A Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts, &c. Volume II (part 14)

Since the introduction of the above, the consumption of nitrate of soda is sometimes lessened by more than half.

Another very recent improvement, the invention of a German chemist named Sprengel, is the substitution of water spray, blown in by steam, for steam jets, in the leaden chambers. By this method a saving of coal to the extent of one third is said to be effected.

In theory, 1 molecule of sulphur requires only 3 molecules of oxygen to convert it into sulphuric acid, viz. 2 to form sulphurous anhydride, and 1 to convert the latter into sulphuric anhydride, which combines with 1 molecule of water to form the acid. Thus, 1 kilogram of sulphur requires 1500 grams or 1055 litres of oxygen, which is equivalent to 5275 litres of air containing 4220 litres of nitrogen; when pyrites is used, a far larger quantity of air is required, for the obvious reason that the pyrites becomes converted into ferric peroxide. 1 kilogram of pyrites requires for its combustion nearly 6600 litres of air.

In well-regulated works the spent and escaping gases should not contain more than 2 per cent. of oxygen. If from 100 kilograms of sulphur 306 kilograms of strong acid of sp. gr. 1·84 be obtained, the result is regarded as very satisfactory; more frequently the product from 100 kilograms of sulphur does not exceed 280 or 290 kilograms.

Purif. Commercial sulphuric acid frequently contains nitrous acid and other oxides of nitrogen, arsenic, lead, and saline matter. The nitrous acid may be removed by adding a little sulphate of ammonia, and heating the acid to ebullition for a few minutes. Both nitric and nitrous acid are thus entirely decomposed into water and nitrogen gas. The arsenic may be got rid of by adding a little sulphide of barium to the acid, agitating the mixture well, and, after repose, decanting and distilling it. Lead, which exists as sulphate, may be separated as a white precipitate by simply diluting the acid with water. Saline matter may be removed by simple rectification. A good way of purifying oil of vitriol is to heat it nearly to the boiling point, and pass a current of hydrochloric acid through it; the arsenic is thus carried over as the volatile chloride of arsenic, while the nitrous and nitric acids are expelled almost completely. To obtain a perfectly pure acid, it should be distilled after the removal of the nitrous acid and arsenic by the methods indicated above. “The distillation is most conveniently conducted, on the small scale, in a glass retort, containing a few platinum chips, and heated by a sand bath or gas-flame, rejecting the first ⁄2 fl. oz. that comes over.” (Ph. E.) In the Ph. D. the first tenth of the distillate is ordered to be rejected, and the process to be stopped when no more than about 1 fl. oz. is left in the retort.

According to Dr Ure, the capacity of the retort should be from 4 to 8 times as great as the volume of the acid, and connected with a large tubular receiver by a loosely fitting glass tube, 4 feet long and 1 to 2 inches in diameter. “The receiver should not be surrounded with cold water.” We find that fragments of glass, or of rock crystals, may be advantageously substituted for platinum foil, to lessen the explosive violence of the ebullition. Sulphuric acid which has become brown by exposure may be decolorised by heating it gently, the carbon of the organic substances being thus converted into carbonic acid.

Prop. Commercial sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) is a colourless, odourless, and highly corrosive liquid, the general properties of which are well known. Its sp. gr. at 60° should never be greater than 1·848, or less than 1·840. (Miller and Odling give the sp. gr. of the pure and concentrated acid as 1·842; Abel and Bloxam, as 1·848; Apjohn gives it as 1·846, and Hardwich about 1·845.) It is immediately coloured by contact with organic matter. It attracts water so rapidly from the atmosphere when freely exposed to it, as to absorb 1-3rd of its weight in 24 hours, and 6 times its weight in a few months. When 3 volumes are suddenly mixed with 2 of water, the temperature of the mixture rises more than 180° Fahr. Its freezing point appears to be about 60° below that of water (Miller and Odling give that of the rectified acid as -30° Fahr.; Apjohn and Abel and Bloxam, -29°). It boils at about 620° Fahr. (620·6°, Odling; 620°, Hardwich and Fownes; 617°, Apjohn; 590·6°, Abel and Bloxam). It exhibits all the properties of the acids in an exalted degree. Its salts are called sulphates.

In the following table is given the quantity of anhydrous sulphuric acid contained in sulphuric acid at 60°F. (15·5°C.).

Hydrated Sulphuric Acid. Sp. Gr. Anhydrous Acid. Hydrated Sulphuric Acid. Sp. Gr. Anhydrous Acid.

100 1·8485 81·54 76 1·6630 61·97

99 1·8475 80·72 75 1·6520 61·15

98 1·8460 79·90 74 1·6415 60·34

97 1·8439 79·09 73 1·6321 59·55

96 1·8410 78·28 72 1·6204 58·71

95 1·8376 77·40 71 1·6090 57·89

94 1·8336 76·65 70 1·5975 57·08

93 1·8290 75·83 69 1·5868 56·26

92 1·8233 75·02 68 1·5760 55·45

91 1·8179 74·20 67 1·5648 54·63

90 1·8115 73·39 66 1·5503 53·82

89 1·8043 72·57 65 1·5390 53·00

88 1·7962 71·75 64 1·5280 52·18

87 1·7870 70·94 63 1·5170 51·37

86 1·7774 70·12 62 1·5066 50·55

85 1·7673 69·31 61 1·4960 49·74

84 1·7570 68·49 60 1·4860 48·92

83 1·7465 67·68 59 1·4760 48·11

82 1·7360 66·86 58 1·4660 47·29

81 1·7245 66·05 57 1·4560 46·58

80 1·7120 65·23 56 1·4460 45·68

79 1·6993 64·42 55 1·4360 44·85

78 1·6870 63·60 54 1·4265 45·03

77 1·6750 62·78 53 1·4170 43·22

Pur. “Free from colour and odour. Sp. gr. 1·843. 100 gr. are saturated by 285 gr. of crystallised carbonate of soda.” (Ph. L.) “What remains after the acid is distilled to dryness does not exceed ⁄400th part of its weight. Diluted sulphuric acid is not discoloured by sulphuretted hydrogen.” (Ph. L. 1836.) “Diluted with its own volume of water, only a scanty muddiness arises, and no orange fumes escape. Sp. gr. 1·840.” (Ph. E.) “The rectified acid (ACIDUM SULPHURICUM PURUM—Ph. E. & D.) is colourless; dilution causes no muddiness; solution of sulphate of iron shows no reddening at the line of contact when poured over it. Sp. gr. 1·845.” (Ph. E.) Sp. gr. 1·846—Ph. D.; 1·843—B. P.; 1·842—Ure.

Tests.—See Sulphate.

Uses, &c. “The uses of sulphuric acid are so numerous that it would be impossible to mention all of them, sulphuric acid being to chemical industry what iron is to the mechanical. Sulphuric acid is employed in preparing a great many other acids—among them, nitric, hydrochloric, sulphurous, carbonic, tartaric, citric, phosphoric, stearic, oleic, and palmitic. Further, sulphuric acid is used in making superphosphates, soda, sulphate of ammonia, alum, sulphates of copper and iron, in paraffin and petroleum refining, silver refining, manufacture of garacine, garanceux, and other madder preparations, manufacture of glucose from starch, to dissolve indigo, &c. In the diluted state it is used in medicine. When swallowed, it acts as a violent corrosive poison. The antidotes are chalk, whiting, magnesia, carbonate of soda, or carbonate of potash, mixed with water, or any bland diluent, and taken freely, an emetic being also administered.

Estim. The strength of sulphuric acid is most correctly ascertained by its power of saturating bases. In commerce, it is usually determined from its sp. gr. The quantity of sulphuric acid present in a compound may be determined by weighing it under the form of sulphate, as explained in a former part of this volume. See Acidimetry.

Concluding Remarks. According to most of our standard works on chemistry, British oil of vitriol, when purified and brought to its maximum strength by distillation, is a definite chemical compound, having the formula H2SO4, and designated normal sulphuric acid by Odling. Marignac, however, asserts that the distilled acid always contains an excess of water, and that the true monohydrate can only be obtained by submitting fuming sulphuric acid (‘Nordhausen s. a,’) to congelation. According to this chemist, the true monohydrate readily freezes in cold weather, and remains solid up to 51° Fahr. Two other definite hydrates of sulphuric acid are generally recognised by chemists, viz.—Bihydrated sulphuric acid (‘glacial s. a,’), having a sp. gr. of 1·78; freezing at about 40° Fahr. (47°, Miller); and boiling at about 435° (Apjohn; 401° to 410°, Odling): Terhydrated sulphuric acid, having a sp. gr. of 1·632, and the boiling-point 348° Fahr. See also Sulphuric acid, Nordhausen (below).

Sulphuric Acid, Al′coholised. Syn. Acidum sulphuricum alcoholisatum, L.; Eau de rabel, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) To rectified spirit, 3 parts, add, very gradually, sulphuric acid, 1 part. It is generally coloured by letting it stand over a little cochineal. Refrigerent, and, externally, escharotic.—Dose, ⁄2 fl. dr. to water, 1 pint; as a cooling drink in fevers, &c.

Sulphuric Acid, Anhy′drous. SO3. Syn. Sulphuric anhydride, Dry sulphuric acid; Acidum sulphuricum sine aquâ, L. Prep. 1. By heating Nordhausen acid to about 100° Fahr. in a glass retort connected with a well-cooled receiver.

2. By distilling anhydrous bisulphate of soda, which has previously been raised to a low red heat in an earthen retort, to which a receiver is fitted without the aid of corks.

3. (Barreswill.) 2 parts of the strongest oil of vitriol are gradually added to 3 parts of anhydrous phosphoric acid, contained in a retort surrounded by a freezing mixture; when the compound has assumed a brown colour, the retort is removed from the bath, and connected with a receiver which is set there in its place; a gentle heat is now applied to it, when white vapours pass over into the receiver, and condense there under the form of beautiful silky crystals. The product equals in weight that of the phosphorus originally employed. “If a few drops of water be added, a dangerous explosion ensues.”

Prop. White, silky, asbestos-like crystals, deliquescing rapidly, and fuming in the air; put into water, it hisses like a red-hot iron; it melts at 77°, and rapidly volatilises at 86° Fahr.; it does not redden dry litmus paper; sp. gr. 1·97 at 78° Fahr.

Sulphuric Acid, Aromat′ic. Syn. Elixir of vitriol, Acid e. of v.; Acidum sulphuricum aromaticum (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E. & D.) Oil of vitriol, 3⁄2 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 1⁄2 pint; mix, add of powdered cinnamon, 1⁄2 oz.; powdered ginger, 1 oz.; digest for 6 days (7 days—Ph. D.), and filter. Sp. gr. ·974—Ph. D.

2. (Wholesale.) From compound tincture of cinnamon, 1 gall.; oil of vitriol, 1 lb.; mix, and in a week filter—Dose, 10 to 30 drops, in the same case as the dilute acid.

3. (B. P.) Sulphuric acid, 3; rectified spirit, 40; cinnamon, in powder, 2; ginger, in powder, 1⁄4; mix the acid gradually with the spirit, add the powders, macerate for 7 days, and filter.—Dose, 5 to 30 minims.

Sulphuric Acid, Dilute′. Syn. Spirit of vitriol; Acidum sulphuricum dilutum (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Take of sulphuric acid, 15 fl. dr., and dilute it gradually with distilled water, q. s. to make the whole exactly measure a pint. Sp. gr. 1·103. “1 fl. oz. of this acid is exactly saturated by 216 gr. of crystallised carbonate of soda.”

2. (Ph. E.) Sulphuric acid, 1 fl. oz.; water, 13 fl. oz. Sp. gr. 1·090.

3. (Ph. D.) Pure sulphuric acid, 1 fl. oz.; distilled water, 13 oz. Sp. gr. 1·084.

4. (B. P.) Sulphuric acid, 3; distilled water, q. s. to measure 35⁄4; mix by adding the acid gradually to the water.—Dose, 4 to 20 minims.

Prop., &c. Antiseptic, tonic, and refrigerant.—Dose, 10 to 30 drops, largely diluted with water, several times daily; in low typhoid fevers, passive hæmorrhages, profuse perspiration, in various skin diseases to relieve the itching, in dyspepsia, &c. It is also used externally.

Sulphuric Acid, Nordhausen. Syn. Fuming sulphuric acid; Acidum sulphuricum fumans, L. Prep. By distilling calcined ferrous sulphate (‘green vitriol’) in earthen retorts. The retorts, which are shown at A in the plate after the ‘green vitriol’ has been put into them, are placed in a galley-furnace, as shown below, the necks passing through the wall of the furnace, and being properly secured to the necks of the receivers (B B.). Into each of the flasks 2⁄2 lbs. of green vitriol are put; on the first application of heat only sulphurous acid and weak hydrated sulphuric acid come over, and are usually allowed to escape, the receivers not being securely luted until white vapours of anhydrous sulphuric acid are seen. Into each of the receiving flasks 30 grams of water are poured, and the distillation continued for 24 to 36 hours. The retort flasks are then again filled with raw material, and the operation repeated four times before the oil of vitriol is deemed strong enough. The residue in the retorts is red (peroxide) of iron, still retaining some sulphuric acid. The product is a brown oily liquid, which fumes in the air, is intensely corrosive, and has a sp. gr. about 1·900. When heated to about 100° Fahr. the anhydrous acid is given off, and ordinary oil of vitriol is left. According to Marignac, crystals of normal sulphuric acid (H2SO4) are formed in this acid when it is submitted to a low temperature. Nordhausen acid is so called from the place of its manufacture in Saxony. It may be regarded as a mixture or compound of H2SO4 and SO2. It is chiefly used for dissolving indigo.

SULPHURIC ANHYDRIDE. See Sulphuric acid, Anhydrous.

SULPHURIC E′THER. See Ether.

SUL′PHUROUS ACID. SO2. Syn. Sulphurus anhydride; Acidum sulphurosum, B. P. This compound is freely evolved in the gaseous form when sulphur is burnt in air or oxygen, and when the metals are digested in hot sulphuric acid; and, mixed with carbonic acid, when charcoal, chips of wood, cork, and sawdust, are treated in the same way.

Prep. 1. By heating together sulphur and strong sulphuric acid.

2. By the action of sulphuric acid on chippings of copper or mercury at a gentle heat. Pure.

3. (Berthier.) By heating, in a glass retort, a mixture of black oxide of manganese, 100 parts, and sulphur, 12 or 14 parts. Pure. The gas evolved should be collected over mercury, or received into water.

4. (Redwood.) Pounded charcoal, ⁄2 oz.; oil of vitriol, 4 fl. oz.; mix in a retort, apply the heat of a spirit lamp, and conduct the evolved gases by means of a bent tube into a bottle containing water. The sulphurous acid is absorbed, whilst the carbonic acid gas passes off.

5. (B. P.) Distilled water, saturated with sulphurous anhydride. It is colourless and emits a pungent odour. Used as a deoxidiser, disinfectant, and antiseptic. Diluted with from 1 to 2 parts of water it is employed as a lotion for wounds, cuts, ulcers, bed-sores, scalds, and burns; with from 1 to 5 of water it is used as a gargle, also as a lotion in parasitic skin diseases; from ⁄2 to 1 dr., in a wine-glassful of water, 3 times a day, relieves constant sickness.

Prop., &c. Water absorbs 30 times its volume of this gas. Pure liquid sulphurous acid can only be obtained by passing the pure dry gas through a glass tube surrounded by a powerful freezing mixture. Its sp. gr. is 1·45; boiling point, 14° Fahr.; it causes intense cold by its evaporation. Sulphurous acid forms salts called sulphites.

Uses. To bleach silks, woollens, straw, &c., and to remove vegetable stains and iron-moulds from linen. For these purposes it is prepared from sawdust or any other refuse carbonaceous matter.

Several preparations containing sulphurous acid have recently been invented by the Editor and introduced to the public as agents in sanitation under the name of Sporokton (germ-killer). To understand the nature and merits of these preparations it is desirable to explain the true and individual meanings of ‘Deodoriser,’ ‘Antiseptic,’ and ‘Disinfectant,’—words which are too often improperly employed as if they had the same signification, and as if, in fact, they were convertible terms.

A deodoriser is a substance which will absorb or destroy bad smells; an antiseptic is an agent which will prevent or retard putrefaction; and a disinfectant is an agent which will render harmless the virus of smallpox, scarlet fever, measles, diphtheria, influenza, pleuro-pneumonia, cattle plague, glanders, distemper in dogs, and other infectious or contagious diseases.

Now, medical authorities and sanitarians are of opinion that the most potent disinfectant with which we are acquainted is sulphurous acid, a gas which has been used for ages, as a fumigator. Sulphurous acid has not, however, been so generally employed for disinfecting purposes as one might from these circumstances have expected, on account of the difficulties and inconveniences which formerly attended its generation.

To remove these drawbacks, and to render sulphurous acid, both as a gas and in solution, easily and cheaply available for the above-named and many other applications, sporokton has been invented. Several varieties are made; they are as follows:

Liquid No. 1.—This preparation consists of a colourless solution of a non-volatile antiseptic, usually a salt of zinc, impregnated with eighty times its bulk of sulphurous acid gas; in other words, one pint of the liquid contains ten gallons of gas. Liquid sporokton is, in fact, a combination of one of the most powerful antiseptics with the disinfectant; the former ingredient will effectually prevent the putrefaction of any solid or liquid animal or vegetable matter with which it may come in contact, while the sulphurous acid will rapidly pass off in the gaseous state into the surrounding air and act as an energetic destroyer of noxious atmospheric impurities.

Liquid sporokton absorbs ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen, destroys bad smells, and prevents the spread of infectious diseases; it is, consequently, a valuable agent for the deodorisation and disinfection of wards of hospitals, sick rooms, dairies, larders, ship, stables, cow-houses, kennels, piggeries, slaughter-houses, urinals, water-closets, privies, cesspools, sewers, drains, and other similar buildings and places.

After it has parted with the whole of its sulphurous acid gas, liquid sporokton leaves an odourless, non-volatile antiseptic and absorber of ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen.

Liquid sporokton evolves its sulphurous acid by simple exposure to air, without the aid of heat, so that no risk of fire attends its use, as is the case when rooms, buildings, holds of ships, &c., are fumigated with this gas by the old plan; it will not stain or in any other way injure undyed woollen, linen, or cotton goods. It is consequently well adapted for the disinfection of underclothing, sheets, blankets, bed-furniture, &c.

Liquid sporokton may be employed for the instantaneous preparation of a bath or lotion of sulphurous acid, to be used, under medical direction, in the treatment of itch, ringworm, chronic eczema, lepra, psoriasis, impetigo, pityriasis, &c., in man, as well as mange, scab, and other skin affections in the lower animals.

Liquid sporokton is clean, it requires no skill in using it, and its action is perfectly controllable.

Liquid, No. 2.—This preparation is specially made for the disinfection and purification of old beer barrels, wine casks, and the like. It is similar in composition to, and may be used for the same purpose as No. 1; except, however, that as No. 2, unlike No. 1, is liable, from its containing iron instead of zinc, to stain linen, wood, &c., it should not be employed for disinfecting clothing or sprinkling over floors, decks of ships, and the like.

Solid.—This is a powder, usually a mixture of calcium sulphite and ferric chloride, which, by simple expose to air, will slowly and steadily, or when sprinkled with water, rapidly give out 25 per cent. of its weight of sulphurous acid and leave no unpleasant smell behind it.

Sulphurous acid gas, unlike non-volatile disinfectants, quickly mingles with the air, and seeks out, as it were, the noxious atmospheric impurities it is capable of destroying.

Solid sporokton, in addition to evolving sulphurous acid, contains an excess of ferric chloride which, together with this gas, renders it a most useful and efficient antiseptic.

Sulphurous Anhydride. See Sulphurous acid.

SU′MACH. This dye stuff is chiefly used as a substitute for galls. With a mordant of acetate of iron, it gives grey or black; with tin or acetate of alumina, yellow; and with sulphate of zinc, a yellowish-brown; alone, it gives a greenish-fawn colour.

SUM′BUL. Syn. Musk root, Jatamansi, Sumbul root; Sumbul radix (B. P.). A substance introduced to British medicine by Dr A. B. Granville, in 1850. It occurs in circular pieces, varying from 1 to 3 or 4 inches in diameter; has a musk-like odour, and a sweet balsamic taste. It acts as a powerful stimulant, especially of the nervous system. In India and Persia it has long been used as a medicine, a perfume, and as incense.—Dose, 15 gr. to 1 dr., either masticated, or made into an infusion, electuary, or tincture; in cholera, hysteria, neuralgia, epilepsy, low fevers, and various other spasmodic and nervous disorders.

SUMMER DRINKS. See Lemonade, Sherbet, &c.

SU′PER-. See Nomenclature.

SUP′PER. The evening meal; the last meal of the day. Supper is generally an unnecessary meal, and, when either heavy, or taken at a period not long before that of retiring to rest, proves nearly always injurious, preventing sound and refreshing sleep, and occasioning unpleasant dreams, nightmare, biliousness, and all the worst symptoms of imperfect digestion. The last meal of the day should be taken at least three hours before bedtime. Even when it consists of some ‘trifle,’ as a sandwich or biscuit, an interval of at least an hour should elapse before retiring to rest. In this way restlessness and unpleasant dreams will become rare.

SUPPOS′ITORY. Syn. Suppositorium, L. A medicine placed in the rectum for the purpose of affecting the lower intestine, or, by absorption, the system generally. Suppositories are rounded, usually elongated masses, having the active medicine combined with some substance which will retain the proper shape, as soap, spermaceti cerate, or cacao-butter. The latter substance is, perhaps, the best vehicle for remedies prescribed in this form. It is, however, rather too soft to be used without admixture. According to Dorvault, the addition of one eighth part by weight of wax imparts the proper hardness.

All difficulty of removing suppositories from the mould may be obviated by having the moulds previously dusted with lycopodium.

The mode of proportioning the doses of active ingredients has been noticed in the article Enema.

Suppository, Astringent. Syn. Suppositorium astringens (Reuss). Prep. Powdered oak bark, 2 dr.; tormentil, 2 dr.; honey, q. s. For 8 suppositories.

Suppository of Carbolic Acid. Syn. Suppositorium acidi carbolici (Ph. U. S.). Prep. Carbolic acid, 12 gr.; oil of theobroma, 348 gr.; water, q. s. Dissolve the acid in a few drops of water, and mix it with 1 dr. of oil of theobroma; then add it to the remainder of the theobroma previously melted, and cooled to the temperature of 95° F., and pour the whole immediately into moulds of 30 gr. each, standing in iced water.

Suppository of Copaiba. Syn. Suppositorium copaiba (Colombat). Prep. Solidified copaiba, 1 dr.; butter of cacao, 1 dr.; extract of opium, ⁄2 gr.

Suppository of Elaterium. Syn. Suppositorium elaterii (St B. H.). Prep. Extract of elaterium, 2 gr.; hard soap, 10 gr.; water, q. s. Mix.

Suppository, Emollient. Syn. Suppositorium emolliens. Prep. Butter of cacao and spermaceti in equal parts; melted together.

Suppository of Iodide of Potassium. Syn. Suppositorium potassii iodidii (Mr Stafford). Prep. Iodide of potassium, 1 gr. to 4 gr.; extract of henbane, 6 gr.; extract of hemlock, 6 gr. In enlarged prostate.

Suppository, Irritant. Syn. Suppositorium irritans (Richard). Prep. Butter of cacao, 2 dr.; aloes, 4 gr.; tartarised antimony, 1 gr. To restore the hæmorrhoidal flux.

Suppository of Lead (Compound). Syn. Suppositorium plumbi compositum (B. P.). Prep. Acetate of lead, in powder, 36; opium, in powder, 12; benzoated lard, 42; white wax, 10; oil of theobroma, 80; melt the wax and oil of theobroma with a gentle heat, then add the other ingredients, previously rubbed together in a mortar, and, having mixed them thoroughly, pour the mixture while it is fluid into suitable moulds of the capacity of 15 gr. The above makes 12 suppositories.

Suppository of Mercury. Syn. Suppositorium hydrargyri (B. P.). Prep. Ointment of mercury, 60 gr.; benzoated lard, 20 gr.; white wax, 20 gr.; oil of theobroma, 80 gr.; melt all but the mercurial ointment together, then add the ointment of mercury, stir till well mixed, and immediately pour into moulds of the capacity of 15 gr. The above makes 12 suppositories.

Suppository of Morphia. Syn. Suppositorium morphiæ (B. P.). Prep. Hydrochlorate of morphia, 6 gr.; oil of theobroma, 90 gr.; benzoated lard, 64 gr.; white wax, 20 gr.; melt the wax and oil of theobroma with a gentle heat, then add the hydrochlorate of morphia and benzoated lard, previously rubbed together in a mortar, and mix all the ingredients thoroughly; pour the mixture, while it is fluid, into suitable moulds of the capacity of 15 gr., or the fluid mixture may be allowed to cool, and then be divided into 12 equal parts, each of which should be made into a conical form.

Suppository of Opium. Syn. Suppositorium opii (Ph. U. S.). Prep. Extract of opium, 12 gr.; oil of theobroma, 348 gr.; water, q. s. Proceed as for carbolic acid suppository.

Suppository for Piles. Syn. Suppositorium hæmorrhoidale, S. sedativum, L. Prep. 1. Powdered opium, 2 gr.; finely powdered galls, 10 gr.; spermaceti cerate, 1 dr.

2. (Ellis.) Powdered opium, 2 gr.; soap, 10 gr.; mix.

3. (Richard.) Extracts of opium and stramonium, of each 1 gr.; cacao-butter, 2 dr. Used when the piles are very painful.

Suppository, Pur′gative. Syn. Suppositorium catharticum, L. Prep. 1. Soap, 1 dr.; elaterium, 1 to 2 gr.; mix. As a strong purge.

2. (Niemann.) Soap, 2 dr.; common salt, 1 dr.; honey, q. s.; mix. As a mild cathartic.

Suppository of Quinine. Syn. Suppositorium quinæ (Boudin). Prep. Sulphate of quinine, 15 gr.; butter of cacao, 1⁄2 dr. Mix.

Suppository, Resol′vent. Syn. Suppositorium resolvens, L. Prep. (Stafford.) Iodide of potassium, 3 to 4 gr.; extracts of henbane and hemlock, of each 6 gr. In enlargement or induration of the prostate gland.

Suppository of Rhatany. Syn. Suppositorium rhataniæ (P. Cod). Prep. Butter of cacao, 1 dr.; extract of rhatany, 15 gr., for 1 suppository.

Suppository, Sed′ative. See above.

Suppository of Sulphate of Soda. Syn. Suppositorium sodæ sulphatis (Phœbus). Prep. Dried sulphate of soda, 2 dr.; powdered soap, 4 dr.; honey, q. s. For 4 suppositories. To be smeared over with oil when applied.

Suppository of Tannic Acid. Syn. Suppositorium acidi tannici (B. P.). Prep. Tannic acid, 36 gr.; benzoated lard, 44 gr.; white wax, 10 gr.; oil of theobroma, 90 gr.; melt the wax and oil with a gentle heat, then add the tannic acid and benzoated lard, previously rubbed together, and mix thoroughly. Pour the mixture while it is fluid into suitable moulds of the capacity of 15 gr. The above makes 12 suppositories.

Suppository, Ver′mifuge. Syn. Suppositorium anthelminticum, S. vermifugum, L. Prep. (Swediaur.) Aloes, 4 dr.; common salt, 3 dr.; flour, 2 dr.; honey, q. s. to make a stiff mass; divide into proper-shaped pieces, weighing about 15 gr. each. One to be used after each motion.

Suppositories of Aloes. Syn. Suppositoria aloes (B. P.). Prep. Aloes in fine powder. 1 dr.; oil of theobroma, 300 gr. Proceed as for carbolic acid suppository, omitting the water.

Suppositories of Assafœtida. Syn. Suppositoria assafœtidæ (Ph. U. S.). Prep. Tincture of assafœtida, 1 oz.; oil of theobroma, 320 gr. Let the tincture evaporate by exposure to the air until of the consistence of a thick syrup, and proceed as for suppositories of carbolic acid.

Suppositories of Belladonna. Syn. Suppositoria belladonnæ (Ph. U. S.). Prep. Alcoholic extract of belladonna, 6 gr.; oil of theobroma, 354 gr. Proceed as for carbolic acid suppositories.

Suppositories of Carbolic Acid with Soap. Syn. Suppositoria acidi carbolici cum sapone (B. P.). Prep. Carbolic acid, 12 gr.; curd soap, in powder, 180 gr.; starch, q. s.; mix the carbolic acid with the soap, and add starch, q. s., to make of a suitable consistency; divide into 12 equal parts, and make each suppository into a conical or other convenient form.

Suppositories of Colocynth. Syn. Suppositoria colocynthidis (Sp. Ph.). Prep. Colocynth, 30 gr.; salt, 1 dr. Evaporate to a due consistence.

Suppositories of Morphia with Soap. Syn. Suppositoria morphiæ cum sapone (B. P.). Prep. Hydrochlorate of morphia, 6 gr.; glycerin of starch, 50 gr.; curd soap in powder, 100 gr.; starch, q. s. Mix the hydrochlorate with the glycerin of starch and soap, and add starch q. s. to form a paste of suitable consistence. Divide into 12 equal parts, each of which is to be made into a conical or other convenient form of suppository.

Suppositories of Tannic Acid with Soap. Syn. Suppositoria acidi tannici cum sapone (B. P.). Prep. Tannic acid, 36 gr.; glycerin of starch, 50 gr.; curd soap in powder, 100 gr.; starch, q. s. Mix the tannic acid with the glycerin of starch and soap, and add starch q. s. to form a paste of suitable consistence, divide into 12 equal parts, each of which is to be made into a conical or other convenient form of suppository.

Suppositories, Vaginal. Syn. Suppositoria vaginale (Guadrist). Prep. Liquid chloride of zinc, 5 minims; sulphate of morphia, ⁄2 gr.; mix with 2 dr. of the following paste:—Thick mucilage of tragacanth, 6 parts; white sugar, 3 parts; starch, 9 parts. Mr Druitt prescribes in leucorrhœa:—Tannin, 10 gr., with mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.

SURGERY. “This word,” says Brande, “in its modern acceptation, may be defined as the practical application of science, in the use of all mechanical and instrumental means, for the removal of diseases and the relief of human suffering.”

One of the earliest professors of the ancient art of surgery, of whom history affords a reliable record, was Hippocrates, a Greek, who lived in the fifth century of our era, and who seems to have been a man of considerable skill for the period in which he flourished, since he could set fractures, reduce dislocations, and perform other important operations. About two centuries after Hippocrates the studies of surgery, anatomy, and medicine were prosecuted with evident success at Alexandria. The Alexandrian school produced some able surgeons, one of whom, Ammianus, invented an instrument for crushing the stone in the bladder, and was thus the first to practise the now important surgical operation known as lithotrity. At the beginning of the Christian era Celsus practised the art of surgery in Rome; he appears to have been the first to operate for cataract, and to apply ligatures to arteries after operations. It is curious to note that so practical a people as the Romans held the art of surgery in comparative contempt, and banished its professors, whose services they discarded, for the practice of spells, incantations, and charms.

In the sixth century lived Œtius, who conceived the idea of dissolving urinary calculi by the administration of internal remedies; and in the tenth, Avicenna, who, it has been conjectured, invented the flexible catheter, and was the inventor of the instrument now known as Hey’s saw. In 1271 the Paris College of Surgeons was founded, and the College of Surgeons of London in 1460, and the Edinburgh College in 1505.

The most prominent figure in the annals of surgery of the 16th century was Paré, a man of great originality of thought, whose works exercised a considerable influence over his own contemporaries, and for many years subsequently. Towards the end of the 17th century lived Wiseman, serjeant surgeon to Charles II. Wiseman was a man of considerable ability, and was the first to demonstrate that gun-shot wounds were not of a poisonous nature; and that therefore the old practice of applying painful and caustic dressings to them might most advantageously be abandoned. A contemporary of Wiseman was Young, of Plymouth, who merits notice as being the first who performed the flap-operation in amputation.

In the 17th century also lived Frère St Cosme, a French monk, who obtained considerable fame as an operator for lithotomy, for the performance of which he regarded himself as especially chosen by Heaven. In the 18th century lived in England Cheselden and Douglas, two eminent lithotomists; John Hunter, Pott and Ley; in Scotland, Benjamin and John Bell and Monro; and in Ireland, O’Halloran and Deases; whilst in France flourished Petit, celebrated for his treatise on diseases of the bones; from Germany, Rechter and Haller.

In this century (1784) was founded the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland. In the present century there are few branches of science in which greater progress has been made than that of surgery. From amongst the most eminent of the English surgeons of the present century we may select the following names:—Abernethy, Blizard, Astley Cooper, Brodie, Dalrymple, Guthrie, Aston Key, Liston, Stanley, Travers, Arnott, Bowman, Erichsen, Fergusson, Prescott Hewett, Hilton, Lane, Lawrence, Paget, Spencer Wells, Marshall, Christopher Heath, Durham, Bryant, Nunn, Lee, H. Smith, Mason, and Pollock.

SUSPENDED ANIMATION. See Asphyxia.

