Living Nations of the World to-Day (part 5)

Powers and Duties.—As a Cabinet, the Ministers represent the administration in the Chambers; as a Council, they exercise a general oversight of the administration of the laws, with a view of giving unity of direction to the affairs of the State. The President may be present at all Council meetings.
Cabinet and Council of Ministers.—Both the Cabinet and the Council consist of the same persons. The Cabinet is a political body; the Council, an administrative body.
Appointment.—Chosen by the President, generally from among the members of the Chambers.
Members of the Cabinet.—Membership may vary somewhat:
Premier and Foreign Minister.
Ministers of State.
Minister of Justice and Vice-President of the Council.
Minister of War.
Minister of Marine.
Minister of the Interior.
Minister of Finance.
Minister of Agriculture.
Minister of Public Works.
Minister of Commerce.
Minister of Colonies.
Minister of Instruction and Minister of Inventions affecting National Defense.
Council of State.—Gives advice on all projects of law which the Chambers or the Government wish to submit to it, and on administrative regulations and by-laws. Its decision is final in all disputes arising in matters of administration.
Is presided over by the Minister of Justice, and is composed of Councillors, Masters of Requests, and Auditors, all appointed by the President of the republic.
Relations to the Chambers.—Are the leaders of the Chambers.
Whether members of the Chambers or not, they have as Ministers the right to attend all sessions of the Chambers and take a specially privileged part in the debate.

Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the favor of the Chambers; for, if not sustained, they must all resign.

III. The Chambers.—Consist of the Senate and House of Deputies.

THE SENATE is composed of three hundred members chosen by the Departments and Colonies for nine years, one-third of the members retiring every three years.
Until 1884 the Senate contained seventy-five life members, the life list having been originally made up by election by the National Assembly of 1875, and vacancies being filled by the Senate itself. In 1884 this arrangement was abolished, and since that year vacancies in the life roll have been filled by ordinary nine-year Senators.

Qualifications.—Must be a Frenchman, and at least forty years of age.

Remuneration.—15,000 francs ($3,000).

Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own President and Vice-Presidents.

Committees.—Each month the members are divided by lots into “Bureaux.” These select all the special committees to which bills are referred, except when the House chooses itself to elect a committee.

Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the Chamber of Deputies, makes the laws, and has in law-making the same prerogatives as the Chamber, except that bills relating to revenue originate with the Chamber. It is a court of justice for trying the President of the republic and the Ministers. It may originate, and, in concurrence with the Senate, pass resolutions and bills; but bills relating to finance must be originated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power to bring accusations against the President of the republic and the Ministers.

THE CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES is composed (in 1917) of five hundred and eighty-four Deputies, distributed among the Departments and certain colonies in the proportion of one Deputy to seventy thousand inhabitants. The Deputies are chosen for a term of four years by universal suffrage, the Arrondissements serving as electoral districts.

Qualifications.—Must be a citizen of France, and at least twenty-five years of age.

Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Chooses its own President, Vice-President and other officers.

Remuneration.—15,000 francs ($3,000).

Powers and Duties.—May originate, and, in concurrence with the Senate, pass resolutions and bills; but bills relating to finance must be originated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power to bring accusations against the President of the republic and Ministers.

Committees.—Each month the members are divided by lot into eleven “Bureaux,” which select all the special committees to which bills are referred, except when the Chamber chooses to appoint a committee directly.

IV. Judicial Department.

The judicial system is under direct control of the government. All Judges are nominated by the President of the republic. They can be removed only by a decision of the Court of Cassation constituted as the Conseil Supérieur of the magistracy.

The Court of Cassation.

The Court of Cassation, which sits at Paris, is the highest court for all criminal cases tried by jury, so far as regards matters of law.
Courts of Appeal.—The highest courts are the twenty-six Courts of Appeal, composed each of one president and a variable number of members, for all criminal cases which have been tried without a jury.

Court of Assizes.—In all cases of a délit or a crime the preliminary inquiry is made in secrecy by an examining magistrate (juge d’instruction), who may either dismiss the case or send it for trial before a court where a public prosecutor (procureur) endeavors to prove the charge. The Court of Assizes is assisted by twelve jurors, who decide by simple majority on the fact with respect to offenses amounting to crimes.
Justices of the Peace (juges de paix) are the courts of lowest jurisdiction in France. They try small civil cases and act also as judges of Police Courts, where all petty offenses (contraventions) are disposed of. The Correctional Courts pronounce upon all graver offenses (délits), including cases involving imprisonment up to five years. They have no jury, and consist of three judges belonging to the civil tribunals of first instance.
For commercial cases there are, in two hundred and twenty-six towns, Tribunals of Commerce and Councils of Experts (prud’hommes). In the towns are police courts.

IMPORTANT BIOGRAPHICAL FACTS RELATING TO THE PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES

TABLE I. BIRTH AND PARENTAGE TABLE II. EDUCATION, PROFESSION, RELIGION AND POLITICS

NAMES OF PRESIDENTS BORN PARENTS Paternal Ancestry Father’s Business Educational Advantages Early Vocation Profession Religious Connection Politics

Date Birthplace Father Mother

1. George Washington Fri., Feb. 22, 1732 Bridges Creek, near Fredericksburg, Va. Augustine Mary Ball English Planter Common School Surveyor Planter Episcopalian Federalist

2. John Adams Wed., Oct. 30, 1735 Quincy, Mass. John Susanna Boylston English Farmer Harvard College, 1755 Teacher Lawyer Unitarian Federalist

3. Thomas Jefferson Tues., April 13, 1743 Shadwell, Va. Peter Jane Randolph Welsh Planter College of William and Mary, 1762 Lawyer Lawyer Liberal Republican

4. James Madison Fri., Mar. 16, 1751 Port Conway, Va. James Nellie Conway English Planter Princeton College, 1771 Lawyer Lawyer Episcopalian Republican

5. James Monroe Fri., April 28, 1758 Westmoreland Co., Va. Spence Eliza Jones Scotch Planter Entered College, William and Mary Lawyer Politician Episcopalian Republican

6. John Quincy Adams Sat., July 11, 1767 Quincy, Mass. John Abigail Smith English Lawyer Harvard College, 1787 Lawyer Lawyer Unitarian Republican

7. Andrew Jackson Sun., Mar. 15, 1767 Union County, N. C. Andrew Elizabeth Hutchinson Scotch-Irish Farmer Self Taught Lawyer Lawyer Presbyterian Democrat

8. Martin Van Buren Thurs., Dec. 5, 1782 Kinderhook, N. Y. Abraham Maria Hoes Dutch Farmer Academy Lawyer Lawyer Reformed Dutch Democrat

9. William Henry Harrison Tues., Feb. 9, 1773 Berkeley, Va. Benjamin Elizabeth Bassett English Statesman Entered Hampden-Sidney College Medicine Army Episcopalian Whig

10. John Tyler Mon., Mar. 29, 1790 Charles City Co., Va. John Mary Armistead English Jurist College, William and Mary, 1806 Lawyer Lawyer Episcopalian Democrat

11. James Knox Polk Mon., Nov. 2, 1795 Mecklenburg Co., N. C. Samuel Jane Knox ... Farmer University of North Carolina Lawyer Lawyer Presbyterian Democrat

12. Zachary Taylor Tues., Nov. 24, 1784 Orange Co., Va. Richard Sarah Strother Scotch-Irish ... Common School Soldier Army Episcopalian Whig

13. Millard Fillmore Tues., Jan. 7, 1800 Summerhill, N. Y. Nathaniel Phebe Millard English Farmer Public School Tailor Lawyer Unitarian Whig

14. Franklin Pierce Fri., Nov. 23, 1804 Hillsborough, N. H. Benjamin Anna Kendrick English Farmer Bowdoin College, 1824 Lawyer Lawyer Episcopalian Democrat

15. James Buchanan Sat., April 23, 1791 Cove Gap, Pa. James Elizabeth Speer Scotch-Irish Merchant Dickinson College, 1809 Lawyer Lawyer Presbyterian Democrat

16. Abraham Lincoln Sun., Feb. 12, 1809 Nolin Creek, Ky. Thomas Nancy Hanks English Farmer Self Taught Farmer Lawyer Liberal Republican

17. Andrew Johnson Thurs., Dec. 29, 1808 Raleigh, N. C. Jacob Mary McDonough English Sexton Self Taught Tailor Politician Liberal Republican

18. Ulysses Simpson Grant Sat., April 27, 1822 Point Pleasant, Ohio Jesse Root Harriet Simpson Scotch Farmer West Point Military Academy, 1843 Tanner Army Methodist Republican

19. Rutherford Birchard Hayes Fri., Oct. 4, 1822 Delaware, Ohio Rutherford Sophia Birchard Scotch Merchant Kenyon College, Ohio, 1842 Lawyer Lawyer Methodist Republican

20. James Abram Garfield Sat., Nov. 19, 1831 Orange Township, Ohio Abram Eliza Ballou English Farmer Williams College, 1856 Teacher Lawyer Disciples Republican

21. Chester Alan Arthur Tues., Oct. 5, 1830 Fairfield, Vt. William Malvina Stone Scotch-Irish Clergyman Union College, 1848 Teacher Lawyer Episcopalian Republican

22. Grover Cleveland Sat., Mar. 18, 1837 Caldwell, N. J. Richard Falley Anne Neale English Clergyman Common School Teacher Lawyer Presbyterian Democrat

23. Benjamin Harrison Tues., Aug. 20, 1833 North Bend, Ohio John Scott Elizabeth Findlay Irwin English Farmer Miami University, Ohio, 1851 Lawyer Lawyer Presbyterian Republican

24. Grover Cleveland Sat., Mar. 18, 1837 Caldwell, N. J. Richard Falley Anne Neale English Clergyman Common School Teacher Lawyer Presbyterian Democrat

25. William McKinley Sun., Jan. 29, 1843 Niles, Ohio William Nancy C. Allison Scotch-Irish Iron Mnfr. Entered Allegheny College Lawyer Lawyer Methodist Republican

26. Theodore Roosevelt Wed., Oct. 27, 1858 28 East 20th St., New York City Theodore Martha Bullock Dutch Merchant Harvard, 1880 Publicist Publicist Reformed Dutch Republican

27. William Howard Taft Tues., Sept. 15, 1857 Cincinnati, Ohio Alphonso Louise M. Torrey English Lawyer Yale, 1878 Lawyer Lawyer Unitarian Republican

28. Woodrow Wilson Sun., Dec. 28, 1856 Staunton, Va. Jos. Ruggles Jessie Woodrow Scotch-Irish Clergyman Princeton, 1879 Lawyer Educator Presbyterian Democrat

TABLE I. BIRTH AND PARENTAGE

NAMES OF PRESIDENTS BORN PARENTS Paternal Ancestry Father’s Business

Date Birthplace Father Mother

1. George Washington Fri., Feb. 22, 1732 Bridges Creek, near Fredericksburg, Va. Augustine Mary Ball English Planter

2. John Adams Wed., Oct. 30, 1735 Quincy, Mass. John Susanna Boylston English Farmer

3. Thomas Jefferson Tues., April 13, 1743 Shadwell, Va. Peter Jane Randolph Welsh Planter

4. James Madison Fri., Mar. 16, 1751 Port Conway, Va. James Nellie Conway English Planter

5. James Monroe Fri., April 28, 1758 Westmoreland Co., Va. Spence Eliza Jones Scotch Planter

6. John Quincy Adams Sat., July 11, 1767 Quincy, Mass. John Abigail Smith English Lawyer

7. Andrew Jackson Sun., Mar. 15, 1767 Union County, N. C. Andrew Elizabeth Hutchinson Scotch-Irish Farmer

8. Martin Van Buren Thurs., Dec. 5, 1782 Kinderhook, N. Y. Abraham Maria Hoes Dutch Farmer

9. William Henry Harrison Tues., Feb. 9, 1773 Berkeley, Va. Benjamin Elizabeth Bassett English Statesman

10. John Tyler Mon., Mar. 29, 1790 Charles City Co., Va. John Mary Armistead English Jurist

11. James Knox Polk Mon., Nov. 2, 1795 Mecklenburg Co., N. C. Samuel Jane Knox ... Farmer

12. Zachary Taylor Tues., Nov. 24, 1784 Orange Co., Va. Richard Sarah Strother Scotch-Irish ...

13. Millard Fillmore Tues., Jan. 7, 1800 Summerhill, N. Y. Nathaniel Phebe Millard English Farmer

14. Franklin Pierce Fri., Nov. 23, 1804 Hillsborough, N. H. Benjamin Anna Kendrick English Farmer

15. James Buchanan Sat., April 23, 1791 Cove Gap, Pa. James Elizabeth Speer Scotch-Irish Merchant

16. Abraham Lincoln Sun., Feb. 12, 1809 Nolin Creek, Ky. Thomas Nancy Hanks English Farmer

17. Andrew Johnson Thurs., Dec. 29, 1808 Raleigh, N. C. Jacob Mary McDonough English Sexton

18. Ulysses Simpson Grant Sat., April 27, 1822 Point Pleasant, Ohio Jesse Root Harriet Simpson Scotch Farmer

19. Rutherford Birchard Hayes Fri., Oct. 4, 1822 Delaware, Ohio Rutherford Sophia Birchard Scotch Merchant

20. James Abram Garfield Sat., Nov. 19, 1831 Orange Township, Ohio Abram Eliza Ballou English Farmer

21. Chester Alan Arthur Tues., Oct. 5, 1830 Fairfield, Vt. William Malvina Stone Scotch-Irish Clergyman

22. Grover Cleveland Sat., Mar. 18, 1837 Caldwell, N. J. Richard Falley Anne Neale English Clergyman

23. Benjamin Harrison Tues., Aug. 20, 1833 North Bend, Ohio John Scott Elizabeth Findlay Irwin English Farmer

24. Grover Cleveland Sat., Mar. 18, 1837 Caldwell, N. J. Richard Falley Anne Neale English Clergyman

25. William McKinley Sun., Jan. 29, 1843 Niles, Ohio William Nancy C. Allison Scotch-Irish Iron Mnfr.

26. Theodore Roosevelt Wed., Oct. 27, 1858 28 East 20th St., New York City Theodore Martha Bullock Dutch Merchant

27. William Howard Taft Tues., Sept. 15, 1857 Cincinnati, Ohio Alphonso Louise M. Torrey English Lawyer

28. Woodrow Wilson Sun., Dec. 28, 1856 Staunton, Va. Jos. Ruggles Jessie Woodrow Scotch-Irish Clergyman

TABLE II. EDUCATION, PROFESSION, RELIGION AND POLITICS

NAMES OF PRESIDENTS Educational Advantages Early Vocation Profession Religious Connection Politics

1. George Washington Common School Surveyor Planter Episcopalian Federalist

2. John Adams Harvard College, 1755 Teacher Lawyer Unitarian Federalist

3. Thomas Jefferson College of William and Mary, 1762 Lawyer Lawyer Liberal Republican

4. James Madison Princeton College, 1771 Lawyer Lawyer Episcopalian Republican

5. James Monroe Entered College, William and Mary Lawyer Politician Episcopalian Republican

6. John Quincy Adams Harvard College, 1787 Lawyer Lawyer Unitarian Republican

7. Andrew Jackson Self Taught Lawyer Lawyer Presbyterian Democrat

8. Martin Van Buren Academy Lawyer Lawyer Reformed Dutch Democrat

9. William Henry Harrison Entered Hampden-Sidney College Medicine Army Episcopalian Whig

10. John Tyler College, William and Mary, 1806 Lawyer Lawyer Episcopalian Democrat

11. James Knox Polk University of North Carolina Lawyer Lawyer Presbyterian Democrat

12. Zachary Taylor Common School Soldier Army Episcopalian Whig

13. Millard Fillmore Public School Tailor Lawyer Unitarian Whig

14. Franklin Pierce Bowdoin College, 1824 Lawyer Lawyer Episcopalian Democrat

15. James Buchanan Dickinson College, 1809 Lawyer Lawyer Presbyterian Democrat

16. Abraham Lincoln Self Taught Farmer Lawyer Liberal Republican

17. Andrew Johnson Self Taught Tailor Politician Liberal Republican

18. Ulysses Simpson Grant West Point Military Academy, 1843 Tanner Army Methodist Republican

19. Rutherford Birchard Hayes Kenyon College, Ohio, 1842 Lawyer Lawyer Methodist Republican

20. James Abram Garfield Williams College, 1856 Teacher Lawyer Disciples Republican

21. Chester Alan Arthur Union College, 1848 Teacher Lawyer Episcopalian Republican

22. Grover Cleveland Common School Teacher Lawyer Presbyterian Democrat

23. Benjamin Harrison Miami University, Ohio, 1851 Lawyer Lawyer Presbyterian Republican

24. Grover Cleveland Common School Teacher Lawyer Presbyterian Democrat

25. William McKinley Entered Allegheny College Lawyer Lawyer Methodist Republican

26. Theodore Roosevelt Harvard, 1880 Publicist Publicist Reformed Dutch Republican

27. William Howard Taft Yale, 1878 Lawyer Lawyer Unitarian Republican

28. Woodrow Wilson Princeton, 1879 Lawyer Educator Presbyterian Democrat

TABLE III. MARRIAGE, CHILDREN AND ELECTION TO THE PRESIDENCY TABLE IV. TERM OF OFFICE, DEATH AND PLACE OF BURIAL

Terms Name Married Wife’s Name Children Elected Presi-
dent Residence When Elected Age When Inaugu-
rated Term of Office Died Cause of Death Age at Death Place of Death Place of Burial

Boys Girls

1-2 Washington 1759 Martha (Dandridge) Custis (1732-1802), widow with two children 0 0 1789 Mt. Vernon, Va. 57 April 30, 1789 - Mar. 4, 1797 1799 Pneumonia 67 Mt. Vernon, Va. Mt. Vernon, Va.

3 Adams 1764 Abigail Smith (1744-1818) 3 2 1796 Quincy, Mass. 62 Mar. 4, 1797 - Mar. 4, 1801 1826 Natural decline 90 Quincy, Mass. Unitarian ch., Quincy, Mass.

4-5 Jefferson 1772 Martha (Wayles) Skelton (1748-1782), widow of Bathurst Skelton 0 6 1800 Monticello, Va. 58 Mar. 4, 1801 - Mar. 4, 1809 1826 Chronic diarrhœa 83 Monticello, Va. Monticello, Albemarle Co., Va.

6-7 Madison 1794 Dolly (Payne) Todd (1772-1849), widow 0 0 1808 Montpelier, Va. 58 Mar. 4, 1809 - Mar. 4, 1817 1836 Natural decline 85 Montpelier, Va. Montpelier, Hanover Co., Va.

8-9 Monroe 1786 Elisa Kortwright (1768-1830) 0 2 1816 Oakhill, Va. 59 Mar. 4, 1817 - Mar. 4, 1825 1831 Natural decline 73 New York City Hollywood, Richmond, Va.

10 Adams, J.Q. 1797 Louisa Catherine Johnson (1775-1852) 3 1 1824 Quincy, Mass. 58 Mar. 4, 1825 - Mar. 4, 1829 1848 Paralysis 80 Washington, D. C. Unitarian, Quincy, Mass.

11-12 Jackson 1791 Rachel (Donelson) Robards (1767-1828), divorced wife of Captain Robards 3 0 1828 Hermitage, Tenn. 62 Mar. 4, 1829 - Mar. 4, 1837 1845 Consumption 78 Hermitage, near Nashville, Tenn. Hermitage, near Nashville, Tenn.

13 Van Buren 1807 Hannah Hoes (1783-1819) 4 0 1836 Kinderhook, N. Y. 55 Mar. 4, 1837 - Mar. 4, 1841 1862 Asthma 79 Kinderhook, N. Y. Kinderhook, N. Y.

14 Harrison 1795 Anna Symmes (1775-1864) 6 4 1840 North Bend, Ohio 68 Mar. 4, 1841 - April 4, 1841 1841 Pleurisy fever 68 White House, Washington, D. C. North Bend, Ohio

14 Tyler 1813 (1) To Letitia Christian (1790-1842) 3 4 - ... Williamsburg, Va. 51 April 6, 1841 - Mar. 4, 1845 1862 Bilious attacks with bronchitis 71 Ballard House, Richmond, Va. Hollywood, Richmond, Va.

1844 (2) To Julia Gardiner (1820-1889) 4 2

15 Polk 1824 Sarah Childress (1803-1891) 0 0 1844 Nashville, Tenn. 50 Mar. 4, 1845 - Mar. 4, 1849 ... Chronic diarrhœa 53 Nashville, Tenn. Nashville, Tenn.

16 Taylor 1810 Margaret Smith (1788-1852) 1 3 1848 Baton Rouge, La. 65 Mar. 4, 1849 - July 10, 1850 1850 Cholera morbus and typhoid fever 65 White House, Washington, D. C. Springfield, Ky.

Fillmore 1826 (1) Abigail Powers (1798-1853) 1 1 - ... Buffalo, N. Y. 50 July 10, 1850 - Mar. 4, 1853 1874 Paralysis 74 Buffalo, N. Y. Forest Lawn, Buffalo, N. Y.

1858 (2) Caroline (Carmichael) McIntosh (1813-1881), a widow 0 0

17 Pierce 1834 Jane Means Appleton (1806-1863) 3 0 1852 Concord, N. H. 49 Mar. 4, 1853 - Mar. 4, 1857 1869 Dropsy and inflammation of stomach 64 Concord, N. H. Concord, N. H.

18 Buchanan ... Unmarried ... ... 1856 Wheatland, Pa. 66 Mar. 4, 1857 - Mar. 4, 1861 1868 Rheumatic gout 77 Lancaster, Pa. Woodward Hill, Lancaster, Pa.

19-20 Lincoln 1842 Mary Todd (1818-1882) 4 0 1860 Springfield, Ill. 52 Mar. 4, 1861 - April 15, 1865 1865 Assassinated by Booth 56 Washington, D. C. Oak Ridge, Springfield, Ill.

20 Johnson 1827 Eliza McCardle (1810-1876) 3 2 ... Greeneville, Tenn. 57 April 15, 1865 - Mar. 4, 1869 1875 Paralysis 66 Greeneville, Tenn. Greeneville, Tenn.

21-22 Grant 1848 Julia Dent (1826-1902) 3 1 1868 Washington, D. C. 47 Mar. 4, 1869 - Mar. 4, 1877 1885 Cancer of the tongue 63 Mt. McGregor, N. Y. Riverside, New York City

23 Hayes 1852 Lucy Ware Webb (1831-1889) 7 1 1876 Fremont, Ohio 54 Mar. 4, 1877 - Mar. 4, 1881 1893 Neuralgia of heart 70 Fremont, Ohio Fremont, Ohio

24 Garfield 1858 Lucretia Rudolph (1832- ——) 4 1 1880 Mentor, Ohio 49 Mar. 4, 1881 - Sept. 19, 1881 1881 Assassinated by Guiteau 49 Elberon, Long Branch, N. J. Lake View Cemetery, Cleveland, Ohio

24 Arthur 1859 Ellen Lewis Herndon (1837-1880) 1 1 ... New York City 51 Sept. 20, 1881 - Mar. 4, 1885 1886 Bright’s disease 56 New York, N. Y. Rural Cemetery, Albany, N. Y.

25 Cleveland 1886 Frances Folsom (1864- ——) 2 3 1884 Buffalo, N. Y. 48 Mar. 4, 1885 - Mar. 4, 1889 ... ... ... ... ...

26 Harrison 1853 (1) Caroline Scott (1832-1892) 1 1 - 1888 Indianapolis, Ind. 55 Mar. 4, 1889 - Mar. 4, 1893 1901 Pneumonia 67 Indianapolis, Ind. Crown Hill Cemetery, Indianapolis, Ind.

1896 (2) Mary Scott (Lord) Dimmick (1858- ——) 0 1

27 Cleveland ... Frances Folsom (1864- ——) ... ... 1892 Buffalo, N. Y. 56 Mar. 4, 1893 - Mar. 4, 1897 1908 Heart failure 71 Princeton, N. J. Princeton, N. J.

28-29 McKinley 1871 Ida Saxton (1844-1907) 0 2 1896 Canton, Ohio 54 Mar. 4, 1897 - Sept. 14, 1901 1901 Assassinated by Czolgosz 58 Buffalo, N. Y. Cemetery, Canton, Ohio

29-30 Roosevelt 1883 (1) Alice Lee (1861-1884) 0 1 - 1904 Oyster Bay, N. Y. 43 Sept. 14, 1901 - Mar. 4, 1909 ... ... ... ... ...

1886 (2) Edith Kermit Carow (1861- ——) 4 1

31 Taft 1886 Helen Herron (1861- ——) 2 1 1908 Cincinnati, Ohio 51 Mar. 4, 1909 - Mar. 4, 1913 ... ... ... ... ...

32 Wilson 1885 (1) Helen Louise Axsen (1860-1914) 0 3 1912 Princeton, N. J. 56 Mar. 4, 1913 - ... ... ... ... ... ...

1915 (2) Edith Bolling Galt (1872- ——) ... ...

TABLE III. MARRIAGE, CHILDREN AND ELECTION TO THE PRESIDENCY

Terms Name Married Wife’s Name Children Elected Presi-
dent Residence When Elected Age When Inaugu-
rated

Boys Girls

1-2 Washington 1759 Martha (Dandridge) Custis (1732-1802), widow with two children 0 0 1789 Mt. Vernon, Va. 57

3 Adams 1764 Abigail Smith (1744-1818) 3 2 1796 Quincy, Mass. 62

4-5 Jefferson 1772 Martha (Wayles) Skelton (1748-1782), widow of Bathurst Skelton 0 6 1800 Monticello, Va. 58

6-7 Madison 1794 Dolly (Payne) Todd (1772-1849), widow 0 0 1808 Montpelier, Va. 58

8-9 Monroe 1786 Elisa Kortwright (1768-1830) 0 2 1816 Oakhill, Va. 59

10 Adams, J.Q. 1797 Louisa Catherine Johnson (1775-1852) 3 1 1824 Quincy, Mass. 58

11-12 Jackson 1791 Rachel (Donelson) Robards (1767-1828), divorced wife of Captain Robards 3 0 1828 Hermitage, Tenn. 62

13 Van Buren 1807 Hannah Hoes (1783-1819) 4 0 1836 Kinderhook, N. Y. 55

14 Harrison 1795 Anna Symmes (1775-1864) 6 4 1840 North Bend, Ohio 68

14 Tyler 1813 (1) To Letitia Christian (1790-1842) 3 4 - ... Williamsburg, Va. 51

1844 (2) To Julia Gardiner (1820-1889) 4 2

15 Polk 1824 Sarah Childress (1803-1891) 0 0 1844 Nashville, Tenn. 50

16 Taylor 1810 Margaret Smith (1788-1852) 1 3 1848 Baton Rouge, La. 65

Fillmore 1826 (1) Abigail Powers (1798-1853) 1 1 - ... Buffalo, N. Y. 50

1858 (2) Caroline (Carmichael) McIntosh (1813-1881), a widow 0 0

17 Pierce 1834 Jane Means Appleton (1806-1863) 3 0 1852 Concord, N. H. 49

18 Buchanan ... Unmarried ... ... 1856 Wheatland, Pa. 66

19-20 Lincoln 1842 Mary Todd (1818-1882) 4 0 1860 Springfield, Ill. 52

20 Johnson 1827 Eliza McCardle (1810-1876) 3 2 ... Greeneville, Tenn. 57

21-22 Grant 1848 Julia Dent (1826-1902) 3 1 1868 Washington, D. C. 47

23 Hayes 1852 Lucy Ware Webb (1831-1889) 7 1 1876 Fremont, Ohio 54

24 Garfield 1858 Lucretia Rudolph (1832- ——) 4 1 1880 Mentor, Ohio 49

24 Arthur 1859 Ellen Lewis Herndon (1837-1880) 1 1 ... New York City 51

25 Cleveland 1886 Frances Folsom (1864- ——) 2 3 1884 Buffalo, N. Y. 48

26 Harrison 1853 (1) Caroline Scott (1832-1892) 1 1 - 1888 Indianapolis, Ind. 55

1896 (2) Mary Scott (Lord) Dimmick (1858- ——) 0 1

27 Cleveland ... Frances Folsom (1864- ——) ... ... 1892 Buffalo, N. Y. 56

28-29 McKinley 1871 Ida Saxton (1844-1907) 0 2 1896 Canton, Ohio 54

29-30 Roosevelt 1883 (1) Alice Lee (1861-1884) 0 1 - 1904 Oyster Bay, N. Y. 43

1886 (2) Edith Kermit Carow (1861- ——) 4 1

31 Taft 1886 Helen Herron (1861- ——) 2 1 1908 Cincinnati, Ohio 51

32 Wilson 1885 (1) Helen Louise Axsen (1860-1914) 0 3 1912 Princeton, N. J. 56

1915 (2) Edith Bolling Galt (1872- ——) ... ...

TABLE IV. TERM OF OFFICE, DEATH AND PLACE OF BURIAL

Terms Name Term of Office Died Cause of Death Age at Death Place of Death Place of Burial

1-2 Washington April 30, 1789 - Mar. 4, 1797 1799 Pneumonia 67 Mt. Vernon, Va. Mt. Vernon, Va.

3 Adams Mar. 4, 1797 - Mar. 4, 1801 1826 Natural decline 90 Quincy, Mass. Unitarian ch., Quincy, Mass.

4-5 Jefferson Mar. 4, 1801 - Mar. 4, 1809 1826 Chronic diarrhœa 83 Monticello, Va. Monticello, Albemarle Co., Va.

6-7 Madison Mar. 4, 1809 - Mar. 4, 1817 1836 Natural decline 85 Montpelier, Va. Montpelier, Hanover Co., Va.

8-9 Monroe Mar. 4, 1817 - Mar. 4, 1825 1831 Natural decline 73 New York City Hollywood, Richmond, Va.

10 Adams, J.Q. Mar. 4, 1825 - Mar. 4, 1829 1848 Paralysis 80 Washington, D. C. Unitarian, Quincy, Mass.

11-12 Jackson Mar. 4, 1829 - Mar. 4, 1837 1845 Consumption 78 Hermitage, near Nashville, Tenn. Hermitage, near Nashville, Tenn.

13 Van Buren Mar. 4, 1837 - Mar. 4, 1841 1862 Asthma 79 Kinderhook, N. Y. Kinderhook, N. Y.

14 Harrison Mar. 4, 1841 - April 4, 1841 1841 Pleurisy fever 68 White House, Washington, D. C. North Bend, Ohio

14 Tyler April 6, 1841 - Mar. 4, 1845 1862 Bilious attacks with bronchitis 71 Ballard House, Richmond, Va. Hollywood, Richmond, Va.

15 Polk Mar. 4, 1845 - Mar. 4, 1849 ... Chronic diarrhœa 53 Nashville, Tenn. Nashville, Tenn.

16 Taylor Mar. 4, 1849 - July 10, 1850 1850 Cholera morbus and typhoid fever 65 White House, Washington, D. C. Springfield, Ky.

Fillmore July 10, 1850 - Mar. 4, 1853 1874 Paralysis 74 Buffalo, N. Y. Forest Lawn, Buffalo, N. Y.

