A Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts, &c. Volume II (part 13)

Sparadrap, Thapsian. Syn. Sparadrapum Thapsiæ. (P. Cod.) Prep. Yellow wax, 4⁄4 oz.; resin, 1⁄2 oz.; Burgundy pitch, 1⁄2 oz.; boiled turpentine, 1⁄2 oz.; Swiss turpentine, ⁄2 oz.; glycerin, ⁄2 oz.; honey, ⁄2 oz.; resin of thapsia, ⁄4 oz. Melt the first five substances together and strain through linen. Keep them liquefied and add the glycerin, the honey, and the resin. When well mixed, and of a proper consistence, spread on strips of linen cloth.

Sparadrap, Wax. Sparadrapum cum cera, Toile de mai. (P. Cod.) Prep. White wax, 8 oz.; (by wt.), oil of almonds, 4 oz.; (by wt.), Swiss turpentine, 1 oz. Melt together and dip into it strips of linen cloth, which are to be passed between wooden rollers, to remove the superfluous plaster. Spread on paper it forms waxed paper.

SPARTE′INE. Syn. Sparteina, L. A volatile oily liquid, possessing basic properties, obtained from Spartium scoparium, or broom. It is highly poisonous, and resembles conine and nicotine in its general properties.

SPASMS. Syn. Cramp; Spasmus, L. An involuntary contraction of the muscles, generally of the extremities, accompanied with pain more or less severe. Spasms are distinguished into clonic spasms or convulsions, in which the contractions and relaxations are alternate, as in epilepsy; and into tonic spasms, in which there is continued rigidity, as in locked-jaw. That form which commonly attacks the muscles of the legs and feet, especially after great exertion or exposure to cold, is commonly called cramp. The best treatment for this is immediately to stand upright, and to well rub the part with the hand. The application of strong stimulants, as spirits of ammonia, or of anodynes, as opiate liniments, has been recommended. When spasm or cramp occurs in the stomach, a teaspoonful of sal volatile in water, or a teaspoonful of good brandy, may be swallowed immediately. When cramp comes or during cold bathing, the limb should be thrown out as suddenly and violently as possible, which will generally remove it, care being also taken not to become flurried or frightened, as presence of mind is very essential to personal safety on such an occasion. A common cause of spasm is indigestion, and the use of acescent liquors; these should, therefore, be avoided, and bitters and absorbents had recourse to. See Antispasmodics, and the names of the principal spasmodic diseases.

SPEAR′MINT. See Mint.

SPE′CIES. (In pharmacy.) Mixtures of dried plants, or parts of plants, in a divided state, which, for convenience, are kept mixed for use. The dry ingredients of pills, conserves, electuaries, mixtures, &c., that do not keep well when made up, or which are in little demand, may be economically and conveniently preserved in this state. The word, thus applied, is obsolete out of the pharmaceutical laboratory.

Species, Anthelmin′tic. Syn. Species anthelminticæ, L. The dried flowering tops of tansy and wormwood, and the flowers of chamomile, equal parts; mix, and keep them in a close vessel. (P. Cod.)

Species, Aperitive. See Species, Diuretic (below).

Species, Aromat′ic. Syn. Aromatic powder; Species aromaticæ, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Leaves of balm and curled-leaf mint (Mentha crispa), of each 4 oz.; lavender flowers, 2 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; dry them by a gentle heat, and then powder them.

Species, Astrin′gent. Syn. Species astringentes, L. The roots of bistort and tormentil, and bark of pomegranate, equal parts. (P. Cod.)

Species, Bechicæ. (P. Cod.) 1. Leaves of Canadian maidenhair, ground ivy, hartstongue, speedwell, hyssop tops and poppy capsules, (freed from seed), of each equal parts. Cut and mix. 2. Dried flowers of mallow, catsfoot, coltsfoot and petals of red poppy, of each 1 oz. Mix. The Fructûs Bechici are:—Dates (stored) 1 oz.; jujubes, 1 oz.; figs, 1 oz.; raisins, 1 oz.

Species, Bitter. Syn. Three bitter herbs; Species amaræ, Herbæ amaræ, L. The leaves of germander, and dried tops of lesser centaury and wormwood, equal parts. (P. Cod.)

Species, Carminative. Syn. Species carminative. (P. Cod.) Prep. Equal parts of aniseeds, caraway seeds, coriander seeds, and fennel seeds.

Species, Capil′lary. Syn. Five capillary herbs; Herbæ quinque capillares, L. Hartstongue, black maiden hair, white do., golden do., and spleenwort, equal parts. (Ph. L. 1720.)

Species, Cor′dial. Syn. Four cordial flowers; Species cordiales, L. The flowers of borage, bugloss, roses, and violets, equal parts. (Ph. L. 1720.)

Species for Decoction Woods. Syn. Species ad Decoctum liquorum. (G. Ph.) Prep. Rasped guaiacum wood, 4 oz.; cut burdock root, 2 oz.; ononis root, 2 oz.; cut liquorice, 1 oz; cut sassafras, 1 oz. Mix,

Species, Diuret′ic. Syn. Aperient roots, Aperitive species; Species diureticæ, L. 1. (Five greater aperitive roots—P. Cod., & Ph. E. 1744.) The dried roots of asparagus, butcher’s broom, parsley, smallage, and sweet fennel, equal parts.

2. (Five lesser aperitive roots.) Those of caper, dog-grass, eryngo, madder, and restharrow.

Species, Emol′lient. Syn. Species emollientes, L. 1. (Three emollient meals; Farinæ emollientes.) The meal of barley, linseed, and rye, equal parts. (P. Cod.)

2. (Five emollient herbs; Herbæ quinque emollientes.)—a. The dried leaves of groundsel, common mallow, marshmallow, great mullein, and wall pellitory, equal parts. (P. Cod.)

b. The leaves of mallow, marshmallow, French mercury, pellitory of the wall, and violet. (Ph. E. 1744.)

Species for Ene′mas. Syn. Herbs for clysters; Herbæ pro enemate, L. Mallow leaves, 2 parts; chamomile flowers, 1 part.

Species of the five Herbs. Syn. Species dietæ; Quinque herbæ. five capillary Herbs. (Ph. L. 1720.) Prep. Black and white maidenhair, spleenwort, hartstongue, and golden maidenhair.

Species for Fomenta′tions. Syn. Species pro fotu, Herbæ pro fotu, L. Leaves of southernwood, tops of sea-wormwood, and flowers of chamomile, of each 2 parts; bay leaves, 1 part.

Species, Hot. 1. (Four greater hot seeds.) The seeds of anise, caraway, cumin, and fennel.

2. (Four lesser hot seeds.) The seeds of bishop’s weed, smallage, stone parsley, and wild carrot.

Species, Lax′ative. Syn. St Germain laxative powder; Species laxantes St Germain, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Senna leaves (exhausted with spirit), 4 oz.; elder flowers, 2⁄2 oz.; aniseed and fennel seed, of each 1⁄4 oz.; reduce them to coarse powder, and, when dispensing, add of powdered cream of tartar, 1 dr., to each 1⁄2 oz. of the mixture.

Species, Narcotic. Syn. Four narcotic herbs; Species narcoticæ, L. Dried leaves of belladonna, black nightshade, henbane, and thorn-apple, equal parts.

Species, Purging. Syn. Species Purgantes. Thé de santé. Thé de St Germain. (P. Cod.) Senna, 12 dr.; elder flowers, 5 dr.; fennel seeds, 3 dr.; aniseed, 5 dr.; cream of tartar, 3 dr. Eighty grains in a cup of boiling water for a dose, said to be very serviceable and largely used in France for habitual constipation.

Species, Pec′toral. Syn. Species bechicæ, Species ad infusum pectorales, L, 1. Mallow root, 4 oz.; coltsfoot leaves, 2 oz.; liquorice root, 1⁄2 oz.; aniseed, great mullein flowers and red-poppy flowers, of each 1 oz.; orris root, ⁄2 oz. (Ph. Bor.)

Species, Refri′′gerant.—1. (Four cold SEEDS.) The seeds of cucumber, gourd, melon, and water-melon.

2. (Four lesser cold seeds.) The seeds of endive, lettuce, purslane, and succory.

Species, Resol′vent. Syn. Farinæ resolventes, L. The meal of the seeds of barley, bean, tare, and white lupin.

Species, Vulnerary. Syn. Species Vulnerariæ. Thé Siusse. Prep. Leaves and tops of wormwood, betony, bugle, calamint, germander, hyssop, ground ivy, millefoil, origanum, periwinkle, rosemary, self-heat, sage, hartstongue, water-germander, thyme, speedwell, flower of Armea, flower of catsfoot, flower of coltsfoot, of each equal parts. Cut and mixed.

SPECIF′IC GRAVITY is the comparative weights of equal bulks of different substances, the assumed standard being 1 and sometimes 1000. This standard is pure distilled water for liquids and solids, and atmospheric air for gaseous bodies and vapours. In England the sp. gr., unless when otherwise expressed, is always taken at 60° Fahr.; but in France it is taken at 32° Fahr. (0° C), or the temperature of melting ice. In the ‘British Pharmacopœia,’ whenever specific gravity is mentioned, the substance spoken of is supposed to be of the temperature of 60° Fahr. In most cases, however, it is sufficient merely to note the temperature, and to apply a correction, depending on the known density of water, or air, at the different degrees of the thermometric scale.

To determine the specific gravity as a solid, we weigh it, first in the air, and then in water. In the latter case it loses, of its weight, a quantity precisely equal to the weight of its own bulk of water; and hence, by comparing this weight with its total weight, we find its specific gravity. The rule is—Divide the total weight by the loss of weight in water; the quotient is the specific gravity.

The specific gravity of a substance lighter than water may be determined by attaching it to some substance, as a piece of lead, the sp. gr., &c., of which is known. In this way, by deducting the loss in weight of the two substances, when weighed in water, from the loss sustained by the lead alone, when so weighed, we obtain a difference (a) which, added to the weight of the substance taken in air (b), gives the respective densities. From these the sp. gr. is found by the rule of three:—

(a + b) : 1 :: b : sp. gr.