SWAL′LOW. Three or four species of hirundo (Linn.) pass under this name. It was once held in great repute in medicine. Even the excrement was included among the simples of the Ph. L. 1618. The swallow is an insectivorous bird, but, like the sparrow and rook, is much persecuted for its good services. It has been calculated that, directly and indirectly, a single swallow is the humble means of lessening the race of one kind of insect alone to the extent of 560,970,489,000,000,000 of its race in one year.

SWEEPING. Before commencing to sweep, the floor should be strewed with a good amount of damp tea-leaves, saved for the purpose; these collect the dust and thereby save the furniture, which as far as practicable should be covered up during the process. Tea-leaves may also be advantageously used upon druggets and short-piled carpets. Light sweeping and soft brooms are desirable if these latter are to be operated upon. Many a carpet is prematurely worn out by over-violent sweeping.

In sweeping thick-piled carpets, such as Axminster and Turkey carpets, the servant should always be instructed to brush the way of the pile; by following this advice the carpets may be kept clean for years; but if the broom is used in a contrary direction, all the dust will be forced into the carpet, and soon spoil it.

SWEET BALLS. Prep. Take of Florentine orris root, 3 oz.; cassia, 1 oz.; cloves, rhodium wood, and lavender flowers, of each ⁄2 oz.; ambergris and musk, of each 6 gr.; oil of verbena, 10 or 12 drops; beat them to a paste, form this into balls with mucilage of gum tragacanth made with rose water, pierce them, whilst soft, with a needle, and, when they are quite dry and hard, polish them. Worn in the pocket as a perfume. Some persons varnish them, but that keeps in the smell.

SWEET BAY. Syn. Laurel; Laurus nobilis (Linn.), L. The fruit (LAURI BACCÆ; LAURUS—Ph. L.), as well as the leaves (LAURI FOLIA), are reputed aromatic, stimulant, and narcotic. They were formerly very popular in coughs, colic, hysteria, suppressions, &c.; and externally, in sprains, bruises, &c.

SWEET′BREAD. The thymus gland of the calf. When boiled, it is light and digestible; but when highly dressed and seasoned it is improper both for dyspeptics and invalids. (Pereira.)

SWEET FLAG. Syn. Acorus calamus, L. A plant of the natural order Orontiaceæ. The rhizome (‘root’) is an aromatic stimulant, and is regarded by some as a valuable medicine in agues, and as a useful adjunct to other stimulants and bitter tonics. It is sometimes employed by the rectifiers of gin. The volatile oil obtained from it by distillation is employed for scenting snuff and in the preparation of aromatic vinegar.

SWEET′MEATS. Under this head are properly included confections, candies, and preserves, in sugar; but, as generally employed, the word embraces all the sweet compounds of the confectioner.

Sweetmeats, as well as cakes, blancmange, and jellies, are not unfrequently coloured with deleterious substances, the consequences of which are always pernicious, and in many instances have proved fatal. Gamboge, a drastic cathartic; chrome yellow, red lead, orpiment, emerald green, and various other pigments containing lead, arsenic, copper, or other poisons, have been thus employed. The whole of these may be readily detected by the tests and characteristics appended to their respective names.

The colours and stains which may be safely employed to increase the beauty of these articles are noticed under Stains and Liqueur.

SWEETS. Home-made wines: British wines.

SWINE-POX. See Pox.

SYDENHAM’S LEN′ITIVE. Prep. Take of rhubarb (recently grated or powdered), 3 dr.; tamarinds, 2 oz.; senna, ⁄2 oz.; coriander seeds (bruised), 2 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; macerate for 3 hours in a covered vessel, and strain. An excellent stomachic and laxative.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1 wine-glassful.

SYL′VIC ACID. Syn. Silvic acid. The portion of common resin or colophony which is the least soluble in cold and somewhat dilute alcohol.

SYMBOLS. In chemistry are representations of one atom of each of the elementary bodies, by the capital initial letter with or without the addition of a small letter of their Latin names. As C, for carbon; Fe (ferrum), iron; O, oxygen, &c.

Symbols, Alchemical—

Acetum

Acetum destillatum

Acidum

Aër

Aerugo

Alumen

Alembic

Æther

Amalgama

Ammonium

Aqua

Aqua fortis

Aqua pluvialis

Aqua regia

Arena

Argentum

Arsenicum

Auripigmentum

Aurum

Aurantium

Baln. arenæ

Baln. mariæ

Baln. vaporis

Baryta

Bismuth

Borax

Calcaria

Calcaria usta

Camphora

Cancer

Caput mortuum

Carbo

Carbonicum

Carduus benedictus

Card. marianus

Cera

Cinis clavelatum

Cinis

Cinnabar

Cornu cervi

Cristalli

Crucibulum

Cuprum

Distillare

Ferrum

Fictile

Fixum

Flores

Gummi

Hora

Hydrargyrum

Hydr. chloridum

Hydr. corrosivum

Ignis

Kali

Lapis

Lithargyrum

Magnet

Magnesia

Menstruum

Natrum

Nitrum

Oleum

Oxidatum

Oxidulatum

Per deliquium

Plumbum

Precipitare

Preparare

Pulvis

Regulus

Resina

Retorta

Saccharum

Sal

Sal kali

Sal ammoniac

Sal medius

Sapo

Spiritus

Spiritus vini

Spiritus rectificatissimus

Spiritus rectificatus

Stannum

Stibium

Stratum super stratum

Sublimare

Succinum

Sulphur

Tartarus

Terra

Terra foliata

Tinctura

Vitriolum

Vitrum

Volatile

Urina

Ustare

Zincum

Symbols and Abbreviations, Botanical.

Monocarp. A plant which produces seed only once during its life. The symbol representing the sun.

Annual. A monocarp which dies in the same year that it germinated, e.g. Mustard.

Biennial. A monocarp which produces leaves only the first year and perfects its seed the next, e.g. Mullein.

P Perennial. A plant which produces seed for an indefinite number of years, e.g. Apple.

Rhizocarp. A perennial the stems of which die down to the ground every year, e.g. Rhubarb, Mint. The symbol representing Jupiter, which has a period of revolution round the sun of 12 years.

Caulocarp. A perennial, the stems of which are persistent throughout the whole of its life, e.g. Apple. The symbol representing Saturn, the period of revolution of which round the sun is 30 years.

H Herb. A plant, the stems of which remain soft or succulent, e.g. Mint or Rhubarb.

Shrub. A plant in which the stems are woody, and which usually divide near the ground into numerous branches and twigs, e.g. Lilac.

Under shrub. A small shrub; one that does not grow more than 3 feet in height, e.g. Gooseberry.

Tree. A plant which grows to 20 feet or more in height, having a woody stem forming a distinct trunk, e.g. Oak.

A climbing plant which follows the sun, e.g. Hop.

A climbing plant which moves against the sun, e.g. Scarlet-runner.

Flowers having stamens only (unisexual, staminiferous, or male), e.g. male flowers of Box. The symbol representing Mars, the period of revolution of which is 2 years.

Flowers having pistils only (unisexual, pistillate, or female), e.g. female flowers of Box. The symbol representing Venus.

Flowers having both stamens and pistils (bisexual or hermaphrodite), e.g. Buttercup.

Abortive staminiferous flowers (neuter).

Abortive pistillate flowers (neuter), e.g. the florets of the ray in Daisy.

Monœcious plants, producing male and female flowers upon the same individual, e.g. Box.

Diœcious plants, producing male and female flowers, but upon separate individuals, e.g. Willow.

Polygamous plants, which produce hermaphrodite and unisexual flowers upon the same or different individuals, e.g. Atriplex.

Indefinite in number; applied to stamens and other parts of flowers.

Cotyledons accumbent, radicle lateral.

Cotyledons incumbent, radicle dorsal.

Cotyledons conduplicate, radicle dorsal.

Cotyledons twice folded, radicle dorsal.

Cotyledons thrice folded, radicle dorsal.

Trimerous, applied to flowers when the whorls of the flower are multiples of three, as in most endogens.

Pentamerous, applied to flowers when the whorls of the flower are multiples of five, as in exogens generally.

Bab., Babington.

Berk., Berkeley.

Br., Brown.

Cal., calyx.

Caul, caulis, stem.

Cl., Classis, class.

Cor., corolla.

Cuv., Cuvier.

D. C., or De Cand., De Candolle.

Endl., Endlicher.

Fam., family.

Fr., fructus, fruit.

Gen., genus, genus.

Hook., Hooker.

Juss., Jussieu.

D. or Linn., Linnæus.

Lindl., Lindley.

Nat. Ord., Natural order.

O. or Ord., ordo, order.

Per., perianthus, perianth.

Rad., radix, root.

Rich., Richard.

Sp. or Spec, species, species.

Subord., Suborder.

Subk., Subkingdom.

Var., varietas, variety,

V. s. c., vidi siccam cultam, a dry cultivated plant seen.

V. s. s., vidi siccam spontaneam, a dried specimen seen.

V. v. c, vidi vivam cultam, a living cultivated plant seen.

V. v. s., vidi vivam spontaneam, a living wild plant seen.

Willd., Willdenow.

With., Withering.

SYMPATHET′IC INK. See Ink.

SYN′APTASE. Syn. Emulsin. The name given by Robiquet to the Emulsin, a nitrogenised or albuminoid principle existing in both the bitter and sweet almond. It possesses the remarkable property of converting amygdalin, in the presence of water, into hydrocyanic acid and the essential oil of bitter almonds. 100 gr. of amygdalin yield, under the influence of synaptase and water, 47 gr. of raw oil, and 5·9 gr. of anhydrous hydrocyanic acid. (Liebig.)

SYN′COPE. See Fainting.

SYR′UP. Syn. Sirup, Sirop; Syrupus, L. A saturated, or nearly saturated, solution of sugar in water, either simple, flavoured, or medicated.

In the preparation of syrups care should be taken to employ the best refined sugar, and either distilled water or filtered rain water; by which they will be rendered much less liable to spontaneous decomposition, and will be perfectly transparent, without the trouble of clarification. When inferior sugar is employed, clarification is always necessary. This is best done by dissolving the sugar in the water, or other aqueous menstruum, in the cold, and then beating up a little of the cold syrup with some white of egg, and an ounce or two of cold water, until the mixture froths well; this must be added to the syrup in the boiler, and the whole ‘whisked up’ to a good froth; heat should now be applied, and the scum which forms removed from time to time with a clean ‘skimmer.’ As soon as the syrup begins to slightly simmer it must be removed from the fire, and allowed to stand until it has cooled a little, when it should be again skimmed, if necessary, and then passed through clean flannel. When vegetable infusions or solutions enter into the composition of syrups, they should be rendered perfectly transparent by filtration or clarification, before being added to the sugar.

M. Magnes-Lahens describes below a process for the clarification of syrups, the originator of which was M. Demarest, a pharmacien. The process is as follows:—White unsized paper is beaten up into a pulp with a portion of the syrup, and then mixed with the bulk. The proportion of paper should be one gram to every litre of syrup; and the latter should be maintained at a temperature of 35° to 40° C.

A filter of moleskin capable of holding about one third of the volume of the syrup, and having the form of an inverted sugar-loaf, is supported over a suitable receptacle; the syrup with the pulp is poured rapidly into it, so as to fill it as quickly as possible; and the filter is kept full so long as any of the syrup remains. When the greater part has run through, and but little remains in the filter, and consequently the ‘felting’ of the paper pulp is complete, the syrup which has already run through, is again poured into the filter. The liquid which now passes is perfectly bright, and may be collected. In pouring the syrup into the filter, the stream should be directed into the middle, and not upon the sides, so as to avoid disarranging the felt, which would interfere with the success of the operation.

The author very strongly recommends this method for the clarification of all kinds of syrups; its advantages being that it results in a perfectly limpid liquid, and that it involves neither trouble nor loss of time or material. He states that in 4 or 5 hours, with a filter of 8 litres in capacity, 24 litres of syrup may be clarified.

The small quantity of syrup retained in the filter and pulp, may be recovered by pouring on a sufficient quantity of warm water, pressing strongly, evaporating the liquid to a syrupy consistence, beating up with a little paper pulp, and passing, it again through a small filter.

The proper quantity of sugar for syrups will, in general, be found to be 2 lbs. (avoir.) to every imperial pint of water or thin aqueous fluid. These proportions, allowing for the water that is lost by evaporation during the process, are those best calculated to produce a syrup of the proper consistence, and possessing good ‘keeping qualities.’ They closely correspond to those recommended by Guibourt for the production of a perfect syrup, which, he says, consists of 30 parts of sugar to 16 parts of water.

In the preparation of syrups it is of great importance to employ as little heat as possible, as a solution of sugar, even when kept at the temperature of boiling water, undergoes slow decomposition. The plan which we adopt is to pour the water (cold) over the sugar, and to allow the two to lie together for a few hours, in a covered vessel, occasionally stirring, and then to apply a gentle heat (preferably that of steam or water bath) to finish the solution. Some persons (falsely) deem a syrup ill prepared unless it has been allowed to boil well; but if this method be adopted, the ebullition should be only of the gentlest kind (‘simmering’), and should be checked after the lapse of 1 or 2 minutes.

Mr Orynski recommends the preparation of all syrups without the application of heat, as follows:

Introduce 30 or 32 oz. of sugar (according to the temperature) into a percolator, in which has been previously introduced a piece of lint or sponge, well adjusted, and gradually pour on 16 ounces of liquid, so as to make the percolate (syrup) pass drop by drop. If the first liquid is turbid pour it back into the percolator till the syrup passes clear.

The advantages claimed for this process are: First, the syrups are clear; and there is no necessity for purifying them.

Secondly, they possess their medicinal properties unaltered; since many drugs may be injured by heat, more especially aromatics, and those containing readily volatile substances; and—

Thirdly, the syrups will neither crystallise nor ferment; and may be prepared in large quantity, provided the vessels or bottles are clean before filling them with syrup.

When it is necessary to thicken a syrup by boiling, a few fragments of glass should be introduced, in order to lower the boiling point.

To make highly transparent syrups, the sugar should be in a single lump, and, by preference, taken from the bottom or broad end of the loaf, as, when taken from the smaller end, or if it be powdered or bruised, the syrup will be more or less cloudy.

Syrups are judged, by the laboratory man, to be sufficiently boiled when some taken up in a spoon, pours out like oil, or a drop cooled on the thumb-nail gives a proper ‘thread’ when touched. When a thin skin appears on blowing upon the syrup, it is judged, by the same party, to be completely saturated. These rude tests often lead to errors, which might be easily prevented by employing the proper proportions, or determining the sp. gr.

A fluid ounce of SATURATED SYRUP weighs 577⁄2 gr.; a gallon weighs 13⁄5 lbs. (avoir.); its sp. gr. is 1·319 to 1·321, or 35° of Baumé’s aërometer; its boiling-point is 221° Fahr., and its density at the temperature of 212° is 1·260 to 1·261, or 30° Baumé. The syrups prepared with the juices of fruits, or which contain much extractive matter, as those of sarsaparilla, poppies, &c., mark about 2° or 3° more on Baumé’s scale than the other syrups.

In most pharmaceutical works directions are given to completely saturate the water with sugar. Our own experience, which is extensive, leads us to disapprove of such a practice, since we find that, under all ordinary circumstances, a syrup with a very slight excess of water keeps better than one fully saturated. In the latter case a portion of sugar generally crystallises out on standing, and thus, by abstracting sugar from the remainder of the syrup, so weakens it, that it rapidly ferments and spoils. This change proceeds at a rapidity proportionate to the temperature. Saturated syrup kept in a vessel that is frequently uncorked or exposed to the air soon loses sufficient water, by evaporation from its surface, to cause the formation of minute crystals of sugar, which, falling to the bottom of the vessel, continue to increase in size at the expense of the sugar in the solution. We have seen a single 6-gallon stone bottle, in which syrup has been kept for some time, the inside of which, when broken, has been found to be entirely cased with sugar candy, amounting in weight to 16 or 18 lbs. On the other hand, syrups containing too much water also rapidly ferment, and become acescent; but of the two this is the less evil, and may be more easily prevented. The proportions of sugar and water given above will form an excellent syrup, provided care be taken that an undue quantity be not lost by evaporation.

The decimal part of the number denoting the sp. gr. of a syrup, multiplied by 26, gives the number of pounds of sugar it contains per gallon, very nearly. (Ure.)

In boiling syrups, if they appear likely to boil over, a little oil, or rubbing the edges of the pan with soap, will prevent it.

Syrups may be decoloured by agitation with, or filtration through, recently burnt animal charcoal. Medicated syrups should not, however, be treated in this way.

The preservation of syrups, as well as of all other saccharine solutions, is best promoted by keeping them in a moderately cool, but not a very cold, place. “Let syrups be kept in vessels well closed, and in a situation where the temperature never rises above 55° Fahr.” (Ph. L.) They are better kept in smaller rather than in large bottles, as the longer a bottle lasts the more frequently it will be opened, and, consequently, the more it will be exposed to the air. By bottling syrups whilst boiling hot, and immediately corking down and tying the bottles over with bladder perfectly air-tight, they may be preserved, even at a summer heat, for years, without fermenting or losing their transparency.

The ‘candying,’ or crystallisation, of syrup, unless it be oversaturated with sugar, may be prevented by the addition of a little acetic or citric acid (2 or 3 dr. per gall.).

The fermentation of syrups may be effectually prevented by the addition of a little sulphite of potassa or of limes. Chlorate of potassa has been proposed for this purpose by Dr Macculloch, on theoretical grounds. M. Chereau recommends the addition of some (about 3 to 4%) sugar of milk, with the same intention. Dr Durand asserts that by adding about 1 fl. dr. of ‘Hofmann’s anodyne’ to each pint of syrup, the accession of fermentation may not only be prevented, but arrested when it occurs, fermenting syrups may be immediately restored by exposing the vessel containing them to the temperature of boiling water. The addition of a little spirit is ordered in the new ‘London Pharmacopœia.’

In making the above additions to syrup, care must be had not to mix incompatible substances. Thus, in general the two methods referred to cannot be practised together.

Syrup is, perhaps, the worst possible form of medicine, owing to the difficulty of accurately saturating it with active medicinals, and its liability to change. Few persons think that “sweetness renders a nauseous drug more palatable.” See also Squire’s ‘Companion to the British Pharmacopœia.’

Syrup of Ac′etate of Mor′phia. Syn. Syrupus morphiæ acetatis, L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Solution of acetate of morphia, 1 fl. oz.; simple syrup, 15 fl. oz.; mix. Each fl. oz. contains ⁄4 gr. of acetate.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 teaspoonfuls.

Syrup of Al′mond. Syn. Barley syrup, Orgeat; Syrupus amygdalæ, L.; Sirop d’orgeat, Fr. Prep. 1. Sweet almonds, 1 lb.; bitter almonds, 1 oz.; blanch, beat them to a smooth paste, and make an emulsion with barley water, 1 quart; strain, to each pint add of sugar, 2 lbs., and a table-spoonful or two of orange-flower water; put the mixture into small bottles, and preserve it in a cool place. Some persons add a little brandy.

2. (Ph. Bor.) Sweet almonds, 8 oz.; bitter almonds, 2 oz.; blanch them, after cold maceration, then beat them in a marble mortar, with a wooden pestle, to a paste, adding, gradually, of water, 16 fl. oz.; orange-flower water, 3 fl. oz.; after straining through flannel, dissolve 3 lbs. of sugar in each pint of the emulsion. An agreeable pectoral and demulcent.

Syrup of Aniseed. Syn. Syrupus anisi. Prep. Infuse ⁄2 oz. of bruised aniseed in 4 oz. of hot water, strain, and add 2 dr. of sugar.

Syrup, Antiscorbutic. Syn. Syrupus antiscorbuticus (P. Cod.) Prep. Scurvy-grass, watercresses, horseradish, all fresh, of each 10 oz.; buckbean, 1 oz.; bitter orange peel, 2 oz.; cinnamon, ⁄2 oz.; white wine, 40 oz. (by weight); macerate 2 days and distil off 10 oz. (by weight); then add to the distillate, sugar, 25 oz.; strain the residue left in the retort, decant and make into a syrup with another 25 oz. of sugar; clarify with white of egg, and when cold, add to it the former syrup.—Dose, 4 dr.

Syrup of Balsam of Peru. Syn. Syrupus balsami peruviani. (Ph. G.) Prep. Balsam of Peru, 1 oz.; boiling water, 11 oz.; digest with frequent agitation till cold, and form 10 oz. of the filtered liquid into a syrup, with 18 oz. of sugar.

Syrup of Bark. Syn. Syrupus cinchonæ. (P. Cod.) Prep. Calisaya bark, 1 oz.; percolate, with 10 oz. of proof spirits (·996), and then with water, so as to yield 10 oz. of liquid; distil off spirit, filter, and add 10 oz. of sugar; reduce by a gentle heat, so as to obtain 15⁄4 oz. (by weight) of product.

Syrup of Bark, Vinous. Syn. Syrupus cinchonæ vinosus. (P. Cod.) Prep. Soft extract of bark, 1 oz.; white wine, 2 pints 3 oz.; dissolve, filter, add 3⁄2 lbs. of white sugar, and dissolve by a water bath.

Syrup of Belladonna. Syn. Syrupus belladonnæ. (P. Cod.) Tincture of belladonna (P. Cod), ⁄4 oz. (by weight); syrup, 10 oz. (by weight).

Syrup, Boyle’s. See Syrup, Symphytic.

Syrup of Buck′thorn. Syn. Syrupus rhamni (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), S. rhamnni cathartici, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Juice of Buckthorn, defecated by 3 days’ repose, 2 quarts; ginger and allspice, of each (bruised) 6 dr.; macerate the spice in 1 pint of the juice, at a gentle heat, for 4 hours, and filter; boil the remainder of the juice to 1⁄2 pint, mix the liquors, dissolve therein of white sugar, 6 lbs.; and add to the (nearly cold) syrup 6 fl. oz. of rectified spirit. In the Ph. E. the spirit is omitted.

2. (B. P.) Buckthorn juice, 97; ginger, sliced, 1; pimento, bruised, 1; refined sugar, 97; rectified spirit, 8 oz.; evaporate the juice to nearly half (⁄8); add the ginger and pimento, digest at a gentle heat for four hours, and strain; when cold add the spirit, let the mixture stand for two days, then decant off the clear liquor, and in this dissolve the sugar at a gentle heat; sp. gr. 1·32.—Dose, 1 dr.

3. (Wholesale.)—a. Take of buckthorn juice, 3 gall.; bruised pimento and ginger (sifted from the dust), of each ⁄2 lb.; simmer for 15 minutes, strain, and add of sugar, 44 lbs.

b. Take of buckthorn juice, 3 galls.; boil to 2 gall.; add of bruised pimento and ginger gruffs (free from dust), of each ⁄4 lb.; boil to 1 gall., strain, add molasses, 72 lbs., and finish the boiling.

Obs. Syrup of buckthorn is a brisk but unpleasant cathartic. It is now chiefly used in veterinary practice.—Dose, ⁄2 fl. oz. to 1 fl. oz. Should the colour be dull, the addition of a few grains of citric or tartaric acid will brighten it.

Syrup of Cabbage-tree Bark. Syn. Syrupus geoffroyæ. (Dr Wright.) Prep. Decoction of cabbage-tree bark made into a syrup with twice its weight of sugar. Vermifuge.—Dose, 1 to 4 tablespoonfuls.

Syrup of Cahinca. Syn. Syrupus cahincæ. (Soubeiran.) Prep. Alcoholic extract of cahinca, 64 gr.; syrup, 16 oz.; dissolve the extract in a little water, and add the solution to the boiling syrup.—Dose, 1 oz. daily.

Syrup of Cap′illaire. Syn. Syrup of maidenhair; Syrupus adianthi, Syrupus capillorum veneris, L.; Capillaire, Sirop de capillaire, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Canadian maidenhair (Adiantum pedatum—Linn.), 4 oz.; boiling water, 2⁄2 pints; infuse, strain, add of white sugar, 5 lbs., and pour the boiling clarified syrup over 2 oz. more of maidenhair; re-infuse for 2 hours, and again strain.

Obs. Demulcent. Clarified syrup flavoured with orange-flower water or curaçoa is now commonly sold for CAPILLAIRE. It is usually ‘put up’ in small bottles of a peculiar shape, known in the trade as ‘capillaires.’ It is now chiefly used to sweeten and flavour grog. See Capillaire.

Syrup of Car′rageen. Syn. Syrup of Iceland moss. Prep. Boil horehound, 1 oz., liverwort, 6 dr., in water, 4 pints, for 15 minutes; express and strain; then add carrageen (previously softened with cold water), 6 dr.; again boil for 15 minutes, strain through flannel, and add sugar, 1 lb., to each pint. An agreeable demulcent in coughs.

Syrup of Castor, Compound. Syn. Syrupus castorii compositus. (Lebron.) Prep. Valerian water, 5 oz.; cherry laurel water, 2⁄2 oz.; castor (dissolved in a sufficient quantity of spirit), 3 dr.; white sugar, 15 oz. In spasmodic asthma.

Syrup of Catechu. Syn. Syrupus catechu. (P. Cod.) Prep. Extract catechu, 2⁄2 oz.; syrup, 6 lbs.; dissolve the extract in double its weight of water, and add to the syrup.

Syrup of Chamomile. Syn. Syrupus anthemidis. (P. Cod.) Prep. Chamomile flowers, dried, 1 lb.; boiling water, 10 lbs.; macerate, strain with expression, and form the infusion into a syrup with twice its weight of sugar.

Syrup of Chloral Hydrate. Syn. Syrupus chloralis hydratis. (B. Ph.) Prep. Hydrate of chloral, 80 gr.; distilled water, 4 fl. dr. Syrup to measure, 1 fl. oz.—Dose, ⁄2 fl. dr. to 2 fl. dr.

Syrup of Chloride of Lime. Syn. Syrupus chloridi calcis. (Dr Reid.) Prep. Liquid chloride of lime, 1 dr.; mucilage, 2 dr.; syrup of orange peel, 10 dr.

Syrup of Cinchonine. Syn. Syrupus cinchoninæ. (P. Cod.) Prep. Sulphate cinchonine, 20 gr.; syrup, 16 oz. (by weight).

Syrup of Citrate of Caffeine. Syn. Syrupus caffeinæ citratis. (Hannon.) Prep. Citrate of caffeine, 1 scruple; syrup, 1 oz.

Syrup of Citrate of Iron and Ammonia. Syn. Syrupus ferri et ammoniæ citratis. (Beral.) Prep. Ammonio-citrate of iron, ⁄4 oz.; syrup 9⁄2 oz. (by weight); cinnamon water, ⁄4 oz.

Syrup of Citrate of Iron and Quinine. Syn. Syrupus ferri et quiniæ citratis. A syrup is prepared by Mr Bullock under this name, but its composition has not been made known. Another form is citrate of iron and quinine, 1 oz.; syrup of orange peel, 1 pint. (Beasley.)

Syrup of Cit′ric Acid. Syn. Syrupus acidi citrici (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Take of citric acid (in powder) and distilled water, of each, 2⁄2 oz.; dissolve, add the solution, together with tincture of lemon peel, 5 fl. dr., to simple syrup, 3 pints, and mix with agitation. An agreeable refrigerant. Used for sweetening barley water, &c., and for flavouring water to be used as a beverage in fevers and other inflammatory diseases.

Syrup of Cloves. Syn. Syrupus caryophylli. (Ph. E.) Prep. Clove, July flowers, 1 troy oz.; boiling water, 4 oz.; macerate for 12 hours, strain, and add sugar, 7 oz.; make a syrup. Used for its colour and flavour.

Syrup of Cochineal. Syn. Sryupus coccinellæ, Syrupus cocci (Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Take of cochineal (bruised), 80 gr.; boiling distilled water, 1 pint; boil for 15 minutes in a closed vessel, strain, and add of sugar, 3 lbs., or twice that of the strained liquor; lastly, when the syrup has cooled, add of rectified spirit, 2⁄2 fl. oz., or ⁄2 fl. dr. to each fl. oz. of syrup. Used as a colouring syrup, and often sold for SYRUP OF CLOVE-PINKS.

Syrup of Cochineal, Alkaline. Syn. Syrupus cocci alkalinus. Prep. Cochineal in powder, 2 scruples; carbonate of potash in powder, 4 scruples; triturate, and add boiling distilled water, 16 oz.; strain, and add 4 oz. of sugar candy. A popular domestic remedy for hooping cough.—Dose. From a teaspoonful to a tablespoonful, according to the age of the child, 3 or 4 times a day.

Syrup of Cod-liver Oil. Syn. Syrupus olei morrhuæ. (Duclos.) Prep. Mix 5 parts of powdered gum with 4 of simple syrup; add 8 parts of cod-liver oil, triturate till perfectly mixed, gradually adding 12 parts of water; lastly, dissolve in the emulsion, 24 oz. of sugar by means of a gentle heat. In the same manner may be prepared syrups from the oil of skate, castor oil, &c.

Syrup of Coffee. Syn. Syrupus caffeæ. Prep. Concentrated infusion of fresh-roasted coffee, 4 oz.; refined sugar, 8 oz.; dissolved in a closed vessel by a gentle heat.

Syrup of Colchicum. Syn. Syrupus colchici. (Ph. E., 1817.) Prep. Fresh colchicum, 1 oz.; vinegar, 16 oz.; macerate for 2 days, and strain with gentle expression; add to the clear liquor 26 oz. of sugar, and boil.

Syrup of Colts′foot. Syn. Syrupus tussilaginis, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Flowers of coltsfoot, 1 lb. (or dried flowers, 2 oz.); boiling water, 2 lbs.; macerate for 12 hours; strain, press, filter, and add of white sugar, 4 lbs. A popular remedy in coughs, colds, &c.—Dose, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, ad libitum.

Syrup of Copaiba. Syn. Syrupus copaibæ. (Puche.) Prep. Triturate 2 oz. of copaiba with ⁄2 oz. of powdered gum and 1⁄2 oz. of water; add 32 drops of essence of peppermint, and 12 oz. of simple syrup.

Syrup of Corsican Moss. Syn. Syrupus helminthocorti. (P. Cod.) Macerate 1 lb. of cleansed Corsican moss in 2⁄2 lbs. of boiling water; in six hours strain. Macerate the residue in sufficient boiling water, so as to obtain, including the product of the first maceration, 2⁄4 lbs., in which dissolve 5 lbs. of sugar.

Syrup of Cream. Finely powdered lump sugar mixed with an equal weight of fresh cream. It will keep for a long time if put into bottles, and closely corked and sealed over. It is commonly placed in 2-oz. wide-mouthed phials, and taken on long voyages, a fresh phial being opened at every meal.

Syrup of Cyanide of Potassium. Syn. Syrupus potassii cyanidi; Syrop de hydrocyanate de potasse. Prep. Clarified syrup, 16 oz.; medicinal hydrocyanate of potash (a solution of 1 part of cyanide of potassium in 8 of water), 1 dr.

Syrup of Dittany. Syn. Syrupus diotamni. From Dittany of Crete, as Syrup of Hyssop.

Syrup of Dulcamara. Syn. Syrup of bitter sweet, Syrupus dulcamaræ. As Syrup of Corsican moss.

Syrup, Easton’s. This preparation is said to contain in each fluid drachm—1 gr. of phosphate of iron, 1 gr. of phosphate of quinia, and a ⁄32 gr. of strychnia. The dose is 1 dr. A precipitate, which consists of phosphate of quinine, sometimes forms in this syrup. This may be obviated by avoiding as much as possible exposure of the syrup to the air, caused by filtration of the quinine solution into the syrup.

Syrup of Eggs. Syn. Syrupus ovorum. (Fuller.) Prep. Beat the whites of 3 eggs with 6 oz. of plantain water, and work it in a mortar with 6 oz. of powdered sugar till they form a syrup.

Syrup of Emetina. Syrupus emitinæ. (P. Cod.) Prep. Coloured emetine, 12 gr.; syrup, 17⁄2 oz. (by weight); mix.

Syrup, Empyreumat′ic. Treacle.

Syrup of Ergotine. Syn. Syrupus ergotinæ (Bonjean.) Ergotine (watery extract of ergot), 2 dr.; orange-flower water, 1 oz.; dissolve, and add the solution to 16 oz. (by weight) of boiling syrup.—Dose, 2 to 4 spoonfuls in the day.

Syrup of E′ther. Syn. Syrupus ætheris, S. æ. sulphurici, L.; Sirop d’æther, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Sulphuric ether, 1 part; white (simple) syrup, 16 parts; place them in a glass vessel having a tap at the bottom, shake them frequently for 5 or 6 days, and then draw off the clear syrup into small bottles.—Dose, ⁄2 to 3 fl. dr.

Syrup of Eucalyptus. Syn. Syrupus eucalypti globuli. Prep. 1. 100 gr. of the chopped leaves are infused for 6 hours in 1 litre of boiling water, the liquid expressed, and after allowing it to deposit, it is made into a syrup by the addition of 190 grams of sugar, for 100 grams of the clear liquid.

2. (Dorvault.) Distilled water of eucalyptus, 50 parts; sugar, 95 parts; dissolve.

Syrup, Euston’s. See Syrup of Phosphate of Iron, with quinine and strychnia.

Syrup of Fennel. Syn. Syrupus fœniculi. (Ph. G.) Prep. Infuse bruised fennel seed, 2 oz., in 12 oz. of boiling water for three hours; strain off 10 oz., and dissolve it in 18 oz. sugar.

Syrup of Foxglove. Syn. Syrupus digitalis. (P. Cod.) Prep. Tincture of foxglove (P. Cod), ⁄2 oz. (by weight); syrup, 20 oz. (by weight).

Syrup of Fumitory. Syn. Syrupus fumariæ. (P. Cod.) Clarified juice of fumitory, 1 lb.; white sugar, 2 lbs.; boil to a syrup.

Syrup of Garlic. Syn. Syrupus allii. (Ph. U. S.) Prep. Garlic, 6 oz. troy; distilled vinegar, 16 oz. (o. m.); macerate for 4 days; express, and form a syrup with the clear liquor and sugar, 2 troy lbs.

Syrup of Garlic, Compound. Syn. Syrupus allii compositus. Dr Will’s Syrup. Prep. Garlic, cut small, ⁄2 oz.; bruised aniseed, ⁄2 oz.; elecampane root, 3 dr.; liquorice root, 2 dr.; brandy, 24 oz.; digest for 2 or 3 days, strain, and form a syrup with 1⁄2 lb. of sugar.

Syrup of Gin′ger. Syn. Syrupus zingiberis (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Bruised ginger, 2⁄2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; macerate for 4 hours, strain, and add of white sugar, 2⁄2 lbs., or q. s.; and rectified spirit, as directed for syrup of cochineal. The Ph. E. omits the spirit.

2. (Ph. D.) Tincture of ginger, 1 fl. oz.; simple syrup, 7 fl. oz.; mix. Stimulant and carminative. Chiefly used as an adjuvant, in mixtures.

3. (B. P.) Strong tincture of ginger, 1; syrup, 25; mix.—Dose, 1 to 4 dr.

Syrup of Gold. Syn. Syrupus auri. (P. Cod.) Prep. Powdered gold, 20 gr.; syrup, 1 oz. As a local application.

Syrup of Guaiacum Wood. Syn. Syrupus guaiaci ligni. (P. Cod.) Prep. Boil rasped guaiacum wood, 3 oz. twice, and for an hour each time, in 30 oz. of water; strain through a thick cloth; mix the two liquids, and concentrate until they are reduced to 6 oz. (by weight); let cool, filter through paper, and add 10 oz. of sugar.

Syrup of Guarana. Syn. Syrupus Paulliniæ, Syrupus guaranæ. Prep. Extract of guarana, 2⁄2 dr.; syrup, 32 oz.

Syrup of Gum. Syn. Syrupus acaciæ, L.; Sirop de gomme, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Dissolve pale and picked gum Arabic in an equal weight of water, by a gentle heat, add the solution to four times its weight of simple syrup, simmer for 2 or 3 minutes, remove the scum, and cool. A pleasant demulcent. The addition of 1 or 2 fl. oz. of orange-flower water to each pint greatly improves it.

Syrup of Gum Ammoniacum. Syn. Syrupus gummi ammoniaci. (Wurt. Ph.) Prep. Dissolve 2 oz. of gum ammoniacum in 8 oz. of white wine, by the heat of a water-bath, and add sugar, 16 oz.

Syrup of Gum Tragacanth. Syrupus gummi tragacanthæ. (Mouchon.) Prep. Gum tragacanth, 1 oz.; water, 32 oz.; macerate for 48 hours, press through a linen cloth, and mix the mucilage with 8 lbs. of syrup, heated to 176° F., and strain through coarse cloth.

Syrup of Hedge Mustard. Syn. Syrupus erysimi. Prep. From the expressed juice of hedge mustard (clarified), 1 lb.; sugar, 2 lbs.; make into a syrup.

Syrup of Hedge Mustard, Compound. Syn. Syrupus erysimi compositus, Sirop de velar, Sirop de chantre. (P. Cod.) Prep. Pearl barley, raisins, liquorice root, of each ⁄4 oz.; cut and dried leaves of borage and chicory, of each 1 oz.; fresh hedge mustard, 15 oz.; dried elecampane root, 1 oz.; maidenhair, ⁄4 oz.; dried lavender and rosemary tops, of each ⁄4 oz.; green aniseeds, ⁄4 oz.; sugar, 20 oz.; honey, 5 oz. Boil the pearl barley in the water until it bursts, add the raisins and the sliced liquorice, the borage and the chicory, and after just boiling strain and press. Then pour the strained liquid on to the other substances properly bruised and cut, and let the mixture digest for 24 hours over a water bath; then distil, drawing over 2⁄2 oz. liquid (by weight); on the other hand, press and strain the liquor that remains in the retort, clarify with white of egg, add the sugar and honey, and make into a syrup that, when boiling, shall have a sp. gr. of 1·29; when nearly cold add the 2⁄2 oz. of distilled liquid, and strain.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 oz.

Syrup of Henbane. Syn. Syrupus hyoscyami (P. Cod.). From the tincture (P. Cod.) as syrup of belladonna.

Syrup, Hive. Compound syrup of squills.

Syrup of Horehound. Syn. Syrupus marubii, L.; Sirop de prassio, Fr. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Dried horehound, 1 oz.; horehound water, 2 lbs.; digest in a water bath for 2 hours, strain, and add of white sugar, 4 lbs.

2. White horehound (fresh), 1 lb.; boiling water, 1 gall.; infuse for 2 hours, press out the liquor, filter, and add of sugar, q. s.

Obs. A popular remedy in coughs and diseases of the lungs.—Dose. A table-spoonful, ad libitum. “It is sold for any syrup of herbs that is demanded, and which is not in the shop.” (Gray.)

Syrup, Horseradish. Syn. Syrupus armoraciæ. (Dr Cullen.) Prep. Scraped horseradish, 1 oz.; hot water, 8 oz.; digest, strain, and dissolve in the liquor twice its weight of sugar.—Dose, 1 dr. frequently in hoarseness from relaxation.

Syrup of Houndstongue. Syn. Syrupus cynoglossi. (Fuller.) Prep. Clarified juice of houndstongue boiled, with its weight of sugar, to a syrup. In catarrhous humours.

Syrup of Hydrochlo′′rate of Mor′phine. Syn. Syrup of muriate of morphine; Syrupus morphiæ muriatis (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Solution of muriate of morphia, 1 fl. oz.; simple syrup, 17 fl. oz.; mix. Each fl. oz. contains ⁄4 gr. of the muriate.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 teaspoonfuls.

Syrup of Hydrocyanic Acid. Syn. Syrupus acidi hydrocyanici. The Paris Codex orders a syrup, in which 200 parts (by weight) contain 1 part (by weight) of officinal medicinal hydrocyanic acid, containing 10 per cent. of anhydrous acid.

Syrup of Hypophosphate of Iron. Syn. Syrupus ferri hypophosphitis. (Wood.) Prep. Granulated sulphate of iron, 480 gr.; hypophosphite of lime, 326 gr.; diluted phosphoric acid, 1 fl. oz.; water, 1⁄2 oz.; syrup, 3 dr. Dissolve without heat the iron in the acid, mixed with the water; rub the hypophosphite to fine powder, and pour on it the solution of sulphate of iron; rub together for two or three minutes; then pour the mixture on a piece of damp calico, and squeeze out the liquid; filter the solution so obtained, and add to it seven times its volume of syrup.

Syrup of Hypophosphite of Lime. Syn. Syrupus calcis hypophosphitis. (Churchill.) Prep. Hypophosphite of lime, 1 part; syrup, 100 parts.

Syrup of Hypophosphite of Potash. See Syrup of the Hypophosphites.

Syrup of Hypophosphite of Soda. See Syrup of the Hypophosphites.

Syrup of Hyposulphite of Soda. Syn. Syrupus sodæ hyposulphitis. (Mouchon.) Prep. Hyposulphite of soda, 1 oz.; water, 12 oz.; sugar, 33 oz. Dissolve with a gentle heat, and filter.

Syrup of the Hypophosphites. Syn. Syrupus hypophosphiticus. Prep. Hypophosphite of lime, potash, and soda, 1 part each, dissolved with heat in syrup, 100 parts.—Dose, 1 dr.

Syrup of Hyssop. Syn. Syrupus hyssopi. (P. Cod.) Prep. As syrup of coltsfoot.

Syrup of Iceland Moss. Syn. Syrupus lichenis. Iceland moss deprived of its bitterness, 1 oz.; syrup, 32 oz. Make a concentrated decoction of the moss, strain and add the syrup, and boil to a proper consistence.

Syrup of Indian Sarsaparil′la. Syn. Syrupus hemidesmi (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. D.) Indian sarsaparilla (Hemidesmus Indicus—Brown), bruised, 4 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse for 4 hours, and to the strained and defecated infusion add twice its weight of sugar. Tonic, diuretic, &c.—Dose, 2 to 4 fl. dr.; in nephritic complaints, and in some others, instead of sarsaparilla.

2. (B. P.) Hemidesmus, bruised, 1; refined sugar, 7; boiling distilled water, 5; infuse 4 hours, strain, add the sugar, and dissolve. The product should weigh 10⁄2 oz., and measure 8. Sp. gr. 1·335.—Dose, 1 to 4 dr.

Syrup of I′odide of Iron. Syn. Syrupus ferri iodidi (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Mix iodine, 1 oz., and iron wire 3 dr., with distilled water, 8 fl. oz., and heat the solution until it assumes a greenish colour; then strain it, evaporate it to about 4 fl. oz., and add to it of white sugar, 10 oz.; lastly, when the syrup has cooled, add as much water as may be necessary, that it may measure exactly 15 fl. oz., and keep it in a well-stoppered black glass bottle. The formulæ of the Ph. E. & D. are nearly similar, a fl. dr. of each containing about 5 gr. of the pure dry iodide. This syrup is tonic and resolvent, and hæmatinic.—Dose, 15 or 20 drops to 1 fl. dr.; in anæmia, debility, scrofula, &c.

2. (B. P.) Iron wire, 1; iodine, 2; refined sugar, 28; distilled water, 13. Make a syrup with the sugar and 10 of the water, and keep it hot. Put into a strong soda-water bottle, covered with a cloth, the iron wire, the iodine, and 3 of the water, shake them together until the froth of the mixture becomes white, filter whilst still hot into the syrup. The product should be made up by water to weigh 43 or to measure 31⁄2. Sp. gr. 1385.—Dose, 20 to 60 minims.

Syrup of Iodide of Iron, Compound. Syn. Syrupus ferri iodidi compositus. (Ricord.) Prep. This may be made by adding 1 oz. of the syrup to 9 oz. of compound syrup of sarsaparilla, both by weight.

Syrup of Iodide of Iron and Quinine. Syn. Syrupus ferri et quiniæ iodidi. (Bouchardat.) Prep. Digest 1 dr. of iodine with ⁄2 dr. of iron filings and 4 dr. of water, with a gentle heat and frequent agitation, till the solution is colourless. Filter it rapidly into a vessel containing 28 oz. of simple syrup. Dissolve also 12 gr. of sulphate of quinine in 2 dr. of water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and add to the former.

Syrup of Iodide of Manganese. Syn. Syrupus manganesii iodidi. (M. Hannon.) Pure hydrated carbonate of manganese, 1 dr.; concentrated hydriodic acid, q. s. to dissolve it. Mix this solution with 16⁄2 oz. of sudorific syrup.—Dose. From 2 to 6 tablespoonfuls daily.

Syrup of Iodide of Potassium. Syn. Syrupus potassii iodidi. (P. Cod.) Prep. Iodide of potassium, ⁄4 oz.; water, ⁄4 oz.; syrup, 9⁄4 oz. (by weight).

Syrup of Iodine. Syn. Syrupus iodinii. (Foy.). Prep. Compound tincture of iodine, 4 dr.; mint water, 4 oz.; syrup, 16 oz.

Syrup of Iodohydrargyrate of Potassium. Syn. Syrupus iodohydrargyratis potassii (Puche). Prep. Iodohydrargyrate of potassium, 16 gr.; tincture of saffron, 2⁄2 dr.; syrup, 16 oz.

Syrup of Ipecacuan′ha. Syn. Syrupus ipecacuanhæ, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Ipecacuanha (in coarse powder), 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 15 fl. oz.; digest for 24 hours at a gentle heat, and strain; add of proof spirit, 14 fl. oz., and again digest and strain, and repeat the process with water, 14 fl. oz.; distil off the spirit from the mixed liquors, evaporate to 12 fl. oz., and filter; next add to the residuum rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz., and simple syrup, 7 pints, and mix well.—Dose. As an emetic for infants, ⁄2 teaspoonful; for adults, 1 to 1⁄2 fl. oz.; as an expectorant, 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls.

Syrup of Iron and Iodide of Potassium. Syn. Syrupus ferri et potassii iodidi. Prep. Dissolve 1 oz. of iodide of potassium in 6 oz. of hot water, add 12⁄4 oz. (fl.) of syrup of iodide of iron, and sufficient simple syrup to make up 1⁄2 pint.

Syrup of Jalap. Syn. Syrupus jalapinus. (P. Cod.) Prep. Jalap, 10 dr.; coriander, ⁄2 dr.; fennel seed, ⁄2 dr.; water, 12 oz.; heat to 212° F. for twenty minutes, let it stand 24 hours; strain, and make a syrup with 24 oz. of sugar.

Syrup of Kermes. Syn. Syrupus kermetis, Syrupus antimoniatus. Prep. Kermes mineral, 20 gr.; syrup of squills, 1⁄2 oz.; syrup of marshmallow, 1⁄2 oz. Mix.

Syrup of Lactate of Iron. Syn. Syrupus ferri lactatis. (Cap.) Prep. Lactate of iron, 1 dr.; boiling distilled water, 6 oz.; pure sugar, 12 oz.—Dose, 2 to 4 dr.

Syrup of Lacto-phosphate of Lime. Syn. Syrupus calcis lacto-phosphatis. (P. Vincent.) Prep. Burnt bones, 155 gr.; hydrochloric acid, 310 gr.; liquid ammonia, 200 gr.; concentrated lactic acid, distilled water, of each q. s.; sugar, 18⁄2 oz.; leave together for some time the bone ash and the acid until effervescence ceases, then add distilled water, 500 gr.; precipitate with the ammonia, filter, and well wash the precipitate with distilled water, until the washings cease to give a precipitate with nitrate of silver. Leave to drain for 12 hours, after gently heating in a porcelain capsule, and add sufficient lactic acid to dissolve the precipitate; add sufficient distilled water to make the product weigh 9⁄2 oz.; filter, and add the sugar; make dissolve with a gentle heat.

Syrup of Lactucarium. Syn. Syrupus Lactucarii. (U. S.) Prep. Lactucarium, 1 troy oz.; syrup, 14 oz. (o. m.); proof spirit, q. s.; rub the lactucarium with the proof spirit to a syrupy consistence, transfer to a percolator and percolate with proof spirit until 8 oz. (o. m.) of tincture have been obtained. Evaporate this portion in a water bath at 160°F. to 2 oz. (o. m.). Mix it with the syrup made hot, and strain immediately.

Syrup of Le′mon. Syn. Syrupus limonis (B. P.), Syrupus limonum (Ph. L. & E.), Syrupus citri medicæ. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Lemon juice (strained or defecated), 1 pint; white sugar, 2⁄2 lbs.; dissolve by a gentle heat, and set it aside; in 24 hours remove the scum, decant the clear portion, and add of rectified spirit, 2⁄2 fl. oz. The Edinburgh College omits the spirit. A pleasant refrigerant syrup in fevers, &c.—Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr., in any diluent. With water it forms an excellent extemporaneous lemonade.

2. (B. P.) Fresh lemon peel, 2; lemon juice, strained, 20; refined sugar, 36. Heat the lemon juice to the boiling point, and having put it into a covered vessel with the lemon peel, let them stand until they are cold, then filter and dissolve the sugar in the filtered liquid with a gentle heat. The product should weigh 56 and measure 41.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

Syrup of Lettuce. Syn. Syrupus lactucæ. (P. Cod.) Dissolve 2 oz. of extract of lettuce in 8 times its weight of cold water, filter, and add 6 lbs. 2 oz. of syrup, which, when boiling, has a specific gravity of 1·26.

Syrup of Lime. Syn. Syrupus calcis. (Trousseau.) Prep. Slake, 2⁄2 dr. of quicklime, with 3 oz. of water, and add it to 32 fl. oz. of simple syrup; boil 10 minutes and filter. This is usually diluted with 4 parts of syrup. Given in diarrhœa.

Syrup of Liquorice. Syn. Syrupus glycyrrhizæ. Prep. Liquorice root, 4 oz.; boiling water, 16 oz.; digest, strain, and make a syrup with sugar.

Syrup of Lobelia. Syn. Syrupus lobeliæ. (Mr Proctor.) Prep. Vinegar of lobelia, 6 oz.; sugar, 12 oz. Dissolve in a gentle heat.

Syrup of Malate of Manganese. Syn. Syrupus manganesii malatis. (M. Hannon.) Prep. Malate of manganese, 1 oz.; simple syrup, 16 oz.; spirit of lemon peel, 2 dr.—Dose, ⁄2 dr. to 1 dr.

Syrup of Manna. Syn. Syrupus mannæ. (Ph. G.) Prep. Dissolve 3 oz. of manna in 12 oz. of water, strain and filter; then add 16 oz. of sugar, and make it into a syrup.

Syrup of Mercury. Syn. Syrupus hydrargyri. Prep. “There are several forms for mercurial syrups, but they all appear liable to serious objection. Plenk:—Quicksilver, 1 dr.; powdered gum Arabic, 3 dr.; syrup, 2 oz.; triturate and gradually add 1 oz. of water. Larrey:—Sudorific syrup, 1 pint; bichloride of mercury, 5 gr.; muriate of ammonia, 5 gr.; extract of opium, 5 gr.; Hofman’s anodyne liquor, ⁄2 dr.—Dose, ⁄2 oz. to 1 oz. Creron’s syrup consists of mercurial ether (4 gr. of sublimate to 2 dr. of ether), 2 dr.; syrup, 8 oz.” (Beasley.)

Syrup of Marshmal′low. Syn. Syrupus althææ (Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Marshmallow root, fresh and sliced, 1⁄2 oz.; distilled water (cold), 1 pint; macerate for 12 hours, press out the liquor, strain it through linen, and add to the strained liquor twice its weight of white sugar (about 3 lbs.); dissolve by a gentle heat, and, when cold, add of rectified spirit, 2⁄2 fl. oz., or q. s. See Syrup of Cochineal.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Take of fresh marshmallow root, bruised, 8 oz.; water, 4 pints; boil down to one half, and express the liquor when it is cold; set it aside for 24 hours, that the fæces may subside, then decant off the clear liquid, and, having added to it of sugar, 2⁄2 lbs., boil the whole to a proper consistence. The formula of the Ph. E. is similar.

Obs. This is a popular demulcent and pectoral.—Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; in coughs, &c. either alone or added to mixtures.

Syrup of Milk. Syn. Syrupus lactis. Reduce skimmed milk by gentle evaporation to one half, and add twice its weight of sugar.

Syrup of Monosulphide of Sodium. Syn. Syrupus sodii monosulphidi. (P. Cod.) Crystallised monosulphide of sodium, 44 gr.; distilled water, 1 oz.; syrup, 94 oz. (by weight).

Syrup of Mugwort. Syn. Syrupus artemisiæ. As SYRUP OF WORMWOOD.

Syrup of Mugwort, Compound. Syn. Syrupus artemisiæ compositus. (P. Cod.) Prep. Take of fresh tops of mugwort, pennyroyal, catmint, and savine, of each 2 oz.; fresh roots of elecampane, lovage, and fennel, of each 88 gr.; fresh tops of wild marjoram, hyssop, feverfew, rue, and basil, of each 1 oz.; aniseed, ⁄4 oz.; cinnamon, ⁄4 oz.; all properly divided; rectified spirit, 2⁄2 oz. (by weight); water, 30 oz.; syrup of honey, 12⁄2 oz. (by weight). Put the plants in a vessel over a water bath, pour on the water mixed with the spirit, let it stand 24 hours, and then distil over 3⁄2 oz. (by weight). On the other hand, press the residue of the distillation, clarify with white of egg, and add sugar, 25 oz.; then make into a syrup, which, when boiling, has the sp. gr. 1·26. Take the weight and evaporate until it has lost weight, equal to that of the distilled liquid, then add the syrup of honey, and lastly, when nearly cold, the distilled liquid, and strain.—Dose, 2 to 12 dr.

Syrup of Mul′berries. Syn. Syrupus mori (B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Juice of mulberries, strained, 1 pint; sugar, 2⁄2 lbs.; dissolve by a gentle heat, and set the solution by for 24 hours; then remove the scum, decant the clear liquid, and add of rectified spirit, 2⁄2 fl. oz. Used as a colouring and flavouring, when alkalies and earths are not present. Syrup of red poppies (rhœados), slightly acidulated with tartaric or dilute sulphuric acid, is very generally sold for it.

2. (B. P.) Mulberry juice, 20; refined sugar, 32; rectified spirit, 2⁄2; heat the juice to the boiling point, and, when it has cooled, filter it; dissolve the sugar in the filtered liquid by a gentle heat, and add the spirit. The product should weigh 54. Sp. gr. 1·33.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

Syrup of Mu′′riate of Morphia. See Syrup of Hydrochlorate of Morphine.

Syrup of Opium. Syn. Syrupus opii. (P. Cod.) Prep. Extract of opium, 87⁄2 gr., dissolve in 6 dr. of cold water, and mix with sufficient syrup to make up 6⁄4 lbs. (1 in 500).

Syrup of Orange Flowers. Syn. Syrupus aurantii floris (B. P.) Prep. Orange-flower water, 8; refined sugar, 48; distilled water, 16, or a sufficiency; heat the sugar and water together, strain, and when nearly cold add the orange-flower water. When finished should weigh 72 and measure 54. Sp. gr. 1·33.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

Syrup of Orange Juice. Syn. Syrupus e succo aurantiorum. (Ph. E., 1744.) Prep. Orange juice, 1 lb.; sugar, 2 lbs. Dissolve by heat.

Syrup of Or′ange Peel. Syn. Syrupus aurantii (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), S. citri aurantii, S. é corticibus aurantiorum, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Dried orange peel, 2⁄2 oz.; boiling distilled water, 1 pint; macerate for 12 hours in a covered vessel, press out the liquor, simmer it for 10 minutes, and then complete the process as directed for SYRUP OF COCHINEAL. In the Ph. E. & D., and Ph. L. 1836, no spirit is ordered.

2. (B. P.) Tincture of orange peel, 1; syrup, 7; mix.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

3. (Wholesale.)—a. From fresh orange peel, 18 oz. (or dried, ⁄4 lb.); sugar, 18 lbs.; water, q. s.

b. From tincture of orange peel, 1 fl. oz.; simple syrup, 19 fl. oz.; mix. An agreeable flavouring and stomachic.—Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.

Syrup, Pectoral. Syn. Syrupus pectoralis. (Ph. L. 1746.) Black maidenhair, 5 oz.; liquorice root, 4 oz.; boiling water, 4 pints; macerate for some hours, strain, add to the infusion twice its weight of sugar, and make a syrup.

Syrup of Pepsine. Syn. Syrupus pepsinæ. (Corvisart.) Prep. 6 parts of pepsin in 20 parts of cold water, and added to 70 parts of acidulated syrup of cherries.

Syrup of Persulphuret of Iron. Syrupus ferri persulphureti. (Bouchardat.) Prep. Reduce 10 oz. of syrup by evaporation to 9 oz., and add 2 oz. hydrated persulphuret of iron in a gelatinous state; mix, and keep in a close bottle.—Dose. A teaspoonful two or three times a day in scrofulous and cutaneous affections. As an antidote for poisoning by the salts of lead, mercury and copper. Give a teaspoonful frequently.

Syrup of Phosphate of Iron. Syn. Syrupus ferri phosphatis. (B. P.) Prep. Granulated sulphate of iron, 224 gr.; phosphate of soda, 200 gr.; acetate of soda, 74 gr.; dilute phosphoric acid, 5⁄2 oz.; refined sugar, 8 oz.; distilled water, 8 oz. Dissolve the sulphate of iron in 4 oz. of the water, and the phosphate and acetate of soda in the remainder; mix the two solutions, and, after careful stirring, transfer the precipitate to a calico filter, and wash it with distilled water till the filtrate ceases to be affected with chloride of barium. Then press the precipitate strongly between folds of bibulous paper, and add to it the dilute phosphoric acid. As soon as the precipitate has dissolved, filter the solution, add the sugar, and dissolve without heat. The product should measure exactly 12 fluid ounces. One fluid drachm contains 1 grain of phosphate of iron.

In the preparation of this syrup as much expedition as possible should be used in washing and pressing the precipitate of phosphate of iron formed. It is best washed by decantation. The water employed should be just previously boiled to expel oxygen; the protosulphate of iron should be entirely free from persulphate, and clear crystals of phosphate of soda should be chosen. Mr Howie (whose suggestions the previous ones are in substance) proposes the use of bicarbonate of soda instead of acetate, the phosphate of iron being soluble to a considerable extent in the acetic acid liberated, if acetate of soda be employed. Mr W. H. Jones gives a process for the preparation of this syrup, which consists in dissolving metallic iron in phosphoric acid and water, and then adding the solution to syrup.

Syrup of Phosphate of Iron, Compound. Syn. Syrupus ferri phosphatis compositus; Parrish’s chemical food; SYRUP OF THE COMPOUND PHOSPHATES; SYRUPUS PHOSPHATICUS. (Mr E. Parrish, U. S.) Dissolve sulphate of iron, 10 dr., in boiling water, 2 oz.; and phosphate of soda, 12 dr., in boiling water, 4 oz. Mix, and wash the precipitated phosphate of iron. Dissolve phosphate of lime, 12 dr., in 4 oz. of boiling water, with enough hydrochloric acid to make a clear solution; precipitate with liquid ammonia, and wash precipitate. Add to the fresh precipitates glacial phosphoric acid, 20 dr., dissolved in 4 dr. of water; when clear, add carbonate of soda, 2 scruples, and carbonate of potassa, 1 dr., and then sufficient hydrochloric acid to dissolve the precipitate. Now add water to make the solution measure 22 oz. old measure, and add powdered cochineal, 2 dr.; mixed sugar, 32 troy oz.; apply heat, and, when the syrup is formed, strain it and add orange-flower water, 1 oz.—Dose. A teaspoonful. In addition to phosphate of iron and phosphate of lime this syrup contains smaller quantities of the alkaline phosphates. Mr Howie points out that Parrish is incorrect in stating that this syrup contains 1 gr. of phosphate of iron and 2⁄2 gr. phosphate of lime in the fluid drachm, if this statement be compared with his formula, which by calculation will be found to give ·715 gr. of phosphate of iron and 2 gr. of phosphate of lime for the fluid drachm, even if none of the former were wasted in the process. Mr Howie deprecates the use of hydrochloric acid sometimes had recourse to in preparing the syrup, and he adds that the purest sugar only should be used, and that made from beet-root should be carefully avoided. See a valuable paper by Mr Howie on this subject, ‘Pharm. Journ.,’ 3rd series, vol. vi, p. 804.

Syrup of Phosphate of Iron and Manganese. Syn. Syrupus ferriphosphatis et manganesii. Prep. Dissolve 6 dr. of glacial phosphoric acid in a small quantity of water, add 72 gr. of phosphate of iron, and 48 gr. of phosphate of manganese; apply heat to dissolve, then add sugar, 10 oz., and water up to measure of 12 oz.—Dose, 1 to 4 dr.

Syrup of Phosphate of Iron, with Quinine and Strychnia. Syn. Syrupus ferri phosphatis, cum quinia et strychnia.

Syrup of Phosphate of Manganese. Syn. Syrupus manganesii phosphatis. (M. Hannon.) Prep. Phosphate of manganese, ⁄2 dr.; spirit of tolu, 3 oz. 3 dr; syrup of bark, 5 oz.; spirit of lemon peel, 1⁄2 dr.; powder of tragacanth, 10 gr. Mix quickly and preserve in a well-stoppered bottle.

Syrup of Phosphate of Quinine. Syn. Syrupus quininiæ phosphatis. Prep. Phosphate of quinine, 96 gr.; water, 13⁄2 fl. dr.; syrupy phosphoric acid (sp. gr. 1·500), 2⁄2 fl. dr.; syrup, 10 fl. dr. Mix the acid with the water, add the quinine, and filter into the syrup.

Syrup of Phosphate of Zinc. Syn. Syrupus zinci phosphatis. Prep. Phosphate of zinc, 192 gr.; water, 11 fl. dr.; syrupy phosphoric acid (sp. gr. 1·500), 5 fl. dr.; syrup, 10 fl. oz. Rub the phosphate with the water, add the acid and filter into the syrup.

Syrup of Phosphoric Acid. Syn. Syrupus acidi phosphorici. Prep. Phosphoric acid (sp. gr. 1·454), ⁄2 oz.; syrup, 32⁄2 oz. (both by weight). Syrup of raspberries may be substituted for simple syrup.

Syrup of Pomegranate-root Bark. Syn. Syrupus corticis radicis granati. (Guibort.) Prep. Obtain from 1 lb. of powdered bark of pomegranate root 4 lbs. of infusion by percolation. Boil this with 28⁄2 oz. of syrup till reduced to 2 lbs.

Syrup of Pop′pies. Syn. Syrup of white poppies; Syrupus papaveris (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), S. p. somniferi, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Poppy capsules, coarsely powdered, free from seeds, 36; rectified spirit, 16; refined sugar, 64; boiling distilled water, a sufficiency; macerate the poppy capsules in 80 of the water. Infuse for 24 hours, then pack in a percolator, and, adding more of the water, allow the liquor slowly to pass until 320 have been collected or the poppies are exhausted; evaporate the liquor by a water bath until it is reduced to 60; when quite cold add the spirit; let the mixture stand for 12 hours and filter. Distil off the spirit, evaporate the remaining liquor to 40, and then add the sugar. The product should weigh 104 and measure 78⁄4. Sp. gr. 1·32.—Dose, 1 dr.; 10 to 20 minims for children, increasing cautiously.

2. (Ph. L.) Poppy-heads, dried, bruised, and without the seed, 3 lbs.; boiling water, 5 galls.; boil down to 2 galls., press out the liquor, evaporate the expressed liquid to 2 quarts, strain it whilst hot, and set it aside for 12 hours; next decant the clear portion from the fæces, boil this down to 1 quart, and dissolve in it sugar, 5 lbs.; lastly, when cold, add of rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz. “Each fl. oz. is equivalent to 1 gr. of dry extract.” In the Ph. E. & Ph. D. 1826 no spirit is ordered.

3. (Wholesale.) Extract of poppies, 1⁄2 lb.; boiling water, 2⁄2 galls.; dissolve, clarify, or filter, so that it may be perfectly transparent when cold, then add of white sugar, 44 lbs., and dissolve.

Obs. Syrup of poppies is anodyne and soporific.—Dose. For an infant, ⁄4 to ⁄2 teaspoonful; for an adult, 2 to 4 fl. dr. According to M. Chereau, its tendency to fermentation is prevented by the addition of 32 parts of sugar of milk to every 1000 parts of the syrup.

Syrup of Potassio-tartrate of Iron. Syn. Syrupus ferri potassio-tartratis. Prep. Dissolve 4 dr. of potassio-tartrate of iron in 4 dr. of cinnamon water, and mix the solution with 16 oz. of syrup.

Syrup of Pyrophosphate of Iron. Syn. Syrupus ferri pyrophosphatis. (Parrish.) Prep. Pyrophosphate of iron in scales, 16 gr.; syrup, 1 fl. oz.

Syrup of Pyrophosphate of Iron and Ammonia. Syn. Syrupus ferri pyrophosphatis et ammoniæ. (P. Cod.) Prep. Pyrophosphate of iron with citrate of ammonia, 1 dr.; water, 2 dr.; syrup, 12 oz.

Syrup of Quinine with Coffee. Syn. Syrupus quiniæ cum caffea. Prep. Prepare 1⁄2 pint of clear infusion from 4 oz. of roasted coffee; dissolve it in 5 lbs. of refined sugar, and add to the syrup 1⁄2 dr. of sulphate of quinine dissolved in a little water, with the addition of a few drops of sulphuric acid.

Syrup of Raspberry. Syn. Syrupus aceti rubi idœa. (P. Cod.) Prep. Raspberry vinegar, 10 oz. (by weight); sugar, 17⁄2 oz.; boil them together.

Syrup of Red Pop′pies. Syn. Syrupus rhœados (Ph. L. & E.), S. papaveris rhœados, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Petals of the red poppy, 1 lb.; boiling water, 1 pint; mix in a water bath, remove the vessel, macerate for 12 hours, press out the liquor, and, after defecation or filtering, complete the process as directed for SYRUP OF COCHINEAL.

2. (Wholesale.) From dried red-poppy petals, 3 lbs,; boiling water, q. s.; white sugar, 44 lbs.; as the last.

Obs. Syrup of red poppies is chiefly employed for its fine red colour. A little acid brightens it. The colour is injured by contact with iron, copper, and all the common metals.

Syrup of Red Roses. Syn. Syrupus rosæ (B. P.), Syrupus rosæ gallicæ (Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Dried petals of the red rose, 2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; pure sugar, 20 oz.; as the last.

2. (Ph. D.) Dried petals of the gallic rose, 2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; boil in a glass or porcelain vessel until the colour is extracted, strain with expression, and, after defecation, add to the clear decanted liquor twice its weight of white sugar. Astringent and stomachic; chiefly used as an adjunct in mixtures, &c.

3. (B. P.) Dried rose petals, 1; refined sugar, 15; boiling distilled water, 10; infuse the petals in the water 2 hours, squeeze through calico, heat the liquor to the boiling point, and filter; add the sugar and dissolve with heat. The product should weigh 23 and measure 17⁄4. Sp. gr. 1·335.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

Syrup of Rhatany. Syn. Syrupus krameriæ. (P. Cod.) As syrup of catechu.

Syrup of Rhu′barb. Syn. Syrupus Rhei (B. P.). Prep. 1. (B. P.). Rhubarb, in coarse powder, 2; coriander fruit, in powder, 2; refined sugar, 24; rectified spirit, 8; distilled water, 24; mix the rhubarb and coriander, pack them in a percolator, pass the spirit and water, previously mixed, slowly through them, evaporate the liquid that has passed until it is reduced to 13, and in this, after it has been filtered, dissolve the sugar with a gentle heat.—Dose, 1 to 4 dr.

2. (P. Cod.) Bruised rhubarb, 3 oz.; cold water, 16 fl. oz.; macerate for 12 hours, filter, and add of white sugar, 32 oz.

3. (Ph. U. S.) Take of rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz.; water, 24 fl. oz.; rhubarb (coarsely powdered), 2 oz.; (mixed with) sand, an equal bulk, or q. s.; make a tincture by percolation, evaporate this, over a water bath, to 13 fl. oz., and dissolve it in 2 lbs. of white sugar. An excellent formula.

4. (Wholesale.) Rhubarb (bruised), 1⁄4 lb.; cold water, q. s.; sugar, 20 lbs.; as No. 1. Stomachic and purgative.—Dose. For an infant, ⁄2 to 1 teaspoonful; for an adult, ⁄2 to ⁄4 fl. oz., or more.

Syrup of Rhubarb and Senna. Syn. Syrupus rhei et sennæ. (Ph. E., 1745.) Prep. Rhubarb, 1 oz.; senna, 2 oz.; fennel seed, 2 dr.; cinnamon, 2 dr.; boiling water, 2⁄2 pints; macerate for 12 hours, strain, and boil with 3 lbs. of sugar to a syrup.

Syrup of Rhubarb (Spliced). Syn. Syrupus rhei aromaticus, L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) Rhubarb, 2⁄2 oz.; cloves and cinnamon, of each ⁄2 oz.; nutmeg, ⁄4 oz. (all bruised); proof spirit, 32 fl. oz.; macerate for 14 days (or percolate), strain, gently evaporate to 16 fl. oz., filter whilst hot, and mix the liquid with simple syrup (gently warmed), 4⁄4 pints. A cordial laxative.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1 teaspoonful; in infantile constipation, diarrhœa, &c.

Syrup of Ros′′es. Syn. Syrupus rosæ (Ph. L.), Syrupus rosæ centifoliæ (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Dried petals of damask roses (Rosa centifolia), 7 oz.; boiling water, 3 pints; macerate for 12 hours, filter, evaporate in a water bath to 1 quart, and add of white sugar, 6 lbs.; and, when cold, rectified spirit, 5⁄2 fl. oz.

2. (Wholesale.) From rose leaves, 1 lb.; sugar, 19 lbs.; water, q. s.; as the last. Gently laxative.—Dose, ⁄4 to 1 fl. oz. It is usual to add a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid, to brighten the colour. Alkalies turn it green.

Syrup of Rue. Syn. Syrupus rutæ, L. Prep. Take of oil of rue, 12 to 15 drops; rectified spirit, ⁄2 fl. oz.; dissolve, and add it to simple syrup, 1 pint.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1 teaspoonful; in the flatulent colic of children. An infusion of ⁄2 oz. of the herb is sometimes substituted for the solution of the essential oil.

Syrup of Saf′fron. Syn. Syrupus croci (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Hay saffron, 5 dr. (10 dr.—Ph. E; ⁄2 oz.—Ph. D.); boiling water, 1 pint; macerate in a covered vessel for 12 hours, then strain the liquor, and add of white sugar, 3 lbs., q. s., and rectified spirit, 2⁄2 fl. oz., or q. s. in the manner directed under SYRUP OF COCHINEAL. The Ph. E. & D. omit the spirit.

2. (Wholesale.) Hay saffron, 6 oz.; boiling water, 6 quarts; white sugar, 24 lbs.; as the last. Used for its colour and flavour; the first is very beautiful.

Syrup of Salicin. Syn. Syrupus salicini. Prep. Salicin, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1 oz.; sugar, 2 oz.

Syrup of Santonate of Soda. Syn. Syrupus sodæ santonatis. This formula is recommended because of the adaptability of its administration to children; the syrup being of very pleasant taste. It is made as follows:—Powdered santonate of soda, 5 grams; simple syrup, 900 grams; syrup of orange flower, 100 grams. Suspend the santonate in 250 grams of the syrup, and heat it over a spirit-lamp until dissolved; add the remainder of the syrup, then the syrup of orange flower, and mix carefully. A tablespoonful or 20 grams of this syrup will contain 10 centigrams of santonate, or the equivalent of 5 centigrams of santonin. For adults the dose might be double, or a syrup made containing 20 centigrams to the tablespoonful.

Syrup of Sarsaparil′la. Syn. Syrupus sarzæ (Ph. L. & E.), Syrupus sarsaparillæ, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Take of sarsaparilla (sliced), 3⁄2 lbs.; boil it in water, 2 galls., down to one half; pour off the liquor, and strain it whilst hot; again boil the sarsaparilla. in another gall. of water down to one half, and strain; evaporate the mixed liquors to 1 quart, and in these dissolve of white sugar, 8 oz.; lastly, when the syrup has cooled, add to it of rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz.

2. (Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836.) Sarsaparilla (sliced), 15 oz.; boiling water, 1 gall.; macerate for 24 hours, boil to 2 quarts, strain, add of sugar, 15 oz., and boil to a syrup.

3. (Wholesale.) Take of extract of sarsaparilla, 3 lbs.; boiling water, 3 quarts; dissolve, strain, and add of white sugar, 12 lbs. Alterative and tonic.—Dose, 2 to 4 dr. See Sarsaparilla.

Syrup of Sarsaparil′la, Compound. Syn. Syrupus sarzæ compositus, L.; Syrop de cuisinier, Fr. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) Sarsaparilla (bruised), 2 lbs.; guaiacum wood, rasped, 3 oz; damask roses, senna, and liquorice root, bruised, of each 2 oz.; diluted alcohol (proof spirit), 10 wine pints (1 gall. imperial); macerate for 14 days, express, filter through paper, and evaporate in a water bath to 4 wine pints (3⁄4 pints, imperial); then add of white sugar, 8 lbs.; and, when cold, further add of oils of sassafras and aniseed, of each 5 drops, and oil of partridge berry (Gaultheria procumbens), 3 drops, previously triturated with a little of the syrup.

Obs. This is an excellent preparation; but the rose leaves might be well omitted.—Dose, ⁄2 fl. oz. 3 or 4 times a day, as an alterative, tonic, and restorative. The syrup of the P. Cod. is made with water instead of spirit, and is inferior as a remedy to the preceding.

Syrup of Sarsaparilla, Ioduretted. Syn. Syrupus sarsæ iodureti. (Ricord.) Prep. Syrup of sarsaparilla, 31 parts; iodide of potassium, 1 part.

Syrup of Senega. Syn. Syrupus senegæ. (U. S.) Prep. Senega in moderately fine powder, 4 troy oz.; sugar, 15 troy oz.; proof spirit, 2 pints (o. m.) Introduce the senega into a percolator and pour on the proof spirit; when finished, evaporate the percolate by a water bath at 160° F. to 8 oz. (o. m.); filter, add the sugar, dissolve by a gentle heat, and strain whilst hot.

Syrup of Sen′na. Syn. Syrupus sennæ (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Take of senna, 3⁄2 oz.; fennel seed (bruised), 10 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; macerate for 6 hours, with a gentle heat; then strongly press out the liquid through linen, and dissolve in it of manna, 3 oz.; next add this solution to treacle, 3 lbs., previously evaporated over a water bath until a little of it, on being cooled, almost concretes, and stir them well together.

2. (Ph. E.) Senna, 4 oz.; boiling water, 24 fl. oz.; infuse, strain, add of treacle, 48 oz., and evaporate to a proper consistence. Aperient.—Dose, 1 to 4 dr.

3. (B. P.) Senna, broken small, 8 oz.; oil of coriander, 4⁄2 minims; refined sugar, 12 oz.; distilled water, 50 oz.; or a sufficiency; rectified spirit, 1 oz.; digest the senna in ⁄4 of the water twenty-four hours at a temperature of 120°, press, and strain; digest the marc in the remainder of the water six hours, press, and strain; evaporate the mixed liquors to 5 oz.; when cold add the rectified spirit containing the oil of coriander; filter, and wash the filter with water to make up to 8 oz.; add the sugar, and dissolve with gentle heat. The product should weigh 21 oz., and measure 16 oz. Sp. gr. 1·310.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

Syrup of Senna with Manna. Syn. Syrupus sennæ cum manna. (Ph. G.) Prep. Infuse 10 oz. of senna leaves and 1 oz. of bruised fennel seeds for some hours in 205 pints of hot water; strain, and dissolve in the strained liquor 15 oz. of manna. Pour off 5⁄2 oz. (by weight) of liquid from the sediment, and dissolve it in 3 lbs. 2 oz. of sugar.

Syrup, Simple. Syn. Syrupus (B. P., Ph. L.), Syrupus simplex (Ph. E. & D.), L.

1. (Ph. L.) White sugar, 3 lbs.; distilled water, 1 pint; dissolve by a gentle heat.

2. (Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836.) Pure sugar, 10 lbs.; boiling water, 3 pints.

3. (Ph. D.) Refined sugar (in powder—crushed), 5 lbs.; distilled water, 1 quart.

4. (B. P.) Refined sugar, 6; distilled water, 3; dissolve the sugar in the water with the aid of heat, and when cool add water to make the product weigh 9 and measure very nearly 7. Sp. gr. 1·33.

5. (Wholesale.) Finest double refined sugar, 44 lbs.; distilled water, 2⁄4 gall.; make a syrup.

Obs. This preparation should be as white and transparent as water. Used as capillaire, &c., and to give cohesiveness and consistence to pulverulent substances in the preparation of electuaries, pills, &c.

Syrup of Snails. Syn. Syrupus limacibus (P. Cod.) Prep. Vine snails, deprived of their shells and of the black portions, and cut up, 2 oz.; wash in cold water and then boil with 10 oz. of water to 7 oz.; then add 10 oz. of sugar.

Syrup of Soap Wort. Syn. Syrupus saponariæ. From the root, the same as syrup of coltsfoot.

Syrup of Squills. Syn. Syrupus scillæ (B. H., Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Vinegar of squills, 3 pints; white sugar (in powder), 7 lbs.; dissolve by a gentle heat.

2. (Ph. D.) Vinegar of squills, 8 fl. oz.; refined sugar (in powder), 1 lb.; dissolve.

3. (B. P.) Vinegar of squills, 20; refined sugar, 40; dissolve with the aid of heat.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1 dr.

4. (Wholesale.) Take of vinegar of squills (perfectly transparent), 14 lbs.; double refined sugar, 28 lbs.; dissolve in a stoneware vessel, in the cold, or at most by a very gentle heat.

Obs. This syrup, like the last, should be as clear as water, and nearly colourless.—Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr., as an expectorant; in chronic coughs and asthma. In large doses it proves emetic.

Syrup of Squills, Compound. Syn. Hive syrup; Syrupus scillæ compositus, L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) Squills and senega, of each, bruised, 5 oz.; water, ⁄2 gall.; boil to a quart; add of sugar, 4⁄2 lbs.; evaporate to 3 pints, or a proper consistence, and dissolve in it, whilst hot, of potassio-tartrate of antimony (in powder), 1 dr.

Obs. This syrup is a popular expectorant in the U. S., where it is known as hive syrup.—Dose. As an expectorant, 20 to 30 drops, for adults; for children, 5 to 10 drops; in croup, 10 drops to ⁄2 fl. dr., repeated until it vomits.

Syrup of Stinking Hellebore. Syn. Syrupus hellebori fœtidi. Prep. Sprinkle the fresh leaves of bear’s foot with vinegar, and express the juice. Boil this with twice its weight of sugar.

Syrup of Stramonium. Syn. Syrupus STRAMONII. From the tincture as syrup of belladonna.

Syrup of Strychnia. Syn. Syrupus strychniæ. (P. Cod.) The Paris Codex orders a syrup containing ⁄4 gr. of sulphate of strychnia in 1000 gr. of syrup.

Syrup, Sudorific. Syn. Syrupus sudorificus. (Foy.) Sarsaparilla, 6 oz.; guaiacum raspings, 6 oz.; water, 3 pints. Macerate for 24 hours, evaporate to 1⁄2 pint; strain, and make into a syrup with 2⁄2 lbs. of sugar.

Syrup of Sulphate of Iron. Syn. Syrupus ferri sulphatis. (Willis.) Prep. Sulphate of iron, 1 dr.; water, 2 dr.; syrup, 16 oz.

Syrup of Sulphate of Quinine. Syn. Syrupus quininæ sulphatis. (P. Cod.) Prep. Dissolve 30 gr. of sulphate of quinine in 4 dr. of water, with ⁄2 dr. of dilute sulphuric acid, and mix the solution with 13 oz. of white syrup.

Syrup of Sulphuret of Potassium. Syn. Syrupus potassii sulphureti. (P. Cod.) Prep. Liver of sulphur, 8 gr.; water, 16 gr.; syrup, 1 oz.

Syrup of Superphosphate of Iron. Syn. Syrupus ferri-superphosphatis. (Mr Greenish.) Prep. Superphosphate of iron, 2 scruples; simple syrup, 1 fl. oz.

Syrup, Symphytic. Syn. Syrupus symphyti; Boyle’s syrup. (Ph. E. 1745.) Prep. Fresh comfrey root, ⁄2 lb.; plantain leaves, ⁄2 lb.; bruise, express the juice, boil to half, and make a syrup with an equal weight of sugar.

Syrup of Tannin. Syn. Syrupus tannini. (Foy.) Prep. Tannin, 2 oz.; water, 16 oz.; sugar, 32 oz.

Syrup of Tar. Syn. Syrupus picis. (P. Cod.) Prep. Tar water, 5⁄4 oz.; sugar, 10 oz. Dissolve by water bath, and filter through paper.

Syrup of Tartaric Acid. Syn. Syrupus acidi tartarici. (P. Cod.) Prep. Tartaric acid, 1 oz.; water, 2 oz,; sugar, 6 lbs. 1 oz. Dissolve in the cold.

Syrup of Tartrate of Manganese. Syn. Syrupus manganesii tartratis. Made with tartrate of manganese, as syrup of malate of manganese.

Syrup of Tolu′. Syn. Balsamic syrup; Syrupus Tolutanus (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Balsam of Tolu, 10 dr. (1 oz.—Ph. D.); boiling distilled water, 1 pint; boil in a covered vessel for ⁄2 an hour, frequently stirring, then cool, strain, and dissolve in the liquor sugar, 2⁄2 lbs.

2. (Ph. E.) Simple syrup (warm), 2 lbs.; tincture of Tolu, 1 oz.; mix by degrees, and agitate them briskly together in a closed vessel.

3. (B. P.) Balsam of Tolu, 1⁄4; sugar, 32; water, 20; boil the balsam half an hour, adding water when required; when cold make up to 16, filter, add the sugar, and dissolve. The product weighs 48 and measures 36. Sp. gr. 1·33.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

4. (Wholesale.) To warm water, 23 lbs., add tincture of Tolu, gradually, until it will bear no more without becoming opaque; then cork down the bottle, and occasionally agitate until cold; when quite cold, filter it through paper, and add of the finest double-refined sugar, 44 lbs.; lastly, promote the solution, in a closed vessel, by a gentle heat, in a water bath.

Obs. This syrup should be clear and colourless as water; but, as met with in the shops, it is usually milky. It is strange that the London College should have omitted from their formula the usual addition of rectified spirit, although this syrup, perhaps more than any other, would be benefited by it.

Syrup of Tolu is pectoral and balsamic.

Syrup of Valerian. Syn. Syrupus valerianæ. (P. Cod.) Prep. Infuse 1 lb. of bruised valerian in 4 lbs. of boiling water for six hours; strain, and press; then pour upon the marc 2 lbs. more of boiling water, or q. s. so as to obtain 4⁄2 lbs. of infusion, including the product of the first infusion; filter, and add 1 lb. of valerian water, and then dissolve in it, by the aid of a water bath, 10 lbs. of sugar.

Syrup of Vanilla. Syn. Syrupus vanillæ. Prep. Vanilla, 2 oz.; white sugar, 18 oz.; water, 9 oz. Beat the vanilla with a few drops of spirit, then with part of the sugar, and water, q. s. to form a soft paste; add the rest of the sugar and water, and digest for 18 or 20 hours in a glass vessel placed in a water bath. Strain and clarify with white of egg if required.

Syrup, Velno’s Vegetable. According to Dr Paris and Sir B. Brodie, this celebrated nostrum is prepared as follows:—Young and fresh burdock root, sliced, 2 oz.; dandelion root, 1 oz.; fresh spearmint, senna, coriander seed, and bruised liquorice root, of each 1⁄2 dr.; water, 1⁄2 pint; boil down gently to a pint, strain, add of lump sugar, 1 lb., boil to a syrup; and, lastly, add a small quantity of corrosive sublimate, previously dissolved in a little spirit. Used as an alterative and purifier of the blood.

Syrup of Vin′egar. Syn. Syrupus aceti, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Take of vinegar (French, in preference), 11 fl oz.; white sugar, 14 oz.; and make a syrup.—Dose, 1 dr. to 1 fl. oz.; as an expectorant, in coughs and colds, or diffused through any mild diluent, as a drink in fevers. A more agreeable preparation is that of the P. Cod., made by dissolving 30 parts of sugar in 16 parts of raspberry vinegar.

Syrup of Vi′olets. Syn. Syrupus violarum, Syrupus violæ (Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Macerate violet flowers, 9 oz., in boiling water, 1 pint, for twelve hours, then press, strain, and set aside the liquid, that the fæces may subside; afterwards complete the process with sugar, 3 lbs., and rectified spirit, 2⁄2 fl. oz. (or as much of each as may be necessary), in the way which has been ordered concerning syrup of cochineal.

2. (Ph. E.) Fresh violets, 1 lb.; boiling water, 2⁄2 pints; infuse for 24 hours in a covered vessel of glass or earthenware, strain off the liquor (with gentle pressure), filter, and dissolve in the liquid white sugar, 7⁄2 lbs.

3. (Wholesale.) From double-refined white sugar, 66 lbs.; ‘anthokyan,’ 11 lbs.; water, 22 lbs., or q. s.; dissolve in earthenware.

Uses. Syrup of violets is gently laxative.—Dose. For an infant, a teaspoonful.

Obs. Genuine syrup of violet has a lively violet-blue colour, is reddened by acids, turned green by alkalies, and both smells and tastes of the flowers. It is frequently used as a test. A spurious sort is met with in the shops, which is coloured with litmus, and slightly scented with orris root. The purest sugar, perfectly free from either acid or alkaline contamination, should alone be used in the manufacture of this syrup. The Ph. E. orders the infusion to be strained without pressure; and the P. Cod., and some other Ph., direct the flowers to be first washed in cold water.

Syrup of Wild Cherry Bark. Syn. Syrupus primi virginianæ. (U. S.) Prep. Moisten 5 troy. oz. of coarsely powdered bark of wild cherry and water; let it stand 24 hours, then put it into a percolator, adding water till 16 oz. (o. m.) of liquid are obtained. To this add 2⁄4 troy lbs. of sugar in a bottle and agitate until it is dissolved.

Syrup, Wilks’. See Syrup of Garlic, Compound.

Syrup of Worm′wood. Syn. Syrupus absinthii, L.; Sirop d’absinthe, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Tops of wormwood (dried), 1 part; boiling water, 8 parts; infuse for 12 hours, strain, with expression, and dissolve in the liquor twice its weight of sugar. Bitter, tonic, and stomachic.—Dose, 1 to 3 fl. dr.

Syrups for Aerated Waters. 1. a. Lemon Syrup.—Dissolve 1 oz. of citric acid in 4 oz. of water, and add to 9 pints of simple syrup; also add 4 fl. oz. of mucilage of acacia and half a fluid ounce of tincture of lemon.

b. Grate off the yellow rind of lemons and beat it up with a sufficient quantity of granulated sugar. Express the lemon-juice; add to each pint of juice 1 pint of water and 3⁄2 lbs. of granulated sugar, including that rubbed up by the rind. Warm until the sugar is dissolved, and strain.

c. Dissolve 6 dr. of tartaric acid and 1 oz. of gum Arabic in pieces in 1 gallon of simple syrup, then flavour with 1⁄2 fl. dr. of best oil of lemon. Or flavour with the saturated tincture of the peel in Cologne spirits.

2. a. Orange Syrup. To be prepared from the fruit in the same manner as b, Lemon Syrup.

b. Dissolve 6 dr. of citric acid in 1 gall. of simple syrup, and add 2 fl. dr. of fresh oil of orange in 2 oz. of alcohol, or, instead of the alcohol solution of the oil, use the saturated tincture, obtained by macerating the fresh peel for ten days in sufficient Cologne spirits to cover. The lemon and orange syrups made from the fruit, after being strained, may be diluted with an equal bulk of simple syrup. One dozen of the fruit is sufficient to make 1 gallon of finished syrup.

3. Vanilla Syrup. See Syrup.

4. Syrup of Coffee. See Syrup.

5. Strawberry and Raspberry Syrups. Mash the fresh fruit, express the juice, and to each quart add 3⁄2 lbs. of granulated sugar. The juice, heated to 180° Fahr. and strained or filtered previous to dissolving the sugar, will keep for an indefinite time. See also Strawberry essence, Factitious.

6. Pine-apple Syrup. Expressed juice of pine-apple, 1 pint; sugar, 2 lbs. Boil gently, and when cold, filter.

7. Nectar Syrup. Mix 3 parts of vanilla syrup with 1 each of pine-apple and lemon syrup.

8. Sherbet Syrup. Mix equal parts of orange, pine-apple, and vanilla syrup.

9. Grape Syrup. Mix ⁄2 pint of brandy, ⁄4 oz. of tincture of lemon, and sufficient tincture of red sanders, with 1 gall. of syrup.

10. Cream Syrup. Condensed milk, 1 pint; water, 1 pint; sugar, 1⁄2 lb. Heat to boiling, and strain.

11. Orgent Syrup. Cream syrup and vanilla syrup, of each 1 pint; oil of bitter almonds, 4 minims.

12. Ginger Syrup. Syrup, 7⁄2 fl. oz.; essence of ginger (1 part of ginger to 4 of spirit), ⁄2 oz.

13. Syrup of Chocolate. Chocolate, 8 oz.; syrup, sufficient; water, ⁄2 pint; white of 1 egg. Grate the chocolate and rub it in a mortar with the egg. When thoroughly mixed, add the water gradually, and triturate till a uniform mixture is obtained. Finally, add syrup to 4 pints, and strain.

TABASHEER. A deposit chiefly composed of silica, found in the joints of the bamboo. When dry it is opaque, but possesses the property of becoming transparent when placed in water. Its deposition in the nodes and joints of the bamboo appears to be due to a diseased condition of these parts. Tabasheer is much and unduly prized by the natives of India as a tonic and constitutional restorative, and is chewed mixed with betel. It has the least refractive power on light of any body known.

TABES DORSALIS. A disease of the posterior column of the spinal cord, resulting in incoordination of the movements of the legs, sometimes spreading to the upper limbs, so that the patient in walking throws out the legs with a jerk, and brings them down violently upon the heels. Such patients are popularly called “Stampers.”

TABLETTES. [Fr.] See Lozenges and Savonettes.

TACAMAHACA. The resinous substance known by this name, is believed to be obtained from the Fagara octandra (of Linnæus), a large tree growing in the island of Curaçoa and in Venezuela. The juice, which exudes from the tree spontaneously, becomes hard upon exposure. The commercial article varies greatly in size, sometimes occurring in irregular-shaped pieces of one or two inches in diameter, whilst at others it is met with no larger than a mustard seed. The pieces are usually of a reddish-brown or light yellow colour. They have a resinous agreeable odour, with a balsamic, bitter, slightly acrid taste. Tacamahaca dissolves partially in alcohol, and entirely so in ether and fixed oils. It is composed of resin and a little volatile oil. There are several varieties of this substance. At one time Tacamahaca enjoyed a high reputation as an internal remedy for urinary and scorbutic affections. It is now only occasionally employed in medicine as an ingredient in ointments and plaster. Sometimes it enters into the composition of incense. In properties it is very similar to the turpentines.

TAF′FETAS. Plasters on silk are occasionally so called. For Taffetas Anglicum, see Court plaster; for Taffetas vesicans, see Vesicants.

TALC. Syn. Foliated talc; Ubruc. A transparent, foliated, siliceous magnesian mineral, flexible, but not elastic, found in Scotland, the Tyrol, and elsewhere. It is used as a cosmetic, to impart a silky whiteness to the skin; also in the composition of rouge végétal, and to give a flesh-like polish to alabaster figures. A second and harder species of this mineral (French chalk, SOAPSTONE, STEATITE; creta Gallica) is employed as a crayon by carpenters, glaziers, and tailors, and forms the boot-powder of the boot-makers. Writing executed with it on glass, even after being apparently removed by friction, becomes again visible when breathed upon.

TAL′LOW and other fats are commonly purified by melting them along with water, passing the mixed fluids through a sieve, and letting the whole cool slowly, when a cake of cleansed fat is obtained.—Another plan is to keep the tallow melted for some time, along with about 2% of oil of vitriol, largely diluted with water, employing constant agitation, and allowing the whole to cool slowly; then to remelt the cake with a large quantity of hot water, and to wash it well.—Another method is to blow steam for some time through the melted fat. By either this or the preceding process a white hard tallow may be obtained.—Some persons add a little nitre to the melted fat, and, afterwards, a little dilute nitric or sulphuric acid, or a solution of bisulphate of potash. Others boil the fat along with water and a little dilute nitric or chromic acid, or a mixture of bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid; and afterwards wash it thoroughly with water. These methods answer well for the tallow or mixed fats of which ordinary candles are made.

Tallow converted into stearic acid by saponification is readily hardened and bleached, if moderately pure. A mixture composed of 1 part of oxalic acid and 2000 parts of water is sufficient to bleach 1000 parts of stearic acid. The mode of operating is as follows:—Throw the stearic acid, cut into small pieces, into a vessel of cold water, and turn on steam; as soon as it has melted and assumed a turbid appearance, add the solution of oxalic acid, and boil the mixture. After boiling for ⁄4 hour, long threads appear in the liquid; the liquid itself, which previously was of a greyish colour, becomes black, and the threads unite together. The boiling must now be discontinued, and the contents of the vessel, having been allowed to settle for three or four hours, must be drawn off into the coolers.

As commercial stearic acid frequently contains undecomposed tallow, as well as various foreign matters, this process is occasionally unsuccessful. To obviate the inconveniences connected with the use of this impure material, the candle may be run at two operations, as follows:—“The stearic acid, treated as above, is exposed for a month to the sun, by which means the foreign matters are oxidised, and the bleached stearic acid acquires a dirty yellow colour; the oxidised blocks are then melted in water containing a little sulphuric acid, at about 150° Fahr.; an addition of about 10 per cent. of good white wax (or spermaceti) is next made, and the whole boiled for half an hour; the white of an egg, previously beaten up in a quart of water, is then added to each 1 cwt. of stearic acid, the temperature of the mass having been reduced to 100°, or at most 120° Fahr., after which the mixture is again well stirred and boiled, when the liquid soon becomes clear, which is seen by the dark colour it assumes.

“This mixture of stearic acid and wax or spermaceti is very suitable for forming the exterior coating of the candle; it is transparent, and of perfect whiteness, and, as it is devoid of oxalic acid, it does not injure the moulds; whilst at the same time, as it is less fusible than pure stearic acid, candles made with it do not run. The first coating may be run hot without crystallising; the interior of the candle, being protected from without against too sudden a cooling, may also be run somewhat hot; by this means the candle acquires a whiteness and a transparency which cannot be realised by other processes.” (‘Le Moniteur Industriel.’)

The sulphuric acid saponification of inferior tallow and other solid or semi-solid fatty bodies is now carried out on a very large scale for producing the cheaper varieties of ‘stearine candles.’ For this purpose, the tallow or fat is mixed with 5 or 6% of concentrated sulphuric acid, and exposed to a steam heat of 350° to 360° Fahr. After cooling, the black mass thus obtained crystallises to a tolerably solid fat, which is well washed once or twice with water, or high-pressure steam, and is then submitted to distillation by the aid of steam heated to about 560° Fahr. The product of the distillation is beautifully white, and may be at once used for making candles. It is better, however, to first submit it to the processes of cold and hot pressing, whereby a much more solid fat is obtained.

According to M. Pohl, palm oil or palm tallow is most easily purified by simple exposure to a high temperature, provided it has been first well defecated. When quickly heated to about 465° Fahr., and kept at that temperature for from 5 to 15 minutes, it is completely decoloured. The product has a slight empyreumatic odour, but this disappears by age, exposure, or saponification, and the natural violet odour of the oil returns. Cast-iron pans should be employed in the process, and should be only 2-3rds filled, and well covered during the operation.

By the distillation of sulphurated palm oil in closed vessels, at a heat ranging from 570° to 600° Fahr., from 68% to 75% of a mixture of palmitic and palm-oleic acid passes over, of which 25% to 30% is colourless, hard, and crystalline, and the rest darker and softer. (Pohl.) The residuum in the still is a fine hard pitch. See Candles, Fat, Glycerin, Oils (Fixed), Stearic acid, &c.

TAMAR′A. A mixed spice used in Italian cookery, consisting of cinnamon, cloves, and corianders, of each 2 parts; aniseed and fennel seed, of each 1 part.

TAM′ARIND. Syn. Tamarindus (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The pulp or preserved fruit or pod of the Tamarindus Indica, or tamarind tree.

Tamarind pulp is refrigerant and gently laxative. Mixed with water, it forms a grateful acidulous drink in fevers.—Dose, ⁄4 oz. and upwards.

Composition of the Tamarind.—Vanquelin.

Citric acid 9·40 per cent.

Tartaric ” 1·55 ”

Malic ” 0·45 ”

Bitartrate of potash 3·25 ”

Sugar 12·50 ”

Besides gum, vegetable jelly, parenchyma, and water.

TANKS. The difference between water-tanks and cisterns is not very obvious. Perhaps the definition the most nearly representing the general idea respecting them would be, that whilst both were receptacles for water, in tanks water would be stored for a longer period than in cisterns, which supplying the constantly recurring needs of a house or a building of any kind would be more frequently filled and emptied; although in many instances there might be no such distinction between them, and they might be regarded as synonymous. In whatever sense the terms may be understood, the remarks that follow as to their construction and management have a common application.

The materials for tanks and cisterns for the reception of water consist of stone, cement, brick, slate, iron, zinc, and lead. Of these materials, the best, although the dearest, is slate. The slate cistern, however, is occasionally liable to leakage, a defect mostly arising from the employment of mortar instead of cement for joining the slabs.

Wrought-iron cisterns and tanks as well as the pipes in connection with them are in very general use. The tendency of both to corrosion by the action of the water is considerably reduced by coating the insides with Portland cement or a vitreous glaze.

Mr Burn advocates the employment of a compound of tar, which, he says, most effectually protects them. Zinc, although cheap, and little acted upon by water, is seldom employed for cisterns. Dr Osborne says he has seen several cases of zinc poisoning, caused by drinking water that had passed through zinc pipes, or had stood in zinc pails. Equal, if not greater risk is incurred when drinking-water is kept in lead cisterns, or is made to run through lead pipes. In setting up cisterns or tanks made of stone or cement, common mortar must not be used, as lime is taken up and the water is rendered hard in consequence.

In seasons of drought it is by no means an unusual occurrence for many rural districts to lack a sufficiency of water, the limited supply of which entails considerable suffering, sometimes terminating fatally upon farm stock, with frequent loss to the owners. Few persons, perhaps, can form a correct idea of the immense quantity of water that in the shape of rain falls even in the least humid portions of our islands. If this rain, which is now allowed to run waste, were properly collected and stored, it would form a valuable resource in times and at places where there was a dearth or scarcity of this necessary element.

Mr Bayley Denton, writing on this subject, says:—“Take an ordinary middle-class house in a village with stabling and outbuildings, the space of ground covered by the roofs will frequently reach 10 poles, while the space covered by a farm-labourer’s cottage and outbuildings will be 2⁄2 poles.

Assuming that the roof is slate and the water dripping from it is properly caught by eave-troughing, and conducted by down-pipes and impervious drain-pipes into a water-tight tank sufficiently capacious to prevent overflow under any circumstances, and that by this method 20 inches of water from rain and dew are collected in the course of the year, the private houses will have the command of 28,280 gallons, and the cottage 7070 gallons in a year.... A tank 16 feet long, and ten feet wide, will hold 1000 gallons in every foot of depth, and where the water is not wanted for drinking, it need not be covered, except with a common boarded floating roof of half-inch boards fastened together. This floating roof keeps the water clean, and prevents evaporation.”

Leakage of pipes of any kind into a cistern or tank should be particularly guarded against. Another important precaution claiming adoption is to see that the overflow-pipe is not directly connected with the sewer, for if it be, the sewer gases will rise through it, and being prevented escaping from the cistern because of its covering, will become absorbed by the water. To obviate this, the overflow-pipe is curved, so as to force a syphon trap; but this device conduces to a sense of false security, since it mostly fails owing to the evaporation of the water in it, or to the gases forcing their way through it. The overflow-pipe, therefore, should never have direct communication with the sewer, but should always end above ground, and discharge over a trapped grating into it. For similar reasons the same tanks or cisterns should never supply the water used for culinary or drinking purposes and also the water-closets.

To the water in the tanks attached to these latter, some disinfectant substance should from time to time be added; more particularly during hot weather.

Unless a cistern be efficiently protected, particularly if it be placed in an exposed situation, various disgusting and filthy substances, such as the ordure of birds, cats, rats, and dead insects, &c., will be liable to fall into it, and foul its contents. This must not only be guarded against by the proper means, but even where the contamination may not be suspected, or likely to occur, the cistern should be frequently examined and periodically cleansed; part of the proper carrying out of which should consist in always running off the water remaining in it and renewing it with fresh.

The London and General Water Purifying Company have adopted an excellent idea in connection with tanks and cisterns; they fit them with filters, so that the water drawn from the pipes shall have been submitted to filtration previous to delivery.

TAN′NATE. A salt of tannic acid.

TAN′NER’S BARK. The best of this is oak bark; but the bark of the chestnut, willow, and larch, and other trees which abound in tannin, are also used for preparing leather.

TAN′NIC ACID. C27H22O17. Syn. Tan, Tannin, Gallo-tannic acid†; Tanninum, Acidum tannicum (B. P., Ph. L., D., & U. S.), L. A peculiar vegetable principle, remarkable for its astringency and its power of converting the skins of animals into leather.

Prep. 1. (Pelouze.) From galls, in moderately fine powder, by percolation, in a closed vessel, with sulphuric ether that has been previously agitated with water. After some time the percolated liquid will be found divided into two distinct portions, the lower and heavier one being a watery solution of tannic acid, and the upper one an ethereal solution of gallic acid and colouring matter. Fresh ether must be passed through the powder as long as the lower stratum of liquid continues to augment. The two fluids are now carefully separated, and after the heavier one has been well washed with ether, it is gently evaporated to dryness, preferably under the receiver of an air pump, or over sulphuric acid. The ether may be recovered unaltered from the ethereal solution, by cautious distillation in a retort connected with a Liebig’s condenser supplied with ice-cold water. Prod. About 40%.

2. (Ph. D.) From galls, in tolerably fine powder, 8 oz., and a mixture of sulphuric ether, 3 pints, with water, 5 fl. oz.; by percolation, in successive portions, like the last; the aqueous solution of tannic acid being evaporated, and finally dried at a heat not exceeding 212° Fahr.

Prop., &c. Pure tannic acid is perfectly white, but as ordinarily met with it has a slight yellowish colour, owing to the action of the air; it is uncrystallisable; possesses a powerful and purely astringent taste, without bitterness; is freely soluble in water, less so in alcohol, and only very slightly in ether; it reddens vegetable blues; when boiled with acids, it assimilates water and splits into gallic acid and grape sugar; when heated in the dry state, it suffers decomposition, metagallic and pyrogallic acids being formed; it unites with the bases, forming salts called tannates, which are characterised by striking a deep black with the persalts of iron (ink), and forming a white precipitate with gelatin.

E. Schmidt gives the following comparative method of determining tanning materials, stating, preliminarily, “that the question to be solved is, knowing that a certain weight of pure tannin is required to obtain a certain result, how much of another tanning body, e.g. the extract of a wood, is required to produce the same result? None of the published methods for the determination of tannin is sufficiently precise, easy, and rapid for industrial purposes.”

The author proposes a modification of Pibram’s method with sugar of lead, the modification being as follows:

A. Preparation of the Test Liquor. Fifty grams neutral acetate of lead are dissolved in 400 grams of alcohol, of 92 per cent., and distilled water is added to make up 1 litre.

On the other hand, 1 gram of tannin is dissolved in 40 grams of alcohol of the same strength, and the solution is made up with water to the bulk of 100 c.c. This being done, 10 c.c. of the tannin solution are mixed with 20 c.c. of water, and heated to 60°. The lead liquor is then run into the hot solution from a burette, graduated to tenths of a c.c., so long as a precipitate is formed. At this temperature, and with these alcoholised liquids, the precipitate forms and settles rapidly. Iodide of potassium may be used as an indicator to show excess of lead, proceeding in the same manner as is done with ferrocyanide in titrating phosphates with nitrate of uranium. If we suppose that to precipitate 10 c.c. of the tannin solution 28° of the lead liquor have been required, then 2·8 c.c. of the latter = 0·10 gram of tannin.

B. Preparation of the Sample to be tested. Suppose that chestnut bark is to be examined. It is coarsely powdered, and 10 grams are mixed with an equal volume of washed sand, and exhausted with water at 50° or 60° C. The filtered liquid is evaporated to dryness in a water bath in a tarred porcelain capsule. After evaporation the capsule is weighed, which shows the yield of the bark in aqueous extract. This is taken up in 40 grams of alcohol at 92°, and water is added to make up 100° c.c. The liquid is filtered if needful. In this manner the resinous, albuminoid, pectic, and gummy matters are got rid of.

C. Titration. The liquid thus prepared is divided into two parts. The first, one third of the entire volume, serves for direct determination of the acetate of lead. Suppose that a gram of the dry extract of chestnut has required, for 10 c.c. of the tannin liquor, in three successive experiments, 16°, 17°, and 16° of the burette, which corresponds to 57 per cent. of tannin. Thus figure 57 represents not only tannin, but every other substance capable of precipitating acetate of lead.

The tannin is then absorbed with bone black, previously washed with hydrochloric acid, and dried at 100° C. in the following manner:—We act with bone black upon the tannin liquor, and on a solution of pure tannic, prepared at a standard somewhat lower than that indicated for the extract by the first direct titration. In the present case this solution of tannin should be prepared at 55 per cent.

From one and the same glass tube, about 1 centimètre in diameter, we cut off two lengths of 20 centimètres each, and we draw out each at one of its ends. The two tubes are fixed perpendicularly with the points downwards, and plugged with a little carded cotton. Into each is put 10 grams of the bone black, pouring into one of them the second part of the tannin liquor under examination, and into the other the same volume of the pure solution of pure tannin at 55 per cent.

Twenty c.c. of the tannin liquor (which will be found to have retained its original brown colour in spite of the bone black) are now heated to 60° C., and the standard lead liquor is added from the burette as before. Two successive trials show 16° = 8° for 10 c.c. in place of the 16° found for 10 c.c. on direct titration. On the other hand, 20 c.c. of the solution of pure tannin require 14°, or 7° for 10 c.c. Thus we see that in the tannin liquor (chestnut extract) there is a certain quantity of matter which acts upon the standard lead solution like tannin, corresponding to 1° of the lead liquor, i. e. to 357 thousandths of a centigram of tannin; 28°, therefore, correspond to 10 centigrams. The figure 57, obtained by direct titration, is, therefore, too high by 3·57 per cent., and the extract contains 57 - 3·57 = 53·43 per cent. of tannin.

Uses, &c. The value of substances containing tannin in the preparation of leather is well known. In its pure form it is used as an astringent in medicine; internally, in diarrhœa, hæmorrhages, as a tonic in dyspepsia, &c.; externally, made into a gargle, injection, or ointment.—Dose, 1 to 10 gr., in the form of pills or solution. See Gallic acid, &c.

TAN′NIN. See Tannic acid.

TAN′NING. When the skin of an animal, carefully deprived of hair, fat, and other impurities, is immersed in a dilute solution of tannic acid, the gelatin gradually combines with that substance as it penetrates inwards, forming a perfectly insoluble compound, which resists putrefaction completely; this is tanned leather. In practice, lime water is used for cleansing and preparing the skin, water acidulated with oil of vitriol for ‘raising’ or opening the pores, and an infusion of oak bark, or sometimes of catechu, or other astringent matter, as the source of tannic acid. The process itself is necessarily a slow one, as dilute solutions only can be safely used. Skins intended for the curriers, to be dressed for ‘uppers,’ commonly require about 3 weeks; and ‘thick hides,’ from 12 to 18 months.

Of late years various ingenious contrivances have been adopted, with more or less success, to hasten the process of tanning skins and hides. Among these may be mentioned the employment of stronger tan solutions, the application of a gentle heat, puncturing the skins to afford more ready access for the liquid to their interior parts, and maceration in the tan liquor under pressure, either at once or after the vessel containing them has been exhausted of air by means of an air-pump. On the merit of these several methods it has been remarked “that the saturated infusions of astringent barks contain much less extractive matter, in proportion to their tannin, than the weak infusions; and when the skins are quickly tanned in the former, common experience shows that it produces leather which is less durable than leather slowly formed.” (Sir H. Davy.) “100 lbs. of skin, quickly tanned in a strong infusion of bark, produce 137 lbs. of leather; while 100 lbs., slowly tanned in a weak infusion, produce only 117⁄2 lbs.” “Leather thus highly (and hastily) charged with tannin is, moreover, so spongy as to allow moisture to pass readily through its pores, to the great discomfort and danger of persons wearing shoes made of it.” (Ure.)

According to Mr G. Lee, much of the original gelatin of the skin is wasted in the preliminary processes to which they are subjected, more especially the ‘liming’ and ‘bating,’ He says, that 100 lbs. of perfectly dry hide, cleaned from extraneous matter, should, on chemical principles, afford at least 180 lbs. of leather.

Morocco leather is prepared from goat or sheep skins, which, after the action of lime water and a dung bath, are slightly tanned in a bath of sumach. They are subsequently grained, polished, &c.

Russia leather is generally tanned with a decoction of willow bark, after which it is dyed, and curried with the empyreumatic oil of the birch tree. It is the last substance which imparts to this leather its peculiar odour and power of resisting mould and damp. See Leather, Tannic acid, Tawing, &c.

TANTALIC ACID. Syn. Tantalic anhydride; Columbic acid. Rose believed this substance to be a dioxide, to which he gave the formula TaO2; but the subsequent researches of Marignac, and the crystalline form of potassic tantalic fluoride 2KF, TaF5, seem to show that it is to be regarded rather as Ta2O5.

TAN′TALUM. Ta. Syn. Columbium. A rare metal discovered by Mr Hatchett, in 1801, in a mineral from Massachusetts; and by M. Ekeberg, in 1803, in tantalite, a mineral found in Sweden. It exists in most of its ores in combination with oxygen.

TAPEWORM. See Worms.

TAPEWORM CURE (Bloch, Vienna). Coarsely powdered pomegranate root bark, 125 grammes, boiled for half an hour in 800 grammes water. To this add solution of ammonia, 5 grammes; boil again for a quarter of an hour. Add kousso flowers 25 grammes. Again boil for a few minutes, and when cold add citric acid, 1 gramme; and alcohol, 30 grammes. Press, filter, and set aside. The product should weigh about 500 grammes. Klinger says this remedy is merely a concentrated essence of pomegranate root bark, and contains neither ammonia nor citric acid.

Tapeworm Cure (Jacoby, Berlin). A box containing 20 grammes of kousso powder and directions for use. (Hager.)

Tapeworm Cure (Mix). (a) A mixture containing 3 decigrammes of sulphate of quinine, with a few drops of hydrochloric acid to dissolve it in 200 grammes water. To be taken in the course of three days. (b) A box with 12 grammes kousso powder. A teaspoonful to be taken each morning in black coffee. (Schädler.)

Tapeworm Cure (Richard Mohrmann, Frankenberg, Saxony). This Mohrmann travels about in the fashion of the old charlatans, to sell his medicines. These consist of two varieties, the first being 10 grammes of extract of male fern, the second a mixture of 8 grammes each of raspberry juice and castor oil. These remedies have been used for tapeworm for almost 100 years. The doctor’s directions for use are to mix 30 grammes of the extract with the castor oil and raspberry compound, and 30 drops of the mixture to be taken every quarter of an hour, until purging occurs.

Tapeworm Cure (Mork, Berlin). A decoction of about 110 grammes of pomegranate root bark, yielding 400 grammes of liquid, and mixed 1 gramme of extract of male fern. The directions order that on one day one or two tablespoonfuls of castor oil should be taken, a herring salad in the evening, and the following morning, after coffee, a third of the contents of the bottle, another third half an hour later, and the remainder in yet another half hour. (Hager.)

Tapeworm Cure for Children and Adults (E. Karig, Berlin). Burned oxide of copper, 1 gramme; cassia powder, 1⁄2 gramme; sugar of milk, 10 grammes. Divide in 24 powders. (Schädler.)

Tapeworm Pills, Laffon’s, are compounded of the ethereal extract of the root of Aspidium Lonchitis, Asp. Helveticum, and Asp. Filixmas, together with the alcoholic extract of the flowers of Achillea mutellina and maschata, and the powder of the flowers of Arnica Doronicum. (Wittstein.)

Tapeworm Pills, Peschier’s.—Ethereal extract and powder of the rhizome of male fern, of each gramme 1·6 make 20 pills. Take ten at night and ten in the morning.

TAPIO′CA. Syn. Tapioca (Ph. E. & D.), L. The fecula of the root of Janipha manihot (Jatropha manihot—Linn.), which has been well washed in water, and dried on hot plates, by which it assumes the appearance of warty-looking granules.

Pure tapioca is insipid, inodorous, only slightly soluble in cold water, but entirely soluble in boiling water, forming a translucent and highly nutritious jelly. Its granules are muller-shaped, about ⁄2000 of an inch in diameter, and display very marked hilums. It is used in a similar manner to sago and arrow-root. See Cassava.

TAPS, WOODEN (to prevent their cracking). The taps are placed in mother paraffin, heated to from 110° to 120°; by this means the water is eliminated from the wood, and the wood becomes thoroughly impregnated with paraffin. The taps are heated in this bath until all the aqueous vapour has been expelled, and are left in it, after the removal of the vessel from the fire, up to the very moment the paraffin begins to solidify. Wooden taps thus prepared are very durable, do not become soaked with liquids, keep very tight, and are not liable to become mouldy. The excess of paraffin is wiped off with care, and the taps are next rubbed clean with a piece of flannel. (Dr E. Kopp.)

TAR. Syn. Pix liquida (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. A liquid bitumen prepared from the wood of Pinus sylvestris, and other species, by heat. The chemical constitution of tar is very complicated. Its uses in the arts are well known. As a medicine it is stimulant, diuretic, sudorific, and vermifuge.—Dose, 20 to 60 minims, made into pills with flour; in ichthyosis, &c. Externally, in lepra, psoriasis, foul ulcers, &c. See Ointment and Infusion.

Tar, Barbadoes. Syn. Pix liquida Barbadensis, Petroleum Barbadense, Petroleum (Ph. L. and E.), L. “Black liquid bitumen, exuding spontaneously from the earth.” (Ph. L.) Its properties for the most part resemble those of the last.—Dose, 10 to 30 drops; in asthma, chronic coughs, tapeworm, &c. Externally, in chilblains, chronic and rheumatic pains, &c. See Petroleum.

Tar, Coal. Produced during the distillation of bituminous coal for gas. See Naphtha, &c.

TARAX′ACUM. See Dandelion.

TAR COLOURS. Syn. Coal tar colours, Aniline colours, &c. Coal tar, the source of the aniline colours, consists of the oily fluid obtained in the destructive distillation of coal, during the manufacture of ordinary illuminating gas, and collected in a tank from the hydraulic main and condensers.

The composition of coal tar is highly complex, the most important constituents being, however, a series of homologous hydrocarbons obtained by distilling coal tar, and known as ‘coal naphtha.’ Naphtha, by rectification between 180° and 250° Fahr. (82 and 121 Cent.), yields a light yellow oily liquid, of sp. gr. ·88, the benzol of commerce.

By the action of a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids on benzol, nitro-benzol, a heavy oily liquid with an odour of oil of bitter almonds is obtained. In commerce this substance is made in large cast-iron pots, fitted with tight covers, and provided with stirrers worked by steam power. By means of pipes the reagents are admitted and the nitrous fumes are carried off, while the nitro-benzol and the spent reagents are drawn off from the bottom. The entire charge of benzol is first placed into the vessels, and the mixed acids are, as the reaction is very energetic, cautiously run in, the whole being well stirred throughout. When finished, the contents are drawn off, and the nitro-benzol collected, washed with water, and, if necessary, neutralised with a solution of soda. See Benzol.

Nitro-benzol is converted into aniline in a similar apparatus, only provided with means of admitting a current of superheated steam, and condensing the aniline as it distils over. Into the vessel iron borings are placed, and acetic acid and nitro-benzol cautiously run in as the reduction is violent, stirring well all the time. A current of superheated steam is passed through, and the aniline collected as it distils over as a pale, sherry-coloured oily liquid, boiling at 360° Fahr. (182 Cent.), and of sp. gr. 1·02. See Aniline.

Mauve, Indisine, Violine, Phenamine, the first-discovered coal tar, or aniline colour, was obtained by Mr Perkins during some experiments directed towards the artificial formation of quinine, and was also first practically manufactured by Mr Perkins. Commercially, mauve is made as follows:

Aniline and sulphuric acid in proper proportions are dissolved in water in a vat by aid of heat, and when cold a solution of bichromate of potassium added, and the whole allowed to stand a day or two, when a black precipitate is obtained, which, after collecting on shallow filters, is washed and well dried. This black resinous substance is digested with dilute methylated spirit in a suitable apparatus, to dissolve out the mauve, and the major portion of the spirit distilled off. The mauve is precipitated from the aqueous solution left behind by hydrate of sodium, and after washing is either drained to a paste or dried.

The amount of mauve thus obtained is but small in comparison with the raw material, coal tar, as 100 lbs. of coal yield 10 lbs. 12 oz. of coal tar; 8⁄2 oz. of mineral naphtha, 2⁄4 oz. of benzol; 4⁄4 oz. of nitro-benzol, 2⁄4 oz. of aniline, and ⁄4 oz. of mauve. Mauve is usually sent into the market in paste or solution, the expense of the crystals being heavy, and offering no corresponding advantages.

Other salts than the bichromate of potassium have been employed to convert aniline into mauve, as chloride of copper, permanganate of potassium, &c.; but experience has shown none to possess the same advantages as the bichromate of potassium.

Mauveine, the organic base of mauve or aniline purple, is a black crystalline powder, of the formula C27H24N3, yielding a dull violet solution. The moment, however, mauveine is brought in contact with an acid, it turns a magnificent purple colour. The salts of mauveine form beautiful crystals possessing a splendid green metallic lustre, soluble very readily in alcohol, and less so in water. The commercial salt, or mauve, is the acetate, or sometimes the hydrochlorate.

Magenta. Syn. Aniline red, Roseine, Fuchsine, Azaleine, Solferino, Tyraline. Various processes have been proposed and patented for the preparation of this commercially important coal-tar colour. Amongst these processes are—

1. Gerber-Keller’s, patented in France, October 29th, 1859. By this the aniline is treated with mercuric nitrate.

2. Lauth and Depouilly used nitric acid.

3. Medlock (patent dated January, 1860). Nicholson, and Messrs Girard and De Laire, all in 1860, separately patented the use of arsenic acid. This process, being the one now almost exclusively employed, is thus described in Crace Calvert’s work, ‘Dyeing and Calico Printing,’ edited by Messrs Stenhouse and Grove. “The manufacture of magenta, as it is now conducted in the large colour works, is a comparatively simple process, the apparatus employed consisting of a large cast-iron pot set in a furnace, provided with means of carefully regulating the heat. It is furnished with a stirrer, which can be worked by hand or by mechanical means, the gearing for the stirrer being fixed to the lid, so that by means of a crane the lid may be removed, together with the stirrer and gearing. There is also a bent tube passing through the lid for the exit of the vapours, which can be easily connected or disconnected with a worm at pleasure; lastly, there are large openings at the bottom of the pot, closed by suitable stoppers, so that the charge can be removed with facility as soon as the reaction is complete. Into this apparatus, which is capable of holding about 500 gallons, a charge of 2740 lbs. of a concentrated solution of arsenic acid, containing 72% of the anhydrous acid, is introduced, together with 1600 lbs. of commercial aniline. The aniline selected for this purpose should contain about 25% of the toluidine.

“After the materials have been thoroughly mixed by the stirrer the fire is lighted, and the temperature gradually raised to about 360° F. In a short time water begins to distil, then aniline makes its appearance along with the water, and, lastly, aniline alone comes over, which is nearly pure, containing, as it does, but a very small per centage of toluidine. The operation usually lasts about eight or ten hours, during which time about 170 gallons of liquid pass over, and are condensed in the worm attached to the apparatus; of this about 150 lbs. are aniline. The temperature should not exceed 380° F. at any period during the operation. When this is complete steam is blown in through a tube, in order to sweep out the last traces of the free aniline, and boiling water is gradually introduced in quantity sufficient to convert the contents into a homogenous liquid. When this occurs the liquid is run out of the openings at the bottom into cisterns provided with agitators; here more boiling water is added, in the proportion of 300 galls. to every 600 lbs. of crude magenta, and also 6 lbs. of hydrochloric acid. The mass is then boiled for four or five hours by means of steam pipes, the agitators being kept in constant motion. The solution of hydrochloride, arsenite, and arseniate of rosaniline thus obtained is filtered through woollen cloth, and 720 lbs. of common salt added to the liquid (which is kept boiling) for each 600 lbs. of crude magenta. By this means the whole of the rosaniline is converted into hydrochloride, which, being nearly insoluble in the strong solution of arseniate and arsenite of sodium produced in the double decomposition, separates and rises to the surface; a further quantity is deposited from the saline solution on allowing it to cool and stand for some time. In order to purify the crude rosaniline hydrochloride it is washed with a small quantity of water, redissolved in boiling water slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, filtered, and allowed to crystallise.”

If in the treatment of aniline with arsenic acid the latter be considerably beyond the proportion of aniline employed, VIOLET and BLUE dyes may be formed. The production of such has been patented by Girard and De Laire.

4. Laurent and Casthélaz have obtained aniline red direct from benzol, without the preliminary isolation of aniline. Nitrobenzol is treated with twice its weight of iron finely divided, and half its weight of concentrated hydrochloric acid. The colouring matter obtained by this process is said to be inferior in beauty to that procured from aniline.

5. Messrs Renard Brothers include in their patent the ebullition of aniline with stannous, stannic, mercurous, and mercuric sulphates, with ferric and uranic nitrates and nitrate of silver, and with stannic and mercuric bromides.

6. Messrs Dale and Curo’s (patent dated 1860) consists in the treatment of aniline or hydrochlorate of aniline with nitrate of lead.

7. Mr Smith claims the ebullition of aniline with perchloride of antimony, or the action of antimonic acid, peroxide of bismuth, stannic, ferric, mercuric, and cupric oxides, upon hydrochlorate or sulphate of aniline, at the temperature of 180°.

Coupier’s process for the manufacture of magenta without the use of arsenic acid is as follows:—He heats together pure aniline, nitrotoluene, hydrochloric acid, and a small quantity of finely-divided metallic iron, to a temperature of about 400° F. for several hours. The pasty mixture soon solidifies to a friable mass resembling crude aniline red—ordinary commercial aniline. The above processes are for the preparation of crude aniline red only. The crude colours contain some undecomposed aniline, mostly in the form of salts. They are also contaminated with tarry matters, some insoluble in water and dilute acids; others soluble in bisulphide of carbon, naphtha, or in caustic or carbonated alkalies. If, therefore, the crude red be boiled with an excess of alkali the undecomposed aniline is expelled, the acid which exists in the product being fixed. On treating the residue with acidulated boiling water the red is dissolved, while certain tarry matters remain insoluble. If now the boiling solution be filtered, and then saturated with an alkali, the colouring matter is precipitated in a tolerable state of purity. By redissolving the precipitated red in an acid, not employed in excess, a solution is obtained which frequently crystallises, or from which a pure red may be thrown down by a new addition of chloride of sodium or other alkaline salt.

Dr Hofmann and Mr Nicholson have demonstrated that pure aniline, from whatever source obtained, is incapable of furnishing a red dye, but that it does so when mixed with its homologue toluidine—toluidine by itself being equally incapable of yielding it. From this it will be evident that an aniline rich in toluidine is an essential condition for obtaining aniline red.

Magenta consists of brilliant large crystals, having a beautiful golden-green metallic lustre, and soluble in water to an intense purplish-red solution. It is a salt of a colourless base, rosaniline, which is prepared from magenta by boiling with hydrate of potassium, and allowing the solution to cool, when it crystallises out in colourless crystals, having the formula C20H19N3H2O. All the salts of rosaniline have a splendid purple-red colour, and that usually met with as magenta is the hydrochlorate, although the nitrate, oxalate, and acetate are also to be obtained.

Sugar, previously dyed with magenta, is sometimes used as an adulterant of crystallised magenta. If present, the larger crystals of dyed sugar may be readily detected by their colour being paler at the edges, when the suspected sample is spread out on a sheet of white paper in the sunshine. One of the best methods of testing magenta is to make a comparative dyeing experiment with the sample under examination, and with one of known purity, using white woollen yarn.

From magenta or hydrochlorate of rosaniline a large number of colouring matters are produced, the most important of which will be briefly described below.

Aniline Black. “Dissolve 20 parts of potassium chlorate, 40 parts of sulphate of copper, 16 parts of chloride of ammonium, and 40 parts of aniline hydrochloride, in 500 parts of water, warming the liquid to about 60°, and then removing it from the water bath. In about three minutes the solution froths up and gives off vapours which strongly attack the breathing organs. If the mass does not become quite black after the lapse of a few hours it is again heated to 60°, and then exposed in an open place for a day or two, and afterwards carefully washed out till no salts are found in the filtrate. For use in printing, the black paste is mixed with a somewhat large quantity of albumen, and the goods after printing are strongly steamed. The paste can be pressed into moulds, and used as a substitute for Indian ink.” (A. Müller.) “Mix equal weights of aniline (containing toluidine), hydrochloric acid, and potassium chlorate, with a minute quantity of cupric chloride and a sufficient quantity of water, and leave the mixture to evaporate spontaneously, when a black powder will be obtained.” (Rheineck.)

Aniline Blue, or Bleu de Lyons. This dye is prepared by heating a mixture of magenta, acetate of sodium, and aniline in iron pots, provided with stirrers, &c., in an oil bath, to 370° Fahr. (190° C.), and the excess of aniline distilled over. When a good blue has been obtained the heat is removed, and the thick treacly fluid purified. This is effected for the commoner varieties by treating the crude product with hydrochloric acid, to dissolve all the excess of aniline, and the various red and purple impurities; but for the better qualities by mixing the crude product with methylated spirit, and pouring the whole into water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and then thoroughly washing the colouring matter that is precipitated, with water and drying.

This blue, like magenta, is a salt of a colourless base, which has been named Triphenyl-rosaniline. C38H31N3, or C20H16(C6H5)3N3. Aniline blue, or Lyons blue, is sent into the market either as a coarse powder of a coppery lustre, or in alcoholic solution; as it is insoluble in water, which necessitates it being added to the dye bath in solution in spirit, a great drawback.

Mr Nicholson, by treating Lyons blue in the same manner as indigo is converted into sulphindigotic acid, has succeeded in rendering it soluble; dissolving in alkalies to form colourless salts, and decomposed by acids into its original blue colour.

By a modification of this method ‘Nicholson’s blue’ is prepared, a fine soluble blue dye. Another colouring matter called Paris blue or bleu de Paris was obtained by heating stannic chloride with aniline for 30 hours at a temperature of 356° Fahr. (180 C.). It is a fine pure blue, soluble in water, and crystallising in large blue needles with a coppery lustre.

Another method pursued in manufacture of this colour on a large scale is carried out by allowing a mixture of a salt of rosaniline, with an excess of aniline, to digest at a temperature of 150° to 160° for a considerable time. If a mixture of 2 kilogrammes of dry hydrochlorate of rosaniline, and 4 kilogrammes of aniline be employed, the operation is completed in four hours. The crude blue is purified by treating it successively with boiling water, acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and with pure water, until it is of the purest blue colour. ‘Nicholson’s blue’ is obtained by digesting triphenyl rosaniline—mono-sulphonic acid (made by dissolving triphenyl rosaniline hydrochloride in strong sulphuric acid, and heating the solution for five or six hours. On the addition of water, the acid is obtained as a dark blue precipitate, and dried at 100°), with a quantity of soda-lye not quite sufficient for saturation, filtering the solution and evaporating. It is dried at 100°. Wool dipped into a hot aqueous solution of Nicholson’s blue, especially if borax or water-glass be added, extracts it in a colourless state, and holds it so fast that it cannot be washed out with water, but on dipping the wool thus prepared into an acid the salt is decomposed, and the colouring matter is set free.

Aniline Blue for Printing. Blumer-Zweefel gives the following process:—“Mix 100 parts of starch with 1000 parts of water, and add to it while warm 40 parts of potassium chlorate, 3 to 4 parts of ferrous sulphate, and 10 parts of sal ammoniac. The well-mixed paste, when quite cold, is mixed with 70 parts of aniline hydrochloride, or an equivalent quantity of tartrate, and immediately used. The printed goods are oxidised, then passed through warm or faintly alkaline water, whereby the blue colour is developed.”

Violet Imperial. If the action of the aniline and magenta in the process of manufacturing aniline blue be stopped before it is finished, and the resulting product treated with dilute acid, a colouring matter called violet imperial is obtained. It is now, however, replaced by the Hofmann violets.

Mr Nicholson obtains another violet from aniline red, by heating it in a suitable apparatus to a temperature between 200° and 215° C. The resulting mass is exhausted with acetic acid, and the deep-violet solution diluted with enough alcohol to give the dye a convenient strength. Aniline violet, although it resists the action of light to a very considerable extent, has been shown by Chevreul to be inferior in this particular than either madder, cochineal, or indigo.

Hofmann Violets. On a large scale these violets are produced in deep cast-iron pots, surrounded by a steam jacket, and provided with a lid, having a perforation for distilling over the excess of reagents.

These vessels are charged with a solution of magenta in methylated or wood spirit, and iodide of ethyl or methyl, in proportions according to the shade required, and the whole heated by steam for five or six hours, when the excess of alcohol and iodide of ethyl is distilled over. The resulting product is dissolved in water, filtered, precipitated with common salt, and well washed.

Like most of the other colours, Hofmann violets are salts of colourless bases. That of a red shade has a formula of C22H23N3, or C20H18(C2H5)N3; of a true violet shade C24H27N3, or C20H17(C2H5)2N2; and of a blue shade of violet, of C26H31N3, or C20H16(C2H5)3N3. They are all moderately fast on wool and silk, although less so on cotton, and, as they can be produced in nearly every shade of violet, are in great use, having replaced most of the other violets.

The following processes have also been proposed for the production of aniline violet:

1. Oxidation of an aniline salt by means of a solution of permanganate of potassium. (Williams.)

2. Oxidation of an aniline salt by means of a solution of ferricyanide of potassium. (Smith.)

3. Oxidation of a cold and dilute solution of hydrochlorate of aniline, by means of a dilute solution of chloride of lime. (Bolley, Beale, and Kirkmann.)

4. Oxidation of a salt of aniline by means of peroxide of lead under the influence of an acid. (Price.)

5. Oxidation of a salt of aniline in an aqueous solution of peroxide of manganese. (Kay.)

6. Oxidation of a salt of aniline by free chlorine or free hypochlorous acid. (Smith.)

Dahlia. This is prepared from mauve and iodide of ethyl, in the same manner as the Hofmann violets, and is a purple-red violet. It is a good colour, but the expense precludes its general use.

Britannia Violet. This is obtained in the same manner as the Hofmann violets, by acting on an alcoholic solution of magenta, with a thick, viscid, oily fluid of the formula C10H15Br3, obtained by cautiously acting with bromine on oil of turpentine. It is a beautiful violet, capable of being manufactured of every shade, from purple to blue, and most extensively used.

Aldehyde Green. Prepared by dissolving one part of magenta in three parts of sulphuric acid, diluted with one part of water, adding by degrees one and a half part of aldehyde, and heating the whole on a water bath until a drop put in water turns a fine blue. It is then poured into a large quantity of hot water containing three parts of hyposulphite of sodium, boiled and filtered. The filtrate contains the green, which can either be kept in solution or be precipitated by means of tannic acid or acetate of sodium. Like the other colours, this green is a salt of a colourless base, containing sulphur, the formula of which is not known, and is principally used for dyeing silk, being very brilliant in both day and artificial light.

Iodide Green. Produced during the manufacture of the Hofmann colours, and is now used for dyeing cotton and silk; its colour being bluer than that of aldehyde green, it is more useful. Iodide green, not being precipitated by carbonate of sodium, is usually sold in alcoholic solution.

Perkins Green. This is also a magenta derivative, and a salt of a powerful colourless base. It resembles the iodide green, but is precipitated by alkaline carbonates and picric acid. This colour is used chiefly for calico printing, and is quite as fast as the Hofmann colours.

Aniline Green. When treated with chlorate of potassium, to which a quantity of hydrochloric acid has been added, aniline assumes a rich indigo-blue colour. The same result occurs if the aniline be treated with a solution of chlorous acid. Similar blues have been obtained by Messrs Crace Calvert, Lowe, and Clift. Most of these blues possess the property, when subjected to the action of acids, of acquiring a green tint, called Emeraldine. Dr Calvert obtained this colour directly upon cloth, by printing with a mixture of an aniline salt and chlorate of potassium, and allowing it to dry. In about twelve hours the green colour is developed. This colour may be converted into blue by being passed through a hot dilute alkaline solution, or through a bath of boiling soap.

Aniline Yellow. Amongst the secondary products obtained during the preparation of aniline red, there occurs a well-defined base of a splendid yellow colour, to which the name chrysaniline has been given. It is prepared by submitting the residue, from which the rosaniline has been extracted, to a current of steam for some time, when a quantity of the chrysaniline passes into solution. By adding nitric acid to the solution, the chrysaniline is thrown down in the form of a difficultly soluble nitrate. The intimate relation between chrysaniline, rosaniline, and leucaniline has been shown by Hofmann.

Chrysaniline C20H17N3.

Rosaniline C20H19N3.

Leucaniline C20H21N3.

Saffranine. This dye stuff is of a bright red-rose colour. Mené says it may be prepared commercially by treatment of heavy aniline oils successively with nitrous and arsenic acids; or two parts of the aniline may be heated with one of arsenic acid, and one of an alkaline nitrate for a short time, to 200° or 212° F. The product is extracted with boiling water, neutralised with an alkali, filtered, and the colour thrown down by common salt.

Besides the above products obtained from aniline, a series of colours have been obtained from phenol, or carbolic acid, another substance obtained from coal tar.

Picric Acid. This is obtained by treating in a suitable apparatus, with proper precautions, carbolic acid with nitric acid. It is a pale yellow crystalline acid, forming dark orange explosive salts, and dyeing silk a fine yellow.

Isopurpurate of Potassium. Grenate Brown. Grenate Soluble. By treating picric acid with cyanide of potassium a very explosive salt is obtained, used to dye wool a dark maroon colour.

Aurine, or Rosolic Acid. This is obtained by heating a mixture of sulphuric, oxalic, and carbolic acids, and purifying the products. It is a beautiful reddish, resinous substance, with a pale green lustre, and yielding an orange coloured solution, changed by alkalies to a splendid crimson. Owing to the difficulty in using it, however, it is not very extensively employed.

Peonine, or Coralline. This dye is formed when rosolic acid and ammonia are heated to between 248° and 284° Fahr. (120° to 140° C.). It is a fine crimson dye, forming shades similar to safflower on silk, but, owing to the bad effects of acids, not much used.

Azuline. Prepared by heating coralline and aniline together. A coppery coloured resinous substance, soluble, in alcohol, and with difficulty in water, and dyeing silk a blue colour. The aniline blues, however, have superseded it to a great extent.

There are other substances obtained from coal tar that have been employed to form dyes, but of which we shall only refer to one—naphthaline. By treating this in exactly the same manner as benzol, it is converted into aniline. A solid crystalline white base, termed naphthylamine, is produced. From this substance is obtained the following dye.

Dinitronaphthal, or Manchester Yellow. Naphthylamine is converted into diazynaphthol by treatment with nitrate of potassium, and the latter, when heated with nitric acid, yields the colour. It is a weak acid, and the salt employed in commerce is the beautiful yellow crystalline calcium salt which dyes silk and wool a magnificent golden-yellow colour.

TARPAU′LIN. Syn. Tarpawling. Canvas covered with tar or any composition to render it waterproof.

TAR′RAS. Syn. Terras. A volcanic product resembling puzzolano, that imparts to mortar the property of hardening under water. Several other argillo-ferruginous minerals possess the same power, and are used under this term.

TAR′TAR. Syn. Argal, Orgol; Tartarum, Tartarus, L. Impure bitartrate of potassa. Crude tartar is the concrete deposit formed upon the sides of the casks and vats during the fermentation of grape juice. That obtained from white wine is white argol; that from red wine, red argol. After purification it forms cream of tartar.

Tartar, Ammo′′niated. Syn. Ammonio-tartrate of potassa, Soluble tartar (Ammoniated); Tartarus ammoniatus, Tartarum solubile ammoniatum, L. Prep. Neutralise a solution of cream of tartar with ammonia in slight excess, then evaporate, and crystallise. Very soluble in water. A favourite laxative on the Continent.

Tartar, Bo′′raxated. Syn. Soluble cream of tartar, Boro-tartrate of potassa and soda; Tartarum boraxatum, Cremor tartari solubilis, Potassæ et sodæ tartras boraxata, L. Prep. From borax, 2 lbs; cream of tartar, 5 lbs. (both in powder); dissolved in water, evaporated, and crystallised. See Potassium Borotartrate.

Tartar, Chalybea′ted. Potassio-tartrate of iron.

Tartar, Cream of. Bitartrate of potassa.

Tartar, Emet′ic. Potassio-tartrate of antimony.

Tartar, Oil of. Deliquesced carbonate of potassa.

Tartar, Reduced. Syn. Cremor tartari reductus, L. An article is sold, under the name of ‘British cream of tartar,’ which contains ⁄4 its weight or more of bisulphate of potassa.

Tartar, Salt of. Carbonate of potassa.

Tartar, Sol′uble. Neutral tartrate of potassa.

Tartar, Spirit of. Pyrotartaric acid.

TARTAR′IC ACID. H2C4H4O6. Syn. Acid of tartar, Essential salt of t.†; Acidum tartaricum (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), Sal essentiale tartari†, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) Take of cream of tartar, 4 lbs.; boiling water, 2 gall.; dissolve by boiling; add, gradually, of prepared chalk, 12 oz. 7 dr. (made into a milk with water), and, when the effervescence ceases, add another like portion of prepared chalk, dissolved in hydrochloric acid, 26⁄2 fl. oz., or q. s., diluted with water, 4 pints; collect the precipitate (‘tartrate of lime’), and, after well washing it with water, boil it for 15 minutes in dilute sulphuric acid, 7 pints and 17 fl. oz.; next filter, evaporate the filtrate (to the density of 1·38), and set it aside to crystallise; redissolve the crystals in water, concentrate the solution by evaporation, and recrystallise a second and a third time. The Edinburgh formula is nearly similar. In the Ph. L. & D. tartaric acid is placed in the Materia Medica.

2. (Gatty.) The solution of argol or tartar is first neutralised with carbonate of potassa, and to every 300 gall. of the clear liquid, at 5° Twaddell, 34 gall. of milk of lime (1 lb. of lime per gall.) are added; carbonic acid gas is then forced in, with agitation; decomposition ensues, with the formation of ‘bicarbonate of potassa’ and ‘tartrate of lime,’ the last is converted into tartaric acid in the usual manner, and the former is evaporated in iron pans, and roasted in a reverberatory furnace for its potassa.

Prop. Tartaric acid forms inodorous, scarcely transparent, oblique rhombic prisms, more or less modified, which are permanent in the air; it possesses a purely sour taste, dissolves in about 2 parts of water at 60° Fahr., and in about its own weight of boiling water; it is slightly soluble in alcohol; the aqueous solution exhibits right-handed polarisation, and suffers gradual decomposition by age.

It is free from colour; is entirely, or almost entirely, dissipated by ignition; and is entirely soluble in water.

Tests. 1. Tartaric acid is known to be such by its solution giving white precipitates with solutions of caustic lime, baryta, and strontia, which dissolve in excess of the acid.—2. A solution of potassa causes a white granular precipitate of cream of tartar, soluble by agitation in excess of the precipitant.—3. Nitrate of silver and acetate of lead give white precipitates, which, when heated, f nine, and yield the pure metal.—4. If to a solution of tartaric acid, or a tartrate, solution of a ferric or aluminum salt be added, and subsequently ammonia or potassa, no precipitate is formed.—5. At about 570° Fahr. all the tartrates are blackened, and yield a peculiar and characteristic odour.

Uses, &c. Tartaric acid is chiefly employed in calico printing, and, in medicine, as a substitute for citric acid and lemon juice in the preparation of cooling drinks and saline draughts. For the latter purpose, bicarbonate of soda is the alkaline salt commonly employed.—Dose, 10 to 30 grains.

Concluding Remarks. On the large scale the decomposition of the tartar is usually effected in a copper boiler, and that of the tartrate of lime in a leaden cistern. This part of the process is often performed by mere digestion for a few days, without the application of heat. Leaden or stoneware vessels are used as crystallisers. Good cream of tartar requires 26% of chalk and 28·5% of dry chloride of calcium for its perfect decomposition. Dry tartrate of lime requires 75% of oil of vitriol to liberate the whole of its tartaric acid. A very slight excess of sulphuric acid may be safely, nay, advantageously, employed. Some manufacturers bleach the coloured solution of the first crystals by treating it with animal charcoal; but for this purpose the latter substance should be first purified by digesting it in hydrochloric acid, and afterwards by edulcorating it with water, and exposing it to a dull red heat in a covered vessel. The general management of this manufacture resembles that of citric acid. To obtain a large product, care must be taken that the whole of the tartrate of lime be thoroughly decomposed, a matter not always effected by clumsy manipulators, who do not adapt their quantities or practice to the circumstances before them.

TAR′TRATE. A salt of tartaric acid.

TARTS. These may be regarded as miniature pies, consisting of fruit, either fresh or preserved, baked or spread on puff-paste.

TARTS. To make an apple tart take about 2 lbs. of apples, peel them, cut each into four pieces, and remove the cores; then let each of the quarters be subdivided into two or three pieces, according to the size of the apple. Having done this, put half the pieces into a pie-dish, press them evenly down, and sprinkle over them two ounces of brown sugar; then add the remaining apples, and afterwards another 2 oz. of sugar, so that the apples shall form a kind of dome, the centre of which is about two inches above the sides, now add a wineglassful of water, and cover the top over with short paste. Let bake in a moderately heated oven from half to three quarters of an hour.

The quantity of sugar must depend upon the quality, and the degree of sweetness, or the reverse, of the apples used. If they are of the sweet kind or very ripe, use less sugar, but a double quantity of water; in the latter case a little of the juice of lemon will improve the flavour. Chopped lemon-peel, or cinnamon, or cloves, may also be added to the tart with advantage.

On making green rhubarb or greengage tarts it will be necessary to use a little more sugar, and to proceed as for apple tart, taking care, however, to omit the lemon juice and peel, cinnamon, or cloves. Tarts of ripe currants, raspberries, cherries, damsons, and mulberries, may be made in the same manner as rhubarb tart. Pink rhubarb does not require peeling.

TAU′RIN. C2H7NSO3. Obtained when purified bile is boiled for some hours with an excess of hydrochloric acid. By filtration, evaporation, and dissolving the dry residuum in about 6 parts of boiling alcohol, nearly pure taurin crystallises out as the solution cools. It forms with crystalline needles, which are soluble in water, and sparingly soluble in alcohol. It is remarkable for containing fully 25% of sulphur.

TAUROCHOLAL′IC ACID. See Choleic acid.

TAW′ING. In the preparation of the TAWED LEATHER used for gloves, housings, &c., the skins are first soaked, scraped, and hung in a warm room until they begin to exhale an ammoniacal odour, and the wool readily comes off; they are then de-haired, and soaked in water with some quicklime for several weeks, the water being changed two or three times during that period; they are then again beamed, smoothed, and trimmed, after which they are rinsed, and resoaked in a vat of bran-and-water, where they are kept in a state of gentle fermentation for some weeks (in this state they are called ‘pelts’); the skins are next well worked about in a warm solution of alum and salt, again fermented in bran-and-water for a short time, and are then stretched on hooks, and dried in a stove-room; they are, lastly, again soaked in water and trodden or worked in a pail or tub containing some yolks of eggs beaten to a froth with water, after which they are stretched and dried in a loft, and are smoothed with a warm smoothing-iron. Sometimes the process is shortened by soaking the skins in the following mixture after the first steep with bran:—Common salt, 3⁄2 lbs.; alum, 8 lbs.; boiling water, q. s.; dissolve, add of wheaten flour, 21 lbs.; yolks of 9 dozen eggs; make a paste. For use, a portion is to be largely diluted with water.

Chamois or SHAMMY LEATHER is generally prepared from either sheep or doe-skins, which, after dressing, liming, &c., are well oiled on the grain side, then rolled into balls, and thrown into the trough of the fulling-mill, where they are beaten for 2, 3, or 4 hours. They are next aired, and again oiled and fulled, and this is repeated a third time, or oftener, as circumstances may direct. The oiled skins are then exposed to a fermenting process, or heating in a close chamber, and are afterwards freed from redundant oil by being scoured in a weak alkaline lye. They are, lastly, rinsed in clean water, wrung at the peg, dried, and ‘finished’ at the stretcher-iron.

Tawed leather differs from TANNED LEATHER in yielding size or glue under the influence of heat and moisture, in nearly the same way as the raw skins.

TAXIDERMY, Practical. The following review on the excellent work on this subject is from ‘The Bazaar,’ ‘Practical Taxidermy; a manual of instruction to the amateur in collecting, preserving, and setting up Natural History Specimens of all kinds. By Montagu Browne.’

“The author of this little book begins at the beginning, and, before detailing the process of skinning, preserving, and mounting any given vertebrate, he starts with a chapter on ‘Trapping and Decoying Birds and Animals.’ In this chapter descriptions are given of various forms of springs, snare, ‘figure-4 trap,’ clap-net, glade-net, bow-net, and box trap; and some wrinkles are imparted which may be useful to wildfowl shooters, to say nothing of gamekeepers, whose livelihood depends on their success in destroying what they are pleased to regard as ‘vermin.’ Chapter 3 is devoted to ‘Necessary Tools,’ of which not only descriptions, but figures are given, and those who have no knowledge of taxidermy will probably be surprised to learn how few tools are really necessary for the purpose.

“On the subject of preservative soaps and powders, Mr Browne has a good deal to say, and gives no less than seventeen different receipts. Many of these, however, are only noticed to be condemned, for the author has been a great experimentalist, and has tested the efficiency or otherwise of all the preparations he names, with a view of ascertaining the best, and at the same time that which is most harmless to the operator. For the preservation of birds he pins his faith to the fourth formula (p. 46), which is a preservative soap for the inside of the skin, composed of 1⁄2 lb. whiting or chalk, 1 lb. of soft soap, and 2 oz. of chloride of lime, finely pounded. These ingredients are boiled together in a pint of water, and the mixture, when properly applied, is said to be so efficacious as to completely supersede arsenical paste or soap. Presuming that it is used only for such specimens as are to be immediately cased up in air-tight cases, nothing further is needed; but as regards such specimens as are left exposed or uncased, ‘a wash of benzoline liberally applied from time to time—say twice a year—to the outside,’ is recommended.

“We have long since proved the efficacy of this fluid, not only in repelling the attacks of moths, and the larvæ of destructive beetles such as Dermestes lardarius, but in killing them in skins that have been already attacked by them. We can therefore indorse Mr Browne’s remarks, and may supplement them by a ‘wrinkle’ which he has probably discovered by this time, although he does not refer to it. It is this. If the amateur in search of benzoline applies to the nearest chemist for it, he will be served with the ‘rectified’ fluid, and will be asked three shillings or three and sixpence for an ordinary medicine bottlefull. If he proceeds, however, to an oil and colour shop, and asks for it as supplied for burning in the sponge lamps, he may get a pint for about a tithe of the cost.

“The best way to apply it is to pour some out in a saucer, saturate a pinch of cotton wool with it, and dab it on all over the fur or feathers. The great advantage about it is that, while killing or repelling insects, it does not in the least injure the specimen to which it is applied. We have seen a mounted specimen of a bird almost saturated with it, so that the feathers looked quite draggled; but as soon as the moisture had evaporated, the feathers all resumed their former shape and glossy appearance. Care should be taken not to use it by candle light, as the vapour is inflammable.

“Amongst the seventeen receipts for ‘preservatives’ of different kinds, we do not see a very simple powder which we have used with success for very small bird skins, which were almost too delicate to stand the application of a brush and paste, or soap. It is composed of burnt alum and sugar of lead, and mixed in the proportion of two thirds of the former to one third of the latter. The alum dries, the sugar of lead preserves, and if the specimen while being skinned be dusted with this mixture, it will absorb all moisture as it arises, for which purpose plaster of Paris is usually employed. A very little goes a long way, and it is desirable not to apply too much, lest the astringent nature of the alum should cause the skin to become brittle and crack.

“Possibly Mr Browne has not referred to this mixture on account of the poisonous nature of the sugar of lead. He justly remarks that too much care cannot be exercised in the employment of poisonous preservatives, and we fully agree with him.

“On the subject of his instructions for skinning birds we have not much criticism to offer, except perhaps as regards his mode of filling out the skin after the preservative has been applied, and before the skin is sewn up. We have found by experience that, after the artificial neck of tow or cotton wool has been inserted, and the wing bones tied inside, the skin is much better filled by degrees with little bits of cotton wool inserted piecemeal, instead of with an artificial body ‘as nearly as possible shaped to the original body of the bird.’ The advantage of the former plan is that it is much more quickly executed, and a nice soft skin is the result, instead of a comparatively hard one. By introducing the wool piecemeal, too, scarcely any portion of the skin is left without support on the inside, as is often the case when a ‘made body’ is inserted. This is material; for if there be any want of inside support at a given point, pressure upon that point from the outside will cause the skin to crack. These remarks, however, must be taken to apply only to such specimens as are intended to be preserved as skins, and are not to be set up.

“Few amateurs, probably, give much time to mounting their specimens, for they can get them so well done by professional taxidermists, at prices varying to suit all purses. The art of skinning wild animals and birds, however, and curing or dressing animal hides, should be acquired by every sportsman and naturalist who intends to travel and collect and bring home trophies. To such a one we may specially recommend the chapters which are devoted to this portion of the subject. In this, as in other respects, Mr Browne’s book is a ‘practical’ manual of taxidermy.”

TAXINE. A poisonous alkaloid present in the leaves and seeds of the yew (Taxus faccata).

TEA. Syn. Thea, L. The dried leaves of the Chinese tea plants (Thea Bohea and Thea viridis).

It was formerly supposed that BLACK TEAS could only be obtained from T. Bohea, and GREEN TEAS from T. viridis, but Fortune and others have proved that both sorts may be made from either species, and that the differences in colour and flavour depend chiefly on the age of the leaves and the treatment they undergo in the drying process. Another species, named Thea Assamica, furnishes Assam tea.

Mulder gives the following as the composition of tea:

Black Tea. Green Tea.

Essential oil 0·60 0·79

Chlorophyll 1·84 2·22

Wax 0·00 0·28

Resin 3·64 2·22

Gum 7·28 8·56

Tannin 12·88 17·80

Theine 0·46 0·43

Extractive matter 21·36 22·80

Colouring substances 19·19 23·60

Albumen 2·80 3·00

Fibre 28·33 17·80

Ash (mineral substances) 5·24 5·56

Dr Walter Blyth, commenting upon the above, says, the amount of theine is certainly understated.

Pur. The chief adulteration of tea which is extensively practised at the present day is mixing it with a certain portion of exhausted tea-leaves, which have been redried and curled. The collection and preparation of these occupy several hundred persons, chiefly women and children, in and about London. The leaves which have been found in the possession of the manufacturers of imitation tea are those of the sloe tree, ash tree, elder bush, and white thorn. According to Mr Warrington, a most extensive system of adulterating tea is practised in China. Many samples directly imported from that country, examined by him, did not contain a single grain of tea, being made up entirely of other leaves. The ordinary green teas he found, for the most part, spurious, being manufactured out of the cheaper black teas. These are ‘faced up’ or ‘painted’ with various colouring substances, powdered porcelain, clay, &c., which are readily perceived under the microscope, and even admit of being separated, and chemically examined.

It is a general practice among the grocers in this country to impart what they call a ‘bloom’ to their green teas by ‘rouncing’ them up with a little calcined magnesia, or finely powdered talc or French chalk. The quantity that adheres to the tea is very trifling, but it, greatly improves its appearance. Black teas are ‘faced,’ in a similar manner, with finely powdered plumbago or black-lead.

Pure China tea is not turned black by being put into water impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, nor does it tinge a solution of ammonia blue. The infusion is amber-coloured, and is not reddened by the addition of an acid. The ashes left from the combustion of genuine tea are white, and do not exceed 5 to 5⁄2%. If they exceed this they may be chemically examined with the usual tests for alumina, chromate of lead, copper, cyanide of potassium, gypsum, lime, magnesia, &c. Many of these substances may be detected by simply agitating the tea with a little cold water, when they will be detached from its surface, and render the water turbid, or, by their gravity, sink to the bottom.

Mr A. H. Allen arranges the adulteration of tea under four heads, giving at the same time directions for their detection:

1. Mineral additions for increasing weight or bulk: (a) Magnetic matter. Detected by drawing a magnet under a weighted portion of the tea spread upon paper, whereby the magnetic matter is separated from the tea and may be weighed.

(b) Siliceous matter. The ash must be estimated by igniting a weighed portion of the tea. The ash of genuine tea varies from 5·24 to 6·0 per cent. The ash is then boiled with water, the insoluble part again treated with hydrochloric acid, and the silica collected and weighed. Genuine tea does not contain, on an average, more than 0·30 per cent. of ash insoluble in acid; adulterated teas sometimes contain as much as 10 per cent.

2. Organic adulterations for increasing weight or bulk: (a) Exhausted tea leaves. Best detected by estimating the tannin, gum, soluble ash, insoluble matter, &c.

α. Tannin. 5 gr. of lead acetate are dissolved in 1 litre of water, and the solution filtered after standing; 5 mgms. of pure potassium ferricyanide are dissolved in 5 c.c. of water, and an equal bulk of strong ammonia solution is added. The lead solution is standardised by diluting 10 c.c. to 100 c.c. with boiling water, and adding to it from a burette a solution of 0·1 pure tannin in 100 c.c. of water, until a few drops, when allowed to fall through a filter on to a drop of the ferricyanide solution, spotted on a slab, produce a pink colour. A solution of the tea is made by repeatedly boiling about 2 grams of the finely-powdered sample with 80 c.c. of water, until it is completely exhausted. The solution is filtered and made up to 250 c.c., and used as already described.

The amount of tannin in genuine black tea averages about 10 per cent. A small quantity of tannin, about 2 per cent., remains in the exhausted leaves. The percentage of exhausted leaves, E, in a sample may be estimated, when the per cent. of tannin, T, is known by the equation:

E = (10 - T) / 8 × 100.

β. Insoluble matter is best estimated by boiling the pounded sample repeatedly with water, and drying the residue at 120° C., until the weight is constant. The insoluble matter in black tea varies from 46·7 to 53·6 per cent., while in previously infused leaves it varies between 72 to 75 per cent.

γ Gum. The aqueous decoction is evaporated nearly to dryness, the residue treated with methylated spirit, filtered, washed with spirit, rinsed off the filter with hot water, the liquid evaporated at a steam heat, weighed, ignited, and weighed again. The loss represents gum.

δ. Soluble ash. The aqueous solution of the ash is evaporated, gently ignited, and weighed. Genuine tea contains not less than 3 per cent. of soluble ash, while in exhausted leaves this item falls as low as 0·52 per cent. If S represents the percentage of soluble ash, the percentage of exhausted leaves E may be approximately found in the absence of foreign leaves by the equation:

E = (6 - 2S) × 20.

(b) Foreign leaves. The presence of leaves, other than those of the tea plant, may be detected with some accuracy by estimating the insoluble matter, tannin, gum, and ash; but the microscope must decide this question.

3. Adulterants for imparting a fictitious strength. (a) Extraneous tannin matters, such as catechu, &c., are detected by an unusually high percentage of tannin, as indicated by the lead process. Tea, adulterated with catechu, gives an infusion which quickly becomes muddy on cooling. 1 gram of the sample and 1 gram of pure tea are each infused in 100 c.c. of water, and the solutions poured off from the leaves are precipitated, while boiling, with a slight excess of neutral lead acetate, filtered, and tested as follows:—About 20 c.c. of the pure tea infusion, when gently heated with a few drops of silver nitrate, gives a slight cloudiness only; while tea, containing catechu, gives a copious brownish precipitate, and the liquid acquires a distinct yellow tinge. One drop of ferric chloride gives a light green colour if catechu is present, and a greyish-green precipitate on standing; the solution from pure tea gives a reddish colour with ferric chloride, due to acetate, and no precipitate on standing. These tests are applicable only when catechu is present in tolerably large quantities.

(b) Lie tea, when thrown into hot water, falls to powder, because the gum or starch used to keep it in a compact form is dissolved. The liquid may be acidified with sulphuric acid, decolourised with permanganate, and tested for starch. The ash of lie tea is often as high as 30 or 40 per cent.

(c) Caper tea is made into little glossy masses by the aid of gum or starch; it is usually much adulterated. The insoluble matter is usually much less than in genuine tea; the gum amounts to 15 or 20 per cent. The soluble ash often falls below 2 per cent.

(d) Soluble iron salts are added to give an appearance of strength by the formation of tannate of iron. They are detected by shaking the powdered leaves with cold dilute acetic acid, filtering, and testing for iron, in the filtrate.

(e) Alkaline carbonates are sometimes added to tea. The soluble ash gives the yellow sodium flame, if sodium salts have been added; the alkalinity may also be determined in the soluble ash. The average amount of potash (K2O) in tea is about 1·62 per cent.

4. Facing and colouring materials. These may be detected under the microscope, or the leaves may be washed with warm water, the colouring matter collected and examined. Indigo is best detected by the microscope; Prussian blue, by boiling with caustic alkali, filtering, and testing for ferrocyanide by ferric chloride. The residue, insoluble in alkali, is fused with alkaline carbonate, evaporated to dryness with hydrochloric acid; the residue tested for silica, and the filtrate tested for lime and magnesia.

Moisture varies from 6 to 8 per cent.

Among domestic substitutes for tea are—the leaves of speedwell, wild germander, black currant, syringa or mock orange, purple-spiked willow herb, winter green, sweetbriar, cherry tree, sloe, &c., all of which are used for tea, either singly or mixed. The addition of a single bud of the black currant to the infusion of ordinary black tea imparts to it a flavour closely resembling that of green tea.

The brownish-coloured powder vended under the name of ‘la veno beno’ is a mixture of 2 parts of tea-dust with 5 parts of powdered catechu or terra japonica. A few grains of this substance thrown into the teapot are described in the advertisements as being capable of more than doubling the strength of the beverage.

Tea, Lie. Of this compound, Dr Hassall says:—“It is so called because it is a spurious article and not tea at all. It consists of dust of tea leaves, sometimes of foreign leaves and sand made up by means of starch or gum into little masses, which are afterwards painted and coloured, so as to resemble either black or green gunpowder. The skill exhibited in the fabrication of this spurious article is very great, and we have met with at least a dozen varieties of it, differing from each other in the size and colouring of the little masses.”

The once notorious ‘Paraquay plant,’ sold in packets, was simply new meadow-hay that had been wetted with a strong infusion of catechu, then dried, chopped small, and strongly compressed. See Theine and Caffeine.

Tea. “The tea is not a meal; when it is properly used, it should not be a meal; but it has a special purpose to fulfil, which I will now explain. Tea—and under the generic term tea I include coffee—tea is usually taken three hours after dinner. This is the moment which corresponds with the completion of digestion, when, the food having been conveyed away from the stomach, nothing remains behind but the excess of the acid juices employed in digestion, these acid juices create an uneasy sensation at the stomach, and a call is made for something to relieve the uneasiness; tea fulfils that object.” “On the same principle, after the business of the dining-room, the antacid and refreshing beverage, either in the shape of tea or coffee, is prepared in the drawing-room. In taking either, the nearer they approach to the simple infusion the better; little milk or cream, and less sugar, should be the principle. But, seeing the purpose of tea, how unreasonable to make it the excuse for a meal, to conjoin with it toast, muffins, bread and butter, and id genus omne.” “Three meals a day may be taken as the standard of habit and custom; tea and coffee having a specific place and purpose as a beverage, but none as a meal.” (Eras. Wilson.) See Meals, &c.

Although tea is undoubtedly prejudicial to children and to adults of nervous and irritable temperament, there can be no question that, if its use be not abused, it possesses valuable physiological properties. On the nervous system it acts as a pleasant stimulant and restorative, its moderate use not being followed by depression. Dr Parkes says these effects are in some measure due to the warmth of the infusion. According to the same authority its use is followed by very little quickening of the pulse, whilst there is an increase in the amount of perspiration, and a slightly diminished action on the bowels. Cases, however, are not uncommon in which this latter effect is reversed.

Dr Edward Smith says that tea increases the excretion of pulmonary carbonic acid. The contention that the elimination of urea is lessened, does seem to have been not satisfactorily established. If so, the diminution is very trifling. Sir Ranald Martin says tea is most useful against excessive fatigue, especially in hot climates. The traveller in the Australian bush speaks highly of its renovating effects at the end of a long day passed in the saddle.

A cup of strong green tea without milk or sugar is a popular and frequently by no means inefficient remedy for a severe nervous headache. According to Liebig, tea and coffee resemble soup in their effect on the system. Lehmann’s experiments seem to show that they lessen the waste of tissue in the human body. Tea taken too continuously, or in excess, produces indigestion, flatulence, and constipation, besides rendering its votaries anæmic and depressed in spirits.

It is a fallacy to suppose that soft water makes the best tea. It certainly yields a darker infusion than that made from moderately hard water, but this is owing to the soft water taking up a large quantity of bitter, physiologically inert, extractive matter from the tea, the delicate flavour of which becomes thereby greatly impaired. This is why connoisseurs object to an infusion of too dark a colour. Moderately hard boiling water, on the contrary, fails to dissolve this objectionable ingredient, and hence produces a beverage in which the characteristic taste of the pleasant aromatic principle of the tea is not masked by the bitter substance. London water, which, when boiled, has a hardness of about 5 degrees (equal to 5 grains of lime salts to the gallon), makes excellent tea—better, in fact, than a water of half the hardness, the latter yielding a slightly bitter infusion. In the use of moderately hard water, it is essential that it should be allowed to remain on the tea sufficiently long. The Chinese never employ either very soft or immoderately hard water, but a water of medium hardness.

“Experimentally it is found that infusions of tea and coffee are strong enough when the former contains 0·6 per cent. of extractive matter, and the latter 3 per cent., so that a moderate-sized cup (5 oz.) should contain about 13 grains of the extract of tea, or 66 grains of coffee. These proportions will be obtained when 263 grains of tea (about 2⁄2 teaspoonfuls) or 2 oz. of freshly-roasted coffee are infused in a pint of boiling water; and the amounts of the several constituents dissolved are about as follows:—

“Constituents. Tea.
grs. Coffee.
grs.

Nitrogenous matters 17·2 44·0

Fatty matter — 3·0

Gum, sugar, and extractive 31·7 103·2

Mineral matters 9·1 22·8

Total extracted 58·8 173·0

“So that tea yields, to a pint of fresh water, about 22 per cent. of its weight, and coffee about 20 per cent. Lehmann found that only 15⁄2 per cent. of tea was dissolved by water, whereas Sir Humphry Davy estimated it at 33⁄2 per cent. No doubt the quality of the water, as well as that of the tea, affects the results, for cold distilled water will extract from 40 to 44 per cent. of black tea, and nearly 50 per cent. of green; but, for all this, about 22 per cent. is a good average with boiling water.”

Dr Edward Smith has shown in the following table that, when the usual custom of measuring tea into the teapot by the spoonful is followed, very varying weights of tea are employed. Thus he found that the weight of a spoonful of tea was for—

Black Teas.

Oolong 39 grains.

Congou (inferior) 52 ”

Flowery Pekoe 62 ”

Souchong 70 ”

Congou (fine) 87 ”

Green Teas.

Hyson 66 grains.

Twankay 70 ”

Fine Imperial 90 ”

Scented Caper 103 ”

Fine Gunpowder 123 ”

The attempt to make good tea will prove a failure unless the water employed is boiling. Previously to making the infusion, the teapot should always be warmed up by means of boiling water. The kettle should be filled from the tap, and not the boiler. It should also be borne in mind that neither good tea nor coffee can be obtained if they are made with water that has been in the kettle for many hours. The tea is ready to be drank after the boiling water has stood on it for five minutes.

Tea, Beef. Syn. Infusum carnis bubulæ, Jusculum cum carne bovis, L. This is merely a very concentrated soup formed of lean beef. According to the common plan, lean beef, 1 lb., is gently simmered in water, 1 quart, for about ⁄2 an hour, when spices, salt, &c., are added, and in a few minutes the whole is strained for use. The following are other formulæ:

1. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Take good rump steak, ⁄2 lb.; cut it into thin slices, spread these over a hollow dish, sprinkle a little salt on them, add a pint of boiling water, and place the dish (covered) near the fire for ⁄2 an hour; then remove the whole to a saucepan, and boil it gently for 15 minutes; lastly, strain through a hair sieve.

2. (Prof. Liebig.) Beef, free from fat, 1 lb., is to be minced very small, mixed with an equal weight of cold water, and, after digestion and agitation in the cold for about ⁄2 an hour, heated slowly to boiling; when it has boiled for a minute or two, strain it through a cloth. It may be coloured with roasted onion or burnt sugar, and spiced and salted to taste.

Obs. Similar preparations are ordered in some foreign Pharmacopœias from calves’ lights, crayfish, frogs, mutton, pullets, snails, tortoise, veal, &c. In the Ph. L. 1746 a form was given for viper broth (JUSCULUM VIPERINUM). See Essence of Beef, Extract of meat, &c.

TEETH (The). Syn. Dentes, L. An object very subservient to health, and which merits due attention, is the preservation of the teeth; the care of which, considering their importance in preparing the food for digestion, is, in general, far from being sufficiently appreciated. Comparatively very few persons wash their mouth and clean their teeth even once a day; a feat which ought always to be practised at the conclusion of a meal, when either animal food or vegetables are eaten; for the first is apt to leave behind it a rancid acrimony, and the other an acidity, both of them hurtful to the teeth. Those who abhor a fetid breath, rotten teeth, and the toothache, would do well to invariably clean their teeth before retiring to rest. With smokers, this practice is almost obligatory. Washing the mouth frequently with cold water is not only serviceable in keeping the teeth clean, but in strengthening the gums, the firm adhesion of which to the teeth is of the greatest importance in preserving them sound and secure. Some persons think it serviceable to add a few drops of spirit or essence of camphor to the water thus employed, a plan we certainly approve of. See Breath, Dentifrices, Pastes, Powders, Tooth cements, Washes, &c.

Teeth, Stoppings for. See Dentistry.

TEETH′ING. Syn. Dentition. Children are sometimes born with one or more teeth; but, in general, the teeth, at birth, consist of mere pulpy rudiments buried in the gum. Their development is gradual. About the third or fourth month they begin to assume shape and hardness. At this period children become fretful, the saliva flows copiously, the gums grow turgid, and there is a fondness of biting hard cold objects. In nearly all cases there is more or less fever, frequently a cough or diarrhœa, and a rash commonly appears, which is called by nurses the ‘red gum.’ These symptoms generally abate after a fortnight or three weeks, and the child remains undisturbed until the seventh or eighth month. About this period the gums again become red, tender, and swollen, and often extremely sensitive, and painful. The upper part of the gum gradually becomes attenuated and pale, and, just before the tooth appears, even covered with a blister. These changes are usually attended by an increased flow of saliva, or ‘drivelling,’ and a lax state of the bowels, both of which are regarded as favorable symptoms. Sometimes, however, the diarrhœa is excessive, when it may be cautiously restrained by a dose or two of rhubarb-and-magnesia, with a little dill or peppermint water; or, better, by the daily use of a little arrow-root, to which a few drops of pure port wine may be added. Sometimes the local irritation is considerable, or there are spasms or convulsions, in which case the practice is to lance the gums. When there is drowsiness, stupor, or oppressed respiration, one or two leeches may be applied to the temples, and a small blister to the back of the neck, or behind the ear. Sluggishness of the bowels may be removed by a little castor oil; or, when there is actual constipation, by a little calomel or mercurial powder and rhubarb. Excessive irritability, without other marked symptoms, is best combated by a drop or two of tincture of hops in sweetened water. Throughout the whole period of dentition the use of warm dry clothing, freedom from tight bandages, with thorough ventilation, good nursing, exercise, fresh air without undue exposure, abundance of crawling on the carpet, and frequent warm baths, will be found most advantageous. Indeed, the last, without other treatment, are often sufficient to subdue the most distressing convulsions and the most obstinate diarrhœa, and in no case can they do harm. See Nursing, Strophulus, &c.

TELEPHONE. Within the memory of the present generation Sir Charles Wheatstone made some experiments on the transmission of sound, which were subsequently repeated and enlarged upon by Professor Henry in America. Connecting together by means of a bar of wood the sounding boards of two pianos placed in houses on opposite sides of the street, Henry found that when the piano on one side of the street was played upon the musical sounds it gave out were reproduced by that on the other side. The next research in this direction was that of Page, in 1837, who, setting up vibrations in bars of iron, by rapidly magnetising and demagnetising them elicited from them musical notes corresponding with the velocity of the vibration. Similar effects, but more marked in character, were produced by De la Rive, in 1843, by means of a succession of electric currents transmitted through a copper wire stretched through a cylinder made of insulated copper wire.

In 1861 Reiss, of Freidrichsdorf, perfected an instrument which, by means of the vibrations of a diaphragm alternately completing and breaking the continuity of a galvanic circuit, reproduced musical sounds in an iron bar at a distance.

Varley, in 1870, obtained similar results to Reiss by the rapid charging and discharging of a condenser.

In the first of these experiments—viz. Henry’s—the sound was mechanically conducted along the bar of wood from the strings of one piano to those of the other, which, being thrown into similar vibratory movements gave rise to similar sounds.

In the other experiments, on the contrary, the sounds were not due to the chemical conduction at all, but to currents of electricity. It has been explained that Reiss’ instrument was capable of reproducing musical sounds at a distance from their origin. Reiss’ may, therefore, be regarded as the original telephone. But, although able to reproduce a musical note or sound originating at a distance, this instrument failed altogether in the case of a word or a sentence, for the simple reason that the current of electricity which passes through the wires is an intermittent one. Musical sounds differ in tone, in intensity, and quality. The tone depends upon the number of vibrations produced in the air per second; when these are less than sixteen no sound is produced. The intensity is due to the extent or amplitude of the vibrations; and the quality or timbre, to the form of the undulations made by the vibrating particles of the atmosphere. Now, of all these qualities or varieties of sound, the first only, or the tone, can be reproduced by a current of intermittent electricity, so that Reiss’ is a tone telephone, and as such is only capable of redelivering a number of musical notes. To Professor A. Graham Bell alone belongs the merit of having invented an articulating or speaking telephone, or an apparatus by means of which not only tone, but intensity and timbre of sound—in short, speech in its entirety can be electrically conveyed from one point to another, no matter how distant. The practical result of this is that a conversation can be carried on, the distance by which the speakers may be separated being of no import. To the particular species of electricity by which this is accomplished Professor Bell has given the name ‘undulatory,’ in contradistinction to ‘intermittent’ or ‘pulsatory.’ The annexed plate, which is half the actual size of Bell’s articulating telephone, represents that instrument in section.

m m is a permanent bar-magnet, to the upper end of which is attached a soft iron core, which becomes magnetised by the permanent magnet. Surrounding the iron core is a coil of very fine insulated copper wire (b), the two ends of which are carried to the terminals (t t), by means of which one is connected with the line wire, and the other with the earth, d is a disc of thin iron plate, either tinned or japanned, about the size of a crown piece, and c is the cavity or mouth-piece. Upon applying the lips to this and speaking into it, the iron disc (d) vibrates towards the soft iron core, the result being that a current of induced electricity is set up in the coil (b), Which, being in connection by means of the telegraph wire with a precisely similar arrangement at the other end of the line, reproduces there the spoken words by means of a corresponding disc. The magnet with its attachments are enclosed in a wooden case (a a, a a, a a); n n are screws which secure the iron disk (b); s is a screw for adjusting the distance between the polo of the magnet and the disk (b).

The extreme simplicity of Professor Bell’s telephone was the outcome of several antecedent experiments, worked out by forms of apparatus gradually diminishing in complexity.

The German physicist Helmholtz had previously shown that by the agency of a current of intermittent electricity passed through a tuning-fork, he could produce simultaneous vibrations in a number of other forks connected with the first by a wire, and that by varying the loudness of these vibrations by means of resonators, so as to combine the musical notes in different proportions, the resulting sound was an imitation of certain vowel sounds, or a copy of the timbre of sound.

Professor Bell’s first telephone was an extension of Helmholtz’s device for producing vowel or composite sounds. A number of steel wires of different pitch were made into a harp, and connected by a powerful permanent magnet, the same arrangement being repeated at the other end of the circuit. In the magnetic field of the permanent magnet was an electro-magnet. When a permanent magnet is vibrated in the neighbourhood of an electro-magnet, this latter will have a current of electricity generated in it, the intensity of which will vary with the velocity of the vibrations in the permanent magnet, whilst it will be either positive or negative according to the direction of these same vibrations. So that a vowel sound, if produced by causing a number of the rods of the harp to vibrate at the same time, can be transmitted by a current of electricity, and will be reproduced by the harp at the other end of the connecting wire. If a piano were sung into whilst the pedal was down, not only would the pitch of the voice be echoed back, but an approach to the quality of the vowel would also be obtained. And theory teaches that if the piano had a very much larger number of strings to the octave, we should get not only an approximation to, but an exact vocal reproduction of the vowel. If, therefore, in the harp there were a large number of steel rods to the octave, and you were to speak in the neighbourhood of such a harp, the rods would be thrown into vibration with different degrees of amplitude, producing currents of electricity, and would throw into vibration the rods at the other end with the same relative amplitude, and the timbre of the voice would be reproduced.

The effect when you vibrate more than one of these rods simultaneously is to change the shape of the electrical undulation, and a similar effect is produced when a battery is included in the circuit. In this case the battery current is thrown into waves by the action of the permanent magnets. Hence you will see that the resultant effect on the current of a number of musical-tones, is to produce a vibration which corresponds in every degree to the moving velocity of the air. Suppose, for instance, you vibrate two rods in the harp, you have two musical notes produced, but of course if you pay attention to a particle of air, it is impossible that any particle of air can vibrate in two directions at the same time; it follows the resultant form of vibration. One curve would show the vibration of a particle of air for one musical tone, the next one for another, and the third the resulting motion of a particle of air when both musical tones are sounded simultaneously. You have by the harp apparatus the resultant effect produced by a current of electricity, but the same resultant effect could be produced in the air. There is an instrument called the phonantograph. It consists of a cone which, when spoken into, condenses the air from the voice. At the small end of the cone there is a stretched membrane which vibrates when a sound is produced, and in the course of its vibration it controls the movement of a long style of wood, about one foot in length. If a piece of glass with a smoked surface is rapidly drawn before the style during its movement, a series of curves will be drawn upon the glass. I myself uttered the vowels e, ay, eh, ah, aah. These vowels were sung at the same pitch and the same force, but each is characterised on the glass by a shape of vibration of its own. In fact, when you come to examine the motion of a particle of air, there can be no doubt that every sound is characterised by a particular motion. It struck me that if, instead of using that complicated harp, and vibrating a number of rods tuned to different pitches, and thus creating on the line of wire a resultant effect, we were at once to vibrate a piece of iron, to give to that piece of iron not the vibration of a musical tone, but to give it the resultant vibration of a vowel sound, we could have an undulatory current produced directly, not indirectly, which would correspond to the motion of the air in the production of a sound.

The difficulty, however, was how to vibrate a piece of iron in the way required.

The following apparatus gave me the clue to the solution of the problem in the attempt to improve the phonantograph. I attempted to construct one modelled as nearly as possible on the mechanism of the human ear, but on going to a friend in Boston, Dr Clarence J. Blake, an aurist, he suggested the novel idea of using the human ear itself as a phonantograph, and this apparatus we constructed together. It is a human ear. The interior mechanism is exposed, and to a part of it is attached a long style of hay. Upon moistening the membrane and the little bones with a mixture of glycerin and water, the mobility of the parts was restored, and on speaking into the external artificial ear a vibration was observed, and after many experiments we were enabled to obtain tracings of the vibration on a sheet of smoked glass drawn rapidly along. This apparatus gave me the clue to the present form of the telephone. What I wanted was an apparatus that should be able to move a piece of iron in the way that a particle of air is moved by the voice.

We need not follow Professor Bell through the various stages by which he arrived at his most successful solution of this problem further than to state that the simplicity of construction exhibited in the present form of instrument did not characterise the earlier articulatory telephones. Amongst the causes contributing to this simplicity may be mentioned the abandonment of an animal membrane attached to the iron plate, the diminution of the coil of insulated wire, and the substitution for the galvanic battery which formerly formed part of the circuit, of the permanent magnet.

Professor Bell records the curious fact that hardly any difference is observable in the results by varying the size, thickness, and force of the permanent magnet, and that beyond a remarkable effect in the quality of the voice, distinct articulations might be obtained from iron plates of from 1 inch to 2 feet in diameter and from ⁄64th to ⁄4th inch in thickness. With plates of uniform thickness, but of varying diameter, he obtained the following results. With a plate of small diameter the articulation was perfectly distinct, but the sound emitted was as if a person were speaking through the nose. By gradually enlarging the diameter of the plate this nasal effect as gradually disappeared, until when a certain diameter was attained a very good quality of voice manifested itself.

By continuing to enlarge the diameter, a coarse, hollow, drum-like effect was produced, until when the diameter became very large, the sound resembled that one hears when the head is inside a barrel, and was accompanied with a reverberating sound. By reversing the above conditions—that is, by keeping the diameter constant, and varying the thickness—it was found that with a very thin plate the drum-like sound was produced; by gradually increasing the thickness this effect passed off; then followed distinct articulation, until at a certain increase of thickness the peculiar nasal quality again developed itself.

In practice it has been found desirable, in establishing speaking communication between two distant places, to employ two telephones instead of a single one; one being applied to the mouth and the other to the ear during a conversation.

With one telephone it was no unusual occurrence for confusion to arise in consequence of the two speakers talking or listening at the same time.

So faithful is the transmission by the telephone of every variety of sound, that Mr Preece states, when in telephonic communication with Prof. Bell, through a quarter of a mile he has heard him “laugh, sneeze, cough, and, in fact, make any sound the human voice can produce.” It must be borne in mind, however, that the transmitted speech can only be distinctly heard in the immediate vicinity of the receiving apparatus; the keenest hearing fails to detect it at the distance of little more than a foot away. Hence, when a message is expected, the recipient has to place his ear to the mouthpiece of the instrument, and use it as an ear-trumpet.

A circumstance tending to impair the satisfactory working of Bell’s telephone is, that the line wire to which the ends of the coil are attached becomes inductively affected by the currents of electricity passing through the parallel and contiguous telegraph wires, the effect, on a line where there is an active transmission of telegraphic messages, being that the telephone “emits sounds that are very like the pattering of hail against a window, and which are so loud as to overpower the effects of the human voice.”

This inconvenience can, however, it is stated, be remedied.

If all the arrangements of the instrument were perfect, there should be no limits to the distance through which speech could be conveyed by the telephone. Professor Bell says that in laboratory experiments “no difficulty has been found in using an apparatus of this construction through a circuit of 6000 miles;” and that he had found it act efficiently between New York and Boston, a distance of 258 miles, subject to the condition that the neighbouring telegraph wires were not in action.

Mr Preece has carried on conversations between Dublin and Holyhead, a distance of 100 miles.

Two useful applications of the telephone are recorded by Professor Bell, the one its employment in connection with the diving bell; the other as a means of communication between those above and below ground in mines. It has been largely adopted in extensive factories and in commercial houses both in America and in this country, supplementing, because of its much greater simplicity and easy application, the electric telegraphs previously in use in such establishments.

We extract the following from the ‘Journal of the Society of Arts,’

“The Telephone and the Torpedo.

“A novel application of the Bell telephone is one which has been made in connection with torpedoes by Captain C. A. M’Evoy, of 18, Adam Street, Adelphi. The torpedoes to which the telephone has been applied are those of the buoyant contact class—that is, floating torpedoes, which are used for the protection of rivers and harbours. These torpedoes are held in position beneath the surface of the water by mooring lines and anchors, and it is necessary to ascertain from time to time that these deadly agents are in active working order. They are, of course, connected to the shore by electric wires by which they may be exploded. They are also arranged so that they may be exploded electrically by contact with passing vessels. For this latter purpose they are fitted with what is known as a circuit closer, which is placed in the middle of the charge within the torpedo. The testing is ordinarily performed by sending a current of electricity through the torpedo and fuse; but, in order that the fuse may not be fired, and the torpedo consequently exploded during the process of testing, an extremely weak current has to be used in connection with a sensitive galvanometer. The consequence is that the indications received are so very delicate that they are not always to be relied on. Now, what Captain M’Evoy does is to supplement the electrical test by the test of sounds, and to this end he encloses an ordinary Bell telephone in each torpedo. The telephone is so placed that the vibrating diaphragm is in a horizontal plane, and upon it are laid a few shot or particles of metal, and these are boxed in. Every motion of the torpedo causes the shot to shift their position upon the face of the diaphragm and to cause a slight noise, which is distinctly heard in the receiving telephone on shore. Thus each torpedo two or three miles away, in the restless waters of a channel, is continually telling the operator on shore of its own condition in language sometimes excited, according to the state of calmness or agitation of the water at the time. Should the torpedoes be sunk, they would lie motionless on the bottom, and the silence of the telephone would indicate the fact of their inoperativeness. The telephones are connected to the ordinary electric wires of the torpedoes, but this does not prevent them from being tested in the usual way from the battery on shore.”

TELLU′RIUM. A rare greyish-white elementary substance, found only in small quantities, associated with gold, silver, lead, and bismuth, in the gold mines of Transylvania. It has often been described as a metal, but is now commonly classed with the non-metals.

1. Tellurium may be obtained from the bismuth ore (the telluride of bismuth) by strongly heating the ore with a mixture of carbonate of potash and charcoal. A potassium telluride is formed which dissolves in water, forming a solution of a purplish-red colour, from which the tellurium deposits on exposure of the liquid to the atmosphere.

2. Schrötter gives the following method for the obtainment of metallic tellurium:—The raw material is treated with dilute hydrochloric acid as long as carbon dioxide is evolved, then with strong acid until all sulphuretted hydrogen is driven off.

The liquid is decanted from the residue, which is washed with hydrochloric acid and hot water, then boiled with aqua regia until the insoluble matter is white. From the aqua regia solution any gold that may be present is precipitated by means of ferrous sulphate, and afterwards zinc is added to precipitate the tellurium. The precipitate on the zinc is washed, dried, and heated to redness, treated with sulphuric acid to remove any silver, and the remaining tellurium is then collected.

Tellurium bears a great resemblance to bismuth in appearance, having a pinkish metallic lustre; it further resembles bismuth in being crystalline and brittle.

Below a red heat it enters into a state of fusion; at a high temperature it becomes converted into a yellow vapour. It burns in air, when strongly heated, with a blue flame having a green rim, and giving off white fumes that have a peculiar odour. When taken internally, even in very minute quantities, tellurium imparts to the breath an offensively powerful odour of garlic. Tellurium dissolves in cold concentrated sulphuric acid, to which it imparts a rich purple-red colour. If the acid solution be diluted with water the tellurium precipitates unchanged. There are two oxides of tellurium: the dioxide (TeO2) and the trioxide (TeO3), the first of which corresponds to sulphurous, and the second to sulphuric anhydride.

Tellurous acid (H2TeO3) is obtained by pouring a solution of tellurium on nitric acid of 1·25 into water, when the tellurous acid is precipitated as a bulky hydrate. This hydrate is slightly soluble in water and reddens litmus. It forms salts called tellurites.

Telluric acid (H2TeO4). When tellurium or tellurous acid is gently heated with nitre a potassic tellurate is formed, this being decomposed by a salt of barium, whilst the resulting barium tellurate is in its turn decomposed, and the telluric acid separated by sulphuric acid. The telluric acid occurs in hexagonal prismatic crystals, which, when heated usually to redness, becoming converted into telluric anhydride, which then assumes an orange-yellow colour. This telluric anhydride (TeO3) is entirely insoluble in water, nitric and hydrochloric acids, and alkaline solutions. Although it has but a feeble attraction for bases, telluric acid forms salts which are called tellurates. There are two chlorides of tellurium: the dichloride (TeCl2) and the tetrachloride (TeCl4). They may both be obtained by the direct action of chlorine on tellurium.

Telluretted hydrogen, or dihydric telluride. (H2Te). This compound presents a striking analogy to seleniuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen. Like both of these it is gaseous, but resembles the latter in smell more than the former. It burns with a blue flame, reddens litmus, and when fused into water forms a colourless solution, which becomes brown by exposure to the air, owing to the oxidation of hydrogen and the deposition of tellurmin. The salts of most of the metals are decomposed when a current of telluretted hydrogen is passed through these solutions, from which the metals are then thrown down as tellurides. These tellurides present a close resemblance to the corresponding sulphides. The tellurides of the alkali metals, like the sulphides, are soluble in water.

Tests. The most distinctive character of tellurium compounds is the reddish-purple solution of potassium telluride they furnish when fused with potassic carbonate and charcoal and treated with water.

TEM′PERATURE. In English pharmacy it is customary to measure the degree of heat by Fahrenheit’s thermometer. When a boiling heat is directed, 212° is meant. A gentle heat is that which is denoted by any degree between 90° and 100° Fahr.

Whenever specific gravity is mentioned, the substance spoken of is supposed to be of the temperature of 62° Fahr. (Ph. L.)

In the B. P., Ph. E., & D., and in chemical works in this country generally, the specific gravities of bodies are taken at, or referred to, the temperature of 60° Fahr. See Thermometers.

The following data may be of use to the pharmacist:

Degree of Fahr.

2786 Cast iron melts (Daniell).

2016 Gold melts (Daniell).

1996 Copper melts (Daniell).

1873 Silver melts (Daniell).

1750 Brass (containing 25% of zinc) melts (Daniell).

1000 Iron, bright cherry red (Poillet).

980 Red heat, visible in daylight (Daniell).

941 Zinc begins to burn (Daniell).

773 Zinc melts (Daniell).

644 Mercury boils (Daniell), 662 (Graham).

640 Sulphuric acid boils (Marignac), 620 (Graham).

630 Whale oil boils (Graham).

617 Pure lead melts (Rudberg).

600 Linseed oil boils.

518 Bismuth melts (Gmelin).

442 Tin melts (Crichton).

380 Arsenious acid volatilises.

356 Metallic arsenic sublimes.

315 Oil of turpentine boils (Kaure).

302 Etherification ends.

257 Saturated sol. of sal ammoniac boils (Taylor).

256 Saturated sol. of acetate of soda boils.

239 Sulphur melts (Miller), 226 (Fownes).

238 Saturated sol. of nitre boils.

221 Saturated sol. of salt boils (Paris Codex).

220 Saturated sol. of alum, carb. soda, and sulph. zinc, boil.

218 Saturated sol. of chlorate and prussiate potash, boil.

216 Saturated sol. of sulph. iron, sulph. copper, nitrate of lead, boil.

214 Saturated sol. of acetate lead, sulph. and bitartrate potash, boil.

213 or (213·5) Saturated sol. of water begins to boil in glass.

212 Water boils in metal, barometer at 30°.

211 Alloy of 5 bismuth, 3 tin, 2 lead, melts.

201 Alloy of 8 bismuth, 5 lead, 3 tin, melts (Kane).

207 Sodium melts (Regnault).

145 White of egg begins to coagulate.

185 Nitric acid 1·52 begins to boil.

180 (about) Starch forms a gelatinous compound with water.

176 Rectified spirit boils, benzol distils.

173 Alcohol (sp. gr. ·796 to ·800) boils.

151 Beeswax melts (Kane), 142 (Lepage).

150 Pyroxylic spirit boils (Scanlan).

141·8 Chloroform, and ammonia of ·945, boil.

44·5 Potassium melts (Bunsen).

132 Acetone (pyroacetic spirit) boils (Kane).

122 Mutton suet and styracin melt.

116 Bisulphuret of carbon boils (Graham).

115 Pure tallow melts (Lepage), 92 (Thomson).

112 Spermaceti and stearin of lard melt.

111 Phosphorus melts (Miller).

98 Temperature of the blood.

95 Ether (·720) boils.

95 Carbolic acid crystals become an oily liquid.

88 Acetous fermentation ceases, water boils in vacuo.

77 Vinous ferm. ends, acetous ferm. begins.

64·4 Oil of anise liquefies.

59 Gay Lussac’s Alcoomètre graduated at.

55 Syrups to be kept at (P. L.).

30 (about) Olive oil becomes partially solid.

32 Water freezes.

·5 Cold produced by snow 2 parts and salt 1 part.

-37·9 Mercury freezes.

TENT. A piece of lint, or compressed sponge, used to dilate openings, wounds, &c.

TERBIUM. A rare metal found by Prof. Mosander, associated with erbium and yttrium in ordinary yttria. See Erbium and Yttrium.

TER′RA. [L.] Earth. Terra japonica, catechu; TERRA PONDEROSA, sulphate of baryta, &c.

TER′RA COT′TA. Literally, baked clay; a term applied to statues, architectural ornaments, &c., made of pure white clay, fine sand, and powdered potsherds, slowly dried, and baked to a strong hardness.

TEST. Syn. Reagent. Any substance employed to determine the name or character of any other substance, or to detect its presence in compounds.

TEST SOLUTIONS. The test solutions here given are those of the British Pharmacopœia, which are used for determining the strength of various Pharmacopœial preparations by volumetric analysis. In the Pharmacopœia it is stated: The processes for volumetric estimations may be performed either with British or with metrical weights and measures, and the solutions are so arranged that they will be of the same strength, and the same indications will be obtained in using them, whichever system is employed, without the necessity of altering any of the figures by which the quantities of the substances tested or of the test solutions required in the process are expressed.

According to the British system, the quantities of the substances to be tested are expressed in grains by weight, whilst the quantities of the test solutions employed in testing are expressed in grain-measures, the grain-measure being the volume of a grain of distilled water.

According to the metrical system, the quantities of the substances to be tested are expressed in grammes by weight, whilst the quantities of the test solutions employed in testing are employed in cubic centimètres, the cubic centimètre being the volume of a gramme of distilled water.

As the cubic centimètre bears the same relation to the gramme that the grain-measure bears to the grain, the one system may be substituted for the other, with no difference in the results excepting that, by the metrical system, all the quantities will be expressed in relation to a weight (the gramme) which is more than fifteen times as great as the British grain.

In practice it will be found convenient in substituting metrical for British weights and measures, to reduce the values of all numbers to one-tenth by moving the decimal points, and this has been done in the tables appended to the descriptions of the volumetric solutions. The quantities indicated in the Pharmacopœia, which in grains and grain-measures can be conveniently used, would be found inconveniently large if the same numbers of grammes and cubic centimètres were employed.

The following apparatus is required in the preparation and use of these solutions.

For British weights and measures:

1. A flask, which, when filled to a mark on the neck, contains exactly 10,000 grains of distilled water at 60°. The capacity of the flask is therefore 10,000 grain-measures.

2. A graduated cylindrical jar which, when filled to O, holds 10,000 grains of distilled water, and is divided into 100 equal parts.

3. A burette. A graduated glass tube which, when filled to O, holds 1000 grains of distilled water, and is divided into 100 equal parts. Each part therefore corresponds to 10 grain-measures.

For metrical weights and measures:

1. A glass flask which, when filled to a mark on the neck, contains 1 litre, or 1000 cubic centimètres.

2. A graduated cylindrical jar which, when filled to O, contains 1 litre (1000 cubic centimètres), and is divided into 100 equal parts.

3. A burette. A graduated tube which, when filled to O, holds 100 cubic centimètres, and is divided into 100 equal parts.

(One cubic centimètre is the volume of one gramme of distilled water at 4° C., 1000 cubic centimètres equal 1 litre).

Volumetric solutions, before being used, should be shaken in order that they may be throughout of uniform strength. They should also be preserved in stoppered bottles. All measurements should be made at 60°.

Volumetric Solution of Bichromate of Potash (Bichromate of potash, KO,2CrO3 = 147·5, or K2Cr2O7 = 295).

Take of—

Bichromate of potash 147·5 grains.

Distilled water a sufficiency.

Put the bichromate of potash into the 10,000 grain flask, and, having half filled the flask with water, allow the salt to dissolve; then dilute the solution with more water, until it has the exact bulk of 10,000 grain-measures: 1000 grain-measures of this solution contain 14·75 grains of the bichromate (⁄10th of K2CrO3, or ⁄20th of K2Cr2O7 in grains), and, when added to a solution of a protosalt of iron, acidulated with hydrochloric acid, are capable of converting 16·8 grains (⁄10th of 6Fe, or ⁄20th of 6Fe in grains) from the state of protosalt to that of persalt grammes, and cubic centimètres may be employed instead of grains and grain-measures; but for convenience ⁄10th of the numbers should be taken. Thus, 14·75 grammes of bichromate of potash should be made to form 1000 cubic centimètres of solution. 100 cubic centimètres of this solution contain 1·475 grammes of the bichromate (⁄100th of KO,2CrO3, or ⁄200th of K2Cr207 in grammes), and, when added to a solution of protosalt of iron acidulated with hydrochloric acid, are capable of converting 1·68 grammes of iron (⁄100th of 6Fe, or ⁄200 of 6Fe, in grammes) from the state of protosalt to that of persalt.

This solution is used for determining the proportion of protoxide of iron in the following preparations. It is known that the whole of the protosalt has been converted into a persalt when a minute drop of the liquid, placed in contact with a solution of red prussiate of potash on a white plate, ceases to strike with it a blue colour.

British Weights and Measures. Metrical Weights and Measures.

Grains weight of substance. = Grain measures of vol. sol. Grams weight of substance. = C. C. of vol. sol.

Ferri arsenias 20 = 170 or 2·0 = 17·0

” carb. sacch. 20 = 330 ” 2·0 = 33·0

” oxid. magn. 20 = 83 ” 2·0 = 8·3

” Phosphas 20 = 250 ” 2·0 = 25·0

Volumetric Solution of Hyposulphite of Soda (hyposulphite of soda crystallised, NaO1S2O2 + 5HO = 124, or Na2H2S2O4.4H20 = 248).

Take of—

Hyposulphite of soda, in crystals 280 grains.

Distilled water a sufficiency.

Dissolve the hyposulphite of soda in 10,000 grain-measures of water. Fill a burette with this solution and drop it cautiously in 1000 grain-measures of the volumetric solution of iodine until the brown colour is just discharged. Note the number of grain-measures (n) required to produce this effect; then put 8000 grain-measures of the same solution into a graduated jar, and augment this quantity by the addition of distilled water until it amounts to (8000 × 1000) / n grain-measures. If, for example, n = 950, the 8000 grain-measures of solution should be diluted to the bulk of (8000 × 1000) / 950 = 8·421 grain-measures. 1000 grain-measures of this solution contains 24·8 grains of the hyposulphite (⁄10th of 2(NaO,S2O2 + 5HO), or ⁄10th of Na2H2S2O4,4H2O in grains), and therefore corresponds to 12·7 grains of iodine (⁄10th of an equivalent).

Grammes and cubic centimètres may be employed instead of grains and grain-measures, but for convenience ⁄10th of the numbers should be taken. 100 cubic centimètres of this solution contain 2·48 grammes of the hyposulphite (⁄100 of 2(NaO,S2O2+ 5HO), or ⁄100th of Na2H2S2O4.4H2O in grammes), and therefore corresponds to 1·27 grains of iodine (⁄100th of an equivalent).

This solution is used for testing the following substances. In each case, except that of iodine, a solution of iodide of potassium and hydrochloric acid are added to the substance, and the amount of iodine so liberated is indicated by this solution:

British Weights and Measures. or Metrical Weights and Measures.

Grains weight of substance. = Grain-measures of vol. sol. Grams weight of substance. = C. C. of vol. sol.

Calx Chlorata 10·0 = 850 or 1·00 = 85·0

Iodum 12·7 = 1000 ” 1·27 = 100·0

Liq. calc. chloratæ 60·0 = 500 ” 6·00 = 50·0

Liq. chlori 439·0 = 750 ” 43·90 = 75·0

Liq. Sodæ chloratæ 70·0 = 500 ” 7·00 = 50·0

Volumetric Solution of Iodine (iodine, I = 127, or I = 127).

Take of iodine 127 grains.

Iodide of potassium 180 ”

Distilled water a sufficiency.

Put the iodide of potassium and the iodine into the 10,000 grain flask, fill the flask to about two thirds its bulk with distilled water, gently agitate until solution is complete, and then dilute the solution with more water, until it has the exact volume of 10,000 grain-measures. 1000 grain-measures of this solution contain ⁄10th of an equivalent in grains (12·7 grains) of iodine, and therefore correspond to 1·7 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen, 3·2 grains of sulphurous acid, and 4·95 grains of arsenious acid.

Grammes and cubic centimètres may be employed instead of grains and grain-measures, but for convenience ⁄10th of the numbers should be taken. 100 cubic centimètres contain 1·27 grammes of iodine, and correspond to 0·17 grammes of sulphuretted hydrogen, 0·32 grammes of sulphurous, and 0·495 grammes of arsenious acid. This solution is for testing the following substances. It is dropped from the burette into the liquid to be tested, until free iodine begins to appear in the solution.

British Weights and Measures. or Metrical Weights and Measures.

Grains weight of substance. = Grain-measures of vol. sol. Grams weight of substance. = C. C. of vol. sol.

Acid. arsenios 4·0 = 808 or 0·40 = 80·8

Acid. sulphurosum 34·7 = 1000 ” 3·47 = 100·0

Liquor arsenicalis 441·5 = 808 ” 44·15 = 80·8

Liquor arsenici hydrochloricus 441·5 = 810 ” 44·15 = 81·0

Volumetric Solution of Nitrate of Silver (nitrate of silver, AgO, NO5 = 170, or AgNO3* = 170).

Take of nitrate of silver 170 grains.

Distilled water a sufficiency.

Put the nitrate of silver into the 10,000 grain flask, and having filled half the flask with water, allow the salt to dissolve; then dilute the solution with more water until it has the exact bulk of 10,000 grain-measures.

The solution should be kept in an opaque stoppered bottle. 1000 grain-measures of this solution contain ⁄10th of an equivalent in grains of nitrate of silver (or 1·70 grains). Grammes and cubic centimètres may be employed instead of grains and grain-measures, but for convenience ⁄10th of the numbers should be taken. 100 cubic centimètres contain ⁄10th of an equivalent in grammes of nitrate of silver (or 1·7 grammes).

It is used in testing the following substances.

British Weights and Measures. or Metrical Weights and Measures.

Grains weight of substance. = Grain-measures of vol. sol. Grams weight of substance. = C. C. of vol. sol.

Acid. hydrocyan. 270 = 1000 or 27·0 = 100·0

Potass. bromid. 10 = 840 ” 1·0 = 84·0

Sodæ arsenias (dry) 10 = 1613 ” 1·0 = 161·3

Volumetric Solution of Oxalic Acid (crystallised oxalic acid, 2HO, C4H6 + 4HO = 126, or H2C2O42H2O = 126). Take of—

Purified oxalic acid in crystals, quite dry, but not effloresced 630 grains.

Distilled water a sufficiency.

Put the oxalic acid into the 10,000 grain flask, fill the flask to about two thirds of its bulk with water, allow the acid to dissolve, and then dilute the solution with more water until it has the exact volume of 10,000 grain-measures. 1000 grain-measures of this solution contain half an equivalent in grains (63 gr.) of oxalic acid, and are therefore capable of neutralising an equivalent in grains of an alkali or alkaline carbonate. Grammes and cubic centimètres may be employed instead of grains and grain-measures, but for convenience ⁄10th of the numbers should be taken. 100 cubic centimètres contain ⁄20th of an equivalent in grammes (6·3 grammes) of oxalic acid, and will neutralise ⁄10th of an equivalent in grammes of an alkali. The following substances are tested with this solution:

British Weights and Measures. or Metrical Weights and Measures.

Grains weight of substance. = Grain- measures of vol. sol. Grams weight of substance. = C. C. of vol. sol.

Ammoniæ carb. 59·0 = 1000 or 5·90 = 100·0

Borax 191·0 = 1000 ” 19·10 = 100·0

Liq. ammon. 85·0 = 500 ” 8·50 = 50·0

Liq. ammon. fort. 52·3 = 1000 ” 5·23 = 100·0

Liq. calcis 4380·0 = 200 ” 438·00 = 20·0

Liq. calcis sacchar 460·2 = 254 ” 46·02 = 25·4

Liq. plumbi subacet. 413·3 = 810 ” 41·33 = 81·0

Liq. potassæ 462·9 = 482 ” 46·29 = 48·2

Liq. potassæ efferves. 4380·0 = 150 ” 438·00 = 15·0

Liq. sodæ 458·0 = 470 ” 45·80 = 47·0

Liq. sodæ efferves. 4380·0 = 178 ” 438·00 = 17·8

Plumbi acetas 38·0 = 200 ” 3·80 = 20·0

Potassa caustica 56·0 = 900 ” 5·60 = 90·0

Potassæ bicarb. 50·0 = 500 ” 5·00 = 50·0

Potassæ carb. 83·0 = 980 ” 8·30 = 98·0

Potassæ citras 102·0 = 1000 ” 10·20 = 100·0

Potassæ tartras 113·0 = 1000 ” 11·30 = 100·0

Potassæ tartras acida 188·0 = 1000 ” 18·80 = 100·0

Soda caustica 40·0 = 900 ” 4·00 = 90·0

Soda tartarata 141·0 = 1000 ” 14·10 = 100·0

Sodæ bicarb. 84·0 = 1000 ” 8·40 = 100·0

Sodæ carb. 143·0 = 960 ” 14·30 = 96·0

Volumetric Solution of Soda (hydrate of soda, NaO, HO = 40, or NaHO = 40).

Take of solution of soda a sufficiency.

Distilled water a sufficiency.

Fill a burette with the solution of soda, and cautiously drop this into 63 gr. of purified oxalic acid, dissolved in about 2 oz. of water, until the acid is exactly neutralised as indicated by litmus.

Note the number of grain-measures (n) of the solution used, and having then introduced 9000 grain-measures of the solution of soda in a graduated jar, augment this quantity by the addition of water until it becomes

9000 × 1000 / n grain-measures =

If, for example, n = 930, the 9000 grain-measures should be augmented to

9000 × 1000 / 930 = 9,677 grain-measures.

One thousand grain-measures of this solution contain one equivalent in grains (40 gr.) of hydrate of soda, and will therefore neutralise one equivalent in grains of any monobasic acid.

Grammes and cubic centimètres may be employed, instead of grains and grain-measures; but for convenience ⁄10th of the numbers should be taken. 1000 cubic centimètres contain ⁄10th of an equivalent in grammes (4 grammes) of hydrate of soda, and will neutralise ⁄10th of an equivalent in grammes of an acid.

This solution is used for testing the following substances:

British Weights and Measures. or Metrical Weights and Measures.

Grains weight of substance. = Grain- measures of vol. sol. Grams weight of substance. = C. C. of vol. sol.

Acetum 445·4 = 402 or 44·54 = 40·2

Acid. acet. 182·0 = 1000 ” 18·20 = 100·0

Acid. acet. dil. 440·0 = 313 ” 44·40 = 31·3

Acid. acet. glac. 60·0 = 990 ” 6·00 = 99·0

Acid. citric 70·0 = 1000 ” 7·00 = 100·0

Acid. hydrochloric 114·8 = 1000 ” 14·48 = 100·0

Acid. hydrochloric dil. 345·0 = 1000 ” 34·50 = 100·0

Acid. nitric 90·0 = 1000 ” 9·00 = 100·0

Acid. nitric dil. 361·3 = 1000 ” 36·13 = 100·0

Acid. nitro-hydrochlor. dil. 352·4 = 920 ” 35·24 = 92·0

Acid. sulph. 50·6 = 1000 ” 5·06 = 100·0

Acid. sulph. arom. 304·2 = 830 ” 30·42 = 83·0

Acid. sulph. dil. 359·0 = 1000 ” 35·90 = 100·0

Acid. tart. 75·0 = 1000 ” 7·50 = 100·0

TE′TANUS. Spasm with rigidity. When it affects the under jaw, it is called TRISMUS, or locked-jaw; when the body is drawn backward by the contraction of the muscles, it is called OPISTHOTONOS; when the body is bent forward, EMPROSTHOTONOS; and when the body is drawn to one side, PLEUROSTHOTONOS.

The cause of tetanus, in temperate climates, is generally irritation of the nerves, arising from local injuries, especially punctured or lacerated wounds. Of these the most trivial are occasionally sufficient to produce locked-jaw. In hot climates the disease is occasionally produced by exposure to cold, or by suddenly suppressed perspiration. The last variety is curable; the former one scarcely ever so. The proper treatment is a matter still undetermined. Sedatives, antispasmodics, and powerful stimulants, have each had their advocates. Large doses of wine and spirits, in conjunction with opium, have occasionally been administered with success. Electricity and the vapour bath have also proved useful. In all cases the bowels should be moved by active aperients, either by the mouth or per anum. Dr Shrimpton recommends the Chinese mode of treating tetanus, which is as follows:—From four to five grains of solid opium are mixed with tea-leaves, or dried roses, and carefully beaten together with molasses. The patient smokes this mixture, and endeavours to draw the smoke into the lungs, leaving off when the narcotic effects are produced. These last generally from three to four hours. The same operation should be repeated whenever there are any signs of returning spasms.

TET′TERS. The popular name of several cutaneous diseases, the treatment of which can only be properly undertaken by the experienced medical man.

THAL′LIUM. Tl. [Eng., L.] A heavy metal, belonging to the mercury, silver, and lead group, discovered by Crookes in the early part of 1861, and displayed by him as “a new metallic element” at the opening of the International Exhibition, on the 1st of May, 1862. Thallium is a widely-diffused metal, being found in many minerals, particularly in iron- and copper-pyrites and native sulphur. It has recently been obtained in comparatively large quantities from the dust of the flues leading to sulphuric acid chambers. The spectrum of thallium consists of a single most characteristic line of a beautiful green colour. The spectrum produced when the metal is burnt in the electric arc is, however, more complicated, and consists of several green, blue, and other lines.

Thallium melts at 550° Fahr., and at a less heat may be readily welded, a property that has hitherto been regarded as peculiar to iron and platinum. Its specific gravity varies from 11·8 to 11·9, according to the mode of preparation. When freshly cut it has a dull white colour, destitute of the brilliancy of polished silver. Exposed to the air, it tarnishes rapidly, a straw-coloured oxide making its appearance on the surface. The oxide is alkaline and caustic to the taste, and much more soluble than the oxides of silver and lead. The metal is remarkable for its strongly marked diamagnetic characters, resembling bismuth in this respect. The alloys of thallium are very remarkable. Copper, alloyed with only one half per cent, of thallium, becomes quite brittle; but the alloy with tin is malleable. Mr Crookes has prepared a great number of the salts of this interesting metal. These need not be described here, as they have not yet been applied to any use in the arts. See Sulphuric acid.

THALLOGENS. Thallogens or Thallogenous plants are structurally the simplest of the acotyledonous, or flowerless plants, consisting simply of a collection of cellular tissue, called a thallus. They are entirely destitute of woody fibre. The Algæ, Characeæ, Fungi, and Lichens are thallogenous plants.

THEBA′INE. C19H21NO3. Syn. Thebaia, Paramorphia. A crystalline substance obtained by Thibourméry from an infusion of opium that has had its morphia extracted by acting on it by an excess of lime.

THE′INE. C8H10N4O2. Syn. Theina. An alkaloid extracted from tea. It is identical with caffeine, and may be obtained from tea in the same manner as that substance is from coffee. The best ‘gunpowder tea’ contains fully 6% of theine, about one half of which is lost in the present careless mode of making infusion of tea for the table.

Mr Lewis Thompson, M.R.C.S., in a contribution to the ‘Medical Times and Gazette’ for 1871, directs attention to the value of theine as a therapeutic agent, as well as gives an easy method for its preparation. He writes as follows:—“I wish to direct the attention of the medical profession to a valuable agent which has hitherto escaped notice, although its powers are most unquestionable, and its cost price very trivial. The article to which I allude is theine, a substance existing in tea and coffee, and, as I believe, in many other vegetable products.

“As a medicine, theine is powerfully tonic and stimulant, and appears to possess the tonic virtues of the disulphate of quinia united to the stimulating power of wine, but with this difference, that the stimulus from theine is not followed by depression, as in the case of wine and alcohol.

“Theine seems to act chiefly on the great sympathetic or ganglionic system of nerves, and but slightly on the brain. I have used it in doses of from 1 to 5 grams, with very marked advantage, in the low stage of typhoid fevers, confluent smallpox, and that form of mortification of the toes which is so singularly fatal to old people. But, in addition to this, different medical friends of mine have found it useful in hemicrania, neuralgia, and what has been called relapsing fever; and in the case of an overdose of opium, it appeared to relieve the narcotic symptoms speedily.

“With regard to the cost of this medicine, I have discovered that in the ordinary process of roasting coffee, the whole of the theine is driven off before the torrefaction of the coffee is completed; and thus theine may be cheaply collected by making the axis of the coffee roaster tubular. If, instead of a solid axis, we employ at one end of the roasters a tube passing away to the distance of about three feet, the theine is condensed in this tube by the refrigerating power of the atmosphere, and may afterwards be easily dissolved out by a little water, and purified in the manner about to be indicated.

“As the result of much experience, I have obtained on an average, 75 grains of theine from the roasting of 1 lb. of raw coffee; and when we reflect that in Great Britain alone, there are more than 13,000 tons of coffee roasted annually, we see that about 140 tons of theine are wasted and lost every year by sheer ignorance. It may, perhaps, be thought that the saving of the theine will damage the flavour of the coffee, but from experience I know that it has no such effect; and, in point of fact, it is an advantage to the flavour of the coffee to make both the axes of the roaster tubular, and to cause a gentle current of air to pass through the apparatus during the roasting of the coffee, so as to expel the empyreumatic products that are formed. I will now relate the fact upon which the purification of theine depends, and when this is once clearly understood, the manufacture of theine from either tea or coffee becomes an extremely simple matter. Theine is absolutely insoluble in a concentrated solution of the carbonate of potash, and thus we may precipitate it from its admixture with sugar, mucilage, and vegetable extract. If, then, by means of the subacetate of lead, we have removed from a vegetable infusion the tannin, malic acid, &c., we have only to evaporate the filtered solution to a small bulk, and add to it its own weight of dry carbonate of potash, and the whole of the theine becomes at once insoluble; so that having collected this insoluble product, and boiled it in rectified spirits of wine, we have a solution of pure theine, which, after distilling off the spirit, furnishes crystals fit for immediate use. In conclusion, I will merely mention a distinctive test for theine, sufficiently delicate to detect the one thousandth of a grain of that substance. Dissolve the theine in a small quantity of water, and pass through this a stream of euchlorine, then allow the fluid to evaporate at a steam heat; a blood-coloured substance will remain, which, on the application of a few drops of cold water, forms a beautiful scarlet solution like red ink. It is, I apprehend, almost unnecessary for me to say that euchlorine gas is formed by the action of hydrochloric acid upon the chlorate of potash.

“I ought, perhaps, to add that theine collected as a waste product of coffee, and purified by myself, has cost me less than threepence per ounce troy.”

THENARD’S BLUE. See Ultramarine (Cobaltic).

THEOBROMÆ OLEUM. Syn. Cacao butter. A concrete oil, obtained by expression and heat from the ground seeds of Theobroma Cacao. Occurs in cakes of a yellowish colour, of a pleasant cacao odour. Does not become rancid from exposure to air. Contained in all the suppositories.

Not official.—The following form good bases for suppositories:—Theobroma oil, when melted, begins to solidify at 72° Fahr.; stearine of cocoa-nut oil at 75° Fahr.; 4 of stearine and 2 of mutton fat at 77° Fahr.; 4 of stearine and 1 spermaceti at 80° Fahr. Stearine alone is, perhaps, a better substance than cacao butter for making suppositories. It begins to solidify at 78° Fahr., but there is stearine that solidifies at 120° Fahr.; this will not answer for suppositories.

THEOBRO′MINE. A peculiar principle, closely resembling caffeine or theine, found by Woskresensky in the seed of the Theobroma Cacao, or the nuts from which chocolate is prepared. Its form is that of a light, white, crystalline powder, which is rather less soluble than caffeine. It is obtained like caffeine. See Cocoa.

THERI′ACA. A name given in ancient pharmacy to various compound medicines, chiefly electuaries or confections, employed as antidotes to poisons or infection. The Theriaca Andromachi, Ph. L. 1746, contained above 60 ingredients. Mithridate and Venice treacle are examples of this class. See Treacle.

THERMOM′ETERS. Fahrenheit’s scale is the one generally employed in England, while that of Celsius, or the Centigrade scale, is principally used on the Continent. Reaumur’s is another scale occasionally employed. De Lisle’s thermometer was formerly used in Russia, and some other parts of the north of Europe. As references to these scales are frequently met with in books, it is useful to know their relative value, and the method of reducing the one to the other. The boiling point of water is indicated by 212° on Fahrenheit’s scale, 100° on the Centigrade scale, 80° on that of Reaumur, and O° on that of De Lisle; the freezing point of water marks 32° Fahrenheit, and 0°, or zero, on the Centigrade and Reaumur, and 150° on the scale of De Lisle. The 0°, or zero of Fahrenheit, is 32° below the freezing point of water.

1. To reduce Centigrade degrees to those of Fahrenheit, multiply them by 9, divide the product by 5, and to the quotient add 32; that is—

Cent.° × 9 / 5 + 32 = Fahr.°

2. To reduce Fahrenheit’s degrees to Centigrade:

(Fahr.° - 32) × 5 / 9 = Cent.°

3. To reduce Reaumur’s to Fahrenheit’s:

Reau.° × 9 / 4 + 32 = Fahr.°

4. To convert Fahrenheit’s to Reaumur’s:—

(Fahr.° - 32) × 4 / 9 = Reaumur.°

Thermometers intended to register extreme degrees of heat are called PYROMETERS (which see)

THIBANT’S BALSAM. For wounds. Digest flowers of St John’s wort, one handful in ⁄2 pint of rectified spirit; then express the liquor, and dissolve in it myrrh, aloes, and dragon’s blood, of each 1 dr., with Canada balsam, ⁄2 oz.

THO′RIUM. Th. Syn. Thorinum. A very rare element, belonging to the group of earthy metals. Metallic base of thoria. It is obtained by the action of potassium on the chloride of thorium, and washing the resulting mass in water.

THORN-APPLE. See Datura.

THROAT AFFECTIONS. We intend here only to allude to those arising from exposure or cold. The list is, therefore, a short one. Croup, one of the most important, has been already briefly noticed.

Quinsy, or INFLAMMATORY SORE THROAT, commonly commences with stiffness and pain on one side of the throat, and swelling of the tonsils, attended by febrile symptoms, which increase as tumefaction advances, and sometimes become extreme. There is great restlessness and anxiety, considerable difficulty in swallowing even liquids, the respiration is painful and laborious, and the speech obstructed. When the inflammation is not resolved, these symptoms rapidly increase in severity, the patient suffers the greatest misery, the tumour suppurates rapidly, the abscess bursts, and with the rupture comes almost immediate relief. It occasionally happens that the other side of the throat then becomes affected, and goes through the same stages; but in general this is not the case, and the patient rapidly recovers, a few detergent gargles and a light nutritious diet being all that is required. Sometimes, at the very commencement of the attack, the inflammation may be resolved by the patient sucking a lozenge or powder, every hour or two, containing ⁄4 or ⁄2 grain of tartarised antimony carefully triturated with about 20 gr. of lump sugar, so as to keep up a constant state of nausea or vomiting for hours.

Malignant sore throat is marked by the inflammation of the tonsils being more superficial; but no sooner does it occur than it passes into small ulcers of varied colours and appearance, extending to the pharynx, and spreading over the whole fauces into the nostrils, and even around the glottis and down the œsophagus. These ulcers rapidly slough, and the febrile symptoms of a typhoid character, which are present throughout, become more or less severe. In this way the disease often hastens to a fatal termination, and, being highly contagious, often extends itself to all, or nearly all, the members of a family. The treatment must be similar to that adopted for typhus fever. Stimulating gargles, containing capsicum, the mineral acids, or port wine, are useful local remedies. See Diphtheria.

THRUSH. Syn. Aphtha, L. A disease of infancy, which, in its common form, is marked by small white ulcers upon the tongue, palate, and gums. In some cases it extends through the whole course of the alimentary canal, and, assuming a malignant form, proves fatal. The treatment consists of a gentle emetic of ipecacuanha wine, followed by an occasional dose of rhubarb and magnesia, to keep the bowels clear, and to arrest diarrhœa. The ulcerations may be touched with a little honey or borax; and if they assume a dark colour, or there be much debility, astringents and tonics should be had recourse to. In all cases the diet should be light, but supporting, as imperfect nutrition is a common cause of the disease.

In Animals. Topical applications of alum or borax, glycerine, Condy’s fluid; laxatives. The food should be cooling and digestible.

THYMOL. Syn. Thymic acid, C10H14O. This substance is the oxygenated constituent of the essential oils of thyme (Thymus vulgaris), horse mint (Monarda punctata), and (Ptychotis ajowan) a common umbelliferous plant growing in India. Thymol is isomeric with cymilic alcohol, and homologous with phenyl.

Thymol may be procured from either of the above sources by treatment with caustic potash or soda, as described below, or by submitting the essential oils to a low temperature for some days. When prepared by the first process thymol occurs as an oily fluid; and when by the second, as a crystalline solid.

The following are the details of the preparation of the liquid variety of thymol as given by the Paris Pharmaceutical Society in their formulæ for new remedies published in 1877:—

“Treat essential oil of thyme with an equal volume of an aqueous solution of potash or soda, and shake several times to facilitate combination. The thymol dissolves, forming a soluble compound, whilst the thymene, a carbide of hydrogen, that accompanies it in the essence, does not combine with the alkali and separates. Filter the solution obtained and treat with an acid—hydrochloric acid, for example—which sets free the thymol. The product should be purified by washing, dried, and distilled. Thymol was obtained in fine tubular crystals by Flückiger and Hanbury, who exposed oil of ajowan to a temperature of 0° C.; the oil so treated yielded 35 per cent. of its weight of crystallised thymol. Mr Gerrard says it is stated that oil of thyme yields as much as 50 per cent.

“As found in commerce, thymol consists of irregular broken crystals, nearly transparent and colourless; the taste is burning and aromatic, sp. gr. 1·028, but lighter than water when fused; its melting point is about 44° C. When once completely fused and allowed to cool to the ordinary temperature, it will maintain itself in the fluid condition for several days, but the contact of a crystal will at once cause it to crystallise. It is freely soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, benzol, carbon bisulphide, fats, and oils, and but sparingly in water and glycerin. The alkaline hydrates of potash and soda are powerful solvents of thymol; ammonia dissolves it but sparingly.

“The potash and soda solutions are spoken of by some authors as chemical combinations; but the following test will demonstrate them otherwise. When shaken with ether the thymol can be entirely removed, and obtained as a neutral volatile residue.”

With sulphuric acid thymol forms crystallisable colugated acid, the thymol sulphuric having the formula HC10H13SO4. Undiluted thymol is an energetic caustic. According to Bucholz, thymol possesses ten times the septic power of carbolic acid, over which it also has the advantage of being non-poisonous, and of giving off an agreeable odour. Although considerably dearer than carbolic acid, the much smaller quantity required to produce an equivalent effect nearly equalises it in point of cost. It is said to have been successfully employed in the antiseptic treatment of wounds in destroying the fœtor arising from ulcerated surfaces and carious bones; in the form of spray during surgical applications, as well as for certain throat affections, and as an ointment and lotion in psoriasis and other skin diseases. When thymol is to be used for lotions, injections, inhalations, or spray solutions, the Paris Pharmaceutical Society recommends 1 part of thymol to be dissolved in 4 parts of alcohol at 90°, and this to be added to 995 parts of distilled water.

Dr Crocker, of University College Hospital, strongly recommends thymol lotion to be prepared with glycerin, which, he says, obviates the drying effect upon the skin produced by aqueous or spirituous solutions of the thymol alone. According to Mr Gerrard, this lotion is prepared by dissolving 1 part of thymol in 120 parts of glycerin, and reducing by water to 600 parts. Dr Symes says he finds milk to be an excellent solvent for thymol, of which it will take up readily to nearly 10 per cent. of its weight. In cases, therefore, in which solutions are required of greater strength than aqueous ones, he recommends the employment of the fluid.

An ointment varying in strength from 1 to 5 parts of thymol to 100 of lard, is said by Mr Gerrard to be employed in our hospitals. In the preparation of this ointment, it is of importance to first dissolve the thymol in a few drops of spirits, and then to mix it with the lard. The neglect of this precaution causes the undissolved particles of thymol present in the ointment to act as a caustic irritant on the skin, and to eat little holes in it. Mr Gerrard found vaseline an unsuitable and objectionable vehicle for the application of thymol, since, after a few days, an ointment prepared with it had its surface covered with minute crystals of thymol.

The ‘Medical Times’ contains the following formula for the preparation of thymol gauze for dressing wounds:—“Bleached gauze, 1000 parts; spermaceti, 500; resin, 50; thymol, 16 parts.” This is said to yield an extremely soft and pliant preparation, excellently adapted for wounds, fitting accurately to them, and absorbing at the same time the blood and secretions from them like a sponge would do. Dr Ranke has pointed out that, in consequence of the great reduction in the amount of secretion from wounds caused by the use of thymol, the consequent consumption of bandages becomes so much less as to more than compensate for the great difference in price between thymol and carbolic acid.

Another advantage possessed by thymol over carbolic acid is that the redness, vesication, and eczema, frequently induced when dressings of the latter agent are used, does not follow the application of thymol dressings.

Mr Squire prepares an antiseptic adhesive plaster, containing 1 part of thymol to a 1000 of plaster.

Mr Gerrard in operating upon nine different samples of commercial oil of thyme (so-called oil of origanum) by means both of caustic soda and refrigeration, states, that except in one doubtful case, he was unable to obtain the slightest trace of thymol. From this circumstance Mr Gerrard infers that thymol is not present in the English oils of thyme of commerce, from which it must have been removed in the countries where it is produced, the residual cymene and thymene being sent us is an oil of thyme.

Large quantities of thymol are prepared in Germany, principally from the seeds of the Ptychotis ajowan. One firm of chemical manufacturers residing in Leipzig is reported to have sent out during the months of September and November last year more than a ton of it. Thymol wadding is also in extensive demand.

TIC DOULOUREUX′. [Fr.] According to a writer in one of the medical periodicals, a solution of atropia, 2 gr., in water, 1 fl. dr., to which nitric acid, 1 drop (minim), has been previously added, applied as a paint, by means of a camel-hair pencil, to the part of the face over the spot affected, immediately and completely subdues the pain, or, at all events, within 3 to 5 minutes, in all accidental cases, and affords considerable relief in others. The application is to be continued until some relief is experienced. The solution, being very poisonous, must not be taken internally, nor applied to the skin when broken. See Atropia and Neuralgia.

TIN. Sn. Syn. Stannum (Ph. E. & D.), L. This metal has been known from the most remote antiquity, being mentioned in the books of Moses (Numb. xxxi, 22), and by Homer (‘Iliad,’ x, 25), and other early writers. The ancients obtained it principally, if not solely, from Cornwall. The Phœnicians traded with England for this metal at least 1000 years before the birth of Christ.

Tin occurs in nature in the state of oxide, and, more rarely, as sulphide (TIN PYRITES). In Cornwall it is found under the form of peroxide (MINE-TIN, TIN-STONE), associated with copper ore, in the slate and granite rocks, and as an alluvial deposit (STREAM-TIN) in the beds of rivers.

Prep., &c. The ore is first reduced to powder in stamping-mills, washed to remove earthy matter, and then roasted to expel arsenic and sulphur; it is next deoxidised or reduced by smelting it with about 1-6th of its weight of powdered culm, and a little slaked lime; it is, lastly, refined by ‘liquation,’ followed by a second smelting of the purer portion, which, after being treated in a state of fusion, for some time with billets of green wood, or ‘tossed,’ as the workmen call it, is allowed to settle, and is then cast into large blocks, which, after being assayed, receive the stamp of the duchy. Two varieties of commercial tin are known, called respectively grain tin and bar tin. The first is the best, and is prepared from the stream ore.

Prop. Tin approaches silver in whiteness and lustre; in hardness it is intermediate between gold and lead; it is very malleable when pure, but the presence of a very small quantity of any other metal, particularly lead, deprives it of this property; when rubbed it evolves a peculiar odour, and when bent backwards and forwards it emits a peculiar crackling noise; it melts at 442° Fahr.; volatilises at a white heat; and when heated above its melting-point, with free access of air, is speedily converted into a yellowish-white powder, which is the peroxide, or the ‘putty powder’ of polishers. Sp. gr. 7·29 to 7·31.

Pur. It is almost entirely dissolved by hydrochloric acid, yielding a colourless solution; the precipitate thrown down by hydrate of potassium is white, and soluble in excess of the precipitant. If it contain arsenic, brownish-black flocks will be separated during the solution, and arseniuretted hydrogen evolved, which may be inflamed and tested in the usual manner. The presence of other metals in tin may be detected by treating the hydrochloric solution with nitric acid, sp. gr. 1·16, first in the cold, and afterwards with heat, until all the tin is thrown down in the state of insoluble stannic oxide. The decanted acid solution from pure tin leaves no residuum on evaporation. If, after all the acid has been dissipated by heat, dilution with water occasion a heavy white precipitate, the sample contained bismuth; if, after dilution, a solution of sulphate of ammonium or of sodium produce a similar white precipitate (sulphate of lead), it contained lead; if ammonia, added in excess, occasion reddish-brown flocks, or if ferricyanide of potassium give a blue precipitate, it contained iron; and, if the clear supernatant liquid leave a residuum on evaporation, copper.

Tests. The stannous salts are characterised as follows:—1. Hydrate of potassium gives a bulky white precipitate, readily soluble in excess of the precipitant; on concentrating the solution, the precipitate is changed from stannous hydrate into stannic hydrate, which remains in solution, and metallic tin, which separates in brown flakes.—2. Ammonia, and the carbonates of potassium, sodium, and ammonium, give white precipitates, insoluble in excess.—3. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives, in neutral and acid solutions, a dark brown precipitate, which is soluble in hydrate of potassium, in the alkaline sulphides (especially when they contain an excess of sulphur), and in strong hot hydrochloric acid; and insoluble in nitric acid, even when boiling.—4. Sulphide of ammonium produces a like brown precipitate, soluble in excess of the precipitant, provided the latter contains an excess of sulphur.—5. Terchloride of gold gives, in the cold, on the addition of a little nitric acid, a precipitate of the purple of Cassius.—6. Mercuric chloride gives a black precipitate, but in excess it produces a white one.

Stannous Chloride. SnCl2. Syn. Protochloride of tin. Prep. (Anhydrous.) Distil a mixture of tin and mercuric chloride. Grey, resin-like, solid, fusible, and volatile.

(Hydrated; Tin salt.) Boil an excess of tin in hydrochloric acid. A powerful deoxidising agent. It is somewhat extensively used as a mordant in dyeing.

Stannous Hydrate. Sn(HO)2. Syn. Hydrated oxide of tin. Prep. Precipitate stannous chloride with carbonate of potassium, well wash, and dry under 196°. Greyish-white powder, soluble in acids and alkaline hydrates, except ammonia.

Stannous Iodide. SnI2. Syn. Protiodide of tin. Heat tin and iodine together. A fusible brownish-red, translucent substance, soluble in water.

Stannous Oxide. SnO. Syn. Protoxide of tin. Prep. Ignite the hydrate in an atmosphere of carbonic anhydride. Black powder, inflammable in air, and insoluble in acids.

Stannous Sulphide. SnS. Syn. Protosulphide of tin. A brittle bluish-grey substance, obtained by heating tin and sulphur.

The stannous salts behave with reagents as follows:—1. Hydrate of potassium, ammonia and alkaline carbonates, give a white precipitate, which is freely soluble in an excess of hydrate of potassium and in acids, sparingly soluble in excess of ammonia, only very slightly soluble in excess of carbonate of potassium, and insoluble in excess of carbonate of ammonium.—2. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives, in acid neutral solutions, a golden-yellow precipitate, either at once or on heating the liquid, which is readily soluble in pure hydrate of potassium, the alkaline sulphides, and boiling hydrochloric acid; less soluble in ammonia, and insoluble in nitric acid.—3. A plate of metallic zinc throws down metallic tin, under the form of grey scales or a spongy mass, from solutions free from nitric acid; and from those containing free nitric acid, white stannic hydrate.—4. Mercuric chloride gives a white precipitate.—5. Ferrocyanide of potassium gives no precipitate at first, but after a time the whole forms a thick jelly.

Assay. Each grain of stannic oxide (see above), after being washed and gently ignited, is equivalent to ·78365 gr. of pure tin. The loss of weight represents the impurities. Each gr. of sulphate of lead, so treated, is equiv. to ·683 gr. of metallic lead (nearly).

Uses. The uses of tin in the arts are well known. In medicine, 1 to 3 dr. of the filings or powder, made into an electuary with treacle, are sometimes given in tapeworm, for 2 or 3 successive mornings, followed by an aperient.

Stannic Chloride. SnCl4. Syn. Bichloride of tin, Tetrachloride of tin, Perchloride of tin, Permuriate of t.†; Stanni bichloridum, Stanni permuras, L. Prep. 1. (Liebig.) By dissolving grain tin in a mixture of hydrochloric acid, 2 parts; nitric acid and water, of each 1 part (all by volume); observing to add the tin by degrees, and to allow one portion to dissolve before adding another, as without this precaution the action is apt to become violent, and stannic oxide of tin to be deposited.

2. (Anhydrous; Libavius’s fuming liquor.) By heating stannous chloride in chlorine gas; or, by distilling a mixture of powdered tin, 1 part, with corrosive sublimate, 3 parts (5 parts—Fownes). A very volatile, colourless, mobile liquid, which fumes in the air, and boils at 248° Fahr.; when mixed with 1-3rd of its weight of water, it solidifies to a crystalline mass.