17 Pierce Mar. 4, 1853 - Mar. 4, 1857 1869 Dropsy and inflammation of stomach 64 Concord, N. H. Concord, N. H.

18 Buchanan Mar. 4, 1857 - Mar. 4, 1861 1868 Rheumatic gout 77 Lancaster, Pa. Woodward Hill, Lancaster, Pa.

19-20 Lincoln Mar. 4, 1861 - April 15, 1865 1865 Assassinated by Booth 56 Washington, D. C. Oak Ridge, Springfield, Ill.

20 Johnson April 15, 1865 - Mar. 4, 1869 1875 Paralysis 66 Greeneville, Tenn. Greeneville, Tenn.

21-22 Grant Mar. 4, 1869 - Mar. 4, 1877 1885 Cancer of the tongue 63 Mt. McGregor, N. Y. Riverside, New York City

23 Hayes Mar. 4, 1877 - Mar. 4, 1881 1893 Neuralgia of heart 70 Fremont, Ohio Fremont, Ohio

24 Garfield Mar. 4, 1881 - Sept. 19, 1881 1881 Assassinated by Guiteau 49 Elberon, Long Branch, N. J. Lake View Cemetery, Cleveland, Ohio

24 Arthur Sept. 20, 1881 - Mar. 4, 1885 1886 Bright’s disease 56 New York, N. Y. Rural Cemetery, Albany, N. Y.

25 Cleveland Mar. 4, 1885 - Mar. 4, 1889 ... ... ... ... ...

26 Harrison Mar. 4, 1889 - Mar. 4, 1893 1901 Pneumonia 67 Indianapolis, Ind. Crown Hill Cemetery, Indianapolis, Ind.

27 Cleveland Mar. 4, 1893 - Mar. 4, 1897 1908 Heart failure 71 Princeton, N. J. Princeton, N. J.

28-29 McKinley Mar. 4, 1897 - Sept. 14, 1901 1901 Assassinated by Czolgosz 58 Buffalo, N. Y. Cemetery, Canton, Ohio

29-30 Roosevelt Sept. 14, 1901 - Mar. 4, 1909 ... ... ... ... ...

31 Taft Mar. 4, 1909 - Mar. 4, 1913 ... ... ... ... ...

32 Wilson Mar. 4, 1913 - ... ... ... ... ... ...

TABLE V. LATER CAREER, WRITINGS AND SOBRIQUETS

Name Career After Leaving the Presidency Writings of the Presidents Presidential Sobriquets

Washington Agricultural pursuits; appointed commander-in-chief (1798) because of threatened war with France. Maxims; Transcripts of Revolutionary Correspondence. “Father of his Country;” “American Fabius.”

Adams Member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of 1820. Essay on Canon and Feudal Laws; Defense of the American Constitution. “Colossus of Independence;” “Son of Liberty.”

Jefferson Retired to his plantation at Monticello, Va.; devoted much time to the University of Virginia. A Summary View of the Rights of America; The Declaration of Independence; Act for Freedom of Religion. “Sage of Monticello,” “Long Tom.”

Madison Retired to Montpelier, Va.; contributed large service to University of Virginia; served in the Virginia Constitutional Convention, 1829. Reports of Debates During the Congress, of the Confederation and Federal Congress; Essays. “Father of the Constitution.”

Monroe Retired to private life in Virginia; served as a member of the Virginia Constitutional Convention in 1830. A View of the Conduct of the Executive; The People; The Sovereign. “Last Cocked Hat.”

Adams, J.Q. Was returned to Washington as a member of the House of Representatives; served from 1830 to his death. Poems of Religion and Society; Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory; Criticisms of Paine’s “Rights of Man;” Defense of Washington’s Policy of Neutrality “Old Man Eloquent.”

Jackson Retired to the “Hermitage,” near Nashville, Tenn.; always took a deep interest in public affairs. ... “Old Hickory;” “Cæsar of the White House.”

Van Buren Was renominated in 1840, 1844, and 1848 for the presidency. Inquiry Into the Origin and Causes of Political Parties in the United States. “Little Magician;” “Wizard of Kinderhook.”

Harrison Died in office. A Discourse on the Aborigines of the Valley of the Ohio. “Tippecanoe.”

Tyler Retired to his estate in Virginia; presided at the peace convention held in Washington in 1861. ... “Young Hickory.”

Polk Died in office. ... Also “Young Hickory.”

Taylor ... ... “Rough and Ready;” “Old Buena Vista.”

Fillmore Was candidate for president in 1852 and in 1856; spent his remaining years at Buffalo, N. Y. ... “The American Louis Philippe.”

Pierce Traveled in Europe; retired to Concord, N. H. ... “Purse.”

Buchanan Retired to Lancaster, Pa.; devoted himself to writing defense of his administration. Résumé of My Administration. “Old Public Functionary;” “Bachelor President.”

Lincoln Died in office. Orations. “Honest Old Abe;” “Rail-splitter;” “Great Emancipator.”

Johnson Retired to home in Greeneville, Tenn.; chosen United States Senator in 1875. Speeches. “Sir Veto.”

Grant Made tour of the world and retired to private life in New York. Shiloh; Vicksburg; Chattanooga; The Wilderness; The Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant. “Unconditional Surrender;” “Old Three Stars.”

Hayes Was president of the Board of Freedmen, and president of the National Prison association. ... “President de Facto.”

Garfield Died in office. Discovery and Ownership of the Northwestern Territory; Garfield’s Words. “The Martyr President;” “The Dark Horse.”

Arthur Died the year following his retirement. ... “Our Chet;” “America’s First Gentleman.”

Cleveland Retired to New York to practice law; at the end of second term retired to Princeton, N. J. Writings and Speeches. “Man of Destiny;” “The Claimant.”

Harrison Professor of International law at Leland Stanford University, California; afterward practiced law. Speeches; This Country of Ours; Views of an Ex-President. “Son of His Grandfather;” “Hoosier President.”

McKinley Died in office. Speeches. “Prosperity’s Advance Agent;” “Bonaparte of Politics.”

Roosevelt In March, 1909, headed a scientific expedition to Africa, organized in the interest of the Smithsonian Institution; resumed literary work and politics. The Naval War of 1812; Essays on Practical Politics; The Winning of the West; Hero Tales From American History; American Ideals; Life of Oliver Cromwell; African Game Trails. “Teddy;” “The Rough Rider;” “T. R.;” “Our Strenuous President.”

Taft Kent Professor of Law at Yale University. ... “The Globe Trotter;” “The Judicial President.”

Wilson ... Congressional Government; The State; An Old Master, and Other Political Essays; Mere Literature and Other Essays; George Washington; A History of the American People. “The Scholar in Politics.”

Canada

CANADA.—What is known as the Dominion of Canada is a confederation of the colonies of British North America, constituted in 1867 by the British North America Act of that year. Upper and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were the first to unite under the provisions of that statute, and the Dominion of Canada now includes the whole of the British North American possessions excepting Newfoundland.

Canada is nearly as large as the whole of Europe, and about 750,000 square miles larger than the United States without Alaska. The census figures for 1911 were:

Area
sq. mi. Popu-
lation

Prince Edward Island 2,184 93,728

Nova Scotia 21,428 492,338

New Brunswick 27,985 351,889

Quebec 351,873 2,002,712

Ontario 260,862 2,523,274

Manitoba 73,732 455,614

British Columbia 355,855 392,480

Alberta 255,285 374,663

Saskatchewan 251,700 492,432

Yukon (Territory) 207,076 8,512

Northwest Territories 1,921,685 17,196

Total 3,729,665 7,204,838

In 1912 parts of the Northwest Territories were transferred to Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec.

Newfoundland.—The island of Newfoundland, on the northeast side of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, has a total area of 42,750 square miles, with a population (1911) of 238,670. Attached to the government of the island is a coastal strip of the Labrador peninsula 120,000 square miles (population 3,949).

Physical Features.—Both the Atlantic and Pacific shores abound in deep indentations forming magnificent harbors and sheltered bays. On the Atlantic the principal bay is the Bay of Fundy, remarkable for its high and rushing tide, the water rising from twelve to seventy feet. There is also the Hudson Bay, connected with the Atlantic by Hudson Straits, really an inland sea with an area of three hundred and fifty thousand square miles, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, eighty thousand square miles in extent.

The most striking physical features of Canada are the Rocky Mountains, the Laurentian Range, and the chain of immense fresh water lakes forming part of the boundary with the United States.

The Laurentian Range extends along the north side of the St. Lawrence, the Ottawa River, and then stretches away to Lake Superior and the north, the length of the range being about three thousand five hundred miles. It forms the watershed between Hudson Bay and the St. Lawrence, and varies in height from one to three thousand feet.

The eastern portions of Canada are generally well timbered, and the same is true of British Columbia, and the region north of the Saskatchewan. Westward of the Red River, between the forty-ninth and fifty-fifth parallels, there is an immense fertile plain, suitable for general agriculture and grazing, extending nearly to the Rocky Mountains.

This range consists of triple chains with valleys between; the most easterly has the greatest elevation near the fifty-second parallel, the highest peaks being Mounts Brown, Murchison, Hooker, Columbia, Forbes, Bryce, Alberta, and Freshfield. The average height of the chain is from seven thousand to eight thousand feet. In the north, adjoining Alaska, is Mt. Logan, and, on the dividing line, St. Elias. (See Mountains of the World for elevations.)

Lakes and Rivers.—Canada is well watered, the country presenting a network of lakes and rivers. The system of the St. Lawrence alone, with the great lakes Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario (between the last are the celebrated falls of Niagara), drains an area in Canada of three hundred and thirty thousand square miles. (See North America and United States.)

Other important lakes are Winnipeg, Winnipegosis, Manitoba, Lake of the Woods, Great Slave, Great Bear, and Athabasca.

Next to the St. Lawrence the chief rivers are the Saskatchewan and the Winnipeg, flowing into Lake Winnipeg, and the Nelson, flowing from it into Hudson Bay; the Assiniboine and the Red River, which join their waters to flow into Lake Winnipeg; the Albany and the Churchill, emptying into Hudson Bay; the Athabasca and the Peace Rivers, flowing into Lake Athabasca, and the Slave River, from it into Great Slave Lake; the Mackenzie, fed from both the Great Slave and the Great Bear lakes, and emptying into the Arctic Ocean; the Fraser and Thompson, in British Columbia, emptying into the Pacific; and in the eastern provinces, the Ottawa, chief tributary of the St. Lawrence, itself fed by the Gatineau and Matawan; the Saguenay, emptying Lake St. John into the St. Lawrence; and the St. John, which flows into the Bay of Fundy, in New Brunswick, which it partly separates from the State of Maine.

The principal islands of the Dominion are: on the east, Cape Breton, Prince Edward and Magdalen Islands, and Anticosti, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence; and on the west coast, Vancouver Island and Queen Charlotte Island. Lying along the north in the great Arctic Archipelago are immense islands, all of which, excepting Greenland, belong to Canada.

Climate.—The cold winter and the heat in summer are frequently extreme, but the climate is a healthy one. The winter may be said to continue from the middle of November to the end of March, or about four and a half months. British Columbia probably possesses the finest climate in North America.

In some inland parts of Canada the maximum temperature may be from ninety to ninety-six degrees, and the minimum from twenty to twenty-six degrees below zero. But although there are these extremes, the air is always dry, bracing, and exhilarating.

Products and Industries.—The chief industries of Canada are those of agriculture, stock-raising, dairy-farming, “lumbering” or timber trade and forestry, shipbuilding, fisheries, and mining. An extensive trade is maintained with the United States and England, the exports being timber, fish, and furs, with dairy produce and live stock; wheat and wheat flour, barley, and other agricultural products, cod and other fish, coal, and minerals.

The minerals are chiefly coal, silver, nickel, gold, copper, iron, asbestos, lead, salt, mineral oils and gypsum. Gold is or has been worked in Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Ontario, and largely in Yukon (Klondike) and British Columbia, where there are yet immense fields to open up. Silver mines are worked in Ontario; those at Cobalt (producing also cobalt, nickel and arsenic) have been the richest yet discovered in Canada. Iron ore is found all over the Dominion. Copper has been mined to a considerable extent both in Quebec and Ontario, and the deposits of the ore are of great extent. There are very large coal deposits in Nova Scotia. The coast of British Columbia is rich in coal of a good quality. Coal is known to exist over a vast region, stretching from one hundred and fifty to two hundred miles east of the Rocky Mountains, and north from the frontier for about one thousand miles.

The forest products of Canada constitute one of her most important sources of wealth. They find their way to all parts of the world—to the United States, to the United Kingdom, and to the Australian commonwealth.

Great progress has recently been made in the development of manufactures. The “national policy” comprises a high protective system, but since 1901 gives a preference to Britain.

Quebec has tanning industries and manufactures boot and shoes, the manufactures of woolen and cotton goods are increasing, and there are sugar refineries in Halifax and Montreal. Such wooden articles as doors, window sashes, etc., are manufactured in large numbers.

People.—The province of Ontario is thickly settled on the south, along the river and the lake shores, by a population which is mainly of British descent, with a considerable infusion of Germans. The province of Quebec is peopled in great part by descendants of the original French settlers; they are called habitans; many of them speak an archaic French dialect and keep up peculiar manners and customs, and they are Roman Catholic in religion.

The principal nationalities represented are English, Irish, Scotch, French, German and Indian, though there are also some few Dutch, Russian, Chinese, Welsh, Italians, Jews, half-breeds, etc.

Though English is the general language of Canada, the French language is by statute an official language in the Dominion parliament and in Quebec, but not now in any other province. Members of the Quebec and Manitoba parliaments may also address the House in either English or French.

Religion and Education.—There is no state religion in Canada, and absolute toleration is there an accomplished fact. Roman Catholics, Methodists, Presbyterians, the Church of England, Baptists, Lutherans, and Congregationalists are all represented.

Canada has long been in the enjoyment of free education, and the control of the system is in the hands of the provinces, except where the Act of Confederation secures the permanence of the denominational schools which existed at the time of confederation. Teachers are trained at provincial normal schools.

In Ontario and Quebec there are separate schools for Protestants and Roman Catholics.

The principal universities of Canada with the dates of their foundation are as follows:

PRINCIPAL UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES OF CANADA

Organized Colleges Location Control President or Chairman
of Faculty In-
struc-
tors Stu-
dents Volumes
in
Library

1881 Alma College St. Thomas, Ont. Methodist Robt. I. Warner, D.D. 21 200 2,500

1838 Arcadia University Wolfville, N.S. Baptist Geo. Barton Cutten, D.D. 24 250 2,500

1818 Dalhousie Halifax, N.S. Non-Sect. A. Stanley MacKenzie, B.A. 86 417 28,000

1894 Havergal Ladies’ College Toronto, Ont. ... N. W. Hoyles, Kc. 65 350 1,000

1789 Kings University Windsor, Ont. Prot.Epis. Rev. T.W. Powell. D.D. 13 91 ...

1844 Knox Theo. College Toronto, Ont. Presbyt’n. Rev. Alfred Gandier, D.D. 9 140 22,000

1907 Macdonald College A. de Bellevue, Q. Non-Sect. F.C. Harrison, D.Sc. 50 407 9,000

1906 McGill Univ. Col. Vancouver, B.C. Non-Sect. Geo. E. Robinson (Act.) 24 340 1,600

1821 McGill University Montreal, Can. Indepen. Wm. Peterson, M.A. 280 2,104 140,000

1887 McMaster University Toronto, Ont. Baptist A.L. McCrimman, M.A. 30 300 20,000

1873 Montreal Diocesan Theo. Montreal, Can. Prot.Epis. E.I. Rexford, M.A. 5 30 7,000

1863 Mt. Allison University Sackville, N.B. Methodist Byron C. Borden, D.D. 21 250 12,000

1874 Ontario Ladies’ College Whitby, Ont. Methodist Rev. J.J. Hare, M.A. 22 185 7,000

1867 Presbyterian College Montreal, Can. Presbyt’n. John Scringer, D.D. 21 80 20,000

1855 Provincial Nor. College Truro, N.S. State David Soloam, LL.D. 20 425 4,000

1847 Queen’s University Kingston, Ont. Non-Sect. Very Rev. D.M. Gordon 125 1,610 67,000

1888 Ridley College St. Cath’n’s. Ont. Anglican Rev. J.O. Miller, M.A. 15 160 2,500

1899 St. Andrew’s College Toronto, Ont. ... Rev. D.B. Macdonald, M.A. 18 250 ...

1851 Trinity College Toronto, Ont. Prot.Epis. Rev. T.C.S. Macklem 24 180 15,000

1845 Univ. of Bishop’s Col. Lennoxville, Que. Prot.Epis. Rev. R.A. Parrock 9 60 11,500

1912 Univ. of Calgary Calgary, Alb. Non-Sect. F.H. Dougall (Act.) 11 268 ...

1852 Universite Laval U. Quebec Non-Sect. Mgr. Amedee Gosselin, M.A. 70 474 100,000

1877 Univ. of Manitoba Winnipeg, Man. State James A. MacLean, Ph.D. 43 881 12,790

1800 Univ. of New Brunswick Fredericton, N.B. State Cecil C. Jones (Chan.) 18 165 10,000

1907 Univ. of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Sask. State Walter C. Murray, M.A. 41 381 ...

1855 U. of St. Fran. Xav. Col. Antigonish, N.S. Catholic H.P. MacPherson, D.D. 19 225 22,000

1841 Victoria Col. and Univ. Toronto, Ont. Methodist Rev. R.P. Bowles, M.A. 28 610 25,080

1873 Wesleyan Theo. Col. Montreal, Can. Methodist Rev. J. Smyth, B.A. 4 100 5,000

1877 Wycliffe College Toronto, Ont. Prot.Epis. Thos. R. O’Meara, LL.D. 8 118 ...

Government.—Canada is a self-governing dominion created by an Act of the British Parliament in March, 1867, known as the British North America Act. The Act provides that the Constitution of the Dominion shall be similar in principal to that of the United Kingdom; that the executive authority shall be vested in the Sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland, and carried on in his name by a Governor-General and Privy Council; and that the legislative power shall be exercised by a Parliament of two Houses, called the “Senate” and the “House of Commons.”

Therefore, the executive government of Canada is vested in the king, who is represented by a Governor-General appointed by him for a term of five years. The emoluments of the Governor-General are, however, paid out of Canadian revenues.

The Governor-General has a right, which is, of course, very seldom exercised, to disallow or reserve bills for imperial consent. The Constitution of Canada cannot be altered save by the Imperial Parliament, but to all intents and purposes Canada has complete autonomy.

The Legislature.—The legislative power is a Parliament, consisting of an Upper House, styled the Senate, and a House of Commons.

The Senate consists at present of eighty-seven members, distributed between the various provinces thus: twenty-four for Ontario, twenty-four for Quebec, ten for Nova Scotia, ten for New Brunswick, four for Prince Edward Island, three for British Columbia, four for Manitoba, four for Alberta, and four for Saskatchewan. The members of the Senate are appointed for life by the Crown on the nomination of the Ministry for the time being; each nominee must be thirty years old, a resident in the province for which he is appointed, a natural born or naturalized subject of the king, and the owner of property amounting to four thousand dollars.

The House of Commons is chosen every five years at longest, and consists of two hundred and thirty-one members, elected as follows: eighty-two being elected for Ontario, sixty-five for Quebec, sixteen for Nova Scotia, eleven for New Brunswick, fifteen for Manitoba, eleven for British Columbia, three for Prince Edward Island, twelve for Alberta, fifteen for Saskatchewan, and one for Yukon. The House of Commons is also composed of natural born or naturalized subjects of the king; no property qualification is necessary, and its members are elected upon a very wide suffrage. The members of the House themselves elect their Speaker, and twenty, including the Speaker, form a quorum.

Each province has also a separate Legislature and administration, with a Lieutenant-Governor, appointed by the Governor-General, at the head of the Executive.

The Judicature.—Justice is administered, as in England, by judges, police magistrates, and justices of the peace, of whom the first named are appointed by the Governor-General, for life, from among the foremost men at the Bar in the several provinces. The highest court is the Supreme Court of Canada, composed of a Chief Justice and five associate judges, and holding three sessions in the year at Ottawa. The only other Dominion Court, viz., the Exchequer Court of Canada, is presided over by a separate judge, and its sittings may be held anywhere in Canada. The Provincial Courts include the Court of Chancery, Court of King’s Bench, Court of Error and Appeal, Superior Courts, County Courts, General Sessions, and Division Courts. The duties of coroners are generally analogous to those in force in England, as are also methods of civil and criminal procedure, while trial by jury prevails.

Cities.—The capital and seat of government of the Canadian Dominion is at Ottawa, population, 1911, 87,062.

Montreal, however, is the largest city of Canada, 470,480. It has extensive trade and manufactures, and from it the magnificent Victoria tubular bridge carries the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada across the St. Lawrence, which is here two miles wide.

Quebec, 79,910, the capital of the lower province, is the great shipping place for the Lower St. Lawrence, and is a picturesque old town, with walls and fortifications. Near it are the memorable Plains of Abraham.

Toronto, 376,538, on the northwest shore of Lake Ontario, is the local capital of the western provinces and the educational center of the Dominion, possessing a university and numerous schools.

Other cities include: Winnipeg, Man., 136,035; Vancouver, B. C, 100,401; Hamilton, Ont., 81,969; Quebec, Que., 78,910; Halifax, N. S., 46,619; London, Ont., 46,300.

Ottawa is situated upon the south bank of the Ottawa River, one hundred and twenty miles from its junction with the St. Lawrence at Montreal. The river here forms the splendid Chaudière Falls (two hundred yards wide and forty feet high), above which a suspension bridge spans the river, and which supply the motive-power for the numerous lumber mills, flour mills and factories.

East of the city the River Rideau forms a second fall. The Rideau Canal passes through the center of the city, and connects with the Rideau Lakes, and so with the great lakes beyond. Opposite the city, to the northeast, the Gatineau River joins the Ottawa.

It is a city of stately public buildings, of turfed drives and wooded pleasure grounds, and there is a constant round of social and official events connected with the meetings of Parliament and other public functions. The Grand Trunk system has added to the attractions of the city by building the Chateau Laurier, which enjoys a continent-wide reputation as being in the first rank of famous hotels.

The parliamentary buildings, constructed in the Italian Gothic style after 1860, are on a bluff on the river bank. They include the handsome library building and the Victoria Tower (one hundred and eighty feet). Adjoining buildings on Parliament Hill are devoted to departments of the Dominion government. The residence of the Governor-General—an old fashioned building, called Rideau Hall—is about a mile from the city. The post-office, city hall, banks and telegraph offices are handsomely built of stone.

Ottawa is the place of residence of the bishop of Ontario (Church of England), and of the Roman Catholic bishop of Ottawa, who has a cathedral here. There are a normal school and a collegiate institute, a very large college conducted by the Oblate Fathers, a ladies’ college, a musical academy, an art school, a well-equipped geological museum, and the parliamentary library, with three hundred thousand volumes.

The industries of Ottawa are mostly connected with lumber. In the winter thousands of men are engaged in cutting timber and drawing it to the streams, and in the spring the freshets carry the rafts down to the mills. Flour, iron wares, bricks, leather, and matches are also manufactured.

The city was begun in the last years of the eighteenth century by a settler named Wright, of Boston, Massachusetts, who built a residence near the Chaudière, and called the village which he founded Hull. The construction of the Rideau Canal stimulated the settlement, which was called Bytown. In 1854 its name was changed to Ottawa, and the town was created a city. In 1858 Ottawa was chosen as the administrative capital of Canada. The first parliament met here in 1865.

History.—In 1534 Jacques Cartier landed on the Gaspé coast of Quebec, of which he took possession in the name of Francis I., king of France. Little was done by way of settlement till 1608, when Champlain founded Quebec. From this time till 1763 Canada, from Acadia (Nova Scotia) to Lake Superior and down the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, was held to be French territory.

The struggle between Great Britain and France for supremacy was long and bitter, but ended in 1763 with the treaty of Paris, by which all the French dominions in Canada were ceded to Britain, save the small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, retained by France as fishing stations. Hudson Bay territory, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland had passed to England by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713.

Through the American War of Independence, what is now Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois was lost in 1783 to the United States, no longer British colonies. Quebec was in 1791 divided into Lower and Upper Canada. A rebellion took place in 1837-1838, and the provinces were reunited in 1840. Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick were separated from Nova Scotia in 1770 and 1784. British Columbia was made a crown colony in 1858, and Vancouver Island joined to it in 1866. The confederation of all the British North American provinces—except Newfoundland—took place in 1867-1871, and the prosperity of the Dominion was only temporarily disturbed by the Red River rebellion of 1869.

The fishery rights have repeatedly been a source of controversy between Canada and Great Britain on the one hand and the United States on the other, and the dispute about sealing in Behring Sea and off the Alaskan coasts was only settled by arbitration in 1893. The Alaska boundary dispute was settled in 1903.

A proposed reciprocity agreement with the United States in the year 1911 saw the decisive defeat at the polls of the Laurier policy and the Liberal party. In October Robert L. Borden took over the reins of government, as Premier, and Earl Grey was succeeded as Governor-General by the Duke of Connaught. In 1916 the Duke of Devonshire succeeded as Governor-General.

The great European war of 1914 and following brought Canada to the vigorous support of Great Britain and the Entente Allies, and has done much toward the political, military and economic solidarity of the Dominion.

Mexico

MEXICO (or Méjico; Span. pron. Meh´hē-co, from a native word), a federal republic of North America, embraces twenty-seven states, a federal district, and four territories. It extends between the United States and Guatemala, with an extreme length of nearly two thousand miles; its breadth varies between one thousand and (in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec) one hundred and thirty miles. It has a coast-line of almost six thousand miles, but with scarcely a safe harbor beyond the noble haven of Acapulco. On the Atlantic side, with its sand banks and lagoons, there are only open roadsteads, or river-mouths generally closed to ocean vessels by bars and shallows; harbor works, however, have been constructed at Vera Cruz and Tampico.

From the southeast and northwest extremities of the republic there extend the peninsulas of Yucatan and Lower California, enclosing the Gulfs of Campeche and California, respectively. In area (751,300 square miles) Mexico almost equals Great Britain and Ireland, France, Germany and Austria-Hungary together.

Surface.—For the most part Mexico consists of an immense tableland, which commences in the United States, and rises to over eight thousand one hundred feet at Marquez, seventy-six miles north by west of Mexico City; at El Paso, on the northern frontier, the elevation is only three thousand seven hundred and seventeen feet. The most important mountain range is the Sierra Madre (over ten thousand feet, and extending from Tehuantepec into the United States); parallel with this run the Sierras of the east coast and of Lower California.

The surface of the country is also much broken up by short cross-ridges and detached peaks. There are numerous volcanoes, but only a few of them are more or less active. The more prominent are Orizaba (Citlaltepetl, “star mountain”), Popocatepetl (“smoking mountain”); Ixtaccihuatl (“white woman”); Nevada de Toluca, and Malinche.

On the Atlantic side the plateau descends abruptly to the narrow strip (about sixty miles) of gently sloping coast land; toward the Pacific, where the coast lands vary in width from forty to seventy miles, the descent is more gradual.

Rivers and Lakes.—From their rapid fall the rivers of such a mountainous region could never be of value for transport or communication. The Rio Grande del Norte, the boundary river, is only navigable for sixty miles up from the Gulf of Mexico, and the largest interior river—the Rio Grande de Santiago, flowing west to the Pacific—is barred across by many waterfalls, though its upper course expands to form Lake Chapála, the largest sheet of water in Mexico, fully fifty miles in length.

Climate and Landscape.—Though Mexico lies just on the border of the torrid zone, the climate is governed to a far greater extent by elevation than by position in latitude, and distinct climates are recognized at different stages just as in the plateau of Abyssinia.

The low coast land and the maritime region below an elevation of two thousand feet, called the Tierra Caliente, presents all the characteristics of tropical lands.

Above an elevation of two thousand feet, and up the slopes of the mountains to a height of about five thousand feet, a climate is found in which the landscape takes the aspect of that of the temperate zone.

This stage is known as the Tierra Templada.

NATIONAL PALACE, CITY OF MEXICO

Still higher, above five thousand feet, a cool region is reached, which is known as the Tierra Fria. This includes the summit of the tableland and the pine covered slopes of the mountains up to the height at which some of the peaks are capped with perennial snows. Much of this high tableland is valuable only for pasture; towards the north and northeast, where the plateau is wider, the landscape becomes bare and dry, and salt lakes like those of the plateau region of the western United States appear. Deeply cut “cañons” or “barrancas,” gorges with steep walls furrowed out by the mountain torrents, are characteristic of the plateau.

Production and Industry.—The vegetation of Mexico has the same wide range as the climate. In the lowlands dye woods and valuable timbers abound in the virgin forests, as well as medicinal plants, india rubber, palms, etc.; and oranges and bananas, many varieties of cactus, agave, sisal, olives, sugar, coffee, cocoa, rice, indigo, cotton and tobacco, besides the omnipresent maize, all thrive. The vine flourishes in some districts, especially near El Paso, Durango, and Parras, in Coahuila, where a good wine is made; and mulberry plants have been imported from Europe to develop the silk industry. In Lower California a good deal of archil is collected, and chicle gum is extracted and prepared in the forests along the coast.

Agriculture in Mexico is steadily developing. Silver mining has been an important industry ever since the conquest. Gold is also produced. Copper is largely mined in some sections, being found in a pure state in Chiapas and Guanajuato, and elsewhere associated with gold. Other important minerals are iron, including enormous masses of meteoric iron ore, and the mountain a mile from Durango, the Cerro de Mercado, a solid mass of magnetic iron ore; lead, found associated with silver; and sulpher, zinc, quicksilver, platinum, cinnabar, asphalt and petroleum, besides salt, marble, alabaster, gypsum, and rock salt in great quantities. There are also said to be large deposits of coal, some of excellent quality.

Mexico is the original home of the “cattle range” business, and there vast herds of horses, cattle, and sheep form the principal wealth of the people.

Woolen and cotton spinning and weaving, and other branches of industry are encouraged by high protective duties.

People.—The population of Mexico consists mainly of the indigenous Indian race, and of the dominant Spaniards or their descendants. Spaniards born in Europe are now very few in number, but the government of the country is in the hands of the “Creoles,” or people of Spanish descent born in Mexico. They number about twenty per cent, mixed Hispano-Americans, or mestizos, forty-three per cent, and full blood Indians thirty-five per cent of the whole population. The mestizos are the farmers and rancheros, the muleteers and servants. Whites and mestizos speak Spanish.

The Roman Catholic is the religion of the country, but all beliefs are tolerated, and education, now free and compulsory, is making steady progress.

Government.—The Mexican constitution is closely modeled upon that of the United States. The president, who is assisted by secretaries of state, is elected for four years, and can be re-elected for a second term. The legislative power is vested in a Congress, consisting of a Senate of fifty-six members, and a Chamber of Deputies of two hundred and thirty-three members. The judicial system occupies the same position as that of the United States; and the several states have elective governors and legislatures.

Owing to revolutionary conditions the civil government was practically suspended in September, 1914. (See under History of Mexico.)

THE CATHEDRAL, CITY OF MEXICO

Cities.—The principal cities are Mexico City, the capital, population 470,000. Puébla, east of the capital, among the mountains, is the second town and the most industrious place in Mexico. Guadalajara, northwest, is also a city of magnificent palaces and churches. Vera Cruz, founded by Cortez, is the only port on the Atlantic. On the Pacific side the chief seaports are Mazatlan and Acapulco, with a fine harbor. Other important towns are Oaxaca, Puebla, and Durango.