The specific gravities of substances soluble in water are taken in pure oil of turpentine, rectified spirit, olive oil, or some other liquid, the density of which is exactly known. Sometimes, for rough purposes, the article is covered with a coating of mastic varnish. This last method answers for mercurial pill.

The specific gravity of a substance in fragments, or in powder, may be found by putting a portion (say 100 gr.) into a sp. gr. bottle, filling the latter with distilled water, and then weighing it. The weight of water which it is found to contain, deducted from 1000 (the weight of the bottle when filled with distilled water), gives a difference (a) which bears the same relation to the sp. gr. of water (1·000) as the weight of the powder (b) put into the bottle does to the required sp. gr. Or—

a : 1·000 :: b : sp. gr.

The specific gravity of alloys and mixtures, when no condensation has occurred, is equal to the sum of the weights divided by the sum of the volumes, compared to water reckoned as unity; and is not merely the arithmetical mean between the two numbers denoting the two sp. gr., as is frequently taught. See Beads (Lovi’s), Hydrometer, Mixtures (Arithmetic of), &c. For the mode of determining the specific gravity of gases, the reader is referred to the works on chemistry of Miller and Fownes.

The specific gravity of a liquid is found by weighing it in a sp. gr. bottle, glass flask, or other vessel of known capacity, and dividing that weight by the weight of the same bulk of water; the quotient is, as before, the specific gravity. A bottle of the capacity of 1000 water-grains (specific gravity bottle) gives the density of a liquid at once, by simply filling it to the given mark, and then accurately weighing it.

We reprint from the ‘Journal of the Chemical Society’ a new method of determining the specific gravity of liquids, which is said by Dr H. Sprengel, the chemist who devised it, to be both expeditious and accurate. Dr Sprengel says:

“The form of my instrument, as shown in the accompanying fig. 1, is that of an elongated U-tube, the open ends of which terminate in two capillary tubes, which are bent at right angles in opposite directions. The size and weight of this instrument should be adapted to the size and capability of the balance in which it is to be weighed. As our usual balances indicate ⁄10 milligram when loaded with 50 grams, the U-tube, when charged with the liquid, should not be heavier than 1000 gr. = (64·799 grams).

The instrument which served for my determinations, mentioned below, had a length of 17·7 cm. (7 inches), and was made of a glass tube, the outer diameter of which was 11 mm. (⁄16 of an inch). It need hardly be mentioned that the U-shape is adopted for the sake of presenting a large surface, and so rendering the instrument sensitive to changes of temperature. The point, however, I wish to notice more particularly (for reasons explained below) is the different calibre of the two capillary tubes. The shorter one is a good deal narrower (at least towards the end) than the longer one, the inner diameter of which is about ⁄2 mm. The horizontal part of this wider tube is marked near the bend with a delicate line (b). This line, and the extremity of the opposite capillary tube (a), are the marks which limit the volume of the liquid to be laid.

The filling of the instrument is easily effected by suction, provided that the little bulb apparatus (as represented in fig. 2) has previously been attached to the narrow capillary tube by means of a perforated stopper, i. e. a bit of an india-rubber tube tightly fitting the conical tubules of the bulb. On dipping the wider and longer capillary tube into a liquid, suction applied to the open end of the india-rubber tube will produce a partial vacuum in the apparatus, causing the liquid to enter the U-tube. As the partial vacuum maintains itself for some time (on account of the bulb, which acts as an air-chamber), it is not necessary to continue the suction if the end of the india-rubber tube be timely closed by compression between the fingers. When bulb and U-tube have about equal capacity, it is hardly necessary during the filling to repeat the exhaustion more than once.

Without such a bulb the filling of the U-tube through these fine capillary tubes is found somewhat tiresome; the emptying the U-tube is effected by reversing the action, and so compressing the air. After the U-tube has been filled, it is detached from the bulb, placed in water of the standard temperature almost up to the bends of the capillary tubes, left there until it has assumed this temperature, and after a careful adjustment of the volume, is taken out, dried, and weighed.

Particular care must be taken to ensure the correctness of the standard temperature, for a mistake of 0·1° causes the weight of 10 c.c. of water to be estimated either too high or too low by 0·14 milligram, giving rise to an error in the fifth decimal, or making 100,000 parts 100001·4 parts. These determinations have been made in Dupré’s apparatus, which, when furnished with a sensitive thermometer, allows the fluctuations of temperature to be fixed within the limits of 0·01°. If many determinations had to be made, I should avail myself of Scheibler’s (‘Zeitschrift für Analytische Chemie,’ vol. vii, p. 88, 1868) electro-magnetic regulator for maintaining a constant temperature.

A peculiar feature of my instrument is the ease and precision with which the measurement of the liquid can be adjusted at the moment it has taken the standard temperature; for it will be found that the liquid expands and contracts only in the wider capillary tube, viz. in the direction of the least resistance. The narrow capillary tube remains always completely filled. Supposing the liquid reaches beyond the mark b, it may be reduced through capillary force by touching the point a with a little roll of filtering paper. Supposing, however, that in so doing too much liquid is abstracted, capillary force will redress the fault if point a be touched with a drop of the liquid under examination; for this gentle force acts instantly through the whole mass of the liquid, causing it to move forward again to or beyond the mark.

As the instrument itself possesses the properties of a delicate thermometer, the time when it has reached the standard temperature of the bath may be learned from the stability of the thread of liquid inside the wider tube. The length of this thread remains constant after the lapse of about five minutes.

In wiping the instrument (after its removal from the bath) care should be taken not to touch point a, as capillarity might extract some of the liquid; otherwise the handling of the liquid requires no especial precaution.

The capillary tubes need not be closed for the purpose of arresting evaporation, at least that of water. I have learned from the mean of several determinations that the error arising from this source amounts in one hour to ⁄20 of a milligram.

In cases where the temperature of the balance-room is high, and the expansion coefficient of the liquid to be examined is considerable, it may be found necessary to put a small cap (bead-shaped and open at both ends) over the extremity of the wider capillary tube, for the purpose of retaining the liquid, which during the time of weighing might otherwise be lost, owing to its expansion. When a cap is used the wider capillary tube need not be longer than the narrow one.

The ‘Compte Rendus’ describes a new specific gravity apparatus, the invention of M. Pisani. The apparatus in question consists of a glass vessel about 5 c.c. capacity, closed with a perforated stopper like an ordinary specific gravity bottle. To the side of the vessel is joined a tube, coming off at an angle of about 45°, about 25 cm. long, and 4 mm. internal diameter, and graduated at 50ths of a c.c. The vessel is filled with water, the level of which is read off in the tube held vertically, the finger being held over the hole in the stopper; 2 or 3 grams of a mineral are then placed in the flask, the stopper is replaced, care being taken to lose no water, and the level is again read off in the graduated tube, held vertically as before. The difference in the two readings gives the volume of the mineral taken.

SPEC′TACLES. See Eye, Vision, &c.

SPEC′TROSCOPE. An instrument devised for examining the spectra of flames. (See below.)

SPEC′TRUM ANAL′YSIS. See Analysis, Spectrum.

SPEC′ULUM MET′AL. Prep. 1. Take of copper, 64 parts; pure tin, 69 parts; melt them separately under a little black flux; next incorporate them thoroughly by stirring with a wooden spatula, and run the metal into the moulds, so that the face of the intended mirror may be downwards; lastly, allow the whole to cool very slowly.

2. Pure copper, 2 parts; pure tin, 1 part. Used to make the mirrors of reflecting telescopes. The addition of a little metallic arsenic renders it whiter.

SPEL′TER. See Zinc.

SPERMACE′TI. Syn. Cetaceum (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. A concretion prepared from the oily matter of the head of the Physeter macrocephalus, or spermaceti whale. It is demulcent and emollient; chiefly used in ointments and cerates.

SPHEROID′AL STATE. It is found that water, or any other volatile liquid, thrown on a metallic plate heated to dull redness, is not resolved into vapour, but, assuming a somewhat globular form, remains intact, until the temperature becomes sufficiently lowered to allow of contact between the liquid and the heated surface. It is then immediately volatilised. M. Boutigny, who fully investigated this subject, has also shown that the same thing happens when a solid body containing water is substituted for the liquid in the above and similar experiments. Thus, the finger or hand, under certain restrictions, may be thrust, with perfect impunity, into a stream of molten metal, and ice may be produced by throwing water into a red-hot crucible. This last experiment, as performed by MM. Boutigny and Prevostaye, is essentially as follows:—A thick platinum crucible, of the capacity of 1 fl. oz., is heated to redness over a powerful spirit lamp, and some liquid anhydrous sulphurous acid (a very volatile substance) poured into it by means of a pipette; the acid assumes a spheroidal form, and does not evaporate; a few drops of water are now introduced into the sulphurous acid in the same way; the diluted and slightly cooled acid instantly flashes off in vapour, and, robbing the water of its caloric, leaves the latter in a frozen state; and, if the operator seizes the right moment, a solid lump of ice may be thrown out of the red-hot crucible.

By substituting for anhydrous sulphurous acid a mixture of solid carbonic anhydride and ether, and for water a few grains of quicksilver, this latter may be reduced to the solid condition, and may be turned out of the red-hot crucible in the form of a small frozen mass.

The spheroidal condition of “liquids is a complicated result of at least four distinct causes. Of these the most influential is the repulsive force which heat exerts between objects which are closely approximated towards each other. When the temperature reaches a certain point actual repulsion between the particles ensues.

“Besides this repulsive action occasioned by heat, the other causes which may be mentioned as tending to produce the assumption of the spheroidal condition by the liquid are these:—

“1. The temperature of the plate is so high that it immediately converts any liquid that touches it into vapour, upon which the spheroid rests as on a cushion.

“2. This vapour is a bad conductor of heat, and prevents the rapid conduction of heat from the metal to the globule.

“3. The evaporation from the entire surface of the liquid carries off the heat as it arrives, and assists in keeping the temperature below the points of ebullition. The drop assumes the spheroidal form as a necessary consequence of the action of cohesion among the particles of the liquid, and the simultaneous action of gravity on the mass.”

Boutigny found that, when a liquid in a state of ebullition was brought into contact with a surface heated to such a degree as to cause the liquid to assume the spheroidal state, its temperature immediately fell 3° or 4° C. below the boiling point.

All liquids are capable of assuming the spheroidal condition; but, as the temperature necessary for this purpose, varies with the boiling point of each liquid (the lower the boiling point the lower the temperature necessary, and vice versâ), it follows that the conducting surface requires to be differently heated for each liquid. The exact temperature to which the plate should be heated to produce the spheroidal condition in any liquid, depends partly upon the conducting power of the plate, and partly upon the latent heat of the vapour; the less this is, the more nearly the temperature of the plate approximates to the boiling point of the liquid.

Boutigny believed that the temperature of each liquid, when in the spheroid condition, was as invariable as that of its boiling point; but Boutan has demonstrated that this is a not quite accurate statement, since the temperature of the same liquids, when assuming the spheroidal form, is liable to slight divergence.

The following table, showing the lowest temperature of the plate and the temperature of the spheroid for certain liquids, is given by Boutigny:—

Liquid employed. Temperature of Plate. Temperature of Spheroid.

°F. °C. °F. °C.

Water 340 171 205·7 96·4

Alcohol 273 134 167·9 75·5

Ether 142 61 93·6 34·2

Sulphurous anhydride ... ... 13·1 10·5

Solids may also be made to assume the spheroidal condition, as when, for instance, some crystals of iodine are thrown upon a red-hot platinum disc, or into a platinum crucible similarly heated.

The nature of the plate or crucible employed appears to be immaterial, provided it is a good conductor. Platinum, silver, copper, and iron answer equally well; indeed, Tomlinson has shown that one liquid may even be made to assume the spheroidal state, on the surface of another, as when water, alcohol, and ether are placed upon hot oil. If the experiment be conducted with water it must be carefully managed, since, if the water be allowed to sink in the oil, it soon becomes converted into steam, with the result of scattering about the hot oil to the danger of the operator.

Boutigny has advanced the opinion that the property of water to assume the spheroidal state under the conditions we have specified will account for certain cases of explosion in steam-boilers. Thus we can imagine a boiler, which has run dry of water, to have become intensely overheated. Under these circumstances, when fresh water was admitted it would at first assume the spheroidal state; and as more cold water flowed into it, the boiler would become thereby reduced in temperature until it reached the point at which its conversion into steam would take place; the sudden generation, large volume, and elastic force of which would lead to the rupture of the boiler, accompanied with explosive violence.

SPICE. A general name for vegetable substances possessing aromatic and pungent properties, and employed for seasoning or flavouring food.

Spice, Horse. Syn. Cow spice; Species equinus, L. Prep. 1. Aniseed, allspice, cumin seed, ginger, liquorice, and turmeric, equal parts.

2. Turmeric and cumin seed, of each 5 lbs.; ginger, 2⁄2 lbs. Used by farriers.

Spice, Kit′chen. Syn. Mixed Spice, Kitchen pepper, &c. Prep. From black pepper, 2 lbs.; ginger, 1 lb.; cinnamon, allspice, and nutmegs, of each 8 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; dry salt, 6 lbs.; well ground together. Useful to flavour gravies, soup, &c.

Spice, Mixed. As the last, omitting half the salt.

Spice, Pease. See Powder.

Spice, Ragout. Prep. From dry salt, 1 lb.; flour of mustard, black pepper, and grated lemon peel, of each ⁄2 lb.; cayenne pepper, 2 oz.; allspice, and ginger, of each 1 oz.; nutmeg, ⁄2 oz.; all separately powdered.

Spice, Sausage (French). Syn. Epice fines, Fr. Prep. From black pepper, 5 lbs.; ginger, 2⁄2 lbs.; cloves and nutmegs, of each 1 lb.; aniseed and coriander seeds, of each ⁄2 lb.; powder and mix them.

Spice, Sa′′voury. Prep. 1. (Kidder’s.) From cloves, mace, nutmegs, pepper, and salt, equal parts. Used by cooks.

2. (Dr Kitchener’s.) See Spice, Ragout (above).

Spice, Soup. Syn. Kitchener’s soup-herb powder, Kitchener’s vegetable relish, &c. Prep. From parsley, lemon thyme, sweet marjoram, and winter savoury, of each, dried, 2 oz.; sweet bazil and yellow peel of lemon, of each, dried, 1 oz.; mix, and powder.

Spice, Sweet (Kidder’s). Prep. From cinnamon, cloves, mace, nutmegs, and sugar, equal parts. Used in pastry.

SPIGE′LIA. Syn. Carolina pink root; Spigelia (Ph. E.), L. The root of Spigelia Marilandica, or worm grass. It is purgative, narcotic, and vermifuge.—Dose, 10 to 40 gr., in powder or infusion, night and morning, until the worms are expelled. Rhubarb or calomel is commonly added to it.

SPIRIT. Syn. Spiritus, L. Under this term are included all the inflammable and intoxicating liquors obtained by distillation, and used as beverages, as BRANDY, GIN, RUM, &c., each of which is noticed in its alphabetical order. Spirit may also be obtained by fermentation and distillation from all vegetable juices or solutions that contain sugar.

The spirit used in pharmacy and chemistry is distinguished by names which have reference to its richness in alcohol. (See Tables.)

Spirituous liquors, like all other fluids at common temperatures, expand when they are heated, and diminish in volume when they are cooled. It is found that 1000 galls. of proof spirit, measured at the temperature of 50° Fahr., will, if re-measured at 59°, be found to have increased in bulk to full 1004⁄4 galls.; whilst 1000 galls. of the same spirit, measured at 77° Fahr., will be only equal to 991⁄4 galls. at 59°. These changes are still more marked at higher strengths, and at extreme temperatures, and, from not being recognisable by the hydrometer, often lead to serious losses in trade, and to serious fluctuations in ‘stock,’ which, to those unaware of the action of temperature, are perfectly unaccountable. A gallon of proof spirit only weighs 9⁄5 lbs. at 60° Fahr. At a higher temperature it will weigh less—at a lower one more; but as this weight constitutes the standard gallon at the temperature the proof is calculated for, it is manifest that any variations from it must result in loss either to the buyer or seller. Hence the equity of buying and selling liquors by weight instead of by measure. The stock-keeper in every wholesale house should be aware of this fact, and on ‘taking stock’ should as regularly enter the temperature of his liquors in his stock-book as he does the ‘dip’ or ‘wet inches.’ See Alcohol, Alcoholometry, Specific Gravity, Spirits (Medicinal), Spirits (Perfumed), &c.

Spirit of Acetic Ether. Syn. Spiritus ætheris acetici. (Prus. Ph.) Prep. Acetic ether, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 3 oz.

Spirit, Alexiterius. Syn. Spiritus alexiterius, AQUA ALEXITERIA SPIRITUOSA. (Ph. L. 1746). Prep. Mint, ⁄2 lb.; Angelica root, 4 oz.; tops of sea wormwood, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 gall. (old wine measure); water, a sufficient quantity. Distil 1 gall.

Spirit, Amy′lic. See Fusel oil.

Spirit of Angelica. Syn. Spiritus angelicæ. Prep. Sliced angelica root, 2 oz.; sliced valerian, ⁄2 oz.; bruised juniper berries, ⁄2 oz. Put into a retort, and pour on 9 oz. of rectified spirit by weight, and 15⁄2 oz. of water, and macerate for 24 hours; then draw out 12⁄2 oz. (by weight), in which dissolve ⁄4 oz. of camphor.

Spirit of Ants. Spiritus formicarum. (Ph. G.) Prep. Ants freshly collected, and bruised, 2 lbs.; spirit of wine (at ·830), 3 lbs.; water, 3 lbs. Macerate for 2 days. Distil 4 lbs.—Dose, 20 to 60 drops, also used outwardly.

I. Table of the Pharmacopœial Spirits.

Sp. gr.
Alcohol, Ph. B. (absolute) 0·795 { nearly
” Ph. E. 0·796 { pure
{ Alcohol.
” Ph. D. 1826 0·810 or 70% o. p.
” Ph. L. 1836 0·815 ” 68% ”
Stronger Spirit (Spiritus Fortior), } 0·818 ” 66% ”
Ph. D. }
Rectified
Spirit (Spirit of Wine); } 0·838 ” 56% ”
(Spiritus Rectificatus), B. P.}
Rectified Spirit Ph. D. 0·840 or 54⁄4% o. p.
Proof Spirit (Spiritus Tenuior), } 0·920 ” —
Ph. B. }
Alcohol (absolu), P. Cod. 0·797 ” —
” (at 40°) ” 0·810 ” 70% ”
” (du commerce), P. Cod. 0·863 ” 41% ”
” (faible) ” 0·923 ” 2⁄2% u. p.

II. Table of the Principal Spirituous Liquors sold in England, with their usual Strengths, &c.

KEY:

Headings:

A. Denomination.

B. Revenue Mark.

C. Import Strength.

D. Legal Limits of Strength.

E. Usual Selling Strength.

F. By Permit.

G. Contains Alcohol of 0·825.

H. Contains absolute Alcohol.

I. Specific gravity at 60% Fahr.

A. Denominations:

1. Gin (strongest)

2. Do. (best ordinary)

3. Do. (cordial)

4. Do.

5. Peppermint

6. Do.

7. Cloves

8. Bitters

9. Raspberry

10. Noyau

11. Cinnamon

12. Tent

13. Aniseed

14. Caraway

15. Loveage

16. Usquebaugh

17. Orange Cordial

18. Citron

19. Rum

20. Rum Shrub

21. Do.

22. French Brandy

23. Spirit of Wine

24. Malt, grain, or molasses spirit (sent out by British distillers)

25. Hollands

26. Whiskey (Irish)

27. Do. (Scotch)

E.

A. B. C. D. F. G. H. I.

1. X(17 u.p.) ..... Not stronger than 25 o.p. 17 u.p. ..... 40% 0·9395

2. X(22 u.p.) ..... do. 22 u. p. ..... 37·4% 0·9445

3. X(22 u.p.) ..... do. 22 u. p. ..... do. 0·

4. X(24 u.p.) ..... do. 24 u. p. ..... 36·5% 0·

5. X mint. ..... do. 60 u. p. ..... 21% 0·

6. do. ..... do. 64 u. p. ..... 18% 0·

7. X(64 u.p.) ..... do. 64 u. p. ..... do. 1·065 to 1·080

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19. R. About 10 o.p. to 43 o.p. No limit. 11 u. p. ..... 43% 0·9329 to 0·8597

20. R. Sh. ..... do. 64 u. p. ..... 18% 0·

21. do. ..... do. 60 u. p. ..... 21% 0·

22. F. About 5 o.p. to 8 or 10 u.p. do. 10 u. p. ..... 44% 0·9318

23. S. W. ...... Not less than 43 o.p. 54 to 64 o.p. ..... ..... 0·8415 to 0·8221

24. P. S. ...... Not stronger than 25 o.p. ..... ..... ..... 0·8669 to 0·9318

25. Geneva. ...... No limit. ..... 51·60% 40·5% 0·9358

26. P. S. ...... Not stronger than 25 o.p. ..... 54% 50%

27. P. S. ...... ..... 54·3% 50·2%

Spirit, Blue. Syn. Spiritus cœruleus. (Ham. Ph.) Prep. Wormwood, scordium, savin, lavender flowers, of each 2⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 5 pints; distil 2⁄2 pints, and add 6 dr. of verdigris and water of ammonia, 9 oz. For outward use.

Spirit of Bryony (Compound). Syn. Spiritus bryonæ compositus. (Ph. E. 1744.) Prep. Bryony, ⁄2 lb.; valerian, 2 oz.; pennyroyal, 3 oz.; rue, 3 oz.; mugwort feverfew flowers, savin tops, of each 4 dr.; orange peel, 1 oz.; loveage seeds, 1 oz.; brandy, 1 gall. Distil. Without the bryony this preparation is known as Aqua hysterica.—Dose, 1 oz.

Spirit of Cajeput. Syn. Spiritus cajeputi. (B. P.) Prep. Dissolve 1 fl. oz. of oil of cajeput in 39 fl. oz. of rectified spirit.

Spirit of Cardamom. Syn. Spiritus cardamomi. (Ph. L. 1746.) Prep. Cardamom seed, 5 troy oz.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; water a sufficient quantity. Distil 1 gall.

Spirit of Chloroform. Syn. Spiritus chloroformi. (B. P.) Prep. Dissolve 1 fl. oz. of chloroform in 19 fl. oz. of rectified spirit. Sp. gr. ·871.

Spirit of Cloves. Syn. Spiritus caryophylli. (P. Cod.) Prep. Cloves, 10 oz.; spirit (·864), 80 oz., by weight; draw over all the spirituous part.

Spirit of Coriander. Syn. Spiritus coriandri. (P. Cod.) Prep. Coriander seed, 1 oz.; spirit (·0864), by weight, 8 oz. Distil to dryness.

Spirit, Dyer’s. See Tin mordants.

Spirit, Febrifuge, of Clutton. Syn. Spiritus febrifugus cluttoni. See Spirit of hydrochloric ether. Prep. The original form is—oil of sulphur by the bell, oil of vitriol and sea salt, of each 1 oz.; spirit of wine, 6 oz. Let them digest for a month, then distil to dryness.

Spirit, Fioravanti. Syn. Spiritus fioravanti. (P. Cod.) Prep. Swiss turpentine, 5 oz.; eleme, 1 oz.; resin of tacamahaca, 1 oz.; amber, 1 oz.; liquid styrax, 1 oz.; galbanum, 1 oz.; myrrh, 1 oz.; aloes, ⁄2 oz.; bay berries, 1 oz.; galanga root, ⁄2 oz.; ginger, ⁄2 oz.; zedoary root, ⁄2 oz.; cinnamon, ⁄2 oz.; cloves, ⁄2 oz.; nutmeg, ⁄2 oz.; leaves of cretum marum, ⁄2 oz. Macerate 6 days and distil over a water bath till 35 oz. come over.

Spirit of Flower Sage. Syn. Spiritus salviæ. Prep. Flower sage, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 3 lbs.; water, 1 lb. Distil 3 lbs.

Spirit of French Wine. Syn. Spiritus vini gallici, Brandy.

Spirit of Lemon Peel. Syn. Spiritus citri corticis. With lemon peel as spirit of orange peel.

Spirit of Marjoram. Syn. Spiritus marjoramæ. Prep. Sweet marjoram, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 3 lb.; water, 1 lb.; distil 3 lbs.

Spirit of Mastic (Compound). Syn. Spiritus mastiches compositus. Prep. Mastic, 1 oz.; myrrh, 1 oz.; olibanum, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint. Distil.

Spirit, Meth′ylated. Spirit of wine to which one tenth of its volume of wood naphtha (strength not less than 60° o. p.) has been added, the object of such addition being that of rendering the mixture unpotable through its offensive odour and taste. The purification of this mixed spirit, or the separation of the two alcohols, though often attempted, has always proved a failure. It might be supposed that, owing to the low boiling-point of methylic alcohol, simple distillation would effect this; but experience has shown that both spirits distil over simultaneously. This is, no doubt, due to the difference of their vapour densities. Methylated spirit, being sold duty free, can be employed by the chemical manufacturer as a solvent in many processes for which, from its greater cost, duty-paid spirit would be commercially inapplicable. But in the preparation of medicines, containing spirit, as the vehicle or menstruum by which more active substances are administered, the employment of methylated spirit is highly improper. The Council of the Pharmaceutical Society obtained from the Pharmacopœia Committee of the Medical Council, the decided opinion that “the substitution of ‘methylated’ for ‘rectified’ spirit in any of the processes of the Pharmacopœia should be strictly prohibited.”

The use of methylated spirit in the preparation of tinctures, sweet spirit of nitre, common ether, or any medicine to be used internally, is now prohibited by law.

Spirit of Orange Peel. Syn. Spiritus aurantii. (P. Cod.) Prep. The yellow part of fresh orange peel, 1 lb.; spirit of wine (·864), 6 lbs.; macerate for 2 days, and distil by water bath to dryness.

Spirit of Origanum. Syn. Spiritus origani. Prep. Wild marjoram, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 3 lbs.; water, 1 lb. Distil 3 lbs.

Spirit of Para Cress. Syn. Spiritus spilanthi. (Beral.) Prep. Bruised Para cress (Spilanthes oleracea), in flower, 1 part; spirit (·863), 2 parts. Macerate 2 or 3 days, and distil 2 parts.

Spirit, Proof. See Alcohol.

Spirit, Pyroace′tic. Syn. Acetone; Spiritus pyroaceticus, L.; Acétone, Esprit pyroacetique, Fr. An inflammable volatile liquid obtained with carbonic acid and other products when the metallic acetates in an anhydrous state are subjected to destructive distillation. The acetate of lead is the most eligible salt for this purpose.

Prep. 1. Dried acetate of lead is carefully distilled in a large earthen or coated-glass retort, by a heat gradually raised to redness, the volatile products being passed through a condenser well supplied with cold water. The distillation is continued until nothing but finely divided lead (lead pyrophorus) remains in the retort. The receiver contains crude acetone, which is to be saturated with carbonate of potassa, and afterwards rectified in a water bath from chloride of calcium.

2. By passing the vapour of strong acetic acid through an iron tube heated to dull redness, and condensing the acetone thus formed.

Obs. In both of the above processes carbonic acid and other permanent gases are produced, consequently the receiver must not fit too closely to the tube of the condenser.

Prop. Colourless, limpid, of peculiar odour, and very inflammable, giving a brilliant flame, without smoke; boiling point 132° Fahr.; sp. gr. ·792. It dissolves resins and essential oils. See Mesitilol, Mesityl, Metacetone, &c.

Spirit, Pyroxyl′ic. Syn. Pyroligneous spirit, Wood s., Medicinal naphtha, Wood n., Hydrated oxide of methyl; Spiritus pyroxylicus (Ph. D.), L. A light volatile liquid, discovered by P. Taylor, in 1812, among the limpid products of the distillation of dry wood. It has been shown by Dumas and Peligot to be “really a second alcohol, forming an ether, and a series of compounds (MYTAYL-SERIES) exactly corresponding with those of vinous spirit, and, in some points, even more complete than the latter.”

Prep. Crude pyroligneous acid (which contains about 1% of the spirit) is subjected to distillation, and the first or more volatile portion which passes over is neutralised with hydrate of lime. After repose the clear liquid is separated from the oil which floats on the surface, and from the sediment at the bottom of the vessel; this, when redistilled, forms the wood spirit of commerce. It may be strengthened in the same manner as ordinary alcohol, by rectification, and ultimately rendered pure by careful distillation from quicklime by the heat of a water bath. Berzelius recommends the crude spirit to be agitated with a fatty oil, to remove empyreumatic matter, and then to rectify it, first, from recently burnt charcoal, and next with chloride of calcium.

Prop., &c. Pure pyroxylic spirit is a transparent colourless liquid, having a penetrating ethereal smell, and a hot disagreeable taste; it is very inflammable, burning with a pale blue flame. It is neutral to test paper; mixes with water, alcohol, and ether, in all proportion; and boils at 152° Fahr.; sp. gr. ·798 at 68° Fahr. (Regnault and Liebig.) Dr Ure states the sp. gr. to be ·824 at 60°; the Dublin College makes it ·846. That of the latter must therefore have contained a little water. It does not dissolve india rubber and gutta percha, like mineral or true naphtha.

Pyroxylic spirit is distinguished from acetone or pyroacetic spirit by the character of its flame, and by freely dissolving chloride of calcium, which is quite insoluble in the latter. In a mixture of these two liquids two distinct strata are formed when this substance, either in powder or concentrated solution, is added.

Pyroxylic spirit is distinguished from vinous spirit by Nessler’s test (which see), by its forming a solid crystalline salt (methylic oxalate) when distilled with an oxalate and sulphuric acid, and by its lower boiling point. The presence of alcohol, in a mixture of the two, is readily detected by distilling the suspected sample with sulphuric acid. The formation of common ether indicates ethylic alcohol, and from the amount formed the proportion of alcohol may be determined.

Uses, &c. Chiefly to dissolve resins and volatile oils, especially shell-lac, and as a substitute for alcohol in spirit lamps. As a medicine it is anodyne and sedative; and has been beneficially employed by Drs Christison, Hastings, and Neligan, to allay the harassing cough, troublesome vomiting, and excessive expectoration, in phthisis and some other affections.—Dose, 5 to 30 drops, thrice a day, in water.

Spirit, Rai′sin. Prep. From raisins fermented along with water, and the wash distilled by a quick fire. Used to give a brandy flavour to malt spirit. 1 gall. added to 150 gall. of plain spirit, along with some colouring, and a little catechu, either with or without a little acetic ether, makes a very decent “British brandy.”

Spirit of Raspberries. Syn. Spiritus rubri idæi. Prep. Raspberries, 3 lbs.; rectified spirit, 2 lbs.; distil 2 lbs.

Spirit, Rec′tified. See Alcohol, and Table I, under Spirit.

Spirit of Salt†. Hydrochloric acid.

Spirit of Sassafras. Syn. Spiritus sassafras. Prep. Sassafras, troy, 1 lb.; rectified spirit (·863), 8 lbs. Macerate 4 days, and distil nearly to dryness.

Spirit of Scurvy Grass. Syn. Spiritus cochlearia. (Ph. G.) Prep. Fresh leaves of flowering scurvy grass, 8 lbs.; rectified spirit, 3 lbs.; water, 3 lbs. Distil 4 lbs.

Spirit of Scurvy Grass (Compound). Syn. Spiritus cochleariæ compositus. (P. Cod.) Prep. Fresh scurvy grass, 5 lbs.; spirit (·0864), 6 lbs.; horseradish, 10⁄2 oz. Distil 5 lbs.

Spirit of Soot. Syn. Spiritus fuliginis. An empyreumatic spirit was formerly distilled from wood soot, in the same manner as hartshorn. An alcoholic spirit is also made from 1 part of wood-soot, 5 of proof spirit, 15 of water. Distil 4 parts.

Spirit of Soup-herbs. As essence of soup-herbs, but substituting 1 quart of brandy or proof spirit for the rectified spirit.

Spirit of Sweet Flag Root. Syn. Spiritus calamus. (P. Cod.) Prep. Calamus, 1 lb., troy, spirit of wine (·863), 8 lbs.; macerate 4 days, and distil nearly to dryness.

Spirit of Thyme. Syn. Spiritus thyme. From lime, as spirit of sage.

Spirit of Turpentine, Ethereal. Syn. Spiritus terebinthinæ æthereus. (Van Mons.) Prep. Spirit of nitric ether, with as much rectified oil of turpentine as it will dissolve. Rectified oil of turpentine is also termed “Ethereal Spirit of Turpentine.”

Spirit of Wine. See Alcohol, and Table I, under Spirit.

Spirit of Wormwood (Compound). Syn. Spiritus absinthii compositus vel aqua. (Ph. L. 1720.) Prep. Dried wormwood, ⁄2 lb.; cardamom seed, ⁄2 oz.; coriander seed, 1⁄2 oz.; brandy, 1 gall. Distil.

Spirit of Vanilla. See Essence of Vanilla.

SPIRITS (Medic′inal). Syn. Spiritus medicinales, L. The spirits of pharmacy are either prepared by macerating the bruised seeds, flowers, herbs, &c., in the spirit, for 2 or 3 days before distillation, and then drawing it off by a gentle heat; or extemporaneously, by adding a proper proportion of essential oil to pure spirit of the prescribed strength. This latter plan is very generally adopted in the Ph. D. In the first method, when a naked fire is employed, a little water is put into the still along with the spirit, to prevent empyreuma. These spirits are principally employed as aromatics and stimulants, or as adjuvants in draughts and mixtures.

The following are the principal medicinal spirits:—

Spirit of Ammo′′nia. Syn. Spiritus ammoniæ (Ph. E.). Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Take of quicklime, 12 oz.; shake it with water, 6⁄2 fl. oz.; add of finely powdered chloride of ammonium, 3 oz.; and distil in a glass retort furnished with a tube reaching nearly to the bottom of a bottle containing rectified spirit, 2 pints, and kept well cooled. A sand heat is to be employed, and the distillation continued as long as anything passes over. The product has a sp. gr. about ·845, and should not effervesce with acids. The alkali is here in the caustic state, and in this respect it resembles the spirit of ammonia, Ph. U. S., and Dzond’s caustic spirit of ammonia, Ph. Bor.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Chloride of ammonium, 10 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 16 oz.; rectified spirit and water, of each 3 pints; mix, and let 3 pints distil.

3. (Ph. D. 1826.) Dissolve 3⁄2 oz. of carbonate of ammonia, in rectified spirit, 3 wine pints.

Obs. The ammonia in the last two preparations exist in the carbonated state. They are chiefly employed to make other preparations.

4. (Anisated spirit of ammonia; Liquor ammoniæ anisanus, Spiritus a. a.—Ph. Bor.) Rectified spirit, 12 oz.; oil of aniseed, 3 dr.; dissolve, and add of caustic solution of ammonia (·960), 3 oz.

5. (Aromatic spirit of ammonia, Spirit of sal volatile; Spiritus ammoniæ aromaticus—B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.)—a. (Ph. L.). Take of hydrochlorate of ammonia, 6 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 10 oz.; cinnamon and cloves, of each, bruised, 2⁄2 dr.; fresh lemon peel, 5 oz.; rectified spirit and water, of each 2 quarts; mix, and distil 3 quarts. Sp. gr. ·918.

b. (Ph. E.) Spirit of ammonia, 8 fl. oz.; oil of rosemary, 1⁄2 fl. dr.; oil of lemon peel, 1 fl. dr.; mix.

c. (Ph. D.) Rectified spirit, 3 pints; oil of lemon, ⁄2 fl. oz.; oil of nutmeg, 2 fl. dr.; oil of cinnamon, ⁄2 fl. dr.; dissolve and add of stronger solution of ammonia, 6 fl. oz. Sp. gr, ·852.

d. (B. P.). Carbonate of ammonia, 8 oz.; strong solution of ammonia, 4 oz.; volatile oil of nutmeg, 4 dr.; oil of lemon, 6 dr.; rectified spirit, 6 pints; water, 3 pints; distil 7 pints.—Dose, 20 to 60 minims in camphor water.

Obs. The ammonia exists in the state of neutral carbonate in the product of the a formula, but in the caustic state in those of the others.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1 fl. dr., in water or, any bland liquid; as a diffusible stimulant and antacid, in debility, low spirits, dyspepsia, heartburn, flatulent colic, hysteria, &c. The spirit of sal volatile of the shops is generally a spurious compound of little more than half the above strength.

6. (Fetid spirit of ammonia; Spiritus ammoniæ fœtidus—B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L.—a. (Ph. E.) Hydrochlorate of ammonia, 10 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 16 oz.; assafœtida, 5 oz.; rectified spirit and water, of each 3 pints; mix well, then slowly distil 3 pints. Sp. gr. ·861.

b. (Ph. E.) Spirit of ammonia, 10⁄2 fl. oz.; assafœtida (broken small), ⁄2 oz.; digest for 12 hours, then distil 10⁄2 fl. oz., by the heat of a vapour (water) bath.

c. (Ph. D.) Assafœtida, 1⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1⁄2 pint; digest for 24 hours, then distil off the whole of the spirit, and mix the product with stronger solution of ammonia, 3 fl. oz. Sp. gr. ·849.

d. (B. P.) Strong solution of ammonia, 2; assafœtida, in small pieces, 1⁄2; rectified spirit, sufficient; macerate the assafœtida in 15 of the spirit for 24 hours, distil, add the distillate to the ammonia, and make up with spirit to 20.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1 dr.

Obs. The dose, &c., are the same as those of the last, but it is preferred for hysterical and spasmodic affections.

Spirit, Amyl′ic. Syn. Alcohol amylicum (Ph. D.), L. See Fusel oil.

Spirit of An′iseed. Syn. Spiritus anisi (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of aniseed, 3 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve. Carminative.—Dose, ⁄2 fl. dr. to 4 fl. dr.

2. (Essentia anisi—Ph. D.) Oil of aniseed, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz.; mix with agitation. Chiefly used to make aniseed water.

3. (Compound spirit of aniseed; Spiritus anisi compositus—Ph. D. 1826.) Aniseed and angelica seed, of each ⁄2 lb.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; water, q. s.; distil 1 gallon. When coloured with saffron, or sap green, it closely resembles the Irish usquebaugh. (Montgomery.)—Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.

Spirit, Arquebusade′. See Vulnerary spirit (below).

Spirit of Balm (Compound). Syn. Balm water, Carmelite w.; Aqua melissæ composita, Spiritus m. compositus, L.; Eau des Carmes, Eau de melisse des Carmes, Fr. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Fresh flowering tops of balm, 24 oz.; fresh lemon peel, 4 oz.; cinnamon, cloves, and nutmegs, of each 2 oz.; coriander seed and dried angelica root, of each 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 8 lbs.; macerate for 8 days and distil in a water bath to dryness. The spirit is much esteemed in France as a stomachic, a cosmetic, and a stimulant.

Spirit, Bath′ing. Soap liniment.

Spirit of Cam′phor. Syn. Camphorated spirit; Spiritus camphoræ; (B. P., Ph. L.), Tinctura camphoræ, Spiritus camphoratus, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Camphor, 5 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve.

2. (B. P.) Camphor, 1; rectified spirit, 9; dissolve.—Dose, 10 to 30 minims, in milk or on sugar. Used as an application to chilblains, and in chronic rheumatism, cholera, &c. See Essence and Tincture.

Spirit of Car′away. Syn. Spiritus carui (Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of caraway, 2 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve.

2. (Ph. E.) Caraway seeds (bruised), ⁄2 lb.; proof spirit, 7 pints; macerate for 2 days in a covered vessel, then add of water, 1⁄2 pint, and distil 7 pints. Aromatic and carminative.—Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr. A similar spirit, “sweetened with sugar,” is drunk in Germany as a dram (KÜMELLIQUEUR; KÜMELBRANDTWEIN).

3. (Essentia carui—Ph. D.) Oil of caraway, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used to make caraway water.

Spirit of Cas′sia. Syn. Spiritus cassiæ (Ph. E.), L. Prep. From coarsely powdered cassia, 1 lb.; proof spirit, 7 pints; water, 1⁄2 pint, or q. s.; draw off 7 pints.—Dose, &c., as the last. It is almost universally substituted for spirit of cinnamon.

Spirit of Cin′namon. Syn. Spiritus cinnamomi (Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of cinnamon, 2 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve.

2. (Ph. E.) From cinnamon, as spirit of cassia.—Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.

3. (Essentia cinnamomi—Ph. D.) Oil of cinnamon, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used to make cinnamon water, &c.

Spirit of E′ther. Syn. Spirit of sulphuric ether, Sweet spirit of vitriol†; Spiritus ætheris (B. P.), Spiritus ætheris sulphurici (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1.—a. (Ph. E.) Sulphuric ether, 1 part; rectified spirit, 2 parts. Sp. gr. ·809. Obs. This preparation should be neutral to test paper, mix (clear) with water, and, when shaken with twice its volume of concentrated solution of chloride of calcium, 28% of ether should separate.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 or 3 fl. dr.; as a stimulant and anodyne.

b. (B. P.) Ether, 1; rectified spirit, 2; mix.—Dose, 30 to 60 minims.

2. Compound spirit of ether, Hoffmann’s anodyne liquor; Spiritus ætheris compositus (Ph. L.), S. ætheris oleosus (Ph. D.), L.—a. (Ph. L.) Ether, 8 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz.; ethereal oil, 3 fl. dr.; mix.

b. (Ph. D.) Mix in a glass matrass, oil of vitriol, 1⁄2 pint, with rectified spirit, 1 pint; connect this with a Liebig’s condenser, apply heat, and distil until a black froth begins to rise; then separate the upper stratum of the distilled liquid, and, having exposed it to the air for 24 hours, let the oil be transferred to a moist paper filter, and washed with a little cold water; lastly, dissolve it in a mixture of rectified spirit, ⁄2 pint; sulphuric ether, 5 fl. oz.

Obs. This compound is anodyne and antispasmodic, and was once held in very great repute.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 fl. dr.

3. Aromatic spirit of ether, A. s. of sulphuric e., Sweet elixir of vitriol†; Spiritus ætheris aromaticus, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1824.) Bruised cinnamon, 3 dr.; cardamoms, 1⁄2 dr.; long pepper and ginger, of each 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 10 fl. oz.; sulphuric ether, 5 fl. oz.; mix, and digest 14 days. The last two preparations are also frequently called ‘sweet elixir of vitriol.’

Spirit of Harts′horn. Syn. Liquor of spiritus volatilis cornu cervi, L. Originally distilled from hartshorn. Dilute liquor ammonia is now generally sold for spirit of hartshorn.

Spirit of Horserad′ish (Compound). Syn. Spiritus armoraciæ compositus (B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Sliced horseradish and dried orange peel, of each 20 oz.; bruised nutmegs, 5 dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; water, 1 quart, or q. s.; distil 1 gall. Stimulant and diuretic.—Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; in dropsies, when there is much debility. It is usually combined with infusion of juniper berries or foxglove.

2. (B. P.) Fresh root, sliced, 20; dried orange peel, 20; nutmeg, bruised, ⁄2; proof spirit, 160; water, 40; mix, and distil over 160.—Dose, 1 to 3 dr.

Spirit of Hydrochlo′′ric Ether. Syn. Spirit of muriatic ether, Clutton’s febrifuge spirit; Æther hydrochloricus alcoholicus, Spiritus ætheris muriatici, L. Prep. 1. From hydrochloric ether and rectified spirit, equal parts, mixed together.

2. (Ph. E. 1744.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 part; rectified spirit, 3 parts; digest some days, and distil in a sand bath.—Dose, ⁄2 to 3 fl. dr.; in dyspepsia, liver complaints, hectic fever, &c.

Spirit of Juni′′per. Syn. Spiritus juniperi (B. P.). Prep. English oil of juniper, 1; rectified spirit, 49; dissolve.—Dose, 30 to 60 minims.

Spirit of Juniper (Compound). Syn. Spiritus juniperi compositus (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of juniper, 1⁄2 fl. dr.; oils of caraway and fennel, of each 12 drops; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Juniper berries, bruised, 15 oz.; caraway and fennel seed, of each, bruised, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; water, 1 quart, or q. s.; distil 1 gallon.

Obs. This spirit is stimulant and diuretic.—Dose, 2 to 4 fl. dr. Mixed with twice or thrice its w eight of proof spirit, and sweetened with a little sugar, it makes no bad substitute for Hollands gin.

Spirit of Lav′ender. Syn. Spiritus lavandulæ (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. From fresh lavender, 2⁄2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; water, 1 quart, or q. s.; distil 1 gallon (7 pints—Ph. E.).

2. (Wholesale.) From Mitcham oil of lavender, 3 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve. Cordial and fragrant.

3. (B. P.) English oil of lavender, 1; rectified spirit, 49; dissolve.—Dose, 30 to 60 minims. See Spirits (Perfumed), Tincture, &c.

Spirit of Ni′tric Ether. Syn. Spirit of nitrous ether, Sweet spirit of nitre, Nitrous ethereal spirit, Nitre drops; Spiritus ætheris nitrici (B. P., Ph. L., & E.), Spiritus ætheris nitrosus (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Take of rectified spirit, 1 quart; nitric acid, 3⁄2 fl. oz.; add the acid, by degrees, to the spirit; then mix them, and let 28 fl. oz. distil over. An earthenware still and condensing worm should be employed. Sp. gr. ·834.

2. (Ph. E.) Pure hyponitrous ether (Ph. E.), 1 part; rectified spirit, 4 parts (both by volume); mix. Sp. gr. ·847.

3. (Ph. D.) Nitrous or hyponitrous ether (which has been washed with half of its volume of liquor of ammonia), 4 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, “in 42 fl. oz.; mix, and preserve the compound in small, strong, and accurately-stopped bottles.”

4. (B. P.) Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·42), 3; sulphuric acid, 2; copper, in fine powder (No. 25), 2; rectified spirit, a sufficiency; to 20 of the spirit add gradually the sulphuric acid, stirring them together; then add to this, also gradually, 2⁄2 of the nitric acid. Put the mixture into a retort or other suitable apparatus, into which the copper has been introduced, and to which a thermometer is fitted. Attach now an efficient condenser, and, applying a gentle heat, let the spirit distil at a temperature commencing at 170° and rising to 175°, but not exceeding 180°, until 12 have passed over and been collected in a bottle kept cool, if necessary, with ice-cold water; then withdraw the heat, and, having allowed the contents of the retort to cool, introduce the remaining ⁄2 of nitric acid, and resume the distillation as before, until the increased product has been increased to 15. Mix this with 40 of the rectified spirit, or as much as will make the product correspond to the tests of specific gravity and per-centage of ether separated by chloride of calcium. Preserve it in well-closed vessels.

Char. and Tests. Transparent, and nearly colourless, with a very light tinge of yellow, mobile, inflammable, of a peculiar penetrating apple-like odour, and sweetish, cooling, sharp taste. It effervesces feebly, or not at all, when shaken with a little bicarbonate of soda. When agitated with solution of sulphate of iron and a few drops of sulphuric acid, it becomes deep olive-brown or black. If it be agitated with twice its volume of a saturated solution of chloride of calcium in a closed tube, 2% of its original volume will separate in the form of nitrous ether, and rise to the surface of the mixture. Sp. gr. ·845.—Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

Pur., &c. Pure spirit of nitric ether boils at about 160° Fahr., scarcely reddens litmus paper, and “gives off no bubbles of carbonic acid gas on the addition of carbonate of soda.” (Ph. L.) “When agitated with twice its volume of concentrated solution of chloride of calcium, 12% of ether slowly separates.” (Ph. E.)—Dose, ⁄2 to 3 fl. dr., as a febrifuge, a diaphoretic, diuretic, antispasmodic, &c.; in various affections.

Obs. The mass of the sweet spirits of nitre of the shops is of very inferior quality, and is scarcely, if ever, made directly from spirit that has paid the duty. One, and a very large portion, is obtained from Scotland; another, from the manufacturers of fulminating mercury; and a third, and, in fact, the principal part, from certain persons in the neighbourhood of the metropolis who employ contraband spirit for its preparation, as this article is not under the excise. Recently methylated spirit has been employed for the purpose.

Sweet spirits of nitre, sp. gr. ·850, is now commonly and publicly sold, in quantity, at a price which is only about 2-3rds that of the spirit in it, if the latter had paid duty. The spirit obtained from the manufacturers of fulminating mercury frequently contains no inconsiderable quantity of hydrocyanic acid.

The mere admixture of nitric or hyponitrous ether with alcohol does not afford an officinal SPIR. ÆTHER. NITR., as this always contains aldehyde, which, according to Prof. Liebig, is an essential constituent of the officinal compound.

Spirit of Nitrous Ether. Syn. Spiritus ætheris nitrosi (B. P.). See Spirit of Nitric ether.

Spirit of Nut′meg. Syn. Spiritus myristicæ (B. P., Ph. L., & E.), S. nucis moschatæ, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. & E.) Bruised nutmegs, 2⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; water, 1 pint, or q. s.; distil a gallon. Cordial and carminative.—Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; chiefly used to flavour mixtures and draughts.

2. (Essentia myristicæ moschate—Ph. D.) Oil of nutmegs, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used in dispensing.

3. (B. P.) Volatile oil of nutmeg, 1; rectified spirit, 49; dissolve.—Dose, 30 to 60 minims.

Spirit of Pennyroy′al. Syn. Spiritus pulegii (Ph. L.), S. menthæ pulegii, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of pennyroyal, 3 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve. Stimulant, antispasmodic, and carminative.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 fl. dr.

2. (Essentia menthæ pulegii—Ph. D.) Oil of pennyroyal, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used chiefly in dispensing.

Spirit of Pep′permint. Syn. Spiritus menthæ piperitæ (B. P., Ph. L.), S. menthæ (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of peppermint, 3 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve.

2. (Ph. E.) Green peppermint, 1⁄2 lb.; proof spirit, 7 pints; macerate 2 days; add of water, q. s., and distil 7 pints.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 dr.

3. (Essentia menthæ piperitæ—Ph. D.) Oil of peppermint, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. See Essence of Peppermint.

4. (B. P.) English oil of peppermint, 1; rectified spirit, 49; dissolve.—Dose, 30 to 60 minims, or, for children under five years, 1 to 3 minims.

Spirit of Pimen′to. Syn. (Spirit of allspice; Spiritus pimentæ—Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1 (Ph. L.) Oil of pimento, 2 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve.

2. (Ph. E.) From pimento, bruised, ⁄2 lb.; and proof spirit, 7 pints; as spirit of caraway. Carminative and stomachic.—Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; in flatulent colic, dyspepsia, &c.

3. (Essentiæ pimentæ—Ph. D.) Oil of pimento, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used to make pimento water, and in dispensing.

Spirit of Pine-tops. Syn. Spiritus turionum pini, L. See Balsam, Riga.

Spirit of Rose′mary. Syn. Spiritus rosmarini (B. P., Ph. L., & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) As SPIRIT OF PIMENTO.

2. (Ph. E.) Rosemary tops, 2⁄2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; as SPIRIT OF LAVENDER. Fragrant and stimulant.

3. (Essentia rosmarini—Ph. D.) As ESSENCE OF PIMENTO.

4. (B. P.) Oil of rosemary, 1; rectified spirit, 49; dissolve.—Dose, 10 to 30 minims.

Spirit of Spear′mint. Syn. Spiritus menthæ viridis (Ph. L.), S. menthæ sativæ, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) As SPIRIT OF PEPPERMINT—Ph. L.

2. (Essentia menthæ viridis—Ph. D.) As ESSENCE OF PEPPERMINT—Ph. D. The uses and doses are also the same.

Spirit of Sulphu′ric E′ther. See Spirit of Ether (above).

Spirit of Vitriol (Sweet). See Aromatic Spirit of Ether (above).

Spirit, Vul′nerary. Syn. Vulnerary water, Arquebusade; Spiritus vulnerarius, L.; Eau d’arquebusade, Fr. Prep. 1. Dried tops of sage, wormwood, fennel, hyssop, marjoram, savory, thyme, rosemary, calamint, balm, peppermint, and scordium, fresh leaves of angelica and basil, and lavender flowers, of each 4 oz.; proof spirit, 2 galls.; digest for 14 days, and distil over 1⁄2 gall.

2. Rosemary leaves, 1⁄2 lb.; leaves of thyme and summits of millefoil, of each ⁄2 lb.; juniper berries, 3 oz.; proof spirit, 2 galls,; distil over 5 quarts.

Obs. This preparation is stimulant and vulnerary, and is in great repute on the Continent as a cosmetic and cordial.

SPIRITS (Perfumed). Syn. Spiritus odoriferi, Odores spirituosi, L. The odoriferous spirits of the perfumer are, for the most part, prepared from various aromatic and odorous substances, by a similar process to that described under Essences and Spirits (Medicinal); but in this case a perfectly pure, flavourless, and scentless spirit must be employed. The distillation should also be preferably conducted by steam, or the heat of a water bath, and the distilled spirit should be kept for some time in a cellar, or other cold situation, previously to being used. When simple solution of an essential oil in the spirit is adopted, cart should be taken that the oil is pale and new; or, at least, has not been much exposed to the air; as in that case it would contain resin, which would make the perfumed spirit, or essence, liable to stain delicate articles of clothing to which it may be applied. Most of the ‘eaux’ and ‘esprits’ of the perfumers are prepared by one or other of the above methods. It is found, however, that the perfumed spirits of some of the more delicate flowers cannot be well obtained by either infusion or distillation, or by the simple solution of their essential oils in spirit; or, at least, they are not usually so prepared by the foreign perfumers. The spirits of orange flowers, jasmin, tuberose, jonquille, roses, and of some other flowers, and of cassia, vanilla, &c., are commonly prepared by digesting pure rectified spirit for 3 or 4 days on half its weight of the respective pommades or oils, obtained by infusion or contact. The operation is performed in a closed vessel placed in a water bath, and frequent agitation is employed for 3 or 4 days, when the perfumed spirit is decanted into a second digester, containing a like quantity of oil to the first. The whole process is repeated a second and a third time, after which the spirit is allowed to settle and is then decanted. It now forms the most fragrant and perfect odoriferous spirit (extrait) of the Continental perfumer. The product is called ‘esprit’ or ‘extrait of the first infusion.’ The three portions of oil are then treated again with fresh spirit in the same manner, and thus spirits or essences of inferior quality are obtained, which are distinguished by the perfumers as No. 2, 3, 4, &c., or ‘esprits’ or ‘extraits of the first, second, third,’ &c., operation or infusion. In some, though only a very few cases, the spirits are afterwards distilled.

The strength of the spirit for the concentrated essences should not be less than 56 o. p. (sp. gr. ·8376); that for eaux, esprits, and extraits, not less than 35 o. p. (sp. gr. ·8723). The strength of the second quality of the last three must be fully proof (sp. g. ·920). See Alcohol, Distillation, Essence, Oils, Pommade, &c., and below.

Eau d’Ambre Royale. [Fr.] From essences of ambergris and musk, of each 1 fl. oz.; spirit of ambrette and orange-flower water, of each 1 pint; rectified spirit, 1 quart; mix.

Eau d’Ange. [Fr.] From flowering tops of myrtle (bruised), 1⁄2 lb.; rectified spirit, 7 pints; water, 3 pints; digest a week, add of common salt, 2 lbs., and distil 1 gall.

Eau d’Arquebusade. [Fr.] See Vulnerary spirit (back).

Eau de Bouquet. [Fr.] From spirits of rosemary and essence of violets, of each 1 fl. oz.; essences of bergamot and jasmin, of each 1 fl. dr.; oils of verbena and lavender, of each ⁄2 fl. dr.; orange-flower water, 1 fl. oz.; eau de rose, ⁄2 pint; rectified spirit, 1 quart; mix.

Eau de Bouquet de Flore. [Fr.] From spirits of rosemary and roses and essence of violets, of each ⁄2 fl. oz.; oil of cedra and essence of ambergris, of each 1 fl. dr.; orange-flower water, 5 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint.

Eau des Carmes. [Fr.] See Spirit of Balm (Compound).

Eau de Cologne. [Fr.] Syn. Cologne water; Aqua Coloniensis, A. c. spirituosa, Spiritus Coloniensis, L. For the production of good eau de Cologne it is absolutely essential that the spirit be of the purest description, both tasteless and scentless, and that the oils be not only genuine, but recently distilled, as old oils are less odorous, and contain a considerable quantity of resin and camphor, which prove injurious. When flowers and the flowering tops of plants are ordered, it is also necessary that they be either fresh gathered or well preserved, without drying them. To produce an article of the finest quality, distillation should be had recourse to. A very excellent eau de Cologne may, however, be produced by simple solution of the oils or essences in the spirit, provided they be new, pale coloured, and pure. The mass of the eau de Cologne prepared in England, some of which possess the most delicate fragrance, and is nearly equal to the best imported, is made without distillation. In the shops two kinds of this article are generally kept—French and German. That prepared by Farina of Cologne is esteemed the best, and is preferred in the fashionable world.

Prep. 1. From essences of bergamot and lemon, of each 1 fl. dr.; oil of orange, ⁄2 dr. oil of neroli, 20 drops; oil of rosemary, 10 drops; essence of ambergris and musk, of each 1 drop; rectified spirit, ⁄2 pint; mix.

2. Essence of bergamot, 3 fl. oz.; essence of lemon, 3 fl. dr.; essence of cedrat, 2 fl. dr.; oils of neroli and rosemary, of each 1⁄2 fl. dr.; oil of balm, ⁄2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 1⁄2 gall.; mix.

3. (Cadet Gassincourt.) Take of pure neroli, essences (oils) of cedrat, orange, lemon, bergamot, and rosemary, of each 24 drops; lesser cardamom seeds, ⁄4 oz.; spirit at 32° Baumé (sp. gr. ·869), 1 quart; digest a few days and then distil 1⁄2 pint.

4. (Farina.) Take of rectified spirit, 5 galls.; calamus aromaticus, sage, and thyme, of each ⁄2 dr.; balm-mint and spearmint, of each 1 oz.; angelica root, 10 gr.; camphor, 15 gr.; petals of roses and violets, of each 3 dr.; lavender flowers, 1⁄2 dr.; orange flowers, 1 dr.; wormwood, nutmeg, cloves, cassia lignea, and mace, of each 20 gr.; oranges and lemons, sliced, of each 2 in no.; bruise or slice the solids, macerate, with agitation, for 48 hours, then distil off ⁄3rds, and add to the product—essences of lemon, cedrat, balm-mint, and lavender, of each 1 fl. dr.; pure neroli and essence of the seeds of anthos, of each 20 drops; essences of jasmin and bergamot, of each 1 fl. oz.; mix well and filter, if necessary.

5. (P. Cod.) Oils of bergamot, lemon, and cedrat, of each 3 oz.; oils of rosemary, lavender, and neroli, of each 1⁄2 oz.; oil of cinnamon, ⁄4 oz.; spirit of rosemary, 1 quart; compound spirit of balm (eau de melisse des Carmes), 3 pints; rectified spirit, 3 galls.; digest for 8 days, then distil 3 galls.

6. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Oils of bergamot, orange, and rosemary, of each 1 fl. dr.; cardamom seeds, 1 dr.; rectified spirit and orange-flower water, of each 1 pint; mix, digest for a day, and then distil a pint.

7. (Trommsdorff.) Oils of neroli, citron, bergamot, orange, and rosemary, of each 12 drops; Malabar cardamoms, bruised, 1 dr.; rectified spirit of wine, 1 quart; mix, and, after standing 2 or 3 days, distil a quart.

Obs. Eau de Cologne is principally used as a perfume, but a very large quantity is consumed by fashionable ladies as a cordial and stimulant. For this purpose it is dulcified with sugar. A piece of linen dipped in Cologne water, and laid across the forehead, is a fashionable remedy for headache.

Eau d’Elegance. [Fr.] From spirit of jessamine, 1 pint; rectified spirit and spirits of hyacinth and storax, of each ⁄2 pint; tinctures of star-anise and tolu, of each 2 fl. oz.; tincture of vanilla, 1 fl. oz.; essence of ambergris, ⁄2 dr.; mix, and in a week decant the clear portion.

Eau de Framboises. [Fr.] From strawberries, bruised, 16 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; digest, and distil to dryness in a salt-water or steam bath.

Eau d’Heliotrope. [Fr.] From essence of ambergris, ⁄2 fl. dr.; vanilla, ⁄2 oz.; orange-flower water, ⁄2 pint; rectified spirit, 1 quart; digest a week, and filter.

Eau d’Hongrie. [Fr.] Syn. Hungary water; Aqua Hungarica, Spiritus rosmarini compositus, L.; Eau de la Reine d’Hongrie, Fr. A fragrant stimulant and cosmetic. Sweetened with sugar it is also used as a liqueur.

Prep. 1. Rosemary tops, in blossom, 4 lbs.; fresh sage, ⁄2 lb.; bruised ginger, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1⁄2 gall.; water, ⁄2 gall.; macerate for 10 days, add of common salt, 3 lbs., and then distil 11 pints.

2. From oil of rosemary (genuine), 1⁄2 fl. dr.; oil of lavender, ⁄2 dr.; orange flower water, ⁄2 pint; rectified spirit, 1⁄2 pint; mix. Spirit of rosemary (see above) is now commonly sold for it.

Eau d’Ispahan. [Fr.] From oil of the bitter orange, 2 fl. oz.; oil of rosemary, 2 dr.; oils of cloves and neroli, of each 1 fl. dr.; oil of spearmint, ⁄2 fl. dr.; eau de rose, 1 pint; rectified spirit, 7 pints; mix. It is better for distillation. Used as Eau de Cologne.

Eau de Jasmin. [Fr.] See Esprit de Jasmin odorante (below).

Eau de Lavande. [Fr.] Syn. Lavender water, Double distilled l. w.; Aqua lavandulæ, A. l. odorifera, Spiritus l., L. Prep. 1. From the flowering tops of lavender (freshly and carefully picked), 7 lbs.; rectified spirit, 2 gall.; macerate for a week, add of water, ⁄2 gall.; (holding in solution) common salt, 3 lbs.; and distil 2 gallons.

2. From Mitcham oil of lavender, 8 oz.; essence of musk, 4 oz.; essence of ambergris and oil of bergamot, of each 1⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, 2 gall.; mix well. Very fine.

3. (Brande.) Oil of lavender, 20 oz.; oil of bergamot, 5 oz.; essence of ambergris (finest), ⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, 5 gall.; mix.

Obs. The products of the last two formulæ are better for distillation; but in that case the essences of ambergris and musk should be added to the distilled spirit. The oils should be of the best quality, and newly distilled, and the spirit should be perfectly scentless.

It may be useful to observe here, that the common lavender water, double distilled lavender water, or spirit of lavender of the shops, is made with spirit at proof, or even weaker; hence its inferior quality to that of the more celebrated perfumers. One ounce of true English oil of lavender is all that will properly combine with 1 gall. of proof spirit, without rendering it muddy or cloudy.

Eau de lavande is a most agreeable and fashionable perfume. The article produced by the second formula has received the commendation of Her Majesty and many of the nobility.

Eau de Lavande de Millefleurs. To each quart of the ordinary eau de lavande (No. 2 or 3), add of oil of cloves, 1⁄2 fl. dr.; essence of ambergris, ⁄2 fl. dr.

Eau de Lavange (Ammoniacal). 1. To lavender water, 1 pint; add of liquor of ammonia, ⁄2 fl. oz.

2. (P. Cod.) English oil of lavender, 1 oz.; spirit of ammonia, 2 lbs.; dissolve. Used as a stimulating scent in fainting. See Perfumes (Ammoniated).

Eau de Luce. [Fr.] See Tincture of Ammonia, Compound.

Eau de Maréchale. [Fr.] Syn. Extrait de maréchale, Fr. 1. From ambergris and grain musk, of each 20 gr.; oils of bergamot, lavender, and cloves, of each 1 oz.; oils of sassafras and origanum, of each ⁄2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 2 quarts; macerate with agitation for a week.

2. Rectified spirit, 1 pint; essence of violets, 1 oz.; essences of bergamot and œillets, of each ⁄4 oz.; orange-flower water, ⁄2 pint; mix.

Eau de Melisse. [Fr.] See Spirit of Balm, Compound.

Eau de Miel. [Fr.] Syn. Honey water, Sweet-scented h. w.; Aqua mellis, A. m. odorifera, L. Prep. 1. Take of spirit of roses (No. 3—see above), 2 quarts; spirit of jasmin and rectified spirit, of each 1 quart; essence of Portugal, 1 fl. oz.; essences of vanilla and musk, of each (No. 3) 4 fl. oz.; flowers of benzoin, 1⁄2 dr.; mix, agitate, and add of eau de fleurs d’oranges, 1 quart. Delightfully fragrant.

2. Honey (finest), ⁄4 lb.; essence of bergamot, ⁄2 oz.; essence of lemon, ⁄4 oz.; oil of cloves, 12 drops; musk, 12 gr.; ambergris, 6 gr.; orange-flower and rose water, of each 1 quart; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; macerate for 14 days, with frequent agitation, and filter.

Obs. The last is often coloured with 20 or 30 gr. of saffron, and made into a ratafia with sugar. Honey water for the hair is a different article to the above. It is obtained by the dry distillation of honey, mixed with an equal weight of clean sand, a gentle heat only being employed. The product is yellowish and acidulous, from the presence of acetic acid. This last is used to promote the growth of the hair.

Eau de Millefleurs. [Fr.] Syn. Extrait de millefleurs, Fr. Prep. 1. From grain musk, 12 gr.; ambergris, 20 gr.; essence of lemon, 1⁄2 oz.; oils of cloves and lavender (English), of each 1 oz.; neroli and oil of verbena, of each ⁄2 dr.; rectified spirits, 2 quarts; macerate in a closed vessel, and a warm situation for a fortnight.

2. Balsam of Peru (genuine) and essence of cloves, of each 1 oz.; essences of bergamot and musk, of each 2 oz.; essences of neroli and thyme, of each ⁄4 oz.; eau de fleurs d’oranges, 1 quart; rectified spirit, 9 pints; mix well. Very fine.

3. Essence of bergamot, ⁄4 oz.; eau de lavande and essence of jasmin, of each 1 oz.; orange-flower water, 8 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; mix.

Eau de Mousselline. [Fr.] From eau de fleurs d’oranges and spirit of clove-gillyflower, of each 1 quart; spirit of roses (No. 3—see above), spirit of jasmin (No. 4), and spirit of orange flowers (No. 4), of each 2 quarts; essences of vanilla and musk, of each (No. 3), 2 fl. oz.; sanders wood, ⁄2 oz. Very fine.

Eau de Naphe. [Fr.] See Waters (Perfumed).

Eau sans Pareille. [Fr.] 1. From essence of bergamot, 5 dr.; essence of lemon, 8 dr.; essence of citron, 4 dr.; Hungary water, 1 pint; rectified spirit, 6 quarts; mix, and distil.

2. Grain musk, 20 gr.; ambergris, 25 gr.; oils of lavender and cloves, of each 1 oz.; essence of bergamot, ⁄2 oz.; oils of sassafras and origanum, of each 20 drops; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; macerate for 14 days.

Eau, Romain. [Fr.] From essence of ambergris, 1 fl. oz.; tincture of benzoin, 4 fl. oz.; spirit of tuberose, ⁄2 pint; spirit of acacia flowers and tincture of vanilla, of each 1 pint; spirit of jasmin, 3 pints; mix.

Eau de Rosières. [Fr.] From spirit of roses, 1 pint; spirits of cucumber, angelica root, and celery seeds, of each ⁄2 pint; spirits of jasmin and orange flowers, of each ⁄4 pint; tincture of benzoin, 2 fl. oz.; mix.

Eau de Violette. [Fr.] See Esprit de Violettes (below).

Esprit d’Ambrette. [Fr.] See Essence.

Esprit de Bergamotte. [Fr.] From essence (oil) of bergamot (best), 5 oz.; essence of ambergris (pale), 2 fl. oz.; essence of musk, ⁄2 fl. oz.; oil of verbena, 2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 1 gall,; mix.

Esprit de Bouquet. [Fr.] From Mitcham oil of lavender, 1 oz.; oils of cloves and bergamot, of each 3 fl. dr.; essence of musk, 1 fl. dr.; otto of roses, 10 drops; rectified spirit, 1 quart.

Esprit de Fleurs. [Fr.] See Spirit of the Flowers of Italy (below).

Esprit de Jasmin. [Fr.] Syn. Eau de jasmin, Fr.

Esprit de Jasmin Odorante. [Fr.] From spirit of jasmin and rectified spirit, of each 1 pint; essence of ambergris, 1 fl. dr.

Esprit de Jonquille. [Fr.]

Esprit de la Reine. [Fr.] From oil of bergamot, 1 fl. oz.; essence of ambergris, 2 fl. dr.; otto of roses, 1 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart.

Esprit de Rondeletia. [Fr.] Syn. Extrait de rondeletia, Fr. From Mitcham oil of lavender, 3 oz.; oil of cloves, 1⁄4 oz.; oil of bergamot, 1 oz.; essences of musk and ambergris, of each 2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 3 pints.

Esprit de Rose. [Fr.] 1. From spirit of roses (see general directions, page 1547), 1 pint; essence of ambergris and oil of rose-geranium, of each ⁄2 fl. dr.

2. From otto of roses, 2 dr.; neroli, ⁄2 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve, add of chloride of calcium (well dried and in powder), 1⁄2 lb.; agitate well, