-FAMED BROADWAY AT NIGHT

Wall Street diverging from Broadway to the right, at this point, is the great financial street of New York, the financial barometer of the country. On this street stands the United States Sub-Treasury, a marble structure with a Doric portico, occupying the site of the old Federal Hall, in which the first United States Congress assembled, and Washington was inaugurated as President; the Drexel Building, a white marble structure in the Renaissance style, occupied by J. Pierpont Morgan & Co.; the National City Bank, largest in the country, occupying the old Custom House.

Trinity Church, on the west side of Broadway, is a handsome Gothic edifice of brown stone, with a spire two hundred and eighty-five feet high. The present building dates from 1839-1846, but occupies the site of a church of 1696. The church owns property to the value of at least twenty million dollars used in the support of several subsidiary churches and numerous charities.

Just above Trinity Church are the enormous Trinity and United States Realty buildings, two dignified structures, the former with an admirable facade in a modified Gothic style, and nearly opposite are the Union Trust Co. and the twenty-three story building of the American Surety Co., the latter containing the United States Weather Bureau (“Old Probabilities”). On the same side, between Pine Street and Cedar Street, is the office of the Equitable Life Insurance Co.

The block to the left, between Liberty Street and Cortland Street, is occupied by the buildings of the Singer Manufacturing Co., the City Realty Co., and the City Investing Co. The tower of the Singer Building, with its forty-one stories, rises to a height of six hundred and twelve feet. Between Broadway and Park Row is the Post Office, a large Renaissance building.

City Hall, containing the headquarters of the Mayor of Greater New York and other municipal authorities, is a well-proportioned building of marble in the Italian style, with a central portico, two projecting wings, and a cupola clock tower.

To the north of the City Hall is the Court House, a large building of white marble, with its principal entrance, garnished with lofty Corinthian columns, facing Chambers Street. The interior, which contains the State Courts and several municipal offices, is well fitted up. This building, one of the “Tweed ring” structures, is said to have cost twelve million dollars. Opposite the Court House, in Chambers Street, are various City Offices. These include the new Register Office or Hall of Records, a handsome building in the French Renaissance style, erected at a cost of six million dollars and faced with granite. The facade is adorned with sculptures, and the interior is also elaborately decorated. To the southwest of the City Hall, facing Broadway, is a statue of Nathan Hale.

Park Row, bounding the southeast side of the City Hall Park, contains the offices of many of the principal New York newspapers, the Pulitzer Building, with the World office, Tribune Building, New York Press, and Park Row Building with its lofty towers. Opposite the newspaper offices, in Printing House Square, is a bronze statue of Benjamin Franklin, and in front of the Tribune Building is a seated bronze figure of its famous founder, Horace Greeley.

Beyond Astor Place, Broadway passes the large building occupied by John Wanamaker, but originally erected for A. T. Stewart & Co. With its new annexes, it is heralded as the largest department store in the world.

Broadway now inclines to the left. At the bend rises Grace Church, which, with the adjoining rectory, chantry, and church-house, forms one of the most attractive ecclesiastical groups in New York. The church is of white limestone and has a lofty marble spire. The interior is well-proportioned, and all the windows contain stained glass.

At Fourteenth Street Broadway reaches Union Square, which is beautified with pleasure grounds, statues, and an ornamental fountain. At the corner of East Sixteenth Street is the massive office building of the Bank of Metropolis. Near the southeast corner is a good equestrian statue of Washington, in the center of the south side is a bronze statue of Lafayette, in the southwest corner is a statue of Abraham Lincoln, and on the west side is the James Fountain.

Broadway, between Union Square and Madison Square, is one of the chief shopping-resorts of New York, containing many fine stores for the sale of furniture, dry goods, etc. At Twenty-third Street it intersects Fifth Avenue and at the point of intersection stands the daring Fuller Building, generally known as the “Flat-iron Building” on account of its strange triangular shape. It is two hundred and ninety feet high, has twenty stories, and cost four million dollars.

Broadway now skirts the west side of Madison Square, a prettily laid out public garden, containing a bronze statue of Admiral Farragut, an obelisk to the memory of General Worth, a statue of Roscoe Conkling, a statue of President Arthur, and a statue of William H. Seward. The statue of Farragut is among the finest in New York, and the imaginative treatment of the pedestal is very beautiful. On the west side of the square is the new Fifth Avenue Building.

On the east side is the new Appellate Court House, a handsome building, perhaps somewhat overloaded with ornamentation.

On the east side of the square, between Twenty-third and Twenty-fourth Streets, is the enormous building of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., the tower of which has fifty stories and reaches a height of six hundred and ninety-three feet. Two elevators run to a height of five hundred and forty-four feet. Adjacent is the Madison Square Presbyterian Church, with its massive dome. At the southeast corner of Twenty-sixth Street stands the Manhattan Club, and at the northeast corner is the huge Madison Square Garden, with its Moorish tower capped by a fine statue of Diana.

The Herald Office, a Venetian palace, stands at Broadway and Thirty-fifth Street, in Herald Square.

West of Herald Square, at Seventh Avenue and Thirty-third Street, is the magnificent station of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, covering an area four hundred and fifty by one thousand eight hundred feet, the largest structure of the kind in the world, connected by tunnels under the Hudson River with New Jersey, and under the East River with Long Island. The tracks are forty feet below the level of the city streets.

The Metropolitan Opera House, opened in 1883 and rebuilt ten years later, after a fire, stands between Thirty-ninth and Fortieth Streets.

At Forty-second Street and Broadway is the Times Building, an ornamental structure sixteen stories high, upon a triangle of ground.

To the east of Madison Avenue is the Grand Central Station, the terminus of the New York Central, the New York, New Haven and Hartford, and the Harlem Railways. Opposite the station is the Belmont Hotel, twenty-two stories high.

The corner at Broadway and Forty-second Street is the recent heart of the theatrical and hotel district, for clustered there are a dozen hotels, the immense Astor and Knickerbocker among them, and there are twenty theaters within half a mile, six of them almost side by side on Forty-second Street.

Beyond Times Square, Broadway is rather uninteresting, but there are some lofty specimens of apartment houses or French flats farther up. From Forty-fifth Street on, Broadway is largely occupied by automobile stores and garages. At the corner of Fifty-sixth Street is the new Broadway Tabernacle and at Fifty-ninth Street Broadway reaches the southwest corner of Central Park and intersects Eighth Avenue.

At the intersection, the so-called Circle, stands the Columbus Monument by Gaetano Russo, erected in 1892, and consisting of a tall shaft surmounted by a marble statue, in all seventy-seven feet high. Beyond Seventy-eighth Street, Broadway, now a wide street with rows of trees, is usually known as the Boulevard. From One Hundred and Eighth Street to One Hundred and Sixty-second Street it coincides with Eleventh Avenue, at One Hundred and Sixteenth Street it passes Columbia University, and from One Hundred and Sixty-second Street it, as Kingsbridge Road, runs on to Yonkers.

Fifth Avenue, the chief street in New York from the standpoint of wealth and fashion, begins at Washington Square to the north of West Fourth Street and a little to the west of Broadway, and runs north to the Harlem River, a distance of six miles. Below Forty-seventh Street the Avenue has now been largely invaded by shops, tall office buildings, and hotels. The avenue has been kept sacred from the marring touch of the street railway or the elevated railroad, and is traversed by a line of motor omnibuses. The avenue is wide and well-paved, and many of the buildings are of brown sandstone. On a fine afternoon Fifth Avenue is alive with carriages and horsemen on their way to and from Central Park and it is, perhaps, seen at its best on a fine Sunday.

At Twenty-third Street the Avenue intersects Broadway and skirts Madison Square. To the right is the Flat-iron Building. At Twenty-sixth Street is the Café Martin.

The whole block between Thirty-third and Thirty-fourth Streets, to the left, is occupied by the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, a huge double building of red brick and sandstone in a German Renaissance style. The restaurants and other large halls in the interior are freely adorned with mural paintings by American artists.

The Union League Club, the chief Republican club of New York, is a handsome and substantial building at the corner of Thirty-ninth Street.

Between Fortieth Street and Forty-second Street, to the left, on the site of the old reservoir of the Croton Aqueduct, stands the New York Public Library, a very dignified and imposing structure of white marble, built at a cost of ten million dollars.

A little to the east of this point, in Forty-second Street, is the Grand Central Station already referred to. At the southeast corner of Forty-second Street rises the tasteful Columbia Bank. The Temple Emanu-El, or chief synagogue of New York, at the corner of Forty-third Street, is a fine specimen of Moorish architecture with a richly decorated interior.

At the northeast corner of Forty-fourth Street is Delmonico’s Restaurant, a substantial building with elaborate ornamentation; and at the southwest corner is Sherry’s, a rival establishment, equally patronized by the fashionable world.

The Collegiate Church of St. Nicholas (Dutch Reformed), at the corner of Forty-eighth Street, is one of the handsomest and most elaborately adorned ecclesiastical edifices in the city. It is in decorated Gothic style and has a spire two hundred and seventy feet high. Just below Fiftieth Street, on the right, is the Democratic Club, the stronghold of Tammany and popularly known as “Tamany Hall” or the “Wigwam.”

Between Fiftieth and Fifty-first Streets, to the right, stands St. Patrick’s Cathedral, an extensive building of white marble in the decorated Gothic style, and the most important ecclesiastical edifice in the United States. It is four hundred feet long, one hundred and twenty-five feet wide and one hundred and twelve feet high, and the two beautiful spires are three hundred and thirty-two feet high. The building, which was designed by James Renwick, was erected in 1850-1879, at a cost of three million five hundred thousand dollars.

Adjoining the cathedral, to the right, is the handsome Union Club, and at the corner of Fifty-fourth Street is the University Club, adorned with carvings of the seals of eighteen American colleges. The library contains admirable mural paintings, adapted from Pinturicchio’s work in the Borgia apartments of the Vatican. At the corner of Fifty-fifth Street are the St. Regis Hotel and the Gotham Hotel. The Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church has one of the loftiest spires in the city.

Between Fifty-ninth and One Hundred and Tenth Streets Fifth Avenue skirts the east side of Central Park, having buildings on one side only. Among these, many of which are very handsome, is the Metropolitan Club.

At Fifty-ninth Street, where Fifth Avenue reaches Central Park, are three huge hotels: the New Plaza, the Savoy, and the Netherland. In the middle of the Plaza rises a bronze-gilt equestrian statue of General Sherman, of fine artistic merit.

Mt. Sinai Hospital is between One Hundredth and One Hundred and First Streets.

In Central Park, close to Fifth Avenue at Eighty-second Street, is the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

At One Hundred and Twentieth Street Fifth Avenue reaches Mount Morris Square, the mound in the center of which commands good views. Beyond Mt. Morris Square the Avenue is lined with handsome villas, some of them surrounded by gardens. It ends in a district of tenements and small shops at the Harlem River.

New York has many public parks, the finest of which is the Central Park. The district in which it is located was once a wilderness of rocks and swamps. Plans by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux were so admirably carried out as to make the Central Park in ten years one of the most beautiful pleasure-grounds in the world.

Of its eight hundred and forty acres, four hundred are wooded. There are nine miles of drives, with thirty miles of paths, several lakes used for boats in summer and for skating in winter, immense lawns for baseball, tennis, etc., a zoological garden, and conservatories.

The chief promenade is the Mall, near the Fifth Avenue entrance, which is lined with fine elms and contains several statues and groups of sculpture, including Shakespeare, Scott, Burns, Halleck, Columbus, and the Indian Hunter. From the Terrace, at the north end of the Mall, flights of steps descend to the Bethesda Fountain and to the Lake, used for boating in summer and skating in winter. The most extensive view in the park is afforded by the Belvedere, which occupies the highest point of the Ramble, to the north of the Lake.

The North Park, beyond the Croton Reservoir, has fewer artificial features than the South Park, but its natural beauties are greater, and the Harlem Mere, of twelve acres, is very picturesque. Near the southeast corner of the park (nearest entrance in Sixty-fourth Street) are the Old State Arsenal and a small Zoological Garden. On the west side of the park is the American Museum of Natural History, and on the east side is the Metropolitan Museum of Art. To the west of the latter museum rises Cleopatra’s Needle, an Egyptian obelisk from Alexandria, presented by Khedive Ismail Pasha to the City of New York in 1877. The obelisk is of red syenite, is sixty-nine feet high and weighs two hundred tons. Among the other monuments in the park are statues of Webster, Bolivar, Hamilton and Morse, allegorical figures of Commerce and the Pilgrim, and several busts and animal groups. Just outside the park, beside the Sixth Avenue entrance, is a statue of Thorwaldsen.

In Manhattan Square, on the west side of Central Park, between Seventy-seventh and Eighty-first Streets, stands the American Museum of Natural History, which contains collections of natural history, paleontology and ethnology.

CENTRAL PARK TERRACE, NEW YORK

The Metropolitan Museum contains paintings, statuary, ivories, tapestries, porcelains, Greek, Roman, and Egyptian antiquities. Beginning with one structure erected by the city at a cost of five hundred thousand dollars in 1880, it now comprises a series of buildings which cost several million dollars. The collections of paintings, sculpture, antiquities, porcelains, jades, armor, etc., are valued at ten million dollars, most of which has been contributed by art lovers of the city. In 1903 the institution received a bequest of six million dollars from the well-known locomotive builder John T. Rogers, which has enabled it to compete with other great museums.

At the corner of Morningside Avenue and One Hundred and Twelfth Street is the new Episcopal Cathedral of St. John the Divine, designed by Heins and La Farge, the corner-stone of which was laid in 1892, but the building of which has not progressed very far. The Crypt, including the curious Tiffany Chapel of mosaic glass, and the Belmont or St. Saviour’s Chapel are the only portions completed. To the north of this, in the block bounded by Morningside Avenue, Tenth Avenue, One Hundred and Thirteenth Street, and One Hundred and Fourteenth Street, is the large building of St. Luke’s Hospital, constructed of white marble and white pressed brick, with a tower and clock over the main entrance.

To the northwest of this point, on a magnificent site extending from One Hundred and Fourteenth Street to One Hundred and Twenty-first Street, one hundred and ten to one hundred and fifty feet above the Hudson River, are the new buildings of Columbia University, the oldest, largest, and most important educational institution in New York. The finest building in the center of the group is the Low Memorial Library, built at a cost of one million dollars.

On a commanding site bounded by One Hundred and Thirty-eighth Street, Amsterdam Avenue, One Hundred and Fortieth Street, and St. Nicholas Terrace, are the imposing new buildings of the College of the City of New York, erected in 1903-1908 by Mr. George B. Post, in the low-arch Gothic style, at a cost of nearly five million dollars, and notable for their uniformity of design and symmetry of grouping.

Among other educational institutions are the Normal College, at Sixty-ninth Street and Park Avenue; the College of Physicians and Surgeons; the New York University; Cooper Union, in which nearly all the courses are free; St. John’s (Fordham), Manhattan, and St. Francis Xavier, Roman Catholic colleges; the National Academy of Design; Society of American Artists; the Art Students’ League; Chase Art School; New York Institute of Music, and various theological schools.

Riverside Drive or Park, skirting the hills fronting on the Hudson from Seventy-second Street to One Hundred and Twenty-seventh Street, affords beautiful views of the river and is one of the most striking roads of which any city can boast. It has become, perhaps, the most attractive residential quarter of New York, though a great architectural opportunity has been lost in the buildings that border it, these consisting largely of apartment hotels, remarkable mainly for their size.

Near the north end of the drive, on Claremont Heights (West One Hundred and Twenty-second Street), is the Tomb of General Ulysses S. Grant, a huge and solid mausoleum of white granite, erected in 1891-1897 at a cost of six hundred thousand dollars, from a design by J. H. Duncan. The monument consists of a lower story in the Doric style, ninety feet square, surmounted by a cupola borne by Ionic columns. The total height is one hundred and fifty feet.

John Verrazani, a Florentine navigator, was the first European who entered New York Bay (1525). In 1614 the Dutch built a fort on Manhattan Island, and in 1623 a permanent settlement was made, named Nieuw Amsterdam. In 1674 Manhattan Island came into the possession of Great Britain. At the Revolution the population was less than that of Philadelphia or Boston. It was evacuated by the forces of Great Britain in 1783, and from 1785 to 1789 was the seat of government of the United States. The opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 gave a vast impetus to New York City’s growth. The city by 1874 had extended beyond the Harlem River and a part of Westchester County was incorporated in it. In 1896 a law was passed consolidating with New York City, Brooklyn (Kings County), Long Island City, Staten Island, Westchester, Flushing, Newtown, Jamaica, and parts of Eastchester, Pelham, and Hempstead. By the charter adopted in 1897 this territory was divided into the boroughs of Manhattan, Brooklyn, Bronx, Richmond, and Queens. A new charter was secured in 1907 under which the mayor presides over the entire city, with absolute power of appointment and removal of the heads of all city departments. In 1911 a new charter was drawn up which evoked considerable opposition, as it seemed to place still greater powers in the hands of the mayor.

GRANT’S TOMB, RIVERSIDE DRIVE, NEW YORK

Philadelphia (fĭl-ȧ-del´fĭ-ȧ), Pa. [The “Quaker City”; named from two Greek words meaning “loved or friendly,” and “brother,” applied as “brotherly love.” The Indian name of the locality was Coaquannok, “grove of tall pine trees.”]

The chief city of Pennsylvania and the third city in population and importance of the United States, it is situated on the Delaware River, about one hundred miles by ship-channel (via Delaware Bay) from the Atlantic Ocean, ninety miles by railroad southwest of New York City, and one hundred and thirty-six miles northeast of Washington.

The city occupies mainly a broad plain between the Delaware and the Schuylkill Rivers. It is twenty-two miles long from north to south and five to ten miles wide, covering one hundred and thirty square miles, and is laid out with chessboard regularity. The characteristic Philadelphia house is a two-storied or three-storied structure of red pressed brick, with white marble steps. The two rivers give it about thirty miles of water-front for docks and wharfage, and it is the headquarters of two of the greatest American railways—the Pennsylvania and the Reading.

The great wholesale business thoroughfare is Market Street, running east and west between the two rivers, while Chestnut Street, parallel with it on the south, contains the finest shops, many of the newspaper offices, etc. Broad Street is the chief street running north and south. Among the most fashionable residence quarters are Rittenhouse Square and the west parts of Walnut, Locust, Spruce, and Pine Streets. Eighth Street is the great district for shops and amusements.

The City Hall (or Public Buildings) is in the center of the city at the intersection of Broad and Market Streets. The structure is the largest exclusively municipal building in the world. It is built of white marble upon a granite base, in French Renaissance style, and covers an area of four hundred and eighty-six by four hundred and seventy feet. The height of the tower and dome is five hundred and thirty-seven feet four and one-half inches; or five hundred and seventy-three feet four and one-half inches with the colossal figure of Penn (thirty-six feet), to surmount the whole. The entire cost, when completely furnished for occupancy, was estimated at twenty-five million dollars.

The broad pavement round the City Hall is adorned with statues of General Reynolds, General McClellan, Stephen Girard, John C. Bullitt, President McKinley, and Joseph Leidy, the naturalist, and with the “Pilgrim” by Saint-Gaudens.

On the west side of City Hall Square, opposite the City Hall, is the enormous Broad Street Station of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The waiting-room contains a large allegorical relief, while one wall is covered with a mammoth railway map of the United States. On the north side of the square, at the corner of Broad Street and Filbert Street, is the Masonic Temple, a huge granite structure with a tower two hundred and fifty feet high and an elaborately carved Norman porch.

On the east side of the square, occupying the block bounded by the square, Market Street, Thirteenth Street, and Chestnut Street, is Wanamaker’s Store, one of the largest in the United States. On the south side of the square is the Betz Building, with heads of the Presidents of the United States in the bronze cornice above the third-story windows.

Chestnut Street is the chief street of Philadelphia, containing many of the handsomest and most interesting buildings. To the left, at the corner of Broad Street and adjoining the Betz Building, is the Franklin National Bank, while to the right rises the fine office of the Real Estate Trust Co. At the corner of Twelfth Street is the tall Commonwealth Trust Building, and at the corner of Tenth Street, on the same side, is the New York Mutual Life Insurance Co.

Between Tenth and Ninth Streets, to the left, are the Mortgage Trust Co., the Penn Mutual Life Building, with an elaborate facade, and the office of the Philadelphia Record. At the corner of Ninth Street, extending on the north to Market Street, is the Post Office, a large granite building in the Renaissance style, erected at a cost of five million dollars. It also contains the United States Courts and the offices of various Federal officials. In front of the Post Office is a colossal seated figure of Benjamin Franklin. Between Eighth and Seventh Streets is the ornamented front of the Union Trust Co. This neighborhood contains several newspaper offices. At the corner of Sixth Street, on the Public Ledger Building, is another statue of Franklin.

In Seventh Street, a little to the north of Chestnut Street, is the Franklin Institute with a library, museum and lecture-hall.

Between Fifth and Sixth Streets is Independence Hall, or the old State House, a modest brick edifice (1732-1735), which is in some respects the most interesting building in the United States. Here the Continental Congress met during the American Revolution (1775-1781), and here, on July 4th, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was adopted. In 1897-1898 the whole building was restored as far as possible to its original condition.

The Custom House, with a Doric portico, was originally erected in 1819-1824 for the United States Bank. It is copied from the Parthenon, and considered one of the best examples of Doric architecture in the world.

A lane diverging to the right between Fourth and Third Streets, opposite the Fidelity Trust Co., leads to Carpenters’ Hall, where the First Colonial Congress assembled in 1774. It contains the chairs used at the Congress, various historical relics, and the inscription: “Within these walls Henry, Hancock, and Adams inspired the delegates of the colonies with nerve and sinew for the toils of war.” Chestnut Street ends at the Delaware River.

Walnut Street runs parallel to Chestnut Street, one block to the south. In this street, at the intersection of Dock Street and Third Street, is the Stock Exchange, formerly the Merchants Exchange, with a semi-circular portico facing the river. Near it, in Third Street, is the Girard Bank, built for the first United States Bank and long owned by Stephen Girard. At Fourth Street is the building of the Manhattan Insurance Co.

Walnut Street now crosses Broad Street, to the west of which it consists mainly of private residences. Between Eighteenth and Nineteenth Streets we pass Rittenhouse Square, a fashionable residence quarter.

At the corner of Broad and Chestnut Streets are the white marble building of the Girard Trust Co., with a rotunda, and the tall Land Title Building.

North Broad Street, beginning on the north side of the City Hall Square, a handsome street one hundred and thirteen feet wide, contains in its upper portion many of the finest private residences in Philadelphia. To the right, at the corner of Filbert Street, is the Masonic Temple, which is adjoined by the Arch Street Methodist Episcopal Church. On the opposite side of the street are the tall buildings of the United Gas Improvement Co. and the Fidelity Mutual Life Association. To the right is the Odd Fellows’ Temple.

To the left, at the corner of Cherry Street, is the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, a building in the Venetian style of architecture. The Academy was founded in 1805. Besides its collections it supports an important art-school, the lecture hall of which is adorned with effective decorations by the pupils. Its collections include five hundred paintings, numerous sculptures, several hundred casts, and fifty thousand engravings. The early American school is especially well represented.

On the west side of Broad Street, between Race and Vine Streets, are the Hahnemann College and Hospital, one of the chief homœopathic institutions of the kind. To the right, at the corner of Spring Garden Street, is the Spring Garden Institute for instruction in drawing, painting, and the mechanic arts. Opposite are the Baldwin Locomotive Works, a highly interesting industrial establishment.

A little farther on is the Boys’ Central High School, an unusually large and handsome structure, and the Synagogue Rodef Shalom, in a Moorish style.

Farther up Broad Street are numerous handsome private houses, churches, and other edifices. At the northwest corner of Broad Street and Girard Avenue is the handsome Widener Mansion, presented to the city and used as a branch of the Free Library. Beyond Master Street, to the left, is the elaborate home of the Mercantile Club. Beyond this Broad Street runs out to Germantown, six miles from the City Hall.

Girard Avenue runs west from North Broad Street to Girard College, one of the richest and most notable philanthropic institutions in the United States. It was founded by Stephen Girard, a native of France, for the education of male orphans. The original bequest of over five million dollars has increased to about thirty-five million dollars.

The main building is a dignified marble structure in the Corinthian style, resembling the Madeleine at Paris. In the vestibule are a statute of Stephen Girard, and his sarcophagus. A room on the ground floor contains several relics of him.

Market Street is the chief wholesale business thoroughfare of the city. A little to the east of City Hall Square it passes the Philadelphia & Reading Railway Station, a tall Renaissance building with a train shed little smaller than that of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The department store of Gimbel Brothers, on the south side of the street, between Eighth and Ninth Streets, is one of the largest in the world. The Penn National Bank, at the corner of South Seventh Street, occupies the site of the house in which Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence.

South Broad Street leads to the south from City Hall Square. Its intersection with Chestnut Street, just to the south of the City Hall, is environed with tall office buildings. To the right is the annex of the Land Title Building, extending to Sansom Street. Opposite, adjoining the Real Estate Trust Co., is the North American Building, named after the newspaper which occupies it. Below is the Union League Club, the chief Republican club of Pennsylvania. On the same side is the large Bellevue-Stratford Hotel, the leading hotel of Philadelphia, and one of the great hostelries of the country. Farther on, to the right, is the Art Club, in the Renaissance style, in which exhibitions of paintings, concerts, and public lectures are held. At Locust Street, to the right, is the Academy of Music, while to the left is the Pennsylvania School of Industrial Art, incorporated in 1876, with a special view to the development of the art industries of Pennsylvania. A characteristic feature is the department of weaving and textile design. The Industrial Museum Hall is connected with this excellent institution.

Below Pine Street, Broad Street contains few important buildings. Of special note, however, is the Ridgway Library, which stands to the left, between Christian and Carpenter Streets, nearly one mile from the City Hall. This handsome building was erected with a legacy of one million five hundred thousand dollars left by Dr. Rush in 1869, as a branch of the Philadelphia Library. Adjoining the main hall is the tomb of the founder.

Broad Street ends, four miles from the City Hall, at League Island Park, three hundred acres in extent. League Island itself, in the Delaware, contains a United States Navy Yard.

West Philadelphia, the extension of the city beyond the Schuylkill, contains many of the chief residence streets and several public buildings and charitable institutions.

The University of Pennsylvania, founded in 1740, and removed to West Philadelphia in 1872, occupies a group of more than thirty buildings scattered over an area of sixty acres bounded by Woodland and Cleveland Avenues and Pine and Thirty-second Streets.

The College, the Medical School, Dental School, and Law School, are all provided with spacious and well-equipped buildings. Houston Hall, behind College Hall, is the social center of the University student life. The Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology is recognized as the headquarters of anatomical research in the United States and contains the first museum of human anatomy founded in America. The Morgan Laboratory of Physics, the Harrison Laboratory of Chemistry, the Gymnasium, and the Dormitories are all notable structures. Franklin Field, adjoining Thirty-third Street, is the athletic ground of the University and contains a large stadium.

The Museum of Science and Art occupies a tasteful building in South Street, owing part of its inspiration to the Certosa at Pavia, and is divided into five sections. Its value is largely due to the fact that many of its contents were found by expeditions organized by the University itself.

A little to the northeast, at the corner of Chestnut Street and Thirty-second Street, is the Drexel Institute, founded by A. J. Drexel, and opened in 1892. The total cost of buildings and equipment was four million five hundred thousand dollars.

Fairmount Park, the chief park of Philadelphia, is one of the largest in the world, and covers an area of three thousand three hundred and forty acres. The park proper extends along both banks of the Schuylkill for about four miles, and the narrow strip along the Wissahickon, six miles, and one of the noted drives of the world, is also included in the park limits. The principal entrances are at the end of Green Street, which is connected with the City Hall by the wide Park Boulevard, and at Girard Avenue.

In this park, in 1876 was held the Centennial Exhibition; and in its environs are the Zoological Garden, the Fairmount Waterworks, which supply to the city one hundred million gallons of water daily, the beautiful Horticultural Hall and Memorial Hall, built as part of the Centennial Exhibition of 1876 at a cost of one million five hundred thousand dollars, and now containing a permanent collection of art and industry known as Pennsylvania Museum of Industrial Art.

At Sackamaxon, in Beach Street, is the small Penn Treaty Park, supposed to occupy the spot where Penn made his treaty with the Indians in 1682, under an elm that has long since vanished, a treaty, in the words of Voltaire, “never sworn to and never broken.”

In its manufacturing products Philadelphia ranks next to New York. There are upward of twenty thousand manufacturing establishments, the combined output of which amounts to more than eight hundred million dollars. The chief products are locomotives, sugar and molasses, men’s clothing, foundry and machine-shop products, carpets and rugs, hosiery and knit goods, woolen and cotton goods, malt liquors, morocco, chemicals, packed meat, refined petroleum and silk, and silk goods. The great Cramp ship-building yards are on the Delaware River. The Baldwin Locomotive Works are the largest in the world.

Philadelphia was founded by William Penn in 1682, the year after was made the capital of Pennsylvania, and soon became a place of importance. It was the central point in the War of Independence, where the first Continental Congress met, September 4, 1774, and where the Declaration of Independence was adopted in 1776. At Philadelphia, also, the Federal Union was signed, in 1778; and here, too, the Constitution of the United States was framed, in 1787. An interest of another kind attaches to the fact that the Protestant Episcopal Church of North America was organized here in 1786. From 1790 to 1800 Philadelphia was the Federal Capital; and the first mint was established here in 1792. Later events have been the holding of the Centennial Exhibition, in 1876, and the commemoration of Penn’s landing in 1882.

Pittsburgh, Pa. [The “Smoky City,” “Iron City”; named in 1758, when the French had been driven out by Washington; Fort Pitt, after William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, the name Pittsburgh being adopted in 1769.]

It is the second city of Pennsylvania and one of the chief industrial centers of the United States, and occupies the tongue of land between the Monongahela and the Allegheny, which here unite to form the Ohio, and also a strip of land on the south side of the Monongahela. The sister city, Allegheny, situated on the north bank of the Allegheny and extending down to the Ohio, was incorporated with Pittsburgh in 1907 and is now known as the North Side. The rivers are crossed by numerous bridges.

Smithfield Street, diverging from Liberty Avenue, not far from the Union Station, leads to the river Monongahela, on the other side of which, from Washington Heights, may be obtained a fine view of the city. On Liberty Avenue, to the right, is the City Hall a fine structure of white sandstone. A little farther on, to the left, is the Post Office. At the bridge are the Monongahela Hotel and the Baltimore & Ohio Station.

Crossing the Smithfield Street Bridge, Mt. Washington (three hundred and seventy feet) may be ascended by one of the three inclined railways on this side. These interesting, but at first somewhat startling, pieces of apparatus are worked by cables and transport horses and carriages as well as persons.

The finest building in Pittsburgh is the Allegheny County Court House, in Grant Street, a splendid example of H. H. Richardson’s treatment of Romanesque, erected in 1888 at a cost of two million five hundred thousand dollars. The massive Prison is connected with the Court House by a finely handled stone bridge. The main tower is three hundred and twenty feet high. The government building cost one million five hundred thousand dollars.

Other buildings of importance are the Frick Building, a granite office structure of twenty stories at the corner of Fifth Avenue and Grant Street; the Carnegie Building and the Farmers’ Bank Building (these two also in Fifth Avenue); the Union National Bank Building and the Commonwealth Trust Co. Building, in Fourth Avenue; the First Presbyterian Church, in Sixth Avenue; the Fulton Building, and the Bessemer Building (the last two at the corner of Sixth Street and Duquesne Way).

More to the east are the Academy of Our Lady of Mercy and the new Calvary Episcopal Church (at the corner of Shady Avenue and Walnut Street), a beautiful example of thirteenth century Gothic. The Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Paul stands in Fifth Avenue, at the corner of Craig Street.

To the east of the city lies Schenley Park, containing the fine Phipps Conservatory and the Hall of Botany. Near the Forbes Street entrance to the Park is the great central building of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh, in which are housed not only the main collection of the library, but also two of the three departments of the Carnegie Institute. The structure, originally built in the Italian Renaissance style at a cost of eight hundred thousand dollars, was remodeled and enlarged in 1904-1907 at an additional cost of five million dollars. The city is also the seat of Pittsburgh University, Holy Ghost College, and Penn’s College for Women. The great iron and steel works have made the prosperity and reputation of Pittsburgh. Among these are the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, the Homestead Steel Works, the Duquesne Steel Works, the American Bridge Co., the Jones & Laughlin Works, the Oliver Iron & Steel Co., the Crescent Steel Works, and the Pressed Steel Car Co.

Its manufactures include everything, indeed, which can be made of iron, from a fifty-eight-ton gun to nails and tacks; steel in its various applications; electrical machinery and appliances; all descriptions of glass and glassware; silver and nickel-plated ware; Japan and Britannia ware; pressed tin, brass, copper, bronzes; Portland cement, earthenware, crucibles, fire-pots, bricks; furniture, wagons and carriages; brushes, bellows, mechanical supplies of all kinds; natural-gas fittings, and tools for oil and gas wells. Pittsburgh has, also, the largest manufactory of cork, and the largest pickling and preserving establishment in the world.

In 1754 a few English traders built a stockade here, but were driven away by the French. The latter replaced the stockade by a fort, which, in honor of the Governor of Canada, they called Duquesne. In 1758 it was taken by the English, who next year commenced a large and strong fortification, which, in honor of the elder Pitt, then Prime Minister, they called Fort Pitt. The settlement became a borough in 1804, and in 1816 was incorporated as the city of Pittsburgh. In 1872 the limits of the city were extended across the Monongahela, and by 1906 it extended over twenty-eight square miles. In 1907 Allegheny City (in spite of the opposition of a large majority of its inhabitants) was annexed; the Supreme Court of the United States declared the act valid, and thus Allegheny became the North Side of the present Pittsburgh.

Richmond, Va. [Named from Richmond-on-the-Thames, a suburb of London; the name suggested owing to analogy in situation.]

It is the capital of Virginia, on the left bank of the James River, at the head of tide water, one hundred and fifty miles from its mouth, and one hundred and sixteen miles by rail south of Washington. It is a port of entry, and vessels drawing sixteen feet of water can come up to the lower end of the city, where there are large docks. Richmond is picturesquely situated on a group of hills, and fine water power is afforded by the James River, which descends one hundred and sixteen feet in nine miles.

Near the center of the city, on Shockoe Hill, is Capitol Square, a tree-shaded area of twelve acres. The Capitol, or State House, partly designed after the Maison Carrée at Nîmes, France, occupies the highest point of the square and dates from 1785. The wings were added in 1906.

In the Central Hall, surmounted by a dome, are Houdon’s statue of Washington (which Washington himself is said to have seen in its present position) and a bust of Lafayette by the same artist. The Senate Chamber, to the right, was used as the Confederate House of Representatives during the Civil War. The House of Delegates, to the left, contains portraits of Chatham and Jefferson, and was the scene of Aaron Burr’s trial for high treason in 1807, and of the State Secession Convention in 1861.

Capitol Square also contains a fine equestrian statue of Washington, with figures of Patrick Henry, George Mason, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Nelson, Andrew Lewis, and Chief Justice Marshall round the pedestal; a statue of Stonewall Jackson; a statue of Hunter Holmes McGuire, the most noted surgeon of the South; and a statue of Henry Clay. At the northeast corner of the square stands the Governor’s Mansion.

On the north side, in Broad Street, is the City Hall, a handsome Gothic structure with a clock-tower. To the east of the Capitol is the State Library. In Twelfth Street, at the corner of Clay Street, a little to the north of Capitol Square, is the Jefferson Davis Mansion, or “White House of the Confederacy,” occupied by Mr. Davis as President of the Southern Confederacy. It is now fitted up as a Museum of Confederate Relics.

St. John’s Church, erected in 1740, but since much enlarged, is at the corner of Broad and Twenty-fourth Streets. The Virginia Convention was held in this church in 1775, and it was here that Patrick Henry made his famous “give me liberty or give me death” speech.

On Monument Avenue (a prolongation of Franklin Street) is the equestrian statue of General Lee. Adjacent is an equestrian statue of General J. E. B. Stuart, and a half mile farther on, at the west end of the avenue, is the Jefferson Davis Monument, consisting of a semi-circular colonnade with a pillar supporting an allegorical female figure and inscribed “Deo Vindice,” with a heroic statue of the ex-president in front. A little to the east of the Lee Statue is Richmond College, a leading educational institution of Virginia.

Among other points of interest in Richmond are the Westmoreland Club, at the corner of Grace and Sixth Streets; the Commonwealth Club, at the corner of Franklin and Madison Streets; the Virginia Club, 2311 East Grace Street; Chief Justice Marshall’s House; the Tobacco Exchange, Shockoe Slip; the University College of Medicine; the Medical College of Virginia; the National Cemetery, two miles to the northeast of the city; the Sheltering Arms Hospital, and Idlewood Park, a favorite summer-resort, close to the city on the west.

Hollywood Cemetery is the most interesting of the cemeteries. Near the west gate of the cemetery is the Confederate Monument, a rude pyramid of stone ninety feet high, erected as a memorial to the sixteen thousand Confederate soldiers buried here. On President’s Hill, in the southwest corner of the cemetery, overlooking the river, are the graves of Monroe and Tyler, two of the seven presidents born in Virginia. John Randolph, Jefferson Davis, General Pickett, General J. E. B. Stuart and Commodore Maury are also buried here. Patrick Henry is buried in St. John’s Churchyard.

During the last three years of the Civil War (1862-1865) battles raged all round Richmond, and remains of the fortified lines constructed to protect the city are visible in various parts of the environs.

The leading industry is the manufacture of tobacco. Other important products are lumber and planing-mill supplies, foundry and machine-shop products (including locomotives), fancy and paper boxes, packing boxes, saddlery and harness, carriages and wagons, confectionery, flavoring extracts, patent medicines and compounds, etc. There are also large railroad repair shops, establishments for grinding and roasting coffee, etc. Richmond was formerly noted as a center of the flour-milling industry.

Richmond was settled in 1733 and incorporated in 1742. Captain John Smith’s settlement of “None Such” in 1609 and Fort Charles, erected in 1645, were both near the site of the present city. In 1779 it became the capital of the state. During the American Revolution the place was taken by a British force under Benedict Arnold, January 5, 1781, and the warehouses and public buildings were burned. The following year the city was chartered. Richmond, as the capital of the Confederacy, was the main objective of Federal operations during the Civil War. It was evacuated April 2, 1865. The warehouses and a considerable part of the business section of the city were burned by the Confederates.

Salt Lake City, Utah. [The “City of the Saints;” named for the famous lake of that state.]

It is the chief town and ecclesiastical capital of the State of Utah, and is situated on the river Jordan, eleven miles from Great Salt Lake. It is built at the base of the Wasatch Mountains, four thousand three hundred and thirty-four feet above sea-level. The valley is world-famed for its beauty, resources, climate, and health-giving properties. By rail it is thirty-six miles south of Ogden, on the Union Pacific Railroad; eight hundred and thirty-three miles from San Francisco, and one thousand and thirty-one miles from Omaha.

The city is regularly laid out and the streets are wide and shaded with trees. Each house in the residence quarters stands in its own garden.

Temple Block, “the sacred square of the Mormons,” covering ten acres, is the center of the city. Here are the Great Temple, and the Tabernacle, the latter one hundred and fifty by two hundred and fifty feet, with a self-supporting roof shaped like a tortoise shell, supported by forty-four sandstone pillars, and having a seating capacity of eight thousand, accommodations for twelve thousand, and one of the finest pipe organs in America.

A little to the east of the Tabernacle is the Temple, a large and handsome building of granite, erected at a cost of over four million dollars. At each end are three pointed towers, the loftiest of which, in the center of the east or principal facade, is two hundred and ten feet high and is surmounted by a colossal gilded figure (twelve and one-half feet high) of the Angel Moroni, by C. E. Dallin. The interior is elaborately fitted up and artistically adorned.

The Assembly Hall, to the south of the Tabernacle, is a granite building with accommodation for three thousand people, intended for divine service.

At the corner of North Temple and Main Streets stands the Latter-Day Saints University. At the southeast corner of Temple Square is the Pioneer Monument, surmounted by a copper statue of Brigham Young, which was unveiled in 1897.

On South Temple Street towards the east is the Deseret News Block, a large brown-stone building where the oldest newspaper to the west of the Missouri is published. To the left are the Tithing Office and Tithing Storehouse where the Mormons pay their tithes in kind. A little farther on, also to the left, are the Lion House, one of the residences of Brigham Young; the office of the president of the Mormon Church; and the Beehive House, another of Brigham Young’s houses. On the opposite side of the street are the huge shoe-factory and warehouse of Zion’s Coöperative Mercantile Institution; the office of the Juvenile Instructor; the office of the Historian of the Mormon Church; and the Gardo House, or Amelia Palace, opposite the Beehive House.