The railway system joins that of the United States at El Paso on the Rio Grande.

Mexico City is situated seven thousand four hundred and ten feet above the sea at the lowest level of the great basin (fourteen hundred square miles) of the Anahuac plateau.

All the main streets converge on the Plaza Mayor, where the site of the old teocalli is occupied by the no less famous Cathedral. The walls of this imposing building, forming a cross four hundred and twenty-six by two hundred and three feet, alone cost nearly two million dollars, and the interior with its twenty chapels and elaborate ornamentation, much more. Built into the foot of one of the two open towers (two hundred and eighteen feet) is the famous “Aztec” (Toltec) calendar stone.

Facing the cathedral is the Municipal Palace, and on the sides of the plaza are the National Palace (the old vice-regal residence), the national Monte de Piedad, the postoffice, and the national museum.

Other noteworthy buildings are the national picture gallery and library (two hundred and fifty thousand volumes), the national observatory, the school of mines, the mint, the Iturbide hotel, and the former palace of the Inquisition, now a medical college; and, mostly in secularized ecclesiastical edifices, there are also schools of law and engineering, a conservatory of music, and an academy of fine arts.

Among the monuments of the city are the noble Columbus monument, the statue of Cuauhtemotzin, the last of the Aztec emperors, and that of the engineer Martinez.

The principal streets are broad, clean, and well paved and lighted, with houses of stone gaily painted in bright colors. In addition to the alameda, with its stately beaches, Mexico is remarkable for the extent and beauty of its paseos, or raised paved roads, planted with double rows of trees, which diverge far into the country from every quarter; and there are still on Lakes Chalco and Xochimilco, where a line of steamers runs, a few of the floating gardens for which the ancient city was so celebrated.

Attempts had long been made to drain the valley of Mexico. The federal government finally undertook the work, and operations begun in 1890 were completed in 1898 at a cost of about sixteen million dollars. Extensive drainage and sanitation works have since been carried out at a cost of five million seven hundred and fourteen thousand nine hundred and eighty-two dollars.

In 1905 a sumptuous legislative palace, a national Pantheon for the ashes of the great men of Mexico, and a monument to perpetuate the heroes of the independence were under construction, at a cost of thirty million dollars.

The trade of Mexico is chiefly a transit trade, but it has now extensive cotton and linen factories, paper mills, tobacco and cigars, gold and silver work, pottery, silverware, cork, bricks, and soap—many of them due to foreign enterprise.

History of Mexico.—The history of ancient Mexico exhibits two distinct and widely differing periods—that of the Toltecs and that of the Aztecs. Both were Nahua nations, speaking a language which survives in Mexico to this day.

The eighth century is the traditional date when the Toltecs are related to have come from the north, from some undefined locality, bringing to Anahuac, or Mexico, its oldest and its highest native civilization, about 1325. A hundred years later, under the reign of Montezuma II., they had attained a suzerainty over all the tribes from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

On the coming of the Spaniards under Cortez in 1519, Aztec rule was finally overthrown, chiefly by means of the assistance the Spaniards received from those peoples whom the Aztecs had held in cruel bondage.

In 1540 Mexico was united with other American territories—at one time all the country from Panama to Vancouver’s Island—under the name of New Spain, and governed by viceroys (fifty-seven in all) appointed by the mother country, Spain. For nearly three centuries it may be said to have lain in sullen submission beneath its cruel conqueror’s heel, till in 1810 the discontent, which had been gaining ground against the vice-regal power during the war of Spain with Napoleon, broke into open rebellion under the leadership of a country priest named Hidalgo.

In 1822 General Iturbide had himself proclaimed emperor; but the guerilla leader Guerrero, his former ally, and General Santa Anna raised the republican standard, and in 1823 he was banished to Italy with a pension. Returning the following year he was taken and shot, and the federal republic of Mexico was finally established.

For more than half a century after this (till 1876) the history of Mexico is a record of chronic disorder and civil war. In 1836 Texas secured its independence, for which it had struggled for several years, and which Mexico was compelled to recognize in 1845. In that year Texas was incorporated with the United States, and after the Mexican war of 1848 Mexico ceded half a million square miles to the United States.

The Emperor Napoleon III. declared war against the president, Juarez, in 1862; the Austrian Emperor of Mexico, Maximilian, imposed by the French, was executed in 1867, and the republic re-established. Diaz was re-elected president for the eighth time in 1910, but, being too autocratic, had to resign under pressure of revolution in 1911. In the ensuing welter of revolts and conspiracies President Madero was set aside and killed, and the United States applied pressure to eliminate President Huerta. From this time on the relations of the United States with Mexico became more strained. During 1915-1916, following repeated attacks made by bands of Mexican bandits upon American border towns and assaults by Mexicans upon Americans and other foreigners in Mexico, the relations between the two countries approached a crisis. Early in 1916 nineteen men, nearly all of them Americans, were taken from a train near Chihuahua and killed by a band of bandits.

Conditions became still more tense when, on March 9, several hundred bandits led by Villa raided and burned the town of Columbus, N. M., killing nine American civilians and eight United States soldiers. On March 10 President Wilson ordered five thousand United States troops into Mexico to catch Villa, and two days later the first troops crossed the border. On March 16 the first clash occurred between Villa outposts and the American expeditionary force. On June 18 the war department ordered all the state militia mobilized, and within the next two weeks fifty thousand of the state soldiers had been rushed to the border.

President Wilson later in the year named an American commission at the suggestion of General Carranza, which, jointly with a Mexican commission, began its sessions at New London, Conn. The sessions continued until November 24, when a protocol was signed providing for the withdrawal of the United States troops from Mexico in forty days, conditioned upon the Carranza Government showing within that time that it could protect the border and prevent raids by bandits upon American territory.

Two days before the signing of this protocol Villa, at the head of a strong force, attacked Chihuahua City, and after a battle lasting several days captured the city.

Carranza forces regained control of Chihuahua City December 3, and Villa’s forces fled to the mountains west of the city, where they were later reported to be gathering new recruits in preparation for more extensive operations.

The year 1917 was ushered in with the struggle between the Carranza and Villa factions still in progress.

Leading Countries of South America

Argentina, or Argentine Republic

ARGENTINA, or ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, takes its name from the river La Plata (“River of Silver”). After Brazil, it is the largest state of South America. Its territory reaches from the Pilcomayo River, on the borders of Bolivia, southward for two thousand four hundred miles to Staten Island, off the southeastern extremity of Tierra del Fuego; and from the slope of the Andes on the west to the Uruguay River and the Atlantic in the east.

Physical Features.—Excepting on the northwest, where the spurs of the Andes reach down into the state, the surface of Argentina presents vast monotonous and level plains, broken only by the detached ridges of Córdova and San Luis, in the western interior. In the north the portion of the region called the Gran Chaco, within the frontier, is partly forest covered, but all the central and southern region presents only vast treeless plains or “pampas,” covered at most seasons with coarse grass, which is green in the winter months, but which dries up in summer so as to give an aspect of aridity to the plains. Some portions of the interior, called “Salinas,” are barren and white throughout the year.

Rivers.—The great watercourse of the country is the Paraná, formed by the union of the Upper Paraná and Paraguay rivers near the northeastern corner of the state. This is a noble river, in all parts of its course through Argentine territory scarcely ever less than a mile in width, and in some places spreading out in lateral channels, or “riachos,” to a breadth of ten miles.

The Pilcomayo, which forms part of the northern boundary, has now been explored throughout its length, and is navigable at high water; the Vermejo, the next river southward, has of late years become a regularly navigated highway from the Paraguay up to the northeastern provinces; the Salado, farther south, flowing directly to the Paraná, is also an important river; but the remaining streams which tend eastward to the Paraná have not strength of water sufficient to resist evaporation in crossing the dry plains, and terminate for the most part in marshes and salt lakes.

Climate.—The climate in the extreme north is very hot, for it lies north of the tropic of Capricorn. The more remote southern territories have an extremely disagreeable climate, but are not really so cold as might be expected from their relatively high latitude. But the country in general enjoys an equable, temperate, and healthful climate. Stormy southwest winds, called “pamperos,” sweep over the plains at times, and raise great clouds of dust, which fly across the plains.

Production and Industry.—The principal productions are wheat, maize, oats, linseed, sugar, wool, hides, cattle, sheep, and horses.

The great wealth of the state, however, lies in its countless herds of cattle and horses and flocks of sheep, which are pastured on the “pampas,” and which multiply there very rapidly. The rearing and tending of these herds is the great and characteristic industry of the country; these also yield enormous quantities of hides, horns, and salted beef.

The northwestern provinces of the Argentine Republic, crossed by the lower ramifications of the Andes, are rich in metals, including gold, silver, nickel, copper, tin, lead, and iron, as well as in several kinds of marble, jasper, and precious stones. On the Rio Vermejo petroleum wells have recently been discovered.

The export of frozen beef and mutton is an important industry. The exports are made up entirely of pastoral and agricultural products, with the exception of quebracho, copper, manganese, and wolfram.

People.—The people of the country are mostly Spanish in their language and descent, although there are many Italians, French, Americans, Swiss, and Germans. The Gauchos, or herdsmen of the plains, are a hardy and spirited, but ignorant race, often of partial Indian descent. Some of the Indians of the remote districts have become skilled in the rearing of flocks and herds.

The religion is Roman Catholic. The government is closely modeled upon that of the United States.

Education.—Primary education is secular, free and nominally compulsory from the ages of six to fourteen. Schools are maintained by provincial taxation, and controlled by provincial boards (except in the capital, where there is a National Council), with grants from the Federal Government. Secondary education is controlled by the Federal Government in lyceums and normal schools. There are also Special Government Schools—one naval, one military, one mining, and one agriculture. There are National Universities at Cordoba and Buenos Aires, and Provincial Universities at La Plata, Santa Fé, and Paraná.

Government.—The Constitution vests the executive power in the hands of a President, who is also Commander-in-chief of the troops, elected by representatives of the provinces for six years, not being immediately re-eligible; and the legislative authority in that of a Senate of thirty members, two chosen by the capital and two by the legislature of each province, and a House of Deputies of one hundred and twenty members elected for four years by the people, one-third of the Senate retiring every three years, and one-half of the House retiring every two years.

The Judicial system consists, like that of the United States, of a Federal Supreme Court and Courts of Appeal, with Provincial Courts in each state for non-national or single state cases.

Cities.—The chief seaport is Buenos Aires, the capital and largest city, with a population of 1,315,000 in 1911. La Plata lies twenty-five miles to the southeast of the Federal capital, and, although founded in only 1882, already numbers 80,000 inhabitants. A canal joins it to the vast docks of Ensenada.

Córdova (53,000), nearly in the center of the state, is the seat of the chief observatory of the Republic.

Rosario (135,000), on the right bank of the Paraná, more than two hundred miles up from the La Plata inlet, is a substantially built town, and a great outlet of the animal produce of the interior plains.

Tucuman (55,000) and Salta in the northwestern mountain region, and Mendoza (32,000) at the eastern base of the Andes, where they are crossed to enter Chile, with Corrientes (18,000) on the Paraná, are other important places.

Buenos Aires (bwā´nōs ī´rez; Sp. pron. bwā´nōs ī´res; Eng. pron. usually Bonos Ai´rez) stands on the right bank of the Plata, which here, at a distance of one hundred and fifty miles from the open sea, is twenty-eight miles across.

The city is partitioned into blocks of about one hundred and fifty yards square. The streets are regularly laid out at right angles to each other and well lighted. Many are planted with trees, and there are numerous open squares and several fine parks, the most famous being Palermo Park (eight hundred and forty acres). The main buildings are the Roman Catholic Cathedral, the chapel of Santa Felicitas, the Casa Rosada, or Government House, the university, the Opera House, and various government and municipal buildings. Much of the town has lately been rebuilt on European lines. It is the terminus of six railway lines, and has excellent street car, cable, and telephone services. There are manufactories of furniture, machinery, carriages, leather, hats, textiles, boots, tobacco, liquors, etc., and the trade is very large.

An elaborate system of harbor works was carried out between the years 1887 and 1895 at a cost of twenty million dollars; it includes an advanced river wall, a north and south basin, and a series of four docks, which connects two channels of the Rio de La Plata, and so brings large vessels up to the wharfs. About half of the inhabitants are of European birth or descent. Among the Europeans the vast majority are Italian; the rest are principally Spanish, French and British. Newspapers are published in French, English, Italian, and German, as well as in Spanish.

History.—The river La Plata was visited by the Spaniards in 1516, and the country was colonized in 1535, when Buenos Aires was founded. For many years the country was regarded as a part of Peru. The progress of the colony was not more hindered by the bloody wars which prevailed with the natives for a hundred years than by unwise legislation at Madrid.

In 1776 Buenos Aires became the capital of a new viceroyalty. In 1806 that capital was occupied by a British force under General Beresford, but the town was soon besieged and compelled to surrender. In 1808 the British forces under Whitlock assaulted the town, but after very severe loss were themselves compelled to capitulate.

In 1810 the colonists founded a local provisional government. A sanguinary war for independence followed, which did not cease till 1824. Spain acknowledged the independence of the country in 1842. The first half-century of Argentine autonomy was much disturbed by revolutions.

The Brazilian-Argentine war against Paraguay (1865-1870) was interrupted and followed by renewed revolts at home. For a time the great material progress of the country was accompanied by an equally remarkable movement in favor of stability of government and the repression of factions. But once more dissensions and an insurrection in Buenos Aires led to civil war (1890), which again was followed by a disastrous financial panic (1891); and political and commercial crises, with riots and risings in various parts of the country, continued to succeed one another and to prevent progress. In May, 1910, the Argentine celebrated its centenary of independence.

Brazil

BRAZIL (brä-zil´; Portuguese pron. brä-zēl´), a republic of South America, of which it covers nearly half, is little less in area than the whole of Europe, its area being 3,300,000 square miles, including the Acrá territory bought from Bolivia in 1902. It has a length of 2,660 miles, and a breadth of 2,705 miles between extreme points. It borders on every state in South America except Chile. The name was given by early explorers from thinking that the red dyewood (brazil-wood) found here was identical with the East Indian dyewood known to them as Brasil.

Surface.—This vast territory presents two contrasted regions. First, the wide, low lying, and humid forest plain of the Amazon River in the north; second, the uplands in the south, which are traversed by radiating hills and mountain ridges, and which present wide grass plains between woods and bush-covered country.

The northern coast is bordered by low, alluvial bottom lands and sandy plains, full of lakes, and in places very sterile; while the southern angle of the country is rolling campo land, bordered by a low sandy coast. Above its eastern angle a large area of coastlands and neighboring plateau is subject to periodical devastating drought.

The highest mountain ranges of Brazil rise in the center of the southeastern uplands, where the Montes Pyrenéos rise to nine thousand five hundred feet, but the coast range, or Serra do Mar, to the south of the beautiful Gulf of Rio de Janeiro, hardly yield to these, for within it the Itatiaiossu is scarcely six hundred feet lower, while the Organ Mountains, at the back of Rio, have summits which reach up to seven thousand five hundred feet.

Rivers.—Brazil possesses three great river-systems—the Amazon, La Plata, and San Francisco.

The Amazon and its tributaries drain fully a half of the country. To the east of the Madeira these tributaries are tableland rivers, broken by rapids and freely navigable for comparatively short distances. West of the Madeira they are lowland rivers, sluggish, bordered by extensive flood plains, and afford free navigation for long distances. The La Plata system drains nearly one-fifth of the country through its three branches—the Paraguay, Paraná, and Uruguay.

The first of these is a lowland river, freely navigable for a long distance, while the other two are tableland rivers, full of obstructions, and without free outlets for their upper level navigation.

The San Francisco is a tableland river, flowing northeast between the Goyaz and maritime mountains, and then, breaking through the latter, southeast to the Atlantic. It is not freely navigable because of the Paulo Affonso Falls. The other coast rivers are generally short.

Climate.—Brazil lies almost wholly within the tropics, and is still in great part unexplored and unsettled. The climate of Brazil varies greatly—the lowlands of the Amazon and a great part of the coast being hot, humid, and unhealthy, while the tablelands and some districts of the coast swept by the trade winds are temperate and healthy.

Production and Industry.—The minerals are very considerable and valuable, comprising gold, silver, iron, diamonds, topazes, and other precious stones. Its forests are immense, abounding in the greatest variety of useful and beautiful woods adapted for dyeing, cabinet work, or ship-building; among these are mahogany, logwood, rosewood, brazil-wood, etc.

Its agricultural produce is abundant; maize, beans, cassava root, and nuts are very generally cultivated; also, in some parts, wheat and other European cereals.

Cattle raising is an important industry, the number being computed at eighteen million. Cotton is being largely cultivated for export, and is being used for home manufactures. Sugar cane is grown in large and increasing quantities in the northern provinces, Pernambuco being the center of the sugar-producing zone.

India rubber comes from the more northern provinces, especially the valley of the Amazon, and is shipped from Pará and Manáos; and coffee, though also grown in the north, comes chiefly from Rio de Janeiro, Minas, São Paulo, and Esperito Santo. Tobacco and cocoa are grown largely, especially in Bahia. The exports consist solely of the raw produce of the soil.

People.—The inhabitants of Brazil, as of other parts of South America, present three great elements—that of the aboriginal Indians, that of the European conquerors and colonists and their descendants, and that of the Africans introduced as slaves. The most important section of the Brazilians are the descendants of the Portuguese settlers. There are, however, several flourishing German and Italian colonies in the southern states.

The number of pure white people is very small in proportion to those who have some mixture of Indian or African blood, and the Brazilians themselves have developed into a number of more or less distinct physical types in the widely separated provinces of the republic. Formerly about one-half of the entire population of Brazil was formed of negro slaves.

The Roman Catholic is the established religion, and is supported by the state; but all other sects are tolerated. There are, however, very few Brazilians who are not Roman Catholics.

Education is still in a very backward condition. The language is Portuguese, with dialectal varieties.

Government.—According to the new Constitution of 1890, the empire was abolished and the Brazilian nation is constituted a Federal Republic under the title of the United States of Brazil, each of the twenty provinces forming a separate state with local self-government. At the head of the federation is a president with executive authority, elected by the people for six years. The National Congress with legislative functions comprises a Senate and Chamber of Deputies, the senators being chosen three for each state, for nine years, the deputies for three years in the proportion of one to every seventy thousand of the population. The franchise extends to all citizens not under twenty-one years of age.

Cities.—The capital city is Rio de Janeiro, the second largest in South America. Next in importance is the city and seaport of Bahia (230,000), finely placed on an inlet of the Atlantic, the oldest city of Brazil. Pernambuco, also called Recife from a reef of rock which forms the natural breakwater of its harbor, is the fourth in population, being now surpassed by São Paulo, which ranks next to the capital (332,000). Maranhão, on an island of the north coast; Pará, in the Tocantins estuary; Rio Grande, and Santos are the other notable places along the Atlantic. In the interior the principal towns are Ouro Preto, in the gold mining region, and Diamantina, the center of the diamond fields. Cuyabá, in the interior, is important as being at the head of the regular navigation into Brazil by way of the Paraná and Paraguay rivers.

Rio de Janeiro (Ree´o deh Zha-nay´e-ro) stands on the west side of one of the most magnificent natural harbors in the world. An inlet of the Atlantic, the bay of Rio de Janeiro runs fifteen miles northwards, varying in width from two miles to seven; it is girdled on all sides by picturesque mountains (one thousand five hundred to three thousand feet), covered with tropical vegetation. The entrance, less than a mile wide, passes between two bold headlands, one of them called the Sugar-loaf (one thousand two hundred and seventy feet).

The city and its suburbs stretch nearly ten miles along the shore. About three miles southwest of the city stands the precipitous cone of Corcovado (two thousand three hundred and thirty-six feet), with a cog-railway up to the top. Public institutions are the vast hospital of La Misericordia; the national library with three hundred thousand volumes; the national museum; the large lunatic asylum; the botanical gardens, with a celebrated avenue of palms; the observatory; the Geographical and Historical institute; the former royal palace at Sāo Christovão, the arsenal, the naval dockyards, the academy of fine arts, a cadet-school, a school of medicine, a conservatory of music, a polytechnic school, etc. A good water supply, chiefly by an aqueduct twelve miles long, and a new system of sewage draining, much improved the city health; but surrounding hills shut out the breezes, and the heat grows intense in summer.

The population includes many foreigners: Portuguese, British, French, and Germans.

Rio de Janeiro is also the commercial capital, sending out one-sixth of the total exports of Brazil, and bringing in forty-five per cent of the imports. The chief export is coffee.

The whole sea frontage of the city is lined with quays, and has been improved by extensive new harbor works, embracing a dock of seventy-five acres, a breakwater three thousand two hundred yards long, an elevated railway, hydraulic cranes, warehouses, etc.

The city possesses cotton, jute, and silk mills, tobacco and hat factories, machine shops and tanneries.

History of Brazil.—As early as 1480, expeditions sailed from Europe in search of the island of Brasil, rumored to exist in the western seas. Brazil was discovered on January 26, 1500, by Vincent Yañez Pinzon, who landed at Cape St. Augustine, near Pernambuco, and then followed the coast north to the Orinoco. In the same year a Portuguese expedition to the East Indies, under Pedro Alvarez Cabral, discovered the Brazilian coast near Porto Seguro on April 25 (April 22, Cazal). Cabral took formal possession, and named his new discovery “Terra de Vera Cruz.” Two Portuguese expeditions were sent out in 1501 and 1503, the first exploring the coast, and the second planting a colony and bringing back a rich cargo of brazil-wood, which gave a name to Portugal’s new possession.

In 1530 the Portuguese government resolved upon the definite settlement of Brazil. Many of the earliest colonies failed through lack of means, and from inability to hold their ground against the natives. In 1567 a Huguenot colony, established on the bay of Rio de Janeiro twelve years before, was overthrown by the Portuguese, who then founded the present capital of Brazil.

The discovery of gold in Minas Geraes in 1693, and of diamonds in 1729, gave a new impetus to the growth of the country, one result of which was the removal of the colonial capital from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. The cultivation of cotton, tobacco, and sugar cane had already attained great prominence and prosperity.

In 1808 the royal family of Portugal was expelled by the French and took refuge in Brazil, and the very first act of Dom João VI. was to open Brazilian ports to foreign commerce. He then removed various restrictions on domestic industries, founded a printing office and library, created new courts, and opened various schools and public institutions. All these acts greatly stimulated the growth of the country.

In 1821 he returned to Portugal, leaving his eldest son in Brazil as prince regent. Personal ambition, and the advice of men opposed to government from Lisbon, led the young prince to declare for Brazilian independence, September 7, 1822. He was proclaimed and crowned emperor as Dom Pedro I. before the end of the year, the small Portuguese force in the country being quickly and easily expelled. The constitution was ratified and sworn to early in 1825, and some amendments were added in 1835.

The new empire, however, did not start smoothly, nor was the reign of Dom Pedro I. a fortunate one. Vexed with the opposition encountered, he in 1831 voluntarily abdicated in favor of his eldest son, and withdrew to Portugal. During the next nine years Brazil was governed by regencies, but in 1840 a popular agitation led to the declaration of the young prince’s majority, at fifteen years of age, and to his coronation the following year as Dom Pedro II. The reign was one of almost unbroken peace, interrupted by two wars—one with Buenos Aires in 1852, and the other with Paraguay in 1865-1870.

At the revolution of November, 1889, the empire became a republic, and Dom Pedro and his family were exiled. Under the new and enlightened constitution and a succession of patriotic presidents, Brazil has enjoyed a season of peace and prosperity such as it has not experienced since its colonial times. In 1904 the third Pan-American congress was held in Brazil, and did much to bind closer the bonds existing between her and the other American republics.

Chile

CHILE (Tchee´lee; Span. Chile, pron. Tchee´lay), is one of the republics of South America, on the west coast, and borders on Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina. It reaches from the southern boundary of the coast line of Peru to the southern extremity of Tierra del Fuego, through a distance of about two thousand eight hundred miles, rising inland to the summits of the Andes, which here form a single chain at a distance of about one hundred miles from the ocean. The Strait of Magellan is by treaty considered neutral as between Chile and Argentina. Its breadth varies from forty to two hundred miles.

Physical Features.—The range of the Andes, visible from the sea all along the coast of Chile, towers up in a series of volcanic cones and snowclad peaks; the loftiest summit, that of Aconcagua, being probably the highest point of all the South American continent.

Numbers of streams descend from the range, and have furrowed deep valleys across the width of the country. The most considerable of these are the Maypú near the center of Chile, and the Maule and Biobio in the south, both of which are to some extent navigable.

In the south are also many deep lakes. Mineral waters, chiefly saline and sulphureous, are abundant. The most important islands are those constituting the southern province of Chiloé; Juan Fernandez also belongs to Chile.

Climate.—This long strip of maritime country presents remarkable gradations of climate from north to south. Nearest the Peruvian frontier the coast-land of Tacna, Tarapacá and Atacama is a hot, rainless, sandy desert without sign of vegetation. Southward is found a temperate climate which enjoys a moderate rainfall. This central belt is the most valuable and the most productive agricultural region of Chile. Farther south the westerly winds blow toward the mountains from over the wide Pacific and bring with them such quantities of moisture that the rainfall is excessive; here, in southern Chile, in consequence of the abundant moisture, the mountain slopes are densely covered with evergreen forest.

Production and Industry.—Agriculture and mining are the principal occupations. Wheat, maize, barley, oats, beans, peas, lentils, wines, tobacco, flax, hemp, Chile pepper, and potatoes are grown extensively; the vine and all fruit trees flourish. The live stock includes cattle, sheep, horses, goats, and pigs. The mineral wealth is considerable, the country being extremely rich in copper ore, and some rich gold mines have been discovered. The rainless north yields more especially nitrate of soda, iodine, borate of soda, gold and silver, a large number of mines yielding both being in actual work in Tarapacá, Guanaco, and Cachinal in Atacama, and Caracoles in Antofagasta; the center, copper and silver; and the south, iron and coal. The nitrate exports are extremely valuable. There are smelting works for copper and silver, tanneries, corn and saw mills, starch, soap, biscuit, rope, cloth, cheese, furniture, candle, and paper factories, breweries and distilleries; and the domestic industry furnishes cloth, embroideries, baskets, and pottery. The many ports favor commerce, and six lines of steamers connect the country with Panama and the Magellan Strait. The staple articles of export are nitrate of soda, iodine, copper bars and ores, silver ores, corn, flour, hides, and guano.

People.—The inhabitants of northern and central Chile are, for the most part, descendants of the intermixed Spaniards and native Indians. In the upper classes the race has been kept more purely Spanish than in any other South American country.

Chile is a Roman Catholic country, but other religions are tolerated. Education receives much attention. There is a first class university at Santiago, and a lyceum in every provincial capital. The language spoken in Chile is Spanish, but with many local words of Indian origin.

Government.—Under the constitution voted in 1833, Chile is governed by a president who is elected for five years by delegates nominated by ballot, who is not re-eligible. A Senate and Chamber of Deputies form the legislature. The Senate, of thirty-two members, is elected by the provinces for six years; the Chamber, of ninety-four members, by the departments for three years, by electors over twenty-one, and able to read and write.

Cities.—Santiago, the capital, has 350,000 inhabitants; Valparaiso, 180,000; Concepcion, Iquique, Talca, Chillan, Antofagasta, over 30,000.

Santiago (San-tee-âh´go) stands near the western base of the Andes, one thousand seven hundred feet above sea-level, and one hundred and fifteen miles by rail east by southeast of Valparaiso. The snow-capped mountains seem to enclose it on the north and east; while in the east of the city rises the picturesque park, Cerro de Santa Lucia (eight hundred feet above the plain), dotted with grottoes, statues, kiosks, restaurants, an historical museum, and an observatory. The small but turbulent stream, the Mapocho, is crossed by five bridges.

The city is regularly laid out, lighted with gas and electric light, and has electric railways in all directions. Most of the houses are of one story only, owing to the earthquakes (the most serious occurred in 1575, 1647, 1730, 1822, 1835, 1906).

On the great Plaza Independencia are the government palaces, the Grand English Hotel, the cathedral, and the archbishop’s palace. On the site of the Jesuit church, burned down in 1863, a monument was erected in memory of the two thousand worshipers who perished in the fire.

Santiago boasts a noble Alameda, or boulevard, adorned with four rows of poplars and statues. Facing it are the University and the National Institute. The city has also a military school, schools of arts and agriculture, a conservatory, a national library with one hundred and two thousand volumes; botanical and zoological gardens, etc.

The manufactures include cloth, ship’s biscuits, beer, brandy, etc., and it has also an ice factory, a fruit-conserving establishment, and copper-smelting works.

Santiago was founded by Pedro de Valdivia in 1541.

History of Chile.—The name Chile is supposed to be derived from an ancient Peruvian word signifying “snow.” The first European to land in Chile was the Portuguese discoverer Magellan, after his famous voyage through the strait which now bears his name. He landed at Chiloé in 1520.

After the conquest of Peru by Pizarro, an expedition was made to Chile from that country overland under the leadership of Diego de Almagro in 1535. This expedition penetrated as far as the Rio Clano, but returned unsuccessful. Another was sent under command of Pedro Valdivia in 1540, which succeeded in annexing the territory as far as the River Maipu. Santiago, the capital, was founded by Valdivia in 1542. During the colonial period the governors of Chile were appointed by the viceroys of Peru.

In 1810 a revolt against the Spanish power broke out, in which Don Bernardo O’Higgins, son of one of the last viceroys of Peru, but a native of Chile, played a conspicuous part, and finally became the first dictator of the new republic. The first constitutional president was General Blanco Encalada. The government was unsettled until 1847. A revolution broke out in 1851, but since then there has been no serious attempt to overturn the government by force of arms.

In 1864 Chile gave Peru very valuable support in her war with Spain. Valparaiso was bombarded by the Spaniards in 1866. In 1879 Chile declared war against Bolivia, and immediately thereafter against Peru, with which Bolivia was allied. For a time the Peruvian fleet kept the Chileans in check, but in August, 1879, the Peruvian ironclad Huascar was captured by the Chilean men-of-war Cochrane and Blanco Encalada, both armor plated. After this event the success of the Chileans was uninterrupted—Peruvian towns were bombarded, warships captured, and Lima taken by storm June 21, 1881. The Chileans occupied Lima and Callao until 1883, when a treaty of peace was signed.

President Balmaceda’s unconstitutional government led to civil war in 1891, when the congressionalists were victorious. The decisive battle was fought near Valparaiso on August 28, and Balmaceda committed suicide.

In September, 1910, the centennial celebration of the first declaration of independence from the Spanish crown took place, many foreign governments sending special delegations.

Leading Countries of Asia

China

CHINA, or more accurately the Chinese Republic, is an extensive dominion of Eastern Asia of which China proper constitutes the principal portion. For centuries this dominion has been known as the Chinese Empire, and it is still frequently referred to as such, although the form of government is now republican. China includes a number of dependencies or subject territories, viz.: Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, East Turkestan, and the small territories between Mongolia and Tibet.

By its natives China is never so called, but usually by the Chinese words for “The Middle State,” or “The Republic of the Middle Flower.” The name China (Chi-na, land of Chin) comes to us from India through Buddhism. Various old names are Serica and Cathay, and in the Bible “Land of Sinim.”

China and its dependent territories have an area of 4,300,000 square miles. The population of the whole is variously estimated at from 300,000,000 to 440,000,000. The great bulk of this falls to the provinces of China proper: the population of all the dependencies (Manchuria, Tibet, Mongolia, East Turkestan), making but some 16,000,000 or 25,000,000 of the total.

Surface.—Occupying all the central and eastern portion of the continent of Asia, the limits are for the most part very distinctly marked out by great natural features. The boundary with Russian Siberia on the north runs along the Amur River and the crests of the Sayan and Altai Mountains; towards western Turkestan the alpine heights of the Thian Shan and the Pamir form the limit; the snow clad Himalaya range separates China from the hot plains of India in the south, and the mountains of Yunnan continue the natural frontier eastward again to the coasts of the Pacific.

Within these wide exterior limits China includes a number of regions, some of which are strongly contrasted with one another in their natural features and in the character of their population. Along the eastern or maritime border, where the rivers flowing down from the mountain region of the interior have spread out in wide alluvial plains next the sea, lie China proper and Manchuria, filled with a teeming population of busy agriculturists and townsfolk. Within, on the high plateau of Central Asia, the region of bare steppes and deserts, and the mountain skirts round it, are the countries of Mongolia, Eastern Turkestan, and Tibet, thinly peopled for the most part by nomadic pastoral tribes.

China Proper may be described as sloping from the mountainous regions of Tibet and Nepal toward the shores of the Pacific on the east and south. The most extensive mountain range in it is the Nan Ling or Southern Range, a far extending spur of the Himalayas. Commencing in Yunnan, it bounds Kwangsi, Kwangtung, and Fukien, on the north, and, passing through Chekiang, enters the sea at Ningpo.

HUNCHBACK BRIDGE, NEAR PEKING, CHINA

North of this long range, and west of the one hundred and thirteenth meridian, on to the borders of Tibet, the country is mountainous, while to the east and from the great wall on the north to the Po-yang Lake in the south, there is the Great Plain, comprising the greater part of the provinces of Chihli, Shantung, Honan, Anhui, and Kiangsu. The Great Plain extends on both sides of the lower Hoang-ho, between the great cities of Peking and Nanking, over an area more than three times as extensive as England. Sedulously irrigated or drained, and cultivated in every corner, this great plain supports the densest agricultural population in the world.

BRIDGE AT YUEN-MING-YUEN, CHINA

In the provinces west from Chihli—Shansi, Shensi and Kansu—the soil is formed of what are called the loess beds, which are extremely fertile, the fields composed of it hardly requiring any other manure than a sprinkling of its own fresh loam. The husbandman in this way obtains an assured harvest two and even three times a year. This fertility, provided there be a sufficient rainfall, seems inexhaustible.

Seas, Rivers and Canals.—The semi-mediterranean seas and gulfs of the Pacific along the coasts of China are distinguished by separate names. In the north, between the Korean peninsula and the mainland of China, is the Hoang Hai or Yellow Sea, three hundred miles wide, named from the lemon color of its waters, filled with the alluvium brought down to it by the Hoang-ho, and so shallow that its muddy bed is frequently furrowed by passing vessels. Within or northward lie the Bay of Korea and the Gulfs of Pechihli and Liaotung, the two last separated almost entirely from the outer China Sea by the projecting promontories of Shantung and Liaotung. South of the Yellow Sea, between the mainland and southern Japan, with the chain of the Luchu Islands and Formosa, extends the wider Tunghai or Eastern Sea; and from this the Fukien Channel, between Formosa and the coast of China, one hundred miles wide, leads into the great mediterranean called the Nanhai or South Sea of China, which is almost completely shut in by Borneo and the Philippine Islands. The coasts of the Yellow Sea bordering on the great plain are low and flat; southward thence to the Island of Hainan the shores of China rise steep, and are dotted round with rocky islets.

GREAT CHINESE WALL,

erected to protect the ancient empire from the inroads of nomadic Tartars about 214 B.C. The main substance of the wall is earth or rubbish, retained on each side by a strong casing of stone and brick, and terraced by a platform of square tiles. The thickness of the wall at the base is often as much as twenty-five feet. (See full description below.)

The rivers of China—called for the most part ho in the north, and chiang (kiang) in the south, are one of its most distinguishing features.

Two of them stand out conspicuous among the great rivers of the world: the Ho, Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, and the Chiang, or Yang-tze-kiang. They rise not far from each other among the mountains of Tibet. The Ho pursues a tortuous course seaward through North China; the Chiang or Yang-tze through Central China. The terrible calamities caused by the inundations of the Hoang-ho have procured for it the name of “China’s Sorrow.” The Ho is not much under the Chiang in length—somewhat over three thousand miles.

Besides these may be noted the Pei-ho, which gathers the waters of the northern portion of the great plain, and forms a highway of communication between the capital city of Peking and the port of Tien-tsin, thirty-five miles above its mouth; the Min, the river of the province of Fukien, by which the Bohea teas are brought down to the port of Fu-chou; and the Si-kiang, the largest river of southern China, one of the delta branches of which forms the Chu-kiang, or river of the great port of Canton.

The three largest lakes of China lie immediately south of the course of the Yang-tze. The Tung-ting-hu, seventy miles long, and the Poyang-hu, nearly as large, are expansions of the mouths of the chief southern tributaries of the Yang-tze in Central China; the third, the Tai-hu, lies south of the estuary.

Canals.—Greatest of all the public works in China is the Grand Canal, which traverses the great plain for a distance of seven hundred miles, passing from Tientsin, on the Pei-ho, in the north, across the course of the Hoang-ho to the lower course of the Yang-tze, connecting a system of water communications which extends from the capital to the chief parts of the empire. It is but the greatest sample of the system of canals, great and small, which form a network over all parts of the lowlands of China. Steam communication, however, all along the eastern seaboard from Canton to Tientsin has now very much superseded its use.

The glory of making this canal is due to Kublai, the first sovereign of the Yüan dynasty.

PAGODA, NEAR PEKING, CHINA

The Pagoda, or “idol temple,” in China, usually distinguishes the Buddhist from the Confucian temple. It is a tapering tower, always with an odd number of stories. First-class pagodas have seven, nine, or thirteen stories, minor ones have three or five. The most famous was the Porcelain Tower of Nanking, erected in the beginning of the fifteenth century; only nine of the proposed thirteen stories, cased in white porcelain, were completed, and the height never exceeded about two hundred and sixty feet. It was destroyed by the Taipings in 1856.

After the Grand Canal, as a gigantic achievement, comes the Great Wall, on the north side next Mongolia. Not so useful as the canal, and having failed to answer the purpose for which it was intended—to be a defense against the incursions of the northern tribes, there it still stands, the most remarkable artificial bulwark in the world.

It was in 214 B. C. that Shih Hwang Ti determined to erect a grand barrier all along the north of his vast empire. The wall commences at the Shanhai Pass and extends westward continuously almost into the heart of the continent for a distance of one thousand five hundred miles, over mountain and valley, and across rivers and ravines. It is a rampart of earth, ten to thirty feet high, broad enough at the top to admit of several horsemen passing abreast, and was formerly cased on the sides and top with bricks and stones, and was flanked by numerous projections or towers, gates being left at intervals for the passage of travelers and the collection of customs. Now it has fallen in many places, and its gates are negligently guarded, and northward of Peking the growing Chinese population has spread and settled the country to a considerable distance beyond its barrier.

Climate.—The climatic conditions naturally vary considerably over so large a stretch of country. In the lofty Tibetan plateau and the less elevated plains of Mongolia, the climate is exceedingly dry, and is marked by great extremes of hot and cold. The basins of the two great rivers, being nearer the Pacific, are moister and more equable. In this part of China proper the dry season lasts from November to February, the remaining months, particularly May, being extremely wet. The rainfall is of a copious tropical nature.

Generally speaking, China is a cold country in comparison with other regions in the same latitude. From July to September, however, the weather is intensely hot, and the heat is accompanied by typhoons, which are much dreaded for their violent and devastating effects.

Production and Industry.—Agricultural pursuits occupy the majority of the people, the chief products being tea, silk, indigo, cotton, cereals, rice, and sugar. Agriculture is held in higher estimation here than in any other land in the world. The land is freehold, and is held by families in small holdings.

There is much coal in all the provinces, and iron ore is also plentiful in Shansi. Copper ore is plentiful in Yunnan. Southern Yunnan also furnishes a variety of precious stones—rubies, amethysts, sapphires, topazes, opals, besides malachite, and the steatite or soapstone, in which the Chinese carve figures of all sorts.

The much prized Yu, or jade, brought formerly from Turkestan, comes now from the Hoang-ho valley; lapis lazuli (for the preparation of ultramarine) is found in the mountains of Che-kiang, in the east coast region. Large beds of porcelain clay occur in this province also, and in its neighboring one of Kiang-si.

About one-fourth of the world’s supply of new silk comes from China. Cotton and wool mills, flour and rice mills are important industries.

Before European manufactures had reached their higher development, fine “Nankeen” calico was largely imported from China to Europe. “China ware,” or porcelain, was first made by the Chinese, and so ignorant were the early Portuguese traders of its value, that they called it “porcellana,” believing it perhaps to be made of shells; the secret of its manufacture was not discovered till the beginning of the eighteenth century. In the province of Kiang-si, not far from Yao-chou, there are porcelain factories which were founded by an emperor in 1004 A. D.

The Chinese also excel in carpentry; paper making from the bamboo was invented among them as early as the second century B. C. They are highly skilled in the use of metals; bronze vases exist which date from 1760 B. C., and the great bells on the towers of Peking, cast during the Ming dynasty, are still perfect; the sonorous gong metal alloy is as yet a Chinese secret; in their delicate embroideries, carvings in ivory, engravings on wood and stone, lacquered wares, and rich silks and satins, they show astonishing handicraft.

VIEW OF THE ROCK-HEWN TEMPLES AT LUNG-MEN

Here, as early as the seventh century, Chinese artists sculptured religious figures in the recesses of precipitous cliffs—similar to those of Upper Egypt—and turned them into hundreds of quarried temples. The huge Buddha and attendant figures in the central recess can be clearly seen. Many smaller figures and decorations in other recesses can also be discerned.

People, Religion and Education.—The Chinese, as we have seen in the Book of Races, belong to the Mongolian race. They are stout and muscular as compared with other eastern peoples, temperate, industrious, cheerful, and easily contented; but they are addicted to gambling.

The dress of the poor is very much alike in both sexes; and though it is regulated for all classes by sumptuary laws, it is varied among the wealthy by the richness of the materials and the various ornamentation.

The three chief religions of China are Confucianism, Tâoism, and Buddhism. It is difficult to estimate the comparative number of their adherents. To claim a majority for those of any one of them is very absurd. As a matter of fact, Confucianism represents the intelligence and morality of China; Tâoism its superstitions; and Buddhism is ritualism and idolatry, while yet it acknowledges no God.

Besides these three national systems, Mohammedanism has numerous adherents in the northern and western provinces.

There are temples of Confucius in every great town, and twice a year, in spring and autumn, sacrifices of animals, fruit, and wine are offered in honor of the sage.

The majority of the Tâoists, or followers of Laotse, imitate the Buddhists in their monastic life, and many of them live as hermits in the mountain caves of the upper Yang-tze, or in the most romantic spots of the mountains of China.

The Grand Lama of Tibet is the pope of the Buddhist Church, but the priests in China have no political power, and are viewed with contempt by the literary and governing classes. In Peking, however, several large monasteries of Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhists are supported at the expense of the government.

The native Roman Catholics of China are said to number more than a million, but Protestants are very few.

In 1906, after the Russo-Japanese war, a new system of compulsory primary education was established. The curriculum is largely based upon the Japanese. Modern sciences, history, geography, and foreign languages are taught. Special schools have been established (technical, agricultural, normal, language, etc.). Thousands of temples have been converted to educational purposes. Old style examination halls have been pulled down, and colleges built on the sites. The educational facilities are, however, very inadequate. Girls’ schools, formerly non-existent, are still very few in number. The only government medical school is an army one, but the government has recognized the Union Medical College, opened in Peking by the Protestant missions there. Many Chinese students have proceeded to Japan, America, and Europe to study there. The government is using the money returned by the American government from the Boxer indemnity to send students to America.

ROYAL OBSERVATORY, PEKING, CHINA

The Chinese were among the very earliest observers of the heavens, though the Hindus, Chinese, Chaldeans, and Egyptians each claim the honor of having been the first students of astronomy. The Chinese have astronomical annals claiming to go back two thousand eight hundred and fifty-seven years B. C. These record little but the appearance of comets and solar eclipses. Professional astronomers were compelled to predict every eclipse under pain of death. The popular idea was that an eclipse was a monster having evil designs on the sun, and it was customary to make a great noise, by shouting, etc., in order to frighten it away. At an early period the Chinese appear to have been acquainted with the luni-solar Metonic cycle of nineteen years, and they had also divided the year into three hundred and sixty-five and one-fourth days. To the burning of all scientific books by one of their princes (Tsin-Chi-Hong-Ti), 221 B. C., the Chinese attribute the loss of many theories and methods previously in use.

There is a university in Peking and a number of colleges under foreign management. In 1911 there were five hundred and forty-five foreigners employed in educational work.

Government.—Until February 12, 1912, China was a monarchy, in practice almost absolute. Since that day it has been a republic under a president who holds office for a term of five years. Many changes were made at the time of the revolution. A cabinet was substituted for the old grand council, grand secretariat, and government council; the cabinet being composed of a prime minister, two associate ministers, the various ministers of state, and the heads of various boards. A privy council was also formed. Administration is carried on by the following ministries: (1) Of Foreign Affairs; (2) Interior; (3) Finance; (4) Education; (5) War; (6) Marine; (7) Justice; (8) Agriculture, Works, and Commerce; (9) Posts and Communications; (10) Colonies. There are also a large number of minor boards and offices, divided into twenty-two provinces for local administration.

Cities.—There were in 1910 about twenty-three towns with populations exceeding 50,000, but all figures are based upon estimates.

Peking 1,000,000

Canton 1,250,000

Hankow 900,000

Tientsin 850,000

Shanghai 700,000

Fuchow 650,000

Chungking 600,000

Suchow 500,000

Ningpo 450,000

Hangchow 400,000

Nanking 300,000

Changsha 250,000

Chinkiang 200,000

Antung 150,000

Wuhu 130,000

Amoy 120,000

Wenchow 100,000

Swatow 90,000

Chefoo 90,000

Shasi 85,000

Ichang 70,000

Kongmun 60,000

Wuchow 60,000

Niuchwang 50,000

Peking, or Pei-Ching (“Northern Capital”) is situated in a sandy plain, and is surrounded by walls with sixteen gates, each surmounted by towers one hundred feet high; and it consists, in fact, of two cities—the inner and the outer—known also as the Manchu or Tartar and the Chinese, the northern and the southern.

The walls of the Manchu city average fifty feet in height, and are fully sixty feet wide at the bottom; those of the Chinese city (rectangular in plan) are thirty feet high and twenty-five feet wide. The circuit of the two cities measures twenty-one miles, including an area of nearly twenty-six square miles.

The Manchu or Inner City is divided into three portions; and at the heart of it are two enclosures, into the innermost of which entrance is forbidden to all except such as have official claims to admission. It is called the “Purple Forbidden City,” is very nearly two and one-quarter miles in circuit, and in it are the palaces of the former emperors and other members of the imperial family.

The T’âi Ho, or “Hall of Grand Harmony,” is built of marble on a terrace twenty feet high, and rising itself an additional one hundred and ten feet; its principal apartment is two hundred feet long and ninety feet wide. Surrounding the Forbidden City is the “August City,” about six miles in circuit, and encompassed by a wall twenty feet high. In the western part of the “August City” is the “Western Park” with a large artificial lake, a summer-house, gardens, the copper statue of Buddha (sixty feet high), and the temple of “Great Happiness.”

In the General City are the principal offices of the government, the observatory, the Provincial Hall for literary examinations, the Colonial Office, and the “National Academy.” In the northeastern corner is the Russian mission, and west from it the “Palace of Everlasting Harmony,” a grand monastery for over a thousand Mongol and Tibetan monks. A little farther west stands, amidst cypresses, the temple of Confucius. To the “Temple of Emperors and Kings,” near the south wall, the emperors went to worship the spirits of nearly two hundred predecessors. The great Tutelary Temple of the capital is grimy, and full of fortune-tellers. All the foreign legations and Christian missions are within the Inner City. The new Roman Catholic Cathedral is conspicuous.

The Chinese or Outer City is very sparsely populated; much of the ground is under cultivation or wooded.

The “Altar to Heaven,” with its adjunct, the “Altar of Prayer for Grain,” and the “Altar of Agriculture,” are both near the southern wall. The “Altar to Heaven” stands on a splendid triple circular terrace of white marble, richly carved, in a grove of fine trees. The “Altar of Prayer for Grain,” was burned down in 1889.

The principal streets of the Chinese City are more than one hundred feet wide, but the side streets are mere lanes. The streets are seldom paved and are deep either in mud or in dust. In the smaller streets the houses are miserable shanties; in the main streets both private houses and shops are one-story brick edifices, the shops gay with paint and gilding.

There are three Catholic cemeteries (Portuguese, French, and native) and a Russian one; and there are mission buildings, Russian and others, and hospitals.

History.—Chinese historical documents begin with the reigns of Yâo and Shun. In 403 B. C. we find only seven great states, all sooner or later claiming to be “the kingdom,” and contending for the supremacy, till Ts’in (Ch’in) put down all the others, and in 221 B. C. its king assumed the title of Hwang Tî, or emperor. From that year dates the imperial form of the Chinese government, which thus existed for more than two thousand one hundred years.

The changes of dynasty were many, two or more sometimes ruling together, each having but a nominal supremacy over the whole nation. The greater dynasties have been those of Han (206 B. C.-220 A. D.), T’ang (618-906), Sung (960-1279), Yüan (the Mongol, 1280-1367), the Ming (1368-1643), and the Ch’ing (Manchû-Tartar, from the Manchû conquest of China in 1643 to the 1912 revolution).

It was not till after the Cape of Good Hope had been doubled, and the passage to India discovered by Vasco da Gama in 1497, that intercourse between any of the European nations and China was possible by sea. It was in 1516 that the Portuguese first made their appearance at Canton; and they were followed at intervals of time by the Spaniards, the Dutch, and the English in 1635. The Chinese received none of them cordially; and Chinese dislike of them was increased by their mutual jealousies and collisions with one another. In the meantime trade gradually increased, and there grew up the importation of opium from India. From the measures of the Chinese to prevent the import of opium came the first English war with China in 1840; the result of which was the opening of Canton, Amoy, Fûchâu, Ningpo, and Shanghâi to commerce, and the cession of Hongkong to Great Britain. A second war, in 1857, France being allied with Great Britain, ended in the opening of five more treaty ports. A third war (1860) and the march on Peking did even more to open China to the world.

After a war in 1884-1885 France secured permanent control of Tongking and Annam.

In 1894 Japan, reviving old claims on Korea, drove the Chinese out of Korea, and after victories on land and at sea, captured Port Arthur and Wei-hai-wei. By the treaty of 1894 Japan secured as indemnity Formosa and the Liao-tung peninsula; but the protests of Russia, Germany, and France made Japan resign Liao-tung. Russia obtained a lease of Port Arthur and Talienwan, with railway and other privileges in Manchuria; Germany obtained Kiao-chau and concessions in Shantung; and Great Britain, as an offset, obtained a lease of Wei-hai-wei and sought to secure trading freedom in the Yang-tze-kiang valley.

Russia’s refusal to evacuate Manchuria and her movements in Korea led to war with Japan in 1903, the defeat of the Russian armies in Manchuria, the destruction of the Russian fleet, and the fall of Port Arthur (1905), China being nominally neutral. By the peace (1905) Japan secured dominance in Korea, the Russian leases in Liao-tung, and great influence in southern Manchuria and on China generally.

A series of far-reaching reforms, promoted by a nationalist reform party in 1898, were summarily cancelled by the dowager empress, who assumed supreme authority. The reactionary and anti-foreign “Boxer” association (“The Fist of Righteous Harmony”), encouraged by the court, made extermination of foreigners its war cry in that year, and besieged the legislations in Peking. After a two months’ siege by an army of Japanese, Russians, British, Americans, French, and Germans this condition was relieved. The constitutional movement began in 1911, followed by a revolution. The leader of the revolt at Han-kau was the able general, Li Yuan-hung, but the inspirer of the revolution was Dr. Sun Yat-sen, at that moment in America.

On October 13 the rebels proclaimed a republic in the province of Hu-peh, with Li Yuan-hung as president, and notified the foreign consuls that the property and persons of foreigners would be respected.

On February 12, 1912, the throne issued three edicts, in which it announced its will to abide by the decision of the National Convention and accept the republic, entrusting Yuan with the task of bringing about the new constitution in conjunction with the Nan-king government, and, after exhorting all to peacefully accept the new order, announced the abdication of the dynasty.

A constitution of seventy clauses was promulgated; the emperor was to retain his title and receive a pension, and be accorded the civility due to a foreign sovereign. On February 27 the Nan-king Assembly endorsed this decision by electing Yuan president, and he was formally installed on March 10.

Yuan’s administration was hampered by the movements in Mongolia and Tibet towards autonomy, movements countenanced by Russia and Great Britain respectively. Difficulties were also put in the way of China by the European powers in the matter of a development loan, but President Yuan, supported by Dr. Sun Yat-sen, seems to have laid securely the foundations of the largest republic the world has yet seen.

President Yuan Shi-ki was assassinated in 1916, and succeeded by Li Yuan-hung.

India

INDIA, the Indian Empire of the British crown, is an extensive region of southern Asia, and next after China the most populous area in the world. It occupies the central peninsula of southern Asia, and has a length of some nineteen hundred miles, a breadth of sixteen hundred, and an area, inclusive of Burma, of 1,766,650 square miles. The natural boundaries of this vast region are, on the north, the range of the Himalaya Mountains, which separates it from Tartary, China, and Tibet; on the west, the mountainous frontiers of Afghanistan and, farther south, of Persia; on the southwest and south the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean; on the east the hill ranges which border upon Burma and the Bay of Bengal.

Surface.—The region presents a diversified surface and scenery. It has indeed been called “an epitome of the whole earth,” consisting as it does of mountains far above the level of perpetual snow, broad and fertile plains bathed in intense sunshine, arid wastes, and impenetrable forests.

The most prominent feature in the relief of India is the great range of snowy peaks named the Himalaya, or “abode of snow,” which rises on the edge of the Tibetan plateau, above the northern plains, stretching out in a continuous chain for nearly eighteen hundred miles. The mean height of this portion of the borders of the Tibetan plateau, defined very clearly by the channels of the Indus and the Bramaputra, is estimated at thirteen thousand feet; the mean breadth of its base is about one hundred and fifty miles. Its summits rise to twenty-nine thousand feet, and most of the difficult passes ascending from the valleys and gorges of the Indian side are not lower than about sixteen thousand feet.

Southward from the bases of the Himalaya and the Sulaiman mountains the great plain of northern India spreads out, reaching across the whole breadth of Hindustan from the Arabian Sea to the Gulf of Bengal.

Southward of the great plain the land begins to rise again. The first elevations reached in this direction are those of the long range of the Aravali hills, which extend for four hundred miles from northeast to southwest, marking the edge of the western section of the great plain. It is bold and precipitous on that side which falls toward the Indian desert, but less so on the southeast; its average height is about three thousand feet, Mount Abu, being the highest point.

Behind the Aravali hills lie the plateaus of Malwa and Bundelkhand, extending over the country generally termed central India; These are fertile tablelands of uneven surface elevated from one thousand five hundred to two thousand feet above the sea level, and traversed by a number of minor hill ridges.

The greater part of south India is occupied by the wide tableland of the Deccan. The name ghat was originally applied by the natives to the passes in the outer slopes of the ranges which run parallel with the two coasts of the southern portion of the great promontory of India enclosing the Deccan, and which had to be ascended to reach the high interior country from the coast; but this name Ghat has been transferred to these ranges or outer edges of the tableland themselves.

The western Ghats, about eight hundred miles in length, clothed with magnificent teak forests, form by far the boldest and most continuous escarpment of the Deccan plateau, ascending abruptly from a low base, generally at a distance of about thirty miles from the sea.

The eastern Ghats differ from the western in being much lower, in rising at a much greater distance from the coast of the Bay of Bengal, and with a gentle slope, giving access by wide openings to the interior. Their average height is about fifteen hundred feet, the highest point, near Madras, only about three thousand feet above the sea. The Deccan plateau between these supporting buttresses has thus a gradual eastward slope, and is characterized by undulating treeless plains, ridges and isolated flat-topped hills capped with basalt. Large portions of it are also covered with jungle, often overgrowing the ruins of former towns and temples, but there is no extent of forest.

Between the eastern Ghats and the sea lies the extensive maritime plain generally named the Karnatic, reaching back from the Coromandel coast for about fifty miles. The soil of this plain proves abundantly fertile when it is watered, but there are few streams, and a supply of water for irrigation has to be stored in reservoirs.

Rivers.—The river system of India consists of three great rivers: the Indus, the Ganges, the Bramaputra.

The Indus rises on the northern slopes of the Himalayas, sweeps round and enters at the western extremity of the range, and waters the Punjab.

The Ganges is formed by the amalgamation of the streams which drain the southernmost slopes of the Himalayas.

The Bramaputra rises also within easy distance of the Indus in the northern slopes of the Himalayas, flows east for some considerable distance, and then enters India at the extreme eastern point of the Himalayas. It is therefore to be noticed that the river system, of such vast importance to the people of India, is the drainage of both the northern and the southern slopes of the Himalayas.

The Ganges is the sacred river of the Hindus, rises in a snow-field of the southern face of the Himalayas at an elevation of nearly fourteen thousand feet above the sea, rushing down as a torrent to the highest accessible point on its banks (ten thousand three hundred feet), where the temple of Gangotri is built. To the Hindu a bath or a drink of the sacred water at this point has wonderful atoning virtues, and those who cannot themselves make the pilgrimage hither are supplied with flasks of the holy element bottled by the priests of Gangotri. At Allahabad the Jumna, which has followed a parallel course from the mountains, adds its strength; thence, by Benares and Patna, it passes eastward to weave its many mouths with those of the Bramaputra, and to wage a battle twice daily with the inflowing tide among the malarious islands of the Sundarbans. One of the westerly delta branches, the Hugli, on which Calcutta stands, is the most frequented highway to the sea.

Climate.—The whole country has three well-marked seasons—the cool, the hot, and the rainy. The cool months are November, December, January, and a part of February; the dry hot weather precedes, and the moist hot weather follows the periodical rains. The rainy season falls in the middle of summer and is called monsoon. It is the occasional failure of the monsoons that causes the periodical famines to which the country is liable.

The central tableland is cool, comparatively, but the alternations of heat and cold differ greatly elsewhere.

In the northwest there is burning heat with hot winds in summer, and frost at night in winter.

In the south the heat is more tempered, but the winter is cool only, and not cold.

The fall of rain varies greatly in different parts of the country. In the northeastern and other outlying parts it exceeds seventy-five inches. In the Deccan, in the upper basins of the Ganges and the Indus, it is thirty, and in the lower regions of the Indus less than fifteen inches. The remainder of India is placed between the extremes represented by these damp and dry belts.

Production and Industry.—The large majority of the population of India are engaged in agricultural pursuits, nearly 200,000,000 being either engaged in tilling the soil or dependent upon those so engaged. Great irrigation works have been carried out, the area irrigated being 42,486,724 acres.

The principal crops cultivated are rice, wheat, millet, pulse, and other food grains, oil-seeds, tea, cotton, sugar-cane, tobacco, and indigo.

Tea is grown largely under European supervision in the Eastern Himalayas, and already surpasses the China teas. Coffee is grown in the south, but with checkered success. Among the dyes, indigo and lac (red) are noteworthy. The indigenous flowers are not rich, the water lilies being the best; the flowering shrubs are very fine.

Of trees in the plains near the coasts the palm order with its several varieties strikes the observer. Inland the mango fruit-tree and the orange, the umbrageous banyan, the sacred peepul, and the bamboo are features in the landscape. In the hills the teak and other useful timber trees are obtained. In the Himalayas are the cedar, the pine, the fir, the juniper.

The cultivation of opium is a government monopoly and heavy duties are levied on the exports of opium, a duty being also paid to the Indian treasury.

Almost all the metals and minerals are represented in India, but of the useful metals, excepting iron, the quantity is not known to be large. Coal exists in many parts, especially in the northeast—at Bardwan, near Calcutta, and in Assam. Gold is found in Mysore, and in the sands of many streams; copper near Delhi and elsewhere; salt is obtained in large quantity from the mines in the northwest of the Punjab, and by evaporation from the coast lagoons all round India, and from salt lakes in Rajputana. Most of the precious gems, including diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds, are found, some abundantly, some rarely, though the supply of the once famous diamonds of Golconda seems to have ceased.

Metal and textile workers, glass and pottery workers, with their dependants, number close on twenty millions, and there are large numbers employed in service.

The textile manufactures of India were famous in long past centuries throughout the civilized world; such were the gold brocades of Delhi, brought thence to imperial Rome, the muslins of Dacca, made for the Mongol court, and the pattern colored cloths of Calicut (calico), the shawls of Kashmir, and the silks and carpets of Multan. All these home-made fabrics, however, have declined before the products of the great factories.

Peoples.—The broad division of the peoples of India includes a northern group of Aryan nations, occupying the great plains and the northern seaboard on each side, and the non-Aryan inhabitants of the Deccan plateau in southern India. This division also corresponds to that of the languages of India, separating those related to the Sanscrit, the language of the Aryan conquerors of the north, from the Dravidian and Kolarian of the south. (See Book of Races.)

Languages.—Though nearly a hundred and fifty languages, derived from nearly twenty linguistic families, are spoken in India, three of those families—the Aryo-Indian, the Dravidian, and the Tibeto-Burman—represent the speech of ninety-seven per cent of the inhabitants.

Hindustani, a dialect of Hindi, has become the literary language of Hindustan, and is the lingua franca of India. English is understood by many.

Religions.—The chief religions are Hinduism (218,000,000 in 1911), Mohammedans (66,000,000), Buddhists (11,000,000), Animists (10,000,000), and Christians (4,000,000).

Government.—India is a dependency of Great Britain, consisting partly of territory under the direct administration of British officials, and partly of native states, all subordinate, in varying degrees of relationship, to British authority.

The nine great provinces are Madras, Bombay, Bengal, the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, the Punjab, Burma, Eastern Bengal and Assam, the Central Provinces, and the Northwestern Frontier Province.

In accordance with the Royal Titles Act of 1876 the King of Great Britain and Ireland assumes the additional title of Emperor of India. The Parliament of the United Kingdom is supreme over India; but all the statutes relating to India are in the nature of either constitutional enactments or financial provisions.

In India the supreme authority, both executive and legislative, is vested in the governor-general in council. The governor-general, or viceroy, who generally holds office for five years, receives a salary of eighty-five thousand dollars a year, and has power to overrule his council in cases of emergency. The council is composed of six ordinary members, all appointed, like the governor-general himself, by the crown for a period of five years. Since 1909 one of the members has been a native of India.

The work of the council is distributed among the departments of finance, commerce, home and foreign affairs, revenue and agriculture, army, legislation, education, and public works. The foreign department is under the special care of the viceroy.

The seat of the supreme government of India is Delhi, with an annual migration to the hill-station of Simla for the hot season.

Cities.—The capital, Delhi, has a population (1911) of 391,828. The other chief cities are: Calcutta (1,216,514), Bombay (972,930), Madras (517,335), Hyberabad (499,840), Rangoon (293,316), Lucknow (260,621), Lahore (228,318), Ahmedabad (215,448), Benares (204,222). In addition there are twenty cities with populations exceeding 100,000.

Delhi (Del´lee), since 1912 the capital of the Indian Empire is located on the right bank of the Jumna, nine hundred and fifty-four miles northwest of Calcutta. It was the capital of the Afghan or Pathan, and afterwards of the Mogul, empire. It is the terminus of the East Indian and Rajputana railways, the former crossing the Jumna by a fine iron bridge.

Delhi is walled on three sides, has ten gates, and stands on high ground, the famous palace of Shah Jehan, now the fort, looking out over the river and a wide stretch of wooded and cultivated country. To the north, about a mile distant, rises the historic “ridge,” crowned with memorials of the Indian mutiny, and commanding a fine view of the city, the domes and minarets of which overtop the encircling groves.

The palace buildings comprise the cathedral-like entrance hall, the audience hall, and several lesser pavilions, covering in all an area of one thousand six hundred feet by three thousand two hundred feet, exclusive of gateways. The beautiful inlaid work and carving of these buildings are the admiration of the world, and is worthy of its famous inscription: “If there is a heaven on earth, it is this—it is this!”

In the heart of the city stands the Jama Masjid (“great mosque”), one of the largest and finest structures of the kind in India, which also owes its origin to Shah Jehan. Among the notable monuments in the neighborhood are the imperial tombs, including that of Hamayun, second of the Mogul dynasty; the old Kala Masjid, or black mosque; and the thirteenth century Kutab Minar, ten miles to the south, which is two hundred and thirty-eight feet high, and tapers gracefully from a diameter of forty-seven feet at the base to nine feet at the summit.

Modern Delhi is noted for its broad main streets, the chief being the Chandni Chauk, or Silver Street, with its high clock tower, and the institute and museum.

Delhi has a large trade in wheat and other produce, and its bazaars are noted for gold and silver work, precious stones, shawls, and costly fabrics.

Simla, since 1864 the summer headquarters of the British government in India, stands on the slopes (seven thousand feet) of the Himalayas, in a beautiful situation, one hundred and seventy miles north of Delhi. Its first house was built in 1819, and it was first visited officially by the Indian government in 1827. There are two vice-regal residences, handsome government buildings, and a fine town hall. Population sixteen thousand in winter, and considerably more in summer.

Calcutta, on the left bank of the Hughly, the largest and westernmost branch of the Ganges delta, is about eighty miles from the sea. The government buildings, Bishop’s College (now an engineering school), High Court, town hall, bank, museum, university, St. Paul’s cathedral, and many other English buildings have earned for it the name “City of Palaces.” The native quarters, though improved, are still squalid, the houses of mud or bamboo. An esplanade, numerous quays, an excellent water-supply, gas, and tramway services, add to the amenities. There are extensive dockyards, warehouses, ironworks, timber yards, and jute mills. Extensive railway and steamboat communications make it the chief emporium of commerce in Asia.

Bombay stands on an island, connected with the coast by a causeway, and has a magnificent harbor and noble docks. It is rapidly surpassing Calcutta in trade, and is one of the greatest of seaports; its position promises to make it the most important commercial center in the East, as it already is in the cotton trade of the world. It swarms with people of every clime, and its merchandise is mainly in the hands of the Parsees, the descendants of the ancient fire worshippers. It is the most English town in India. It came to England from Portugal as dowry with Catherine of Braganza, wife of Charles II., who leased it to the East India Company for fifty dollars a year. Its prosperity began when the Civil war in the United States afforded it an opening for its cotton.

Benares, the most sacred city of the Hindus, and an important town in the Northwest Provinces, is on the Ganges, four hundred and twenty miles by rail northwest of Calcutta. It presents the amazing array of one thousand seven hundred temples and mosques with towers and domes and minarets innumerable. The bank of the river is laid with continuous flights of steps whence the pilgrims bathe; but the city itself is narrow, crooked, crowded, and dirty. Many thousands of pilgrims visit it annually. It is a seat of Hindu learning; there is also a government college. The river is spanned here by a magnificent railway bridge. There is a large trade in country produce, English goods, jewelry, and gems; while its brass work “Benares ware,” is famous.

Agra, a city in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, is on the Jumna, one hundred and thirty-nine miles southeast of Delhi by rail, and eight hundred and forty-one miles northwest of Calcutta. The ancient walls embrace an area of eleven square miles, of which about one-half is now occupied. The houses are mostly built of red sandstone, and, on the whole, Agra is the handsomest city in upper India.

Some of the public buildings, monuments of the house of Timur, are on a scale of striking magnificence. Among these are the fortress built by Akbar, within the walls of which are the palace and audience hall of Shah Jehan, the Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque, and the Jama Masjid or Great Mosque.

Still more celebrated is the white marble Taj Mahal, situated without the city, about a mile to the east of the fort. This extraordinary and beautiful mausoleum was built by the Emperor Shah Jehan for himself and his favorite wife, who died in 1629, and is remarkable alike for the complexity and grace of the general design, and the elaborate perfection of the workmanship. In the center, on a raised platform, is the mausoleum, surmounted by a beautiful dome, with smaller domes at each corner, and four graceful minarets (one hundred and thirty-three feet high). Of British edifices the principal are the Government House, the Government College, three missionary colleges, the English church, and the barracks.

The climate, during the hot and rainy seasons (April to September), is very trying; but the average health of the city is equal to that of any other station in the United Provinces.

The principal articles of trade are cotton, tobacco, salt, grain, and sugar. There are manufactories of shoes, pipe stems, and gold lace, and of inlaid mosaic work, for which Agra is famous.

History.—It is impossible to speak positively as to the aboriginal prehistoric populations of India; probably the most primitive peoples now left—the Dravidian hill-tribes—represent waves of invasion from the north. The history of civilization in India may, however, be traced from the invasion—probably one thousand years or more B. C.—of the Aryan race from central Asia, a race of the Indo-Germanic type in physique and speech. Their language was Sanskrit, their religion and civilization that of the Vedas, or ancient Hindu scriptures.

Out of the union of the Aryans with the earlier inhabitants the modern races of India have sprung. Buddhism arose in India with the teaching of Budda about 500 B. C, and for a while superseded the Vedic faith, corrupted as it had been by the degraded aboriginal superstitions; and India was substantially Buddhist till the revival of Hinduism, in its modern or Brahmanic form (more idolatrous and superstitious than the ancient faith), in the sixth century A. D.

In 1001 A. D. came the first wave of Mohammedanism, and soon all India fell under Mohammedan domination, though the bulk of the people clung to the Hindu religion. By the beginning of the eighteenth century a new Hindu power, that of the Mahrattas, arose, and seriously weakened the Moslem emperor, the Grand Mogul. The Dutch, Portuguese, and French, as well as the British, established themselves in the empire; in the eighteenth century the French more than rivaled the British in power. But the power of the British East India Company, originally traders, became dominant after the battle of Plassey in 1757.

Gradually English power as represented by the company, its diplomatists, and its soldiers, extended over a great part of India, and the governors—Clive, Warren Hastings, Wellesley, Amherst, Bentinck, Dalhousie, Canning—consolidated what was really the empire of Great Britain in the East. Then in 1857 came the great mutiny, stamped out in blood, and the government was assumed by the British crown in 1858. British rule in India has been steadily consolidated, but no great annexation has since taken place, except that of Upper Burma in 1886.

After the mutiny, India settled down to a period of peace, broken only by the constant suspicion of Russian intrigue in Afghanistan. This led in 1878 to the second Afghan war. The Amir was deposed, and his successor promised to receive a British resident, who was in a short time murdered, as was also his escort. This resulted in the famous march of General Roberts from Kabul to Kandahar, and eventually an Amir who was favorable to the British was set up. This Amir reigned until 1901, and his successor remained friendly to the British.

Finally, in 1907, a convention between Russia and Britain was signed, and later an agreement as to the line of delimitation of their respective spheres of influence in Persia was arrived at in 1912. Quetta and the southeastern districts of Afghanistan were annexed after the second Afghan war, and the purchase of the Suez Canal was of great use in the defense of India. British supremacy over the Afghan tribes was also recognized.

After his coronation in 1911, George V. of Great Britain visited India and held a Coronation Durbar at the beginning of 1912 in India itself, this being the first visit of an English raj to the Indian empire, and the capital of India was officially proclaimed as Delhi.

Japan

JAPAN, an island empire off the east coast of Asia, separated from Siberia by the Sea of Japan. The name Japan is a corruption of Zipangu, itself a corruption of the Chinese pronunciation of the native name Nihon or Nippon (“Land of the Rising Sun”).

Japan comprises four large islands, Honshu (the Japanese mainland), Shikoku, Kiushu, and Yezo or Hakkaido; the Luchu Islands, Formosa, divided from China by the Formosa Channel; and Korea (annexed in 1910 and renamed Chosen). A small group of islands, Bonia, six hundred miles southeast of Tokio, also belongs to Japan.

The Kwantung province, including Port Arthur and Darien, was leased to Japan by Russia (with the consent of China) in 1905, while the southern portion of Sakhalin (ceded to Russia in 1875) became once more Japanese.

The empire includes also nearly four thousand small islands.

The islands comprising the Japanese Empire have been likened to the British Isles in their position relative to the Continent, the Sea of Japan and the Strait of Korea resembling the North Sea and Strait of Dover. In their general extent of surface the comparison also holds good. The three contiguous islands of Japan proper are, however, considerably larger than Great Britain, while the northern possession of Yezo is three thousand square miles larger than Ireland.

The empire with its dependencies comprises an area of 235,886 square miles, with a population of 67,142,798.

Surface Characteristics.—The islands are eminently volcanic, and eighteen of the summits are still active; the chief of these, Fuji-san, or Fuji-yama, the loftiest and most sacred mountain of Japan, about sixty miles from Tokio, has been dormant since 1707. Japan is also liable to frequent, and occasionally disastrous, earthquakes.

The country is very mountainous, and not more than one-sixth of its area is available for cultivation. The numerous ranges extend in directions parallel to the length of the group, giving varied and picturesque landscapes of hill and valley. Their irregular coast-line is indented with splendid natural harbors, such as the Bay of Yedo on the southeast coast; the beautiful “inland sea” of Japan, with its intricate channel between hundreds of islets, separates the island of Shikoku from the larger one of Hondo, and the enclosed Suwonada and Bugo Channel, divide the southwestern island of Kiushu from both of these.

Lakes and Rivers.—From the mountainous character of the long narrow islands the rivers are generally impetuous, and of small economic importance, except for irrigation. Among the most important may be noted the Yodo-gawa, which flows from the fiddle-shaped Lake Biwa, the largest fresh water expanse in Japan, thirty-five miles long, to the “inland sea;” the broad and rapid Ten-riu-gawa, or “River of the Heavenly Dragon,” which flows south from the central mountains of Nippon; and the Tone-gawa, which enters the Pacific, but sends a branch to the Bay of Yedo, which is crossed within the capital by the Nippon Bassi, or bridge of Japan, from which, as a starting point, all distances throughout the kingdom are measured.

Climate.—The islands of Japan have a climate that may be compared with that of South Britain. The extremes, however, are greater, summer being hotter, and winter colder, than in England, increasing to almost Siberian rigor in the north. June, July, and August form the Satkasi, or rainiest period; the autumn succeeding is the pleasantest and most genial season of the year. Hurricanes, storms, and fogs, are frequent in the seas round Japan, where warm and cold ocean currents also bring about great differences of sea temperature.

Products and Industries.—The islands have a very beautiful flora, including many ornamental plants. The great feature of the vegetation is the intermixture of tropical growths, such as the bamboo, palms, tree-ferns, and bananas, with those of temperate regions, the pine, oak, beech, chestnut and maple. Characteristic are the paper mulberry, the vegetable-wax tree, the camphor and lacquer trees. The cultivated crops are rice, maize, wheat, barley, tobacco, tea, and cotton.

Japan is also very rich in minerals. Gold, silver, and copper are especially abundant in the north, and coal and iron beds seem to extend throughout the group. Petroleum is also being produced in large quantities, especially in the Province of Echigo.

People.—With the exception of the wilds of Yezo, peopled by eighteen thousand Ainos, the Japanese islands are inhabited by a single race speaking various dialects of the same tongue. Probably the Japanese are the issue of the intermarriage of victorious Tartar settlers, who entered Japan from the Korean peninsula, with Malays in the south and Ainos in the main island. See Book of Races.

There are two prevailing religions in Japan—Shintoism, the indigenous faith; and Buddhism, introduced from China in 552 and still the dominant religion among the people. Francis Xavier introduced Christianity in 1549, and the Roman Catholic Church and the Greek Church both carry on a flourishing work in Japan. Of the Protestant missions there are also many actively at work.

In education, as well as in matters of religion, enormous changes and advances have been made in recent years. Education is in the lower grades free and compulsory. Secondary schools are state aided, and prepare for a three years’ course at the universities, which is largely devoted to the study of European languages. There are high schools for girls, and the technical and special schools are well attended. There are three State Universities, at Tokio, Kyoto, and Tohoku.

Production and Industry.—Agriculture is the chief occupation of the Japanese, and they are excellent and careful farmers. In the mechanical arts also they excel; especially in the use of metals, in the manufacture of porcelain and glass lacquered wares, and silk fabrics. The chief manufactures are silk and cotton, cotton yarn, matches, paper, glass, lacquer ware, porcelain, and bronze, and ship building is an important industry in the yards.

The chief exports are silk, cotton, yarns, rice, tea, fish, copper, matches, coal, camphor, straw plaits, porcelain, earthenware, lacquer-ware, and marine products.

The commercial development of Japan has of late been marvelous. There were five thousand nine hundred and eighty-five miles of railroad open in 1914, in addition to eight hundred and thirty-six miles open in Korea, while the South Manchurian Railway (China) is under Japanese control.

Government and Administration.—The government is an hereditary monarchy, the succession being now exclusively in the male line. The Cabinet consists of ten Ministers of State, presided over by a Minister President.

The Upper House, or House of Peers, consists of about three hundred and thirty members—male members of the royal house, life peers, peers elected either for life or for seven years, and other persons nominated by the emperor. The lower house, or House of Representatives, has three hundred and sixty-nine members, who serve for four years, elected by citizens paying taxes of not less than ten yen (five dollars) per annum. The first general election took place in 1890.

Penal and civil codes have been drafted on a European basis, and with a commercial code were published in 1890, and came into force in 1893.

Cities.—The capital of the Japanese Empire, Tôkiô, formerly called Yedo, is the residence of the emperor; population, 2,186,079. Other cities are: Osaka, 1,226,590; Kiôto, the ancient capital, 442,462; Nagoya, 378,231; Kōbe, 378,197; Yokohama, 394,303; Hiroshima, 142,763; Nagasaki, 176,480; Kanazawa, 110,994; Kure, 100,679. The chief ports are Yokohama, Kōbe, Osaka, Nagasaki, and Hakodate.

Tokio, or Tokei (“Eastern Capital”), is the chief city of the Japanese Empire. Until 1868, when the emperor removed his court thither from Kyōtō, it was known as Yedo (“Estuary Gate”). Its position at the mouth of the rivers which drain the largest plain of Japan, fits it to be a national center. The lower portion of the city, which is flat and intersected by canals, stretches between the two parks of Ueno (north) and Shiba (south), famous for their shrines. Midway rises the castle or palace, a fine structure in Japanese style, furnished in European manner, and lighted with electricity, within a double ring of high walls and broad moats. In spring-time the city is gay with plum and cherry blossoms. The immense enclosures, formerly inhabited by the nobles and their retainers, are gradually disappearing, and handsome modern buildings in brick for the use of the various government departments are taking their place. Of the fifteen city divisions the northern, Hongo and Kanda, are mostly educational, and contain the buildings of the Imperial University, Law School and other institutions. The student population is astonishingly large. The seaward districts of Nihonbashi, Kyobashi, and Asakusa are industrial and commercial, while the government offices are located in Kojimachi ku.

Yokohama is the port of entry (seventeen miles off), and a great harbor scheme to cost twenty million dollars was planned in 1911-1912. The city is subject to disastrous fires; that of April, 1892, burned four thousand houses in one morning. Tokio has three railway termini and a system of electric railways. Almost every phase of modern civilization is to be found within its vast area.

History.—Before 500 A. D. Japanese history is mere legend. Buddhism was introduced from Korea in 552; and in the next century Chinese civilization strongly influenced Japan. About the end of the twelfth century, the weakness of the emperor led the military head (Shogun) to assume a large share of the supreme power, and he handed it on to his descendants. Hence the statement often made that Japan had a Mikado or spiritual emperor who reigned but did not govern, and a “Tycoon” (Shogun) who did govern though he paid homage to the nominal sovereign. The military caste was now dominant until the reign of Iyeyasu (c. 1600), whose descendants reigned till 1868.

Total exclusion of foreigners was the rule till 1543, when the Portuguese effected a settlement; but in 1624 all foreigners were expelled and Christianity interdicted. The policy of isolation was rigidly pursued from 1638 till 1853, when Commodore Perry of the United States Navy steamed into a Japanese harbor, and effected a treaty with the Shogun. Soon sixteen other nations followed the American example, and free ports were opened to foreign commerce.

In 1867-1868 a sharp civil war broke the feudal power of the daimios or territorial magnates, suppressed the Shogunate, and unified the authority under the Mikado. In a very few years Japanese students took a place of their own in western science; and how thoroughly the Japanese had laid to heart what they had learned abroad in the military and naval arts was partially revealed by the swift and complete success of the war with China about Korea in 1894, and more impressively by their amazing triumph over the great military empire of Russia, in 1904-1905, whom they defeated in a succession of bloody battles, took Port Arthur, and utterly destroyed the Russian fleet. By the peace that followed the Russians not only evacuated southern Manchuria, but recognized Japan’s preponderance in Korea, and gave up to Japan the “leases” of Port Arthur and the Liao-tung peninsula Russia had wrested from China.

A conspiracy against the life of the emperor was discovered in September, 1910. The same year saw the passing of a bill enabling foreigners to own land in Japan proper, under certain restrictions. But the principal event of 1910 in Japanese history was the formal annexation of Korea, the treaty with the emperor of Korea being promulgated on August 29. According to the new commercial treaty with the United States, ratified by the Senate on February 24, 1911, the clause in the old treaty was omitted, wherein each side reserved the right of regulating immigration from one country to the other. In 1910 and 1911 important agreements were also made with Russia with special reference to Manchuria.

Japan entered the European war on August 23, 1914, on the side of the Entente Allies, and immediately began the blockade and siege of the German colony at Kiao-Chow on the Shantung promontory of China. In November, 1915, the present emperor, Yoshihito, was crowned.

The Colonial Divisions of the World

The following tables show how the colonies of the world have been divided among the various nations:

COLONIES IN AFRICA

Colony Governing Country
and
Form of Government Area
Sq. M. Population

Algeria French Colony 184,474 4,739,300

Algerian Sahara French Possession 123,500 50,000

Angola Portuguese Possession 484,800 4,119,000

Ascension British Crown Colony 35 430

Azores and Madeira Islands Portuguese Province 1,510 407,002

Basutoland British Crown Colony 10,293 264,100

Bechuanaland British Protectorate 286,200 100,500

British East Africa British Protectorate 1,000,000 2,500,000

British Central Africa British Protectorate 42,217 900,615

British South Africa (Rhodesia) British Protectorate 425,728 1,075,000

Canary Islands Spanish Province 2,808 334,521

Cape Colony British Protectorate 276,775 2,433,000

Cape Verde Islands Portuguese Province 1,480 147,424

Ceuta Spanish Province 13 5,090

Comoro Islands French Protectorate 620 47,000

Congo Inland Straits Belgian Protectorate 900,000 30,000,000

Dahomey French Possession 60,000 1,000,000

Egypt Turkish Tributary 400,000 9,734,405

Eritrea, etc. Italian Possession 42,000 329,516

Fernando Po, etc. Spanish Possession 850 23,709

French Congo French Possession 1,160,000 10,000,000

Gambia British Crown Colony 69 13,500

German East Africa German Protectorate 384,180 8,000,000

German Southwest Africa German Protectorate 322,450 200,000

Gold Coast British Crown Colony 40,000 1,500,000

Guinea, French French Possession 95,000 2,200,000

Guinea, Portuguese Portuguese Possession 4,440 820,000

Ivory Coast French Possession 116,000 2,000,000

Kamerun German Protectorate 191,130 3,500,000

Lagos British Crown Colony 3,460 85,600

Madagascar French Possession 227,950 2,505,240

Mauritius, etc. British Crown Colony 729 378,040

Mayotte French Possession 140 11,640

Military Ter’s French Possession 700,000 4,000,000

Portuguese East Africa Portuguese Possession 301,000 3,120,000

Natal and Zululand British Institutions 34,019 902,365

Nigeria British Protectorate 400,000 25,000,000

Nossi-Be French Possession 130 9,500

Orange River British Possession 48,330 207,500

Princes and St. Thomas Islands Portuguese Possession 360 42,103

Reunion French Possession 966 173,200

Rio de Oro and Adrar Spanish Possession 243,000 100,000

Sahara French Possession 1,544,000 2,550,000

St. Helena British Crown Colony 47 3,342

St. Marie French Possession 64 7,670

Senegal French Possession 80,000 1,800,000

Seychelles British Crown Colony 148 19,343

Sierra Leone British Crown Colony 4,000 77,000

Somali Coast, British British Protectorate 75,000 ...

Somali Coast, French French Possession 45,000 200,000

Somali Coast, Italian Italian Possession 100,000 400,000

Togoland German Protectorate 33,700 900,000

Transvaal Colony British Possession 119,140 1,094,100

Tripoli Turkish Tributary 398,000 800,000

Tristanda Cuhna British Crown Colony 45 100

Tunis French Protectorate 51,000 1,900,000

Uganda British Protectorate 140,000 3,000,000

Zanzibar and Pemba British Protectorate 1,020 200,000

COLONIES IN ASIA

Colony Governing Country
and
Form of Government Area
Sq. M. Population

Aden and Perim British Crown Colony 80 41,222

Anam French Protectorate 52,100 6,124,000

Bahrein Islands British Protectorate 273 68,000

Baluchistan British Protectorate 130,000 500,000

Bokhara Russian Dependency 92,000 1,250,000

Cambodia French Protectorate 37,400 1,500,000

Ceylon British Institutions 25,365 3,578,333

Cochin China French Possession 22,000 2,968,600

Cypress British Administration 3,584 227,900

East Turkestan Chinese Dependency 550,340 1,200,000

Formosa Japanese Dependency 13,455 2,745,000

Goa Portuguese Possession 1,390 494,836

Hong Kong British Crown Colony 407 386,159

India, British British Crown Colony 1,087,404 231,898,807

India, French French Possession 196 273,000

India, Portuguese Portuguese Possession 1,558 572,290

Jungaria Chinese Dependency 147,950 600,000

Kiauchau Bay Japanese Possession 200 60,000

Khiva Russian Possession 22,320 800,000

Kwang Tung Russian Possession ... ...

Macao Portuguese Possession 4 78,627

Malay Federated States British Protectorate 27,500 512,342

Manchuria Chinese Dependency 363,610 8,500,000

Mongolia Chinese Dependency 1,367,600 2,580,000

Pescadores Islands Japanese Dependency 85 52,400

Samos Turkish Tributary 180 54,830

Sikkim British Protectorate 2,818 30,458

Straits Settlements British Crown Colony 1,472 572,249

Tibet Chinese Dependency 463,200 6,430,000

Tonquin and Laos French Possession 144,400 7,641,900

COLONIES IN EUROPE

Colony Governing Country
and
Form of Government Area
Sq. M. Population

Bosnia and Herzegovina Austro-Hungarian Protectorate 23,262 1,568,092

Crete Turkish Suzerainty 3,326 303,543

Faroe Islands Danish Colony 512 15,230

Gibraltar British Crown Colony 2 27,460

Iceland Danish Province 39,756 78,470

Malta and Gozo British Institutions 117 188,141

COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA

Colony Governing Country
and
Form of Government Area
Sq. M. Population

Alaska United States Territory 599,446 63,592

Bahamas British Institutions 4,470 54,358

Barbadoes British Institutions 166 195,600

Bermudas British Institutions 20 17,535

Canada British Dependency 3,048,710 5,371,315

Curacao, etc. Dutch Possession 403 52,301

Danish West Indies United States Possession 138 32,786

Greenland Danish Possession 46,740 10,516

Guadeloupe, etc. French Possession 688 182,110

Honduras, British British Crown Colony 7,560 37,650

Leeward Islands British Institutions 700 127,440

Jamaica and Turks Islands British Crown Colony 4,370 771,900

Martinique French Possession 380 203,780

Newfoundland and Labrador British Dependency 162,200 217,100

Porto Rico United States Possession 3,606 953,243

St. Pierre and Miquelon French Possession 92 6,250

Trinidad and Tobago British Crown Colony 1,868 279,700

Windward Islands British Institutions 500 162,800

COLONIES IN SOUTH AMERICA

Colony Governing Country
and
Form of Government Area
Sq. M. Population

Falkland Islands British Crown Colony 7,500 2,076

Guiana, British British Institutions 104,000 294,000

Guiana, French French Colony 30,500 32,910

Guiana, Dutch Dutch Possession 46,060 68,968

COLONIES IN OCEANIA

Colony Governing Country
and
Form of Government Area
Sq. M. Population

Bismarck Archipelago German Possession 20,000 188,000

Borneo, British N. British Protectorate 31,106 175,000

Borneo, Dutch Dutch Possession 212,737 1,180,578

Caroline Islands and Palaos German Possession 810 42,000

Celebes Islands Dutch Possession 71,470 1,197,860

Fiji and Rotumah Islands British Crown Colony 7,740 120,950

Guam United States Possession 150 9,000

Hawaii United States Territory 6,449 154,000

Java and Madura Dutch Possession 50,554 28,745,698

Kaiser Wilhelm Land German Protectorate 70,000 110,000

Marianne Islands German Possession 250 2,000

Marquesas Islands French Possession 480 4,280

Marshall Islands German Possession 150 13,000

New Caledonia French Possession 7,650 51,415

New Guinea, British British Crown Colony 90,540 350,000

New South Wales British Dependency 310,370 1,397,700

New Guinea, Dutch Dutch Possession 195,653 599,208

New Zealand British Dependency 104,470 787,660

Philippine Islands United States Possession 119,542 8,000,000

Queensland British Dependency 668,500 510,520

Samoan Islands (Savaii and Upolu German Possession 1,000 29,100

Samoan Islands (Tutuila and Manua United States Possession 79 5,800

Society Islands, etc. French Possession 1,520 29,000

Solomon Islands German Possession 4,200 45,000

South Australia British Dependency 903,700 364,800

Sumatra Dutch Possession 161,612 3,209,067

Tasmania British Dependency 26,215 174,230

Timor, Dutch Dutch Possession 44,374 978,267

Timor, Portuguese Portuguese Possession 7,458 300,000

Victoria British Dependency 87,890 1,208,710

West Australia British Dependency 975,920 194,800

Note.—Practically all the German colonial possessions throughout the world are at this date (1917) in military possession of the Entente Allies, and will be so held pending the terms of the final treaty of peace at the close of the present European war.

The Great Foreign Wars of Universal History

In the various wars the victorious contestants are indicated in bold face type, as are also the victorious leaders and the battles won by them. The figures prefixed show with which of the warring parties the leaders are identified, and who were the victors in the battles named. Naval battles are shown in italics. Consult the Table of Foreign Battles for details concerning the more important military actions.

TROJAN WAR (Partly mythical).—1193-1184 B. C.

(1) Greeks vs. (2) Trojans.

Cause: Greeks avenge the abduction of Helen of Troy by Paris.

Leaders: (1) Agamemnon, Achilles, Ulysses; (2) Hector.

Chief Action: (1) Siege of Troy.

Results: Capture and destruction of Troy, or Ilium.

FIRST MESSENIAN WAR.—743-724 B. C.

(1) Spartans vs. (2) Messenians.

Cause: Spartans covet Messenian land.

Leader: (2) Aristodemus.

Chief Action: (1) Siege of Mount Ithome.

Results: Messenians become tributary of Sparta and their land is, in part, confiscated.

SECOND MESSENIAN WAR.—645-628 B. C.

(1) Spartans vs. (2) Messenians.

Cause: Spartan oppression causes Messenian revolt.

Leaders: (1) Tyrtaeus (poet); (2) Aristomenes.

Chief Action: (1) Eira.

Results: Greater part of Messenians flee to Sicily. Those remaining become helots (Spartan serfs).

FIRST SACRED WAR.—600-590 B. C.

(1) Amphictyonic League vs. (2) Crisæans.

Cause: People of the city of Crisa (port of Delphi) oppress pilgrims to the oracle.

Leader: (1) Cleisthenes of Sicyon.

Chief Action: (1) Siege of Crisa.

Results: For the first time Greek cities join in an effective league. Crisa destroyed.

PERSIAN WARS.—500-479 B. C.

(1) Persians vs. (2) Greeks.

Cause: Aid given by Athens and Eretria to revolting Ionic Greek cities, leading to burning of Sardis, 497 B. C.

a. First Persian Expedition—493 B. C.

Leader: (1) Mardonius.

Chief Action: (1) Three hundred ships lost by storm off Mt. Athos.

Results: Partial success against Macedonians and Thracians. Continued plans of Darius for subjugating Greece.

b. Second Persian Expedition—490 B. C.

Leaders: Datis, (1) Artaphernes; (2) Miltiades.

Chief Actions: (1) Naxos, Eretria; (2) Marathon (490 B. C.)

Results: The Athenians are victorious and the Persians retreat to Asia Minor.

c. Third Persian Expedition—481-480 B. C.

Xerxes desires to avenge his father’s defeat.

Leaders: (1) Xerxes; (2) Leonidas, Eurybiades, Themistocles.

Chief Actions: (1) Thermopylæ, Salamis, Artemisium, Athens burned.

Results: Xerxes retreats to Persia after his defeat at Salamis.

d. Fourth Persian Expedition—479 B. C.

War continued by troops which Xerxes left behind.

Leaders: (1) Mardonius; (2) Pausanias, Aristides.

Chief Actions: (1) Athens laid waste; (2) Platæa, Mycale.

Results: All Persian invasions and attempts to subjugate Greece cease.

THIRD MESSENIAN WAR.—464-456 B. C.

(1) Helots of Messenian descent vs. (2) Spartans.

Cause: Confusion following earthquake gives Helots courage to revolt.

Chief Action: (2) Mt. Ithome besieged. Sparta sent home her Athenian allies.

Results: Messenians capitulate and are allowed to leave the Peloponnesus never to return. Athens retaliates by settling them at Naupactus.

PELOPONNESIAN WAR.—431-404 B. C.

(1) Sparta and Allies vs. (2) Athens and Allies.

a. First Period—431-421 B. C.

Cause: Envy of Sparta and her allies at Athens’ growing power and influence. Discontent among some of the Athenian subject states.

Leaders: (1) Archidamus, Agis, Brasidas; (2) Demosthenes, Cleon, Nicias.

Chief Actions: (1) Invasion of Attica, Plague in Attica, Siege of Platæa, Delium, Amphipolis. (2) Mitylene, Sphacteria.

Results: By the peace of Nicias (421 B. C.) both sides are to restore conquests and prisoners but terms are imperfectly carried out.

b. Second Period or Decelean War—413-404 B. C.

Cause: Sparta takes advantage of Athens’ weakness, resulting from the failure of the expedition to Syracuse, to renew the war.

Leaders: Alcibiades serves Athens, Sparta and Athens in turn. (1) Lysander; (2) Conon.

Chief Actions: (1) Decelea occupied. Attica ravaged. Many subject states of Athens revolt. Notium, Ægospotami, Surrender of Athens; (2) Abydos, Cyzicus, Arginusæ.

Results: The Spartans tear down the walls of Piræus and Athens. Athens loses her foreign possessions and fleet but becomes an independent ally of Sparta. Sparta is now supreme in Greece.

GAULS’ INVASION OF ITALY.—390 B. C.

(1) Gauls vs. (2) Romans.

Cause: Roman people refuse to surrender Roman ambassadors who had aided the Etruscans against the Gauls.

Leaders: (2) M. Manlius, Capitolinus, Camillus.

Chief Actions: (1) Battle of the Allia. Sack of Rome.

Results: Gauls retire on payment of ransom. The overthrow of Rome had no permanent effect on her fortunes.

SECOND SACRED WAR.—c. 355-346 B. C.

(1) Phocians vs. (2) Amphictyons.

Cause: Phocians seize and plunder Delphi because of fine imposed by Amphictyonic Council.

Leaders: (1) Onomarchus; (2) Philip of Macedon.

Results: Thebans and Thessalians invite aid of Philip against Phocians and he takes their place in the Amphictyonic Council.

THIRD SACRED WAR.—339-338 B. C.

(1) Macedonians vs. (2) Athenians, Thebans.

Cause: Amphictyons call in Philip to punish Amphissa, whereupon he seizes Elatea, thereby threatening Athens. Athenians aroused by Demosthenes.

Leaders: (1) Philip of Macedon.

Chief Actions: Chæronea.

Results: Philip gains leadership of Greece. Henceforth Greece is under the control of Macedonia.

SAMNITE WARS.—343-290 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Samnites.

a. First Samnite War—343-341 B. C.

Cause: A duel between two rival races for supremacy in Italy. Campanians implore aid of Romans against Samnites who are laying waste their territories in revenge for aid given the Sidicini of Teanum.

Leaders: (1) Marcus Valerius Corvus, P. Decius Mus.

Results: Capua is retained by the Romans and Teanum surrendered to Samnites.

b. Second or Great Samnite War—326-304 B. C.

Cause: The occupation of Palaeopolis by the Samnites. In 311 B. C. the Etruscan cities joined in the war against Rome.

Leaders: (1) Papirius Cursor; (2) Fabius Rullianus Gavius Pontius.

Chief Actions: (1) Fregellæ, Sutrium, Lake Vadimonis, Bovianum; (2) Caudine Forks.

Results: Samnites sue for peace. They resign all their conquests but retain their independence within their native mountains.

c. Third Samnite War—298-290 B. C.

Cause: While Romans are engaged with the Gauls the Samnites enter Lucania and refuse to withdraw.

Leaders: (1) Q. Fabius Rullianus, P. Decius Mus (son); (2) Gellius Egnatius, Gavius Pontius.

Chief Action: (1) Sentinum.

Result: Samnites defeated but not crushed.

WARS OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT IN ASIA—334-328 B. C.

(1) Greeks vs. (2) Persians, Egyptians, Bactrians, Indians (Hindus).

Cause: A war of conquest, a scientific expedition and a journey of discovery.

Leaders: (1) Alexander the Great, Nearchus; (2) Darius III., Memnon.

Chief Actions: (1) Granicus, Issus, Siege of Tyre, Arbela.

Results: Alexander conquers Asia from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus River and from the Arabian Sea to the Jaxartes River and begins the Hellenizing of the East. Founds Alexandria in Egypt. The empire breaks up after Alexander’s death 323 B. C.

ROMAN WAR WITH TARENTUM AND EPIRUS.—282-272 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Tarentum and King Pyrrhus.

Cause: The people of Tarentum capture Roman ships and insult Roman embassy. They call in King Pyrrhus of Epirus.

Leaders: (1) Manius Curius; (2) Pyrrhus.

Chief Actions: (1) Beneventum, Tarentum; (2) Heraclea, Asculum.

Results: Pyrrhus returns to Epirus and his allies one by one submit to Rome, which is left supreme from Straits of Messina to the River Arno and the headland of Ancona.

FIRST PUNIC WAR.—264-241 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Carthaginians.

Causes: A struggle for supremacy in Sicily. Pretext, Campanian mercenaries, having seized Messina, appeal to Rome for aid.

Leaders: (1) C. Duilius, M. Atilius Regulus, P. Claudius Pulcher, C. Lutatius Catulus; (2) Hamilcar Barca, Himilco, Hanno.

Chief Actions: (1) Agrigentum, Mylæ, Ecnomus, Panormus, Ægadian Islands; (2) Siege of Lilybæum, Drepana.

Results: Carthaginians surrender Sicily and pay a war indemnity. Carthage retains the Western Mediterranean and Rome is launched on her career of conquest.

SECOND PUNIC WAR.—218-201 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Carthaginians.

Causes: A duel to the death between East and West. Pretext, Hannibal’s attacks on Saguntum in Spain.

Leaders: (1) Q. Fabius Maximus, Publius Scipio, P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus; (2) Hannibal, Hasdrubal.

Chief Actions: (1) Syracuse, Capua, Metaurus, Zama; (2) Ticinus, Trebia, Trasimene, Cannæ.

Results: Hannibal succumbs as a result of the loyalty of Italy. Carthage forced to give up Spain, to pay an annual tribute, to surrender her fleet, and to agree not to go to war without the permission of Rome.

FOUR MACEDONIAN WARS.—214-146 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Greeks.

Cause: Alliance of Philip, King of Macedon with Carthage.

Leaders: (1) T. Quinctius Flaminius, L. Aemilius Paulus; (2) Philip of Macedon, Perseus.

Chief Actions: (1) Cynoscephalæ, Pydna.

Result: Macedonia becomes a Roman province.

THIRD PUNIC WAR—149-146 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Carthaginians.

Cause: War of Carthage with Massinissa gives Rome the pretext for completing the destruction of Carthage.

Leaders: (1) Scipio, Æmilianus, Africanus.

Chief Actions: (1) Siege of Carthage.

Result: Carthage destroyed. Most of her territory becomes a Roman province of Africa.

JUGURTHINE WAR.—111-105 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Jugurtha of Numidia.

Cause: Jugurtha, disregarding intervention of Rome, captures Citra and massacres male population.

Leaders: (1) C. Marius; (2) Jugurtha.

Chief Actions: (1) Muthul, Citra.

Results: Numidia divided. The war reveals the corruption and incapacity of the Senatorial government of Rome.

MARSIAN OR SOCIAL WAR.—90-88 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Italian Allies.

Cause: Italian socii (allies) are denied the right of Roman citizenship.

Leader: (1) C. Marius, Sulla.

Chief Action: (1) Asculum.

Result: Italians form a Federal republic, Italia, with capital at Corfinium. Roman citizenship granted to all Italian residents.

FIRST ROMAN CIVIL WAR—88-82 B. C.

(1) Optimates vs. (2) Democrats.

Cause: Reform measures of Sulpicius are carried by means of violence. Command of army of Asia is transferred from Sulla to Marius.

Leaders: (1) Sulla, Pompey; (2) Marius, Cinna, Sertorius, Carbo.

Chief Actions: Sacriportis, Colline, Gate, Sulla’s proscriptions; (2) Marius’s Reign of Terror.

Result: Sulla is appointed dictator.

THREE MITHRIDATIC WARS—88-63 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Pontines and Armenians.

Causes: Ambition of Mithridates VI. and Roman interference.

Leaders: (1) Sulla, Lucullus, Pompey; (2) Mithridates (Pontus), Tigranus (Armenia).

Chief Actions: (1) Chæronea, Orchomenus, Cabira, Tigranocerta; (2) Massacre of Italians in Asia.

Results: Reorganization of the East; Pontus, Syria and Cilicia become Roman provinces.

GLADIATORIAL AND THIRD SERVILE WAR.—73-71 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. Revolted Gladiators and Slaves.

Cause: Uprising of a band of gladiators, escaped from Capua and joined by many slaves of southern Italy.

Leaders: (1) Crassus, Pompey; (2) Spartacus.

Chief Actions: (1) Silarus; (2) Mt. Vesuvius.

Results: Revolt put down with cruelty, six thousand crucified.

GALLIC WAR—58-51 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Tribes of Gaul.

Cause: Desire to extend the Roman empire.

Leaders: (1) Julius Cæsar; (2) Vercingetorix, Ariovistus.

Chief Action: (1) Siege of Alesia.

Results: Conquest and organization of Gaul by Cæsar. Gauls Romanized; boundaries of the old world enlarged (Cæsar’s expedition to Britain 55-54 B. C.); means acquired for changing Rome into a monarchy.

SECOND ROMAN CIVIL WAR.—49-31 B. C.

First period, 49-45 B. C.

(1) Followers of Cæsar (democrats) vs. (2) Followers of Pompey (republican aristocrats).

Cause: Struggle for mastery between Cæsar, conqueror of Gaul, and Pompey, conqueror of the East.

Leaders: (1) Cæsar; (2) Pompey and his sons.

Chief Actions: (1) “Crossing the Rubicon,” Pharsalus, Thapsus, Munda.

Result: Cæsar is appointed dictator for life. He is the founder of the new monarchy at Rome.

Second period—43-42 B. C.

(1) Friends of Cæsar (Second Triumvirate) vs. (2) Cæsar’s Assassins.

Cause: Assassination of Cæsar, 44 B. C.

Leaders: (1) Antony, Octavius, Lepidus; (2) Brutus, Cassius, Sextus Pompey.

Chief Actions: (1) New proscription (Murder of Cicero), Philippi.

Result: Brutus and Cassius, defeated, commit suicide.

Third period—31-30 B. C.

(1) Octavius vs. (2) Antony.

Cause: A continued struggle for supreme power.

Leaders: (1) Octavius; (2) Antony, Cleopatra.

Chief Actions: (1) Actium.

Results: Triumph of Octavius, grand nephew of Julius Cæsar. End of the republic and beginning of the empire.

JEWISH WAR—A. D. 66-70.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Jews.

Cause: Revolt of the Jews against Rome.

Leader: (1) Titus, son of Emperor Vespasian.

Chief Action: (1) Siege of Jerusalem.

Result: Destruction of Jerusalem and the temple.

DACIAN WARS.—86-90, 101-102, 105-107.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Dacians.

Cause: Rome desires to extend her conquests.

Leaders: (1) Domitian, Trajan; (2) Decebalus.

Results: Dacia is made a Roman province. Roman conquest and empire reaches its highest point.

CIVIL WARS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.—193-284.

Causes: Contests for the throne among rival generals (barrack emperors).

Result: Reorganization of empire by Diocletian (284-305).

WARS OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT FOR THE EMPIRE.—310-323.

(1) Constantine vs. (2) Others, Augusti.

Causes: Confusion following abdication of Diocletian.

Leaders: (1) Constantine; (2) Maxentius, Maximinus, Licinius.

Chief Action: (1) Turin.

Results: Constantine becomes sole ruler of Roman empire. He redistricts the empire, moves the capital to Constantinople and recognizes Christianity.

INVASION OF ROMAN EMPIRE BY NORTHERN BARBARIANS—375-493.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Teutons and (Huns), Teutonic Tribes; Visigoths, Vandals, Suevi, Franks, Burgundians, Ostrogoths, Alemanni, Jutes, Saxons, Angles, Lombards.

Causes: The Huns (Mongolians) press upon the Teutons, who are forced to seek new lands within the boundaries of the Roman empire.

Leaders: (1) Valens, Stilicho Ætius, Leo (bishop of Rome); (2) Alaric; Walja (Visigoth); Genseric (Vandal); Hengist and Horsa (Saxons); Attila (Hun); Theodoric the Great (Ostrogoth).

Chief Actions: (1) Battle near Chalons (451); (2) Adrianople, Sack of Rome.

Results: Visigothic kingdom of Tolosa (Toulouse) (415-507). Vandals settle in Africa (429-534). Carthage (439).

Burgundians occupy Rhone Valley (443).

Angles, Saxons and Jutes invade England (449), Huns and Ostrogoths ravage Gaul.

Huns destroy Aquileia and Venice founded (452).

Vandals plunder Rome (455).

Odoacer gains ascendency in Rome. The fall of the Roman empire (476).

Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy (493-555).

Overthrow of the Roman empire in the West, though it continued in the East until 1453. This blending of Roman and Teutonic elements under the influence of the Christian religion and what remained of classic civilization formed the civilization of the middle ages.

WARS OF JUSTINIAN—533-534.

(1) Eastern Empire vs. (2) Vandals in Africa and (3) Ostrogoths in Italy—535-555.

Cause: Desire to restore West to Eastern empire.

Leaders: (1) Belisarius, Narses; (3) Vitiges Totila.

Chief Action: (1) Battle of Taginae (552).

Results: Destruction of Vandal power in Africa and of the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy. Exarchate established at Ravenna.

WARS OF THE FRANKS—486-814.

(1) Franks vs. (2) Neighboring Peoples.

Causes: Desire to extend the limits of Frankish territory and to ward off attacks from without.

Leaders: (1) Clovis (486-511), Charles Martel (814-741), Pepin the Short (751-768), Charlemagne (768-814).

Chief Actions: (1) Soissons (486), Clovis conquers Alemanni and becomes a Catholic Christian (496), Battle of Tours (732), Conquest of Burgundy (534), Charlemagne conquers Lombards (774-776), Saxons (772-804), Bavarians (788), Avars (791), Northern Spain (778).

Results: Franks become leading power in the West and revive the Western Empire. (Christmas day, 800).

HEPTARCHIC WARS IN ENGLAND—588-828.

Causes: Struggle for supremacy among the seven Teutonic kingdoms.

Leaders: Ethelbert (Kent), Edwin (Northumbria), Offa (Mercia), Egbert (Wessex).

Chief Events: The supremacy was successively held by kings of Kent, Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex, Maserfield (642), Ellandun (825).

Result: All England at last united under Egbert, king of Wessex (802-837).

SARACEN OR MOHAMMEDAN WARS—632-1492.

Cause: Saracens are ambitious to found a world wide Mohammedan empire.

Leaders: (1) Omar, Amru, Hassan, Mousa, Tarik, Abderrahman, Mohammed II., Abdallah; (2) Yezdegerd (Persia), Leo the Isaurian, Charles Martel, Constantine, Palæologus, Ferdinand of Aragon.

Chief Actions: (1) Yarmouk (Syria), Damascus Jerusalem Cadesia (Persia), Alexandria, Carthage (697), Xeres (Spain), Granada, Toledo; (2) Constantinople (716), Tours, Jerusalem, Las Navas de Tolosa (1212).

(1) Constantinople (1453).

(2) Granada (1492).

Results: The Saracens attempted to conquer and convert Europe at three different times between 710 and 1492. Their power began to wane from the latter date.

NORTHMEN INVASIONS—Ninth and Tenth Centuries.

(1) Northmen vs. (2) People of Western and Southern Europe.

Causes: Opportunity for plunder and conquest and later the driving out of adventurous spirits by the organization of settled kingdoms in the north.

Leaders: (1) Hastings, Rolf, Sweyn, Canute; (2) Alfred (England), Odo (France).

Chief Events: In England—Treaty of Wedmore, Massacre of Danes (1002).

In France: Siege of Paris. Grant of Normandy to Rolf (977).

Results: The Northmen are the last swarm of Teutonic conquerors. They readily assimilate civilization and infuse new energy into western Europe.

NORMAN CONQUEST—1066.

(1) Normans vs. (2) English.

Cause: William, duke of Normandy wishes to increase his territory and his power.

Leaders: (1) William the Conqueror; (2) Harold, king of England.

Chief Action: (1) Hastings.

Results: The king received added power and a modified feudalism introduced into England. Southern Italy and Sicily were also conquered by bands of Normans in the eleventh century and the kingdom of Naples founded.

CRUSADES—1096-1270.

(1) European Christians vs. (2) Turks and Moslems.

First Crusade—1096-1099.

Causes: The appeal of the eastern emperor for aid, the desire to recover the Holy Sepulcher from the infidels, the love of adventure, and hope of gain.

Leaders: (1) Peter the Hermit, Godfrey of Bouillon, Bohemond of Tarentum, Robert of Normandy.

Chief Actions: (1) Nicæa, Antioch, Jerusalem.

Results: Jerusalem is subdued and a transient kingdom is founded at Jerusalem.

Second Crusade—1147-1149.

Cause: The conquest of Edessa by the Moslems threatens Jerusalem. Preaching of Saint Bernard.

Leaders: (1) Conrad III. of Germany, Louis VII. of France.

Chief Action: Unsuccessful attack on Damascus.

Results: Armies almost annihilated by hunger, disease and the enemy.

Third Crusade—1189-1192.

Cause: Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin.

Leaders: Richard I. of England, Philip Augustus of France, Frederick Barbarossa of Germany; (2) Saladin.

Chief Actions: (1) Acre.

Results: The Latin Christians secure by treaty the privilege of visiting the tomb of Christ for three years without molestation.

Fourth Crusade—1201-1204.

(1) Crusaders vs. (2) Eastern Empire.

Causes: Appeals of Innocent III. Through influence of the Venetians the Crusaders turn aside to attack Constantinople.

Leaders: (1) Dandolo, Doge of Venice, Baldwin of Flanders.

Chief Action: (1) Sack of Constantinople.

Results: Division of eastern empire. The Venetians get the monopoly of trade and most of the islands and coast lands of the Ægean and Ionian seas. The remainder is erected into a feudal state, the Latin empire.

Children’s Crusade (legendary)—1212.

Causes: Ignorant enthusiasm aroused by visions and miraculous tales.

Leader: A shepherd lad, Stephen of Vendome.

Chief Events: Thousands of children, women and peasants march from France and Germany to the Mediterranean.

Results: Only a small number return home; the others perish on the way or are sold into slavery by French merchants.

Fifth Crusade—1228-1229.

Cause: Vow of Frederick II. of Germany. He goes under pope’s excommunication.

Leader: (1) Frederick II.

Results: Frederick, by treaty with the sultan, secures a truce for ten years and the restoration of Bethlehem, Nazareth and Jerusalem to the Christians; Jerusalem is finally lost in 1244.

Sixth Crusade—1248-1254.

Cause: Louis IX. of France starts on a crusade via Egypt.

Leaders: (1) Louis IX., later St. Louis.

Chief Actions: (1) Damietta; (2) Expedition to Cairo.

Result: Louis is captured in battle and released on payment of heavy ransom and evacuation of Damietta.

Last, Seventh Crusade—1270-1291.

Causes: Louis IX. goes against Mohammedans of Tunis, Prince Edward of England to Syria.

Leader: (1) Louis IX., Prince Edward.

Chief Events: Death of Louis by the plague; (2) Acre, last Christian stronghold in Syria, falls (1291).

Results: The results of the crusades were development of commerce, introduction of new customs, products and manufactures, increase in freedom of lower classes, especially townsmen, and the power of the crown.

WAR OF THE EMPIRE—1158-1183.

(1) Empire vs. (2) Italian Communes.

Cause: Frederick Barbarossa’s attempt to restore imperial rights over the cities of northern Italy.

Leaders: (1) Frederick I. Barbarossa; (2) Pope Alexander III.

Chief Actions: (1) Milan (1162); (2) Legnano (1176).

Results: By treaty of Constance (1183) the cities of Lombardy are recognized as practically self-governing republics, the barest overlordship remaining to the emperor.

WARS OF THE BARONS IN ENGLAND—1215-1265.

(1) Barons vs. (2) Kings John and Henry III.

Causes: Misgovernment of John and Henry III.

Leaders: (1) Stephen Langton, Simon de Montfort;

(2) King John, Prince Edward, later Edward I.

Chief Events: (1) Signing of Magna Charta, Lewes, Simon de Montfort’s Parliament; (2) Evesham.

Results: The beginning of constitutional monarchy—henceforth the king is below the law, not above it.

HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR—1337-1453.

(1) English vs. (2) French.

Causes: The conflict of interests of the French and English kings in Guienne, Flanders and Scotland. Edward III. advances claim by descent to the throne of France.

Leaders: (1) Edward III., Edward the Black Prince, Prince Henry V., Duke of Bedford; (2) Du Guesclin, Charles V., Joan of Arc.

Chief Actions: (1) Crécy, Calais, Poitiers, Peace of Bretigny, Agincourt, Treaty of Troyes; (2) Orleans (1429), Castillon (1453).

Results: England loses all her land in France except Calais. During the earlier stage of this war about one-third of the population of western Europe perished from the Black Death.

AUSTRO-SWISS WAR—1315-1388.

(1) House of Hapsburg vs. (2) Swiss Confederation.

Causes: Hapsburgs assert feudal rights over the peasants of the Swiss cantons.

Leaders: (1) Leopold III. of Austria; (2) Arnold von Winkelried.

Chief Actions: (2) Morgarten, Sempach, Näfels.

Result: Independence of Swiss secured.

HUSSITE WAR—1419-1436.

(1) Bohemian Followers of John Huss vs. (2) Catholic Europe.

Causes: Execution of John Huss, the Bohemian religious reformer, by the council of Constance.

Leaders: (1) Ziska, Procopius the Great; (2) Emperor Sigismund, Cardinal Cesarini, Frederick of Brandenburg.

Chief Events: Revolt of Prague. Four crusades repulsed.

Results: After the overthrow of the radical Hussites (Taborites) by the conservative Hussites (Calixtines) in the battle of Lipan a Catholic reaction set in which culminated in 1462 with the revocation of the compacts made by the Council of Basel with the Hussites.

WARS OF THE ROSES—1455-1485.

(1) Yorkists (White Rose); vs (2) Lancastrians (Red Rose).

Causes: Misgovernment under Henry VI. encourages Richard, duke of York, representing the second line of descent from Edward III., to claim the throne against Henry VII. (third line).

Leaders: (1) Richard, duke of York, Edward IV., Richard III.; (2) Duke of Somerset, Queen Margaret, Earl of Warwick (“King-maker”), first a Yorkish and then a Lancastrian, Henry VII.

Chief Actions: (1) St. Albans, Northampton, Mortimer’s Cross, Towton, Barnet, Tewkesbury; (2) Wakefield, Bosworth Field.

Results: Henry Tudor (Lancastrian in the female line) secures throne as Henry VII. By his marriage with Elizabeth of York he unites the warring factions and establishes an almost despotic rule in England.

WARS FOR CONTROL OF ITALY—1494-1529.

(1) French vs. (2) Spanish.

Causes: Conflicting claims to the throne of Naples and to the duchy of Milan.

Leaders: (1) Charles VIII., Louis XII., Bayard, Francis I.; (2) Ferdinand of Aragon, Charles V., duke of Bourbon, Fürstenburg.

Chief Actions: Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. (1494), League Cambray (1508), Holy League (1511).

(1) Marignano; (2) Pavia.

Results: All the leading powers of western Europe were drawn into this struggle. By the peace of Cambraes (1529), France renounced her claims to Italy. One effect of these wars was to tie the hands of Charles V. so as to prevent his putting down Lutheranism in Germany.

SCHMALKALDIC WAR—1546-1547.

(1) Charles V. (2) League of Schmalkalden.

Causes: Charles V. attempts to crush Protestantism in Germany.

Leaders: (1) Emperor Charles V., Duke Maurice of Saxony; (2) John Frederic, Elector of Saxony, Philip, Landgrave of Hesse.

Chief Action: (1) Mühlberg.

Results: Protestantism temporarily crushed. Its recovery in 1552 was followed by the religious peace of Augsburg 1555.

RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE—1562-1598.

(1) Catholics vs. (2) Huguenots (Protestants).

Cause: Massacre of Huguenots at Vassy is a signal for uprising.

Leaders: (1) Duke of Guise, Henry III.; (2) Catherine de Medici, Conde, Coligny, Henry of Navarre (Henry IV.)

Chief Events: (1) Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572); (2) Siege of Paris, Ivry (1590), Henry of Navarre becomes a Catholic (1593). Riots of Image Breakers. Council of Blood.

Results: By the edict of Nantes (1598) the Huguenots are given equal political rights with Catholics, limited freedom of worship, the possession of La Rochelle and other strong places as cities of refuge.

WAR OF LIBERATION IN THE NETHERLANDS—1568-1648.

(1) Spain vs. (2) Revolted provinces in the Netherlands.

Causes: Political and religious tyranny of Spain. Duke of Alva enforces the Inquisition.

Leaders: (1) Duke of Alva, Alexander of Parma; (2) William of Orange, Jan van Oldenbarneveldt, Maurice of Nassau.

Chief Actions: (1) Mechlin, Haarlem; (2) Brill, Siege of Leyden, “Spanish Fury” at Antwerp, Pacification of Ghent (1576), Union of Utrecht (1579), Declaration of Independence (1581).

Results: By the Peace of Westphalia (1648) the independence of the seven northern provinces, the United Netherlands, is recognized. The ten southern provinces continue under Spanish rule until 1713.

THIRTY YEARS’ WAR—1618-1648.

(1) German Protestants and their Allies, England, Holland, Sweden and France vs. (2) Imperial German Catholics and their Allies, Spain, Italy.

Causes: Disputes over interpretation of peace of Augsburg (religious and political disputes leading to the revolt of Bohemia). The war passes through four phases: (1) Bohemian-Palatinate, (2) Danish, (3) Swedish, (4) Swedish-French.

Leaders: (1) Frederick, Elector Palatine, Mansfield, Gustavus Adolphus (Sweden), Turenne and Conde (France); (2) Emperor Ferdinand II., Maximilian of Bavaria, Tilly, Wallenstein.

Chief Actions: (1) Stralsund, Edict of Restitution, Breitenfeld, Lützen; (2) White Hill, Magdeburg, Nōrdlingen.

Results: This war is closed by the peace of Westphalia. Alsace thereby goes to France, Switzerland is separated from the empire and the Palatinate is divided. The secularized lands of northern Germany are secured to Protestantism, while leaving to Catholicism Austria, Bohemia and Bavaria. Germany is left desolate.

CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND—1642-1649.

(1) Royalists (Cavaliers) vs. (2) Parliamentarians (Roundheads) allied with Scots (to 1647).

Causes: Charles I. attempts to force a personal government on England. His disputes with Parliament covered (1) taxation, (2) privileges of Parliament, (3) religion, (4) control of the militia.

Leaders: (1) Charles I., Prince Rupert, Montrose; (2) Cromwell, Essex, Fairfax, Leslie.

Chief Actions: (2) Marston Moor, Naseby, Preston.

Results: The second civil war (1648) determines the army leaders to bring Charles I. to trial and execution (1649). A Commonwealth was then established without King or House of Lords but with Oliver Cromwell as Protector (1653 to 1659). The son of Charles I. restored in 1660 as Charles II.

FIRST THREE WARS OF LOUIS XIV.—1667-1697.

(1) France vs. a. Spanish Netherlands; b. Dutch republic; c. Grand Alliance (German States, England, Holland).

Causes: Louis XIV.’s passion for fame and desire to increase French territory in Europe.

Leaders: (1) Turenne, Conde, Luxembourg; (2) William III., De Ruyter.

Chief Actions: (1) Ravaging of Palatinate, Steenkirke, Neerwinden; (2) Sasbach, La Hogue, Namur.

Result: Extension of boundaries of France to the northeast.

SPANISH SUCCESSION (in America), QUEEN ANNE’S WAR—1701-1714.

(1) France, Spain and Bavaria vs. (2) Austria, England, Holland, Portugal, Savoy.

Causes: Acceptance by Louis XIV. of the bequest of the Spanish dominion to his grandson, Philip of Anjou, in violation of the partition treaty to which he had consented.

Leaders: (1) Vendome Villars, Leopold of Dessau; (2) Duke of Marlborough, Eugene of Savoy, Heinsius.

Chief Actions: (2) Gibraltar, Blenheim, Ramillies, Turin, Oudenarde, Malplaquet.

Results: By the peace of Utrecht in 1713 and that of Rastadt in 1714 Spain and the Indies go to Philip of Anjou; Naples, Milan, Sardinia and former Spanish Netherlands to the Austrians. England receives Newfoundland, Acadia and Hudson Bay Territory from France and Gibraltar from Spain.

NORTHERN WAR—1700-1721.

(1) Sweden vs. (2) Russia, Poland, Denmark, Saxony.

Causes: Peter the Great joins Poland, Denmark and Saxony for the purpose of despoiling Sweden, the first power of the north, of her Baltic ports.

Leaders: (1) Charles XII.; (2) Peter the Great (Russia), Augustus II. of Saxony.

Chief Actions: (1) Invasion of Denmark, Narva, Invasion of Saxony; (2) Pultava.

Results: By the peace of Nystadt (1721) Sweden cedes large territories to Russia. Russia takes the place of Sweden as the foremost power of the north.

WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION—1740-1748.

(1) Austria, supported by Hungary, Bohemia, England, Holland and Saxony vs. (2) Prussia, France, Spain, Bavaria.

Causes: When Maria Theresa succeeded her father, Charles IV. of Austria, Frederick the Great of Prussia seized Silesia. This precipitated a struggle for Austrian territories. At the death of Charles VI. of Austria the right of Maria Theresa to the throne is contested chiefly by Frederick the Great of Prussia, who seizes Silesia.

Leaders: (1) Maria Theresa, George II. of England, Charles of Lorraine; (2) Frederick the Great of Prussia, Emperor Charles VII., Schwerin.

Chief Actions: (1) Dettingen; (2) Mollwitz, Chotusitz, Prague, Fontenoy, Hohenfriedburg, Soor.

Results: By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle Silesia is secured to Prussia, which state now becomes a great European power. This war is one phase of the long rivalry between France and Great Britain for sea power and dominion in America and India.

SEVEN YEARS’ WAR, OR THIRD SILESIAN WAR;

In America: FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR—1756-1763.

(1) England, Prussia vs. (2) France, Austria, Russia and Spain, Sweden.

Causes: Maria Theresa wishes to regain Silesia. Hostilities between French and English in America and India. George II.’s concern for his ancestral territory of Hanover.

Leaders: (1) Frederick the Great, Duke of Cumberland, Wolfe (America), Robert Clive (India); (2) Daun (Austria), Charles of Lorraine, Montcalm (America).

Chief Actions: (1) Dresden, Rossbach, Leuthen, Zorndorf, Minden; (2) Kolin, Hohkirchen, Kunersdorf.

In America: (1) Louisburg, Fort Duquesne, Quebec.

In India: (1) Plassey, Wandewash.

Results: The peace of Paris (1763) gives England Canada, the supremacy in India and certain islands, especially in the West Indies. Prussia retains Silesia. This war really founded the British empire which is based on sea power and colonial dominion.

WARS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION—1792-1802.

(1) Revolutionary France vs. (2) Coalitions of England, Austria, Prussia, Holland and Spain. The Empire, Russia.

a. First Coalition—1792-1797.

Causes: Intrigues of emigrés; horror of Europe at the execution of the king; French offer of aid to revolutionists in other countries.

Leaders: (1) Dumouriez, Kellermann, Jourdan, Hoche, Pichegru, Napoleon Bonaparte, Moreau; (2) Duke of Brunswick, Coburg, Charles of Austria.

Chief Actions: (1) Valmy, Occupation of Nice and Savoy, Jemmapes, Execution of king (1793), Annexation of Belgium, Fleurus, Lodi, Siege of Mantua; (2) Mainz, Neerwinden, Kaiserslautern, Wurzburg.

Results: By peace of Campo Formio (1797) the French frontier is advanced to the Rhine, Venice is given to Austria and the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics founded in Italy under French control.

b. Bonaparte’s Egyptian Expedition—1798-1799.

Causes: Bonaparte aims to prepare the way to attack Great Britain’s power in India and dreams of rivaling early conquerors of the east.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon Bonaparte; (2) Nelson (England).

Chief Actions: (1) Battle of the Pyramids; (2) Battle of the Nile at Aboukir, Acre.

Results: Nelson’s victory removes a serious menace to British power in India, cuts off the French in Egypt and deprives France of communication with its best troops and ablest general.

c. Second Coalition—1799-1802.

Causes: The mistakes of the government of the Directory and the prestige of Nelson’s victory enable Great Britain to form the Second Coalition.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon, Joubert, Moreau; (2) Suvaroff, Melas, Archduke John.

Chief Actions: (1) Marengo, Hohenlinden; Napoleon’s passage of the Alps (Great St. Bernard); (2) Novi.

Results: The Peace of Presburg ends the contest between France and Austria. Much harsher terms are imposed on Austria. Peace of Luneville with Austria (1801); Peace of Amiens with England (1802); Surrender of England’s conquests except Trinidad and Ceylon; Malta to be restored to Knights of Malta.

NAPOLEONIC WARS—1802-1815.

(1) France under Napoleon vs. (2) European Powers led by England.

a. Third Coalition—1805.

Causes: Neither England nor France regarded the peace of Amiens as more than a truce. Among the many causes of friction leading to renewal of war, chief place was given to England’s refusal to restore Malta.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon; (2) Nelson, Mack, Alexander I. (Russia), Kutusoff.

Chief Actions: (1) Ulm, Austerlitz; (2) Trafalgar.

Results: As a result of his brilliant successes, Napoleon, in 1802 becomes consul for life and in 1804 took the title emperor of the French. Confirmation of treaty of Campo Formio, with the recognition of Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine and Ligurian republics.

b. (Fourth) War with Prussia and Russia—1806-1807.

Chief Actions: (1) Double battle of Jena and Auerstädt, Berlin decree, Eylau (indecisive), Friedland.

Results: By the treaties of Tilsit (1807) Russia recognizes Napoleon’s relatives as kings of Naples, Holland and Westphalia and consents to the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine and the grand duchy of Warsaw under Napoleon’s control. Alexander and Napoleon combine to dominate Europe. Prussia cedes territories containing half her population.

c. Peninsular War—1808-1814.

Causes: Rebellion of Spain against Joseph Bonaparte, whom Napoleon had placed on the throne.

Leaders: (1) Soult, Massena; (2) Duke of Wellington.

Chief Actions: (1) Corunna; (2) Talavera, Lines of Torres Vedras, Albuera, Salamanca, Vittoria, Toulouse.

Results: French expelled from the peninsula.

d. Fifth War with Austria—1809.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon; (2) Archduke Charles.

Chief Actions: (1) Aspern,, Wagram.

Results: Austria cedes thirty-two thousand square miles of territory, containing three and one-half million inhabitants.

e. Invasion of Russia—1812.

Cause: Alexander’s refusal to enforce Napoleon’s continental system, and other causes of dispute.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon, Marshal Ney; (2) Kutusoff, Barclay de Tolly.

Chief Actions: (1) Smolensk, Borodino. Burning of Moscow, Retreat from Moscow, Passage of the Beresina.

Result: Less than twenty thousand of the half million men in Napoleon’s army recrossed the Russian frontier.

f. War of Liberation—1813-1814.

Causes: The disastrous Russian campaign, together with the steady progress of the British in the peninsular war encouraged the oppressed states of Germany to rise against Napoleon’s tyranny, Prussia taking the lead.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon,, Ney, Macdonald; (2) Frederick, William III., Francis I., Alexander I., Schwarzenberg, Blücher, Bernadotte.

Chief Actions: (1) Lützen, Bautzen, Dresden; (2) Dennewitz, Leipzig, (Battle of the Nations). Allies enter Paris.

Results: Driven from Russia in 1812, from Germany in 1813, Napoleon in 1814 was forced to surrender France itself. By the treaty of Fontainebleau he was given the Island of Elba and an annual revenue of two million francs.

g. Waterloo Campaign—1815.

Causes: Quarrels among the allies and dissatisfaction of French with Louis XVIII. tempt Napoleon to return from Elba.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon, Ney; (2) Wellington, Blücher.

Chief Actions: Napoleon lands at Cannes (March 1); enters Paris March 20.

(1) Ligny; (2) Quatre Bras, Waterloo (June 18).

Results: Waterloo marks the final downfall of Napoleon. He is transported to the island of St. Helena, where he died in 1821. In the Congress of Vienna the allies reconstructed Europe, restoring in general the legitimate rulers and erecting barriers against democratic movements and liberal ideas.

WAR OF GRECIAN INDEPENDENCE—1821-1829.

(1) Greeks, aided by England, Russia and France vs. (2) Turks.

Causes: Revived feeling of Greek nationality, stimulated by a widespread secret society working for a restoration of a Greek empire at Constantinople.

Leaders: (1) Ypsilanti, Diebitsch (Russia), Codrington (England), Byron (England); (2) Ibrahim, Pasha.

Chief Actions: Massacre of Greeks at Chios.

(1) Navarino, Adrianople; (2) Missolonghi.

Results: The treaty of Adrianople, 1829, compelled Turkey to acknowledge the independence of Greece, which chose as king the Bavarian prince Otto I.

CRIMEAN WAR—1854-1856.

(1) Russia vs. (2) Turkey aided by Great Britain, France and Sardinia.

Causes: The question of the political status and future of the lands of the Turkish empire. Immediate cause, the claim of Russia to a protectorate over all Greek Christians living under the sultan’s rule.

Leaders: (1) Mentchikoff, Gortchakoff; (2) Canrobert, Pelissier (France), Raglan, Simpson (England).

Chief Actions: (1) Balaclava; (2) Alma, Siege of Sebastopol, Inkermann.

Results: In the peace of Paris (1856) Russia’s claim to a protectorate is disallowed, the Danube is opened to navigation and the Black Sea is closed to war vessels of all powers.

SEPOY MUTINY—1857-1858.

(1) Sepoys vs. (2) English.

Causes: Uneasiness created by the rapid progress of British ways and rule causes a revolt of native Sepoy troops of India. Immediate cause the rumor that cartridges furnished troops were greased with a mixture of hog and beef fat—the one animal an object of loathing to Mohammedans, the other of religious worship to the Hindu.

Leaders: (1) Nana Sahib; (2) Nicholson, Havelock, Campbell.

Chief Actions: Mutiny of Sepoys at Meerut.

(1) Massacre at Cawnpore; (2) Delhi, Relief of Lucknow.

Results: Following the suppression of the mutiny the charter of the East India company is revoked and India passes directly under the crown, a secretary of state for India being added to the British ministry.

WAR OF ITALIAN LIBERATION—1859.

(1) Sardinia-Piedmont and France vs. (2) Austria.

Causes: Since 1848 Sardinia-Piedmont had been the center of the movement for Italian unity. Following promises of aid from Napoleon III. Cavour traps Austria into declaring war over the question of disarmament.

Leaders: (1) Victor Emmanuel, Napoleon III., Garibaldi; (2) Francis Joseph II., Gyulay.

Chief Actions: (1) Montebello, Magenta, Solferino. Peace signed at Zurich, November 10, 1859.

Results: By this war Victor Emmanuel gained Lombardy. In 1860 Tuscany, Parma, Modena and the papal legations were added. In 1861 he gained Sicily and Naples, together with the title King of Italy. Venetia followed as a result of alliance with Prussia in 1866 and the addition of Rome in 1871 completed the unification of Italy.

DANISH WAR—1864.

(1) Austria and Prussia vs. (2) Denmark.

Causes: Incorporation of the duchy of Schleswig with Denmark in violation of treaty of 1852.

Leaders: (1) Gablenz (Austria), Prince Frederick, Charles (Prussia); (2) Dermeza, Gerlach.

Chief Actions: (1) Invasion of Jutland, Storming of Düppel.

Results: Denmark gives up Schleswig-Holstein, which is jointly administered by Austria and Prussia.

AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR—1866.

(1) Prussia with smaller North German States and Italy vs. (2) Austria, Hanover, Saxony, and South German States.

Causes: Friction over Schleswig-Holstein enables Bismarck to force Austria into a war for supremacy in Germany.

Leaders: (1) William I., Prince Frederick, Charles, Moltke, Victor Emmanuel; (2) Benedek, Archduke Albert, Gablenz, Prince Charles of Bavaria.

Chief Actions: In Bohemia: (1) Soor, Koniggrätz or Sadowa; (2) Trautenau. In the West: (1) Aschaffenburg; (2) Langensala. In Italy: (2) Custozza, Lissa.

Results: Closed with the peace of Prague, August 23, 1866, which authorized the re-establishment of the federated German states, excluding Austria; Austria ceded Venetia to Italy, and her rights in Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia. Hanover, Hesse, Nassau are also annexed to Prussia.

FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR—1870-1871.

(1) France vs. (2) Prussia supported by all German States.

Causes: Jealousy of France at Prussian gains and friction over Hohenzollern candidacy for the throne of Spain. Bismarck’s falsification of the “Ems dispatch” tricked France into a declaration of war.

Leaders: Napoleon III., MacMahon, Bazaine; (2) William I., Moltke, Prince Frederick Charles, Crown Prince Frederic William.

Chief Actions: (1) Saarbrucken; (2) Weissenberg, Wörth, Vionville, Gravelotte, Sedan, Capitulation of Metz, Orleans, Capitulation of Paris.

Results: Closed in 1871 with the treaty of Versailles with the following results: (1) The French military power was destroyed; (2) the western frontier of Germany was rendered secure; (3) The German empire was established; (4) Germany acquired Alsace and Lorraine. In France Napoleon III. is deposed and the Third Republic established, 1870.

RUSSO-TURKISH WAR—1877-1878.

(1) Russia vs. (2) Turkey.

Causes: Turkish misgovernment and revolts in her Christian subject provinces, which were barbarously put down (“Bulgarian atrocities”) arouse all Europe but Russia alone declares war.

Leaders: (1) Grand Duke Nicholas, Gurka, Grand Duke Michael, Alexander II.; (2) Suleiman Pasha, Osman Pasha, Mukhitar Pasha.

Chief Actions: (1) Passages of the Danube at Shitova, Shipka Pass, Plevna, Storm of Kars.

Results: By the peace of San Stefano as revised in the congress of the powers at Berlin, Montenegro, Servia and Roumania become independent; Bulgaria remains tributary but receives a Christian prince; Russia obtains large indemnity and part of Armenia and also Bessarabia.

CHINESE-JAPANESE WAR—1894-1895.

(1) Japan vs. (2) China.

Causes: Rival claims to suzerainty over Korea.

Leaders: (1) Ito, Yamagata, Oyama, Nogi; (2) Tso, Yeh, Wei.

Chief Actions: Yalu River, Port Arthur, Wei-hai-wei, Niuchwang.

Results: Treaty of Shimonoseki, signed April 17, 1895, removed Korea from Chinese influence; ceded Formosa and the Pescadores to Japan, and awarded to the latter an indemnity of $180,000,000.

SOUTH AFRICAN OR BOER WAR—1899-1902.

(1) Great Britain vs. (2) Transvaal, Orange Free State.

Causes: Resistance by the Boers to the British form of government in the Transvaal.

Leaders: (1) Sir George White Buller, Methuen, Roberts, Kitchener, French; (2) Cronje, Botha, De Wet, Delarey.

Chief Actions: (1) Siege of Ladysmith, Paardeberg; (2) Colenso, Spion Kop, Vaal Krantz, Magersfontein.

Result: Boers surrendered May 31, 1902; are granted the right of self-government under British sovereignty, and united with other self-governing British colonies in South Africa, in 1910, to form the Union of South Africa.

RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR—1904-1905.

(1) Japan vs. (2) Russia.

Causes: Russian encroachments in Manchuria, and their fortification of Port Arthur.

Leaders: (1) Togo, Kuroki, Oku, Nodzu, Oyama, Nogi; (2) Kuropatkin, Alexieff, Makaroff, Stoessel, Stakelberg, Linievitch.

Chief Actions: (1) Port Arthur and Chemulpo, Vladivostok, Yalu River, Dalny, Siege of Port Arthur, Mukden, Sea of Japan.

Results: Closed September 5, 1905, by treaty of Portsmouth by which Korea passes under control of Japan, China regains Manchuria, and Japan is granted important railroad rights.

BALKAN WAR—1912-1913.

(1) Montenegro, Bulgaria, Servia and Greece vs. (2) Turkey.

Causes: Discontent with Turkish rule in Macedonia.

Leaders: (1) Savoff, Dimitrieff, Putnik, Constantine; (2) Nazim Pasha, Mukhtar Pasha, Abdullah Pasha.

Chief Actions: (1) Kirk Kilisseh, Lule Burgas, Monastir.

Results: Turkey appealed to the powers, November 3, 1912, for intervention, and an armistice was signed December 3, 1912, ending one of the shortest and most sanguinary wars in history. The treaty of peace was signed May 30, 1913.

(2) Servia, Greece, Roumania, Turkey vs. Bulgaria.

Causes: Disputes over the division of Macedonia.

Chief Actions: Mainly astounding atrocities and the re-occupation of Adrianople by Turkey.

Results: Reorganization of the Balkan states. Albania was made independent under an international commission of control; Crete was ceded to Greece; Macedonia was divided among Greece, Servia, and Bulgaria; and Roumania gained a strip from the northwest of Bulgaria. On September 17, 1913, an agreement between Bulgaria and Turkey provided that the latter retain Adrianople, Kirk Kilisseh, and Dimotika. September 28 the treaty between Bulgaria and Turkey was signed at Constantinople.

EUROPEAN WAR—1914-1917.

(1) Entente Allies (Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Belgium, Servia, Montenegro, Roumania, Portugal, Japan) vs. (2) Teutonic Allies (Germany, Austro-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria).

Causes: (1) The immediate occasion of this great conflict was the murder of the Crown Prince and Crown Princess of the Austro-Hungarian empire, on June 28, 1914, at Sarajevo, Bosnia, through the alleged instigation of a Servian revolutionary society, called the Narodna Odbrana, which had for its purpose the disrupting of the Austro-Hungarian empire, particularly those parts inhabited largely by Servians and other Slavic races, followed by a demand on the part of the Austro-Hungarian government that Servia suppress the criminal organization and permit the former to co-operate in the inquiry as to the accomplices on Servian territory in the murders of the Prince and Princess. This demand was refused by Servia, which immediately received the support of Russia, France and Great Britain, while Austria-Hungary received the support of Germany, and, later, of Turkey.

(2) The underlying causes were the following:

(a) The policy of Russia (popularly known as Pan-Slavism), an age-long political creed of Russian ambition, to dominate the Balkan countries and extend her dominions to the Bosphorus, the Ægean and the Adriatic.

(b) The ambition of France to regain Alsace-Lorraine, lost to her by the Franco-Prussian war.

(c) The determination of Great Britain to check the growth of Germany, politically, industrially, and especially commercially.

(3) More remote causes, and more specious ones, are alleged to be:

(a) The European political doctrine of the “Balance of Power,” which was the outgrowth of the Napoleonic wars, and received its first stamp of approval at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which settled the important boundaries of the map of Europe for more than half a century afterward. Subsequently, the “great powers” of Europe assumed the point of view that any acquisition of power, territory or population by any one of them entitled all the others to compensation; so that the relative strength and importance might not be disturbed. This rule has been applied to every important war since Napoleon’s time, and any threatened disturbance of this “balance” has always had in it the germ of a general conflict. Hence arose the historic “alliances,” known as the Triple Alliance, on the one hand, and the Triple Entente, comprising France, Russia and Great Britain, on the other.

(b) Militarism, so-called, with its attendant jealousies and obstacles to social and economic reforms, and which might be said to be the direct fruits of the “balance of power” doctrine, as is also the doctrine of the “guaranteed neutrality” of certain small countries of Europe, which astute European diplomacy created for the purpose of “buffer” states.

Military Leaders: (1) Kitchener, French, Haig, Joffre, Grand Duke Nicholas, Kouropatkin, Brusiloff, Admirals Fisher and Jellicoe; (2) Emperor William, Hindenburg, Mackensen, Kluck, Falkenhayn, Archduke Frederick, Hoetzendorf, Crown Prince Frederick William, Admiral Tirpitz, Crown Prince Rupprecht, Enver Pasha.

Chief Theaters of Action: (1) Belgium; (2) Northern France; (3) Poland; (4) Dardanelles; (5) Servia and Balkans; (6) Roumania; (7) Austro-Italian Front; (8) Lithuania; (9) North Sea and Inlets; (10) Mediterranean; (11) German Colonial Possessions throughout the world.

Results: Except for the loss of Germany’s Colonial Possessions, the results of the war to date (1917) largely preponderate in favor of the Teutonic Allies—the land campaigns being almost overwhelmingly in their favor. (See further Great Battles of the World.)

Chronology of Great Events:

1914

June 28.—Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and the Duchess of Hohenberg at Sarajevo, Bosnia, by Servian student.

July 28.—Austria declares war on Servia, and hostilities commence, after Germany and Austria refuse England’s invitation to a conference.

August 1.—Germany formally declares war on Russia, and troops are ordered mobilized.

France mobilizes.

August 3.—Germany declares war on France. German troops enter Belgium.

August 4.—War declared by England on Germany.

August 6.—Austria declares war against Russia.

August 9.—Servia declares war on Germany.

August 11.—Montenegro declares war on Germany.

August 12.—France declares war on Austria-Hungary.

August 12.—England declares war on Austria.

August 23.—Japan in state of war with Germany.

August 25.—Austria declares war on Japan.

August 29.—Austria declares war on Belgium.

August 30.—Paris prepares for a siege.

September 5.—England, France and Russia agree not to treat for peace separately.

October 30.—Russia declares state of war exists with Turkey.

November 5.—Great Britain officially announces state of war with Turkey.

Servia severs diplomatic relations with Turkey.

1915

February 17.—Germans begin submarine campaign by sinking British collier without warning.

February 24.—Britain closes Irish and North channels to all navigation.

March 1.—Great Britain declares virtual blockade of German coast.

March 15.—British council order prohibits all traffic to and from Germany.

May 23.—Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary.

October 14.—Bulgaria declares war on Servia.

1916

August 27.—Italy declares war on Germany.

Roumania entered the war on the side of the allies.

October 11.—Upon demand of Great Britain and France the entire Greek fleet and sea-coast forts were turned over to the allies or dismantled.

December 7.—David Lloyd George accepted British post of Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury.

December 8.—Roumanian army trapped in Prahova Valley, surrendered to General von Mackensen’s forces.

December 12.—Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg announced to the Reichstag that Germany and her allies proposed to enter forthwith into peace negotiations.

1917

February.—The chief occurrences in the opening months of this year were the blockade declared by Germany against the Entente Allies, and the announcement of unrestricted submarine warfare upon neutral shipping to the nations composing that alliance. This course was justified by the German government as a retaliation against the starvation blockade instituted by Great Britain and her allies.

Great American and Foreign Battles.

This table includes those battles of decisive or far-reaching importance upon the destinies of the contestants. The dates are according to the Old Style, or Julian, calendar down to 1582; after that date, according to the New Style, or Gregorian, calendar. The victors in the various battles are printed in bold-face type. Details of minor American battles will be found in connection with the Outline Tables of American History. †Naval battles. *Indecisive results.

Name of Battle; Approximate Location; Date Contesting Nations or Parties Results and Marked Features of the Contest

Abensberg (ä´bens-berg), Bavaria, April 20, 1809 French and Bavarians vs. Austrians About 90,000 engaged on each side.

Aboukir (ä-bōō-kêr´), Battle of the Nile, Egypt, August 1, 1798 English vs. French Nelson cut off Napoleon’s return to Europe.

Aboukir, Egypt, July 25, 1799 French vs. Turks Two-thirds of Turkish troops killed.

† Abydos (ȧ-bī´dos), Hellespont, B. C. 411 Athenians vs. Peloponnesians ...

Acragas (ak´ra-gas), Siege of, Sicily, B. C. 406 Carthaginians vs. Greeks The citizens evacuated the fortress.

Acre (ä´ker or ā´ker), Siege of, Syria, 1189-1191 Christians vs. Saracens Richard the Lion Hearted won renown by this siege.

Acre, Siege of, Syria, March 17, 1799 Turks vs. French ...

† Actium (ak´shi-um), Greece, September 2, B. C. 31 Augustus vs. Antony At the critical moment Antony and Cleopatra sail away.

Adowa (ä´dō-wä), Northeast Africa, March 1, 1896 Ethiopians vs. Italians Italians routed with enormous loss.

Adrianople (ad-ri-an-ō´pl), Thrace, July 3, 323 Constantine vs. Licinius Constantine gained empire.

Adrianople, Thrace, 378 Visigoths vs. Romans Emperor Valens defeated and slain.

Adwalton (ad´wal-ton) Moor, England, January 30, 1643 Royalists vs. Parliamentarians ...

Ægadian Islands (ē-gā´di-an), Sicily, B. C. 241 Romans vs. Carthaginians This victory put an end to the first Punic war.

† Ægospotami (ē-gos-pot´a-mī), Thrace, B. C. 405 Spartans vs. Athenians Virtually ended Peloponnesian war.

Aghrim (ô´grim), Ireland, July 12, 1691 William III. vs. James II. Irish savagely slaughtered.

Agincourt (ȧ-zhan-kōōr); E. (aj´in-kört), France, October 25, 1415 English vs. French Great victory for Henry V.

Agnadello (ä-nyä-del´lō), Italy, May 14, 1509 French vs. Venetians One of the most disastrous battles in the history of Venice.

Agrigentum (ag-ri-jen´tum), Siege of, Sicily, B. C. 262 Romans vs. Carthaginians ...

Alamo (ä´lȧ-mō), Storming of the, Texas, U. S., February 22, 1836 Mexicans vs. Texans Survivors put to the sword.

Albuera (äl-bwā´rā), Spain, May 16, 1811 British vs. French Heavy losses on both sides.

Aleppo (ä-lep´ō), Syria, 638 Moslems vs. Syrians Last serious resistance in Syria to the invading Moslems.

Alexandria (ä-leks-än´dri-ä), Siege of, Egypt, 638 Moslems vs. Egyptians Left Moslems masters of Egypt.

Alexandria, Bombardment of, Egypt, July 11-12, 1882 English vs. Arabi Pasha Forts totally destroyed. English occupy Egypt.

Algiers (al-jērz´), Bombardment of, Algeria, 1816 English and Dutch vs. Dey of Algeria Dey agreed to total abolition of Christian slavery in his dominion.

Allia (al´i-ä), Italy, B. C. 390 Brennus and his Gauls vs. Romans Rome left defenseless.

Alma (äl´ma), Crimea, September 20, 1854 English and French vs. Russians British carried heights at the point of the bayonet.

Almansa (äl-män´sä), Spain, April 25, 1707 French vs. British and Portuguese Spain lost to the allies.

Amphipolis (am-fip´ō-lis), Siege of, Thrace, B. C. 422 Spartans vs. Athenians Both Brasidas and Cleon fell.

Anaquito (ä-nä-kē´tō), Peru, 1546 Pizarro vs. Viceroy Menez Government of Peru fell into Pizzaro’s hands.

Angora (an-gō´rȧ), Asia Minor, 1402 Tartars vs. Turks Tamerlane said to have had eight hundred thousand men.

Antietam (an-tē´tam), Maryland, U. S., September 17, 1862 * Confederates vs. U. S. Heavy losses on both sides. Lee’s army greatly outnumbered.

Antioch, Siege of, Syria, 1097-1098 Crusaders vs. Saracens Defenders massacred.

Antwerp (ant´wirp), Belgium, 1576 Spaniards vs. Walloons Massacre of inhabitants known as the “Spanish Fury.”

Appomattox (ap-pō-mat´oks), Virginia, U. S., April 9, 1865 U. S. vs. Confederates Marked the close of the American Civil war, and surrender of General Lee.

Aquae Sextiae (ā´kwe seks´ti-ē) Gaul, B. C. 102 Romans vs. Teutons Caius Marius annihilates the barbarian army.

Arbela (är-bē´lä), Persia, B. C. 331 Macedonians vs. Persians This victory made Alexander master of Asia.

Arcola (är´kō-lā), Italy, November 15-17, 1796 French under Napoleon vs. Austrians Napoleon prevented the junction of two Austrian armies.

Arcot (är-kot´), Siege of, India, August 31- November 15, 1751 English and Sepoys vs. French Robert Clive held out ten weeks against a far superior force before being relieved.

† Arginusae (är-ji-nū´sē), Asia Minor, B. C. 406 Athenians vs. Peloponnesians Command of the sea temporarily restored to Athens.

† Armada (är-mä´dä), The Invincible, English Channel, July, 1588 English vs. Spanish Beginning of English sea-power.

Arsuf (ar-suf), Syria, September 7, 1191 English Crusaders vs. Saracens Great victory of Richard the Lion Hearted over Saladin.

† Artemisium (ār-te-mish´um), Eubœa, B. C. 480 * Persians vs. Greeks Fought at the same time as the battle of Thermopylæ.

Ascalon (as´ka-lon), Syria, 1099 Crusaders vs. Saracens Moslem resistance to Christians ended for a time.

Asculum (as´ku-lum), Italy, B. C. 279 Pyrrhus vs. Romans Pyrrhus, though victorious, suffered great loss.

Aspern (äs´pern), Austria, May 21-22, 1809 * Austrians vs. French Napoleon retired. Each side lost about 20,000 men.

Assaye (ä-sī´), India, September 23, 1803 English vs. East Indians Sir Arthur Wellesley (later duke of Wellington) defeated forces almost ten times as numerous.

Austerlitz (ous´ter-lits), Austria, December 2, 1805 French vs. Russians, Austrians The Battle of the Three Emperors: Napoleon, Alexander I., Francis I.

† Azores (ȧ-zōrz´), Atlantic Ocean, 1591 Spanish vs. English Gallant fight made by Sir Richard Grenville in the Revenge.

Balaclava (bäl-ä-klä´vä), Crimea, October 25, 1854 Russians vs. English “Charge of the Light Brigade” celebrated by Tennyson.

Bannockburn (ban´ok-burn), Scotland, June 24, 1314 Scots vs. English Bruce drives back English invaders with great slaughter.

Barnet (bär´net), England, April 4, 1471 Yorkists vs. Lancastrians Earl of Warwick (“Kingmaker”) slain.

Bautzen (bout´sen), Germany, May 20-21, 1813 French vs. Prussians, Russians The allies lost 15,000 killed and wounded.

† Beachy Head, England, June 30, 1690 French vs. English, Dutch The French had been sent to create a diversion in favor of James II. in Ireland.

Belgrade (bel-grād´), Siege of, Servia, April, 1456 Hungarians vs. Turks John Hunyady’s last exploit.

Beneventum (ben-e-ven´tum), Italy, B. C. 275 Romans vs. Pyrrhus Pyrrhus’ last serious attack against the Romans.

Beresina (ber-yā´zē-nä), Crossing of the, Russia, November 28, 1812 Russians vs. French A most terrible disaster on the retreat from Moscow.

Bergen-op-Zoom (berch´en-op-zōm´), Siege of, Netherlands, 1747 French vs. English, Dutch French lost heavily in this siege.

Bibracte (bi-brak´tē), Gaul, B. C. 58 Romans vs. Helvetians A defeat would have meant destruction to Cæsar.

Blenheim (blen´im), Bavaria, August 13, 1704 British and Imperialists vs. French and Bavarians Brilliant victory of Marlborough and Prince Eugene.

Borodino (bor-o-dyē-nô´) commonly Anglicized, (bor-ō-dē´nō) * French vs. Russians One of the most bloody battles on record.

Bosworth Field, England, August, 1485 Lancastrians vs. Yorkists Richard III. slain; Henry Tudor becomes Henry VII. of England.

Bouvines (bö-vēn´) Flanders, 1214 French vs. Flemish, English and Germans Secures the position of Philip Augustus on the throne of France.

Bovianum (bö-vi-ä´num), Siege of, Italy, B. C. 305 Romans vs. Samnites End of second Samnite war.

Boyne (boin) river, Ireland, July 1, 1690 William III. vs. James II. Irish under James II. totally defeated.

Breitenfeld (brīt´en-felt), Germany, September 7, 1631 Swedes and Saxons vs. Imperialists Brilliant victory of Gustavus Adolphus over Tilly.

Breitenfeld, Germany, 1642 Swedes vs. Imperialists Victory of Tortenson over Piccolomini.

Brill, Seizure of, Holland, 1572 Netherlanders vs. Spanish The first success of the Netherlanders.

Buena Vista (bwā´nä vēs´tä), Mexico, February 22-23, 1847 Americans vs. Mexicans General Zachary Taylor victorious over much larger force.

Bull Run, Virginia, U. S. A., July 21, 1861 Confederates vs. Federals The first important battle of the Civil war.

Bunker’s Hill, Massachusetts, U. S. A., June 17, 1775 British vs. Americans Though dislodged from their position, the Americans won a practical victory.

Byzantium (bi-zan´shi-um), Siege of, Thrace, 323 Constantine vs. Licinius Byzantium refounded as Constantinople, the capital of the empire.

† Cadiz (kā´diz, Sp. kä´dēth), Spain, 1587 English vs. Spanish Here Drake “singed the King of Spain’s beard.”

Calais (Fr. kȧ-lä´), Siege of, France, 1346-1347 English vs. French Calais remained in English possession until 1558.

† Camperdown (kam-per-doun´), Holland, October 11, 1797 British vs. Dutch The Dutch fleet, allied with France, was practically destroyed.

Cannæ (kan´ē), Italy, B. C. 216 Carthaginians vs. Romans Hannibal inflicts one of the most disastrous defeats the Romans ever suffered.

† Cape St. Vincent, Portugal, February 14, 1797 British vs. Spanish Spanish fleet, allied with France, beaten by Admiral Jervis.

Capua (kap´ū-a; It. kä´pŏŏ-ä), Siege of, Italy, B. C. 211 Romans vs. Capuans and Carthaginians Hannibal was unable to break through Roman lines and relieve the city.

Carrhæ (kar´ē), Mesopotamia, B. C. 53 Parthians vs. Romans Crassus, one of the triumvirs, defeated and shortly after slain.

Carthage (kär´thij), Siege of, North Africa, B. C. 146 Romans vs. Carthaginians Carthage razed to the ground.

Castillon (käs-te-yôn´), France, July 17, 1453 French vs. English This victory ended the Hundred Years’ war.

† Catana (kä-tän´ä), Sicily, B. C. 387 Carthaginians vs. Syracusans Syracusans utterly routed. Carthaginians besieged Syracuse.

Caudine (kâ´din) Forks, Italy, B. C. 321 Samnites vs. Romans The whole Roman army was “sent under the yoke.”

Cawnpore (kân´pōr), India, December 6, 1857 British vs. Mutineers Sir Colin Campbell routs mutineers.

Chæronea (ker-ō-nēȧ), Greece, B. C. 338 Macedonians vs. Athenians and Thebans Philip of Macedon wins hegemony of Greece.

Chalons (shä-lôn´), France, 451 Romans and Visigoths vs. Huns Attila retreated and western Europe was saved from the Huns.

Chattanooga (chat-ȧ-nōō´gȧ) Tennessee, U. S. A., November 24-27, 1863 Federals vs. Confederates The “Battle above the Clouds” fought on Lookout Mountain.

Chickamauga (chik-ȧ-mô´-gȧ), Tennessee, U. S. A., Sept. 19-20, 1863 Confederates vs. Federals Federal losses 16,000; Confederate about 12,000.

Chioggia (kyod´jā), Blockade of, Venetia, January to June, 1380 Venetians vs. Genoese Loss of this city broke the power of the Genoese republic for many years.

Chotusitz (chō´tö-zits) (Caslau), Bohemia, May 17, 1742 Prussians vs. Austrians This victory led Austria to sign the peace of Breslau, June 11, 1742.

Clusium (klōō´shi-um), Italy, B. C. 225 Gauls vs. Romans Romans said to have lost 25,000.

† Cnidus (nī´dus), Asia Minor, B. C. 394 Athenians and Persians vs. Spartans Sparta lost her recently gained maritime ascendency.

Colenso (kō-len´sō), South Africa, December 15, 1899 Boers vs. British First action in Buller’s campaign for the relief of Ladysmith.

Colline (kol´in) Gate, Rome, B. C. 82 Optimates vs. Democrates and Samnites Sulla’s victory ended the Roman civil war.

† Constantinople (kon-stan-ti-nō´pl), Siege of, Thrace, 1204 Crusaders and Venetians vs. Greek Empire Baldwin of Flanders becomes Latin emperor of the East.

Constantinople, Siege of, Thrace, April 26-May 29, 1453 Turks vs. Greeks Final overthrow of Greek Empire.

Copenhagen (kō-pen-hā´gen), Bombardment of, Denmark, 1807 British vs. Danish England forces surrender of Danish fleet to save it from Napoleon.

Coronea (kor-ŏ-nē´ȧ), Greece, B. C. 394 Sparta vs. Thebes, Corinth, Argos and Athens Agesilaus, Spartan king, compelled to evacuate Bœotia.

Corunna (kō-run´ȧ), Spain, January 16, 1809 British vs. French Sir John Moore killed. French kept at bay while British embarked.

Courtral (kŏŏ-trā´), Flanders, July 11, 1302 Flemish vs. French “Battle of the Spurs.” Great carnage among French knighthood.

Crécy (krā´sē), France, August 26, 1346 English vs. French Victory due to English archers.

Crimisus (kri-mī´sus), the river, Sicily, B. C. 340 Sicilians vs. Carthaginians Secured Greek towns of Sicily peace for many years.

Culloden (ku-lō´den or -lod´en), Scotland, April 16, 1746 British vs. Scots under Young Pretender Last attempt of the Stuarts to recover British throne.

Cunaxa (kū-nak´sȧ), Babylonia, B. C. 401 Cyrus and the “Ten Thousand” vs. Persians Cyrus was slain and the Greeks made the “Anabasis” to the sea.

Custozza (kös-tōd´zā), Italy, June 24, 1866 Austrians vs. Italians Though defeated, the Italians gained Venetia through Prussia.

Cynoscephalae (sī-nō-sef´ȧ-lē or sin-ō), Greece, B. C. 197 Romans vs. Macedonians Philip V. forced to abandon the hegemony of Greece.

† Cyzicus (siz´i-kus), Propontis, B. C. 410 Athenians vs. Peloponnesians Alcibiades surprised and practically annihilated the Peloponnesian fleet.

Dardanelles (där-dȧ-nelz´) Campaign, Turkey, March 18, 1915, to January 9, 1916 Turks vs. British and French British and French withdrew after a loss of 115,000, killed, wounded or prisoners.

Delhi (del´i), Siege of, India, June 8 to September 20, 1857 British vs. Mutineers Delhi was the real center of the Indian mutiny.

Delium (dē´li-um), Greece, B. C. 424 Bœotians vs. Athenians Decisive and disastrous defeat for Athenians.

Dennewitz (den´ne-vits), Germany, September 6, 1813 Russians, Prussians, Austrians and Swedes, Allies, vs. French Victory of Bernadotte (afterward Charles XIV. of Sweden) over Ney.

Deorham (de-or´häm), England, 577 West Saxons vs. Welsh Wessex extended to Bristol channel, severing Welsh into two parts.

Dessau (des´ou), Germany, 1626 Imperialists vs. Protestants Wallenstein totally routed Mansfeld.

Dettingen (det´ing-en), Germany, June 27, 1743 British vs. French Last battle in which a British sovereign engaged in person.

Douro (dō´rŏŏ, Span. dwā´rō), the river, Portugal, May 12, 1809 British vs. French French driven out of Oporto.

† Downs, The, North Sea, June 11-14, 1666 * Dutch vs. English English fleet took shelter in the Thames; Dutch too crippled to pursue.

† Drepana (drep´a-nä), Sicily, B. C. 249 Carthaginians vs. Romans This and other defeats led Romans to abandon the sea temporarily.

Dresden (drez´den; Ger. drās´den), Germany, August 26, 27, 1813 French vs. Russians, Prussians, and Austrians Napoleon’s last great victory on German soil.

Drogheda (drô´he-dȧ or drô´e-dȧ), Storm of, Ireland, Sept. 12, 1649 British and Parliamentarians vs. Royalists Cromwell put the garrison to the sword.

Dunbar (dun-bär´), Scotland, Sept. 3, 1650 Parliamentarians vs. Scottish Royalists Cromwell’s victory followed by the surrender of Edinburgh and Glasgow.

Ebersberg (ā´bers-berg), Storm of, Bavaria, May 3, 1809 French vs. Austrians A horrible combat in which thousands were burned in the ruined village.

† Ecnomus (ek´no-mus), Sicily, B. C. 256 Romans vs. Carthaginians Romans laid waste Carthaginian territory in Africa.

Edgehill, England, October 23, 1642 * Royalists vs. Parliamentarians The first battle of the Civil war. Royalists march on London.

El Caney (el kä-nā´), Cuba, July 1, 1898 Americans vs. Spaniards The chief battle of the war in Cuba.

Ellandun (el´lan-dön), England, 825 West Saxons vs. Mercians The West Saxon Egbert becomes overlord of all the English.

Evesham (ēvz´ham), England, August 4, 1265 Prince Edward vs. Simon Montfort This defeat ended the war. Simon de Montfort fell.

Eylau (ī´lau), Prussia, February 8, 1807 * Russians and Prussians vs. French The bloodiest and most desperate battle of a century.

Falkirk (fôl´kerk; Scot., fô´kerk), Scotland, July 22, 1298 English vs. Scotch Edward I. utterly routed Wallace.

Fehrbellin (fār-bel-lēn´), Brandenburg, June 18, 1675 Brandenburgers vs. Swedes The first great victory of Brandenburg, Prussia.

Flodden (flod´n), England, September 9, 1513 English vs. Scots The Scottish king perished, with the bravest of his nobility.

Fontanet (fôn-tän-ā´), France, June 20, 841 Louis and Charles vs. Lothaire (Grandsons of Charlemagne) Followed by the famous Partition of Verdun (843).

Fontenoy (fôn-t´-nwä´), Belgium, May 11, 1745 French vs. British, Dutch and Austrians Last great victory of France under the Old Regime.

Fornovo (for-no´vō), Italy, July 6, 1495 French vs. Italians Charles VIII. enabled to continue his retreat following his conquest of Naples.

Friedland (frēt´länt or frēd´länt), Prussia, June 14, 1807 French vs. Russians This defeat induced the Czar to conclude the peace of Tilsit.

Gettysburg (get´iz-bûrg), Pennsylvania, U. S. A., July 1-3, 1863 Federals vs. Confederates One of the bloodiest battles of the war, forcing Lee from northern soil.

Gibraltar (ji-brâl´tär), Siege of, Spain, 1779-1782 British vs. French and Spanish The last formidable attack upon Gibraltar (British since 1704).

Granada (grä-nä´dä; Sp. grä-nä´thä), Capitulation of, Spain, January 2, 1492 Spaniards vs. Moors Completes the overthrow of the Moorish power in Spain.

Granicus (grä-nī´kus) River, Asia Minor, B. C. 334 Alexander the Great vs. Persians and Greek Mercenaries Destroyed the only army opposed to Alexander in Asia Minor.

Granson (gran-sôn´) Switzerland, March 2, 1476 Swiss vs. Burgundians First of the three great victories of the Swiss over Charles the Bold.

Gravelotte (gräv-lot´), Lorraine, August 18, 1870 Prussians vs. French The first great victory of the Prussians in the war.

Guinegate (gēn-gȧt´), France, August 16, 1513 English and Imperialists vs. French Called the “Battle of the Spurs” from the French haste in flight.

Haarlem (här´lem), Siege of, Holland, Dec. 9-July 14, 1572-1573 Spaniards vs. Dutch 30,000 Spaniards against 4,000 Dutch; 2,000 Dutch massacred.

Halidon (hal´i-dn), Hill, England, July 19, 1333 Edward III. of England vs. Scots Won by combination of archers and dismounted men-at-arms.

† Hampton (hämp´tn) Roads, Virginia, U. S. A., March 8, 1862 Monitor (Federal) vs. Merrimac (Confederate) After this wooden ships give way to ironclads in naval warfare.

Hastenbeck, Germany, July 26, 1757 French vs. Hanoverians Followed by the convention of Closter-Zeven, which George II. repudiated.

Hastings (hās´tingz), England, October 14, 1066 Normans vs. English Harold fell; William the Conqueror became king of England.

Heraclea (her-ȧ-klē´ȧ or -klī´ȧ), Italy, B. C. 280 King Pyrrhus vs. Romans “One more such victory and I shall be ruined.”—Pyrrhus.

Hexham (hek´sam), England, May 15, 1464 Yorkists vs. Lancastrians The Lancastrian cause was completely crushed by this defeat.

Himera (him´er-ȧ), Sicily, B. C. 480 Syracuse and Agrigentum vs. Carthaginians Hamilcar slain. Carthaginians purchased peace for 2,000 talents.

Himera, Siege of, Sicily, B. C. 409 Carthaginians vs. Sicilian Greeks Town sacked and prisoners sacrificed to the shade of Hamilcar.

Höchst (hûkst), Germany, June 20, 1622 Imperialists vs. Palatinate troops Practically ends the Bohemian-Palatinate phase of the Thirty Years’ war.

Hohenfriedburg (hō´ēn-frēd´-berg), Germany, June, 1745 Prussians vs. Austrians and Saxons One of Frederick the Great’s victories; due partly to Austrian overconfidence.

Hohenlinden (hō-en-lin´den), Bavaria, December 3, 1800 French vs. Austrians The crowning event of the winter campaign; won by Moreau.

Hohkirchen (hō´kirch-en), Germany, October 14, 1758 Austrians vs. Prussians Frederick the Great, though surprised by a night attack, made good his retreat.

Homildon (hom´l-dn), Hill, England, September 14, 1402 English vs. Scots Another great victory due to the prowess of the English longbowmen.

Hydaspes (hī-das´pēz) River, India, B. C. 326 Greeks vs. Asiatics The last important battle in the eastward advance of Alexander the Great.

Inkermann (ing-ker-män´), Crimea, November 5, 1854 British and French vs. Russians A series of hand-to-hand combats fought in a dense fog.

Inverlochy (in-ver-lock´i), Scotland, February 2, 1645 Royalist Highlanders vs. Campbells and Lowland Covenanters Power of the Campbells in the Highlands broken for many years.

Ipsus (ip´sus), Asia Minor, B. C. 301 Seleucus vs. Antigonus Chief battle between Alexander’s generals over the partition of his empire.

Issus (is´us), Asia Minor, B. C. 333 Macedonians vs. Asiatics Alexander’s brilliant victory over an immense horde of Persians.

Ivry (ēv-rē´), France, March 14, 1590 Huguenots vs. Catholics Henry IV. gained a complete victory and invested Paris, his capital.

Jarnac (zhär-nak´), France, March 13, 1569 Catholics vs. Huguenots Prince de Condé slain.

Jemmapes (zhe-mäp´), Belgium, November 6, 1792 French vs. Austrians Followed by annexation of the Austrian Netherlands to France.

Jena (yā´nä), Germany, October 14, 1806 French vs. Prussians Napoleon advanced thence to Berlin and issued the decree for a continental blockade.

Jerusalem (jē-rōō´sȧ-lem) Siege of, Syria, 70 Jews vs. Romans Titus destroyed the city and massacred or sold into slavery its inhabitants.

Jerusalem, Storm of, Syria, July 15, 1099 Crusaders vs. Moslems A terrible massacre; feudal kingdom established under Godfrey of Bouillon.

† Jutland, Baltic Sea, May 31, 1916 Germans vs. British British admitted the loss of six large cruisers and destroyers, the Germans a battleship, a cruiser, four light cruisers and five destroyers. The loss of life totaled 9,500 and the battle ended with the withdrawal of the German fleet.

Kappel (käp´pel), Switzerland, October 11, 1531 Swiss Catholic Cantons vs. Zurichers Zwingli, the Swiss Protestant reformer, fell in this battle.

Kars (kärs), Storm of, Armenia, November 17-18, 1877 Russians vs. Turks Russian success caused angry negotiations between England and Russia.

Katzbach (käts´baK), Germany, August 26, 1813 Prussians vs. French A decisive victory of Blücher over one of Napoleon’s marshals.

Khartoum (kär-töm´), Siege of, Soudan, March 12-January 26, 1884-1885 Mahdi vs. Gordon “Chinese” Gordon killed; the Soudan evacuated by the Anglo-Egyptian government.

Killiecrankie (kil-i-krang´ki), Scotland, July 17, 1689 Highland Jacobites vs. Royalists The Jacobite victory was nullified by the fall of their leader, Dundee.

Kimberley (kim´ber-li), Siege of, South Africa, October 15, 1899 to February 15, 1900 British vs. Boers The brilliant defense of Kimberley was a notable feature of the war.

Kin-chau (kin-chow´), Manchuria, May 26, 1904 Japanese vs. Russians General Oku opened the way for the land investment of Port Arthur.

Koniggrätz (kû´nich-gräts´), (or Sadowa), Germany, July 3, 1866 Prussians vs. Austrians This victory gave the supremacy in Germany to Prussia, unity to North Germany.

Kolin (kō-lēn´), Bohemia, June 18, 1757 Austrians vs. Prussians Following this defeat, Frederick the Great evacuated Bohemia.

Kossova (kos´ō-vō), Servia, June 15, 1389 Turks vs. Christian Slavs A battle famed in the history, legend and literature of Servia.

Kossova, Servia, October 17-19, 1448 Turks vs. Christians The hero, John Hunyady, overcome at the cost of 40,000 Turkish lives.

Kotzim (cho-tem´), Russia, November 11, 1673 Poles vs. Turks John Sobieski, by sheer personal ascendency, stems tide of Turkish advance.

Kulm (kōōlm), Germany, August 29-30, 1813 Austrians, Russians and Prussians vs. Napoleon 7,000 French capitulate; “The Caudine Forks of modern war.” Conduces to the defeat at Leipzig.

Kunersdorf (kōō´ners-dorf), Germany, August 12, 1759 Austrians and Russians vs. Prussians Inactivity of the allies saved Frederick the Great from annihilation.

† Lade (lā´dē), Asia Minor, B. C. 494 Persians vs. Ionian Greeks This defeat put an end to the Ionian revolt.

Ladysmith (lā´di-smith), Siege of, South Africa, November 2, 1899 to February, 1900 British vs. Boers Like the siege of Kimberley, a notable incident of the war.

† La Hogue (lä hōg), Northwestern France, May 10-20, 1692 English and Dutch vs. French Overthrew the hopes of James II. of recovering his throne.

† Lake Erie, Lake Erie, September 10, 1813 Americans vs. British “We have met the enemy and they are ours.”—Perry.

† La Rochelle (lä rō-shel´), France, June 22-23, 1372 French and Spaniards vs. English Control of the sea passes for a time to the side of the French.

La Rochelle, Siege of, France, November 1, 1627 to October 28, 1628 Richelieu vs. Huguenots and English Huguenots no longer an armed political party but a tolerated sect.

Lechfeld (lech´feld), Germany, August 10, 955 Otto I. vs. Hungarians A crushing defeat inflicted on the waning power of the Hungarians.

Lech (lech), the river, Germany, April 15, 1632 Gustavus Adolphus vs. German Catholic League Tilly mortally wounded.

Legnano (len-yä´nō), Italy, May 29, 1176 Lombard League vs. Frederick Barbarossa In the peace of Constance (1183), Frederick renounced all regal privileges over the cities.

Leipzig (līp´sik), Saxony, September 17, 1631 Swedes and Saxons vs. Catholic Imperialists Brilliant victory of Gustavus Adolphus saves Protestant cause.

Leipzig, Saxony, October 16, 18-19, 1813 Allies vs. Napoleon This disaster lost Germany to Napoleon.

Le Mans (le mon´), France, January 6-12, 1871 Prussians vs. French French army almost annihilated.

† Lepanto (le-pan´tō), Gulf of Corinth, October 7, 1751 Don John of Austria vs. Turks One of the most splendid naval victories ever achieved.

Leuctura (lūk´tra), Greece, B. C. 371 Thebans vs. Spartans Epaminondas’ overthrow of Sparta gives Thebes the hegemony in Greece.

Leuthen (loi´ten), Germany, December 5, 1757 Prussians vs. Austrians This battle “would alone make Frederick immortal and rank him among the greatest generals.”—Napoleon.

Lewes (lū´is), England, May 14, 1264 Simon de Montfort vs. Henry III. and Prince Edward Simon de Montfort’s victory followed by Parliament, the first to which borough representatives were called (1265).

Leyden (lī´den), Siege of, Holland, May 26 to October 3, 1574 Dutch vs. Spaniards Prince of Orange cut the dikes to bring the fleet to the relief of the city.

Liegnitz (lēch´nits), Germany, August 15, 1760 Prussians vs. Austrians Frederick prevented the union of the Austrians and Russians.

Ligny (lēn-yē´), Belgium, June 16, 1815 Napoleon vs. Blücher Napoleon’s last victory; Blücher joined Wellington at Waterloo on the 18th.

Lille (lēl), Siege of, France, August 12 to October 22, 1708 Imperialists vs. French France now lay open to the advance of the allies.

Lilybæum (lil-i-bē´um), Siege of, Sicily, B. C. 250-241 Carthaginian vs. Romans One of the most protracted sieges in history, surrendered only with Sicily at close of war.

Linkoping (lēn´chû-ping), Sweden, September 25, 1598 Swedes vs. Poles under King Sigismund Led to perpetual hostility between Sweden and Poland in seventeenth century.

† Lissa (lis´a), Adriatic, July 20, 1866 Austrians vs. Italians The only battle between ironclads fought in European waters.

Lobositz (lō´bō-zits), Bohemia, October 1, 1756 * Prussians vs. Austrians 18,000 Saxons besieged at Pirna were now forced into the Prussian army.

Lodi (lō´dē), Bridge of, Italy, May 10, 1796 Napoleon Bonaparte vs. Austrians This success gave the whole of Lombardy to the French.

Loigny-Poupry (lwän-ye´ poo-pree´), France, December 2, 1870 Prussians vs. French Prevented the French from relieving Orleans.

Louisburg (lö´ē-berg), Siege of, Canada, June 8 to July 27, 1758 British vs. French Destruction of one of the strongest fortresses in North America.

Lucknow (luk´nou), Siege of, India, March 19, 1857 to July 1, 1858 British vs. Sepoy mutineers The turning of the tide; next year the mutiny was totally quelled.

Lutter (löt´ter), Germany, August 26, 1626 Catholics and Imperialists vs. Danes and Protestant Germans Christian of Denmark, severely defeated, retires into Holstein and Mecklenburg.

Lützen (lüt´sen), Saxony, November 16, 1632 Swedes and Protestant Germans vs. Catholics and Imperialists Gustavus Adolphus slain in winning his third great victory.

Lützen, Saxony, May 2, 1813 Napoleon vs. Allies The first battle in the great German War of Liberation.

Luzzara (löt-sä´rä), Italy, August 15, 1702 * French vs. Imperialists Followed by French ascendency in Italy until 1706.

Macalo (mäk-ä´lo), Italy, October 11, 1427 Venice vs. Milan Carmagnola gained a brilliant victory over the famous condottieri, Sforza, Piccinino and Malatesta.

Madras (mä-dras´), Siege of, India, Dec. 12, 1758 to Feb. 16, 1759 English vs. French Failure to take Madras was a great blow to French power in India.

Maestricht (mäs´tricht), Siege of, Belgium, March 12 to June 29, 1579 Spaniards vs. Netherlanders Inhabitants and garrison massacred.

Mafeking (maf´e-king), Siege of, South Africa, Oct., 1899 to May 17, 1900 British vs. Boers Baden Powell’s resistance aroused world-wide enthusiasm.

Magdeburg (mäg´de-bŏŏrch), Storm of, Germany, May 20, 1631 Catholics and Imperialists vs. inhabitants The sack of Magdeburg is one of the darkest spots on the pages of history.

Magenta (mä-jen´tä), Italy, June 4, 1859 French and Piedmontese vs. Austrians Napoleon III. and Victor Emmanuel entered Milan.

Magnesia (mag-nē´shȧ), Asia Minor, B. C. 190 Romans vs. Antiochus the Great The kingdom of the Seleucidæ dismembered.

Malaga (mä´lä-gä), Spain, May 8 to August 18, 1487 Spaniards vs. Moors The inhabitants were sold into slavery.

† Malaga, Spain, August 24, 1704 * English and Dutch vs. French French fleet prevented from uniting with Spanish which was besieging Gibraltar.

Malakoff (mä-lä´kof), Storm of, Crimea, September 8, 1855 French vs. Russians Loss of this and other earthworks led that night to the evacuation of Sebastopol.

Malo-Jaroslavitz (mä´lō yä-rō-slä´vets), Russia, October 24, 1812 * Russians vs. French Napoleon was obliged to abandon southerly line of retreat from Moscow.

Malplaquet (mȧl-plȧ-kā´), France, September 11, 1709 British and Imperialists vs. French Bloodiest battle of this war; “carnage, not a battle.”

† Manila (mȧ-nil´ȧ) Bay, Philippines, May 1, 1898 Americans vs. Spaniards Admiral Dewey totally destroyed the Spanish fleet.

Mansurah (män-sōō´rä), Egypt, April 8, 1250 * French Crusaders vs. Saracens The last of the great pitched battles of the crusaders. Shortly after Louis IX. was captured and ruinously ransomed.

Mantineia (man-ti-nē´ȧ), Greece, B. C. 418 Spartans vs. Athenians and Argives The Spartans regained their supremacy in Peloponnesus.

Mantineia, Greece, B. C. 362 Thebans vs. Spartans The death of Epaminondas in this battle ends Theban supremacy.

Mantua (man´tū-ȧ), Siege of, Italy, June, 1796, to February 2, 1797 French vs. Austrians The close of Napoleon’s marvelous first Italian campaign.

Marathon (mär´ȧ-thon), Greece, B. C. 490 Athenians and Plataeans vs. Persians Miltiades’ victory causes Persians to abandon their first expedition against Greece.

Mardia (mär´di-ä), Thrace, 315 Licinius vs. Constantine the Great Licinius lost all his European territory except Thrace.

Marengo (mä-reng´gō), Italy, June 14, 1800 French vs. Austrians Won for Napoleon largely by General Desaix.

Marignano (ma-rēn-yä´nō), Italy, September 13, 14, 1515 French vs. Swiss Francis I. reconquered Milan by this brilliant victory.

Marne (märn), a river in France, September 5-7, 1914 Allies vs. Germans Germans forced to retreat and capture of Paris averted.

Marsaglia (mär-säl´yä), Italy, October 4, 1693 French vs. Duke of Savoy French infantry with bayonets charged the cavalry, a new maneuver.

Marston Moor, England, July 2, 1644 Parliamentarians vs. Royalists This victory, due to Cromwell’s Ironsides, gave the north to parliament.

Maserfield (mä´ser-feld), England, 642 Mercians vs. Northumbrians Mercia becomes a competitor with Northumbria for English hegemony.

Maxen (mäks´en), Germany, November 20, 1759 Austrians vs. Prussians The capitulation of Finck with 12,000 Prussian soldiers disastrous to Frederick.

Maypu (mä´pö), Chili, April 5, 1818 Chilians vs. Spaniards Established the independence of Chili.

Medellin (mā-tnel-yēn´), Spain, March 28, 1809 French vs. Spaniards Spaniards mercilessly sabered in the pursuit, losing 18,000.

Megalopolis (meg-ȧ-lop´ō-lis), Greece, B. C. 331 Macedonians vs. Spartans Antipater, in absence of Alexander, puts down revolted Spartans in a bloody battle.

Mentana (men-tä´nä), Italy, November 3, 1867 Garibaldians vs. French and Papal troops Garibaldians routed after defeating papal forces.

† Messina (mes-sē´nä), Sicily, September 28, 1282 Sicilians and Aragonese vs. French Charles of Anjou evacuated Sicily, which his descendants never recovered.

Metaurus (mā-tau´rus), Italy, B. C. 207 Romans vs. Carthaginians Italy saved by preventing the junction of Hasdrubal with Hannibal.

Metz (mets), Siege of, Lorraine, August 19 to October 27, 1870 Prussians vs. French The release of the besieging army for service elsewhere was fatal to the French cause.

Milazzo (mē-lät´sō), Sicily, July 20, 1860 Garibaldians vs. Neapolitans This completes the expulsion of the Neapolitans from Sicily.

Minden (min´den), Prussia, August 1, 1759 English, Hessians and Hanoverians vs. French The French were decisively beaten and driven from Hesse.

Miraflores (mē-rä-flō´res), Argentina, January 13 and 15, 1883 Chilians vs. Peruvians Practically ended the war of the Pacific (1879-1884) between Chili, and Bolivia and Peru.

Missolonghi (mis-ō-long´gē), Siege of, Greece, April 27, 1825 to April 22-23, 1826 Turks vs. Greeks Greek heroism excited sympathy throughout Europe. (Byron died here, 1824.)

Mitylene (mit-i-lē´nē), Siege of, Lesbos, B. C. 428-427 Athenians vs. Revolted inhabitants Prisoners killed, walls pulled down, fleet forfeited, annual tribute imposed.

Modder (mod´er) River, South Africa, November 28, 1899 British vs. Boers Lord Methuen drives Cronje from his intrenchments after a fierce fight.

Mohacs (mō´häch), Hungary, August 29, 1526 Turks vs. Hungarians “Never was a single battle so disastrous to a people.”

Mollwitz (mōl´vitz), Germany, April 10, 1741 Prussians vs. Austrians Frederick’s victory forces Europe to recognize in Prussia a new power.

Montaperti (mon-tä-per´tē), Italy, September 4, 1260 Florentine Ghibellines, Siennese vs. Guelphs of Florence Secured the triumph of the Ghibellines over all Tuscany.

Monterey (mon-te-rā´), Mexico, September 21-23, 1846 Americans vs. Mexicans Followed by the occupation of the whole of northern Mexico.

Montreal (mont-ri-ôl´), Canada, September 8, 1760 British vs. French Completes the British conquest of Canada from France.

Mook (mōk), Holland, April 14, 1574 Spaniards vs. Dutch The battle terminated in a horrible butchery of the patriot army.

Morgarten (mōr´gār-ten), Switzerland, November 15, 1315 Swiss vs. Austrians The first battle fought for Swiss independence.

Mortimer’s (môr´ti-mer) Cross, England, February 2, 1461 Yorkists vs. Lancastrians The Yorkist prince advanced to London and was proclaimed king as Edward IV.

Mukden (mŏŏk-den´), Manchuria, February 24 to March 10, 1905 Japanese vs. Russians Release of Japanese from before Port Arthur enables Oyama to crush Kuropatkin.

Mühlberg (mül´berg), Saxony, April 24, 1547 Charles V. and Prince Maurice vs. Saxony and Hesse Maurice in 1552 retrieves his treason to Protestantism by driving Charles V. from Germany.

Muhldorf (mül´dorf), Bavaria, September 28, 1322 Louis of Bavaria vs. Frederick of Austria The disputed imperial election, over which this battle was fought, began a new struggle between empire and papacy.

Munda (mun´dä), Spain, B. C. 45 Julius Cæsar vs. Pompeians Cæsar’s last battle; it put an end to armed resistance.

Muret (mü-rā´), France, September 12, 1213 Crusaders vs. Albigenses and Aragonese Practically ends the Albigensian crusade; Toulousean territories pass ultimately to the French crown.

Mycale (mik´ȧ-lē), Asia Minor, B. C. 479 Greeks vs. Persians This battle and that of Platæa end the Persian wars against Greece.

† Mylæ (mī´lē), Sicily, B. C. 260 Romans vs. Carthaginians First naval victory of Romans; due to boarding bridges.

Näfels (nā´fels), Switzerland, April 9, 1388 Swiss vs. Austrians Hapsburgs renounced all feudal claims over the Swiss cantons (1389).

Nancy (nän-sē´), Lorraine, January 5, 1477 Swiss vs. Charles the Bold Charles was slain, leaving his motley territories a prey to neighboring princes.

Narva (när´vä), Russia, November 30, 1700 Swedes vs. Russians Charles XII. won a brilliant victory over the much larger army of Peter the Great.

Naseby (näz´bi), England, June 14, 1645 Parliamentarians vs. Royalists Complete defeat of Charles I., followed by the general ruin of his cause.

† Naupactus (nô-pak´tus), Gulf of Corinth, B. C. 429 Athenians vs. Peloponnesians Victory wrested from defeat by the genius of Phormio, the Athenian commander.

† Navarino (nā-vā-rē´nō), Greece, October 20, 1827 English, French and Russians vs. Turks Destruction of Turkish naval power; Ibrahim retreats from Morea.

Navas de Tolosa (nā´väs dā-tō-lō´sä), Spain, July 16, 1212 Spaniards vs. Moors Secured forever the preponderance of Christianity in Spain.

Neerwinden (nār´vin-den), Belgium, July 24, 1693 French vs. English The French won a brilliant but barren victory over William III.

Neville’s (nev´ilz) Cross, England, October 17, 1346 English vs. Scots Scots crushed at home, while Edward III. was winning Crécy.

New Orleans (ôr´li-anz), Louisiana, U. S. A., January 8, 1815 Americans vs. British Owing to slowness of communication, Jackson fought this battle after peace had been made.

Nicæa (nī-sē´ȧ), Siege of, Asia Minor, 1097 Crusaders vs. Turks First conquest of crusaders in the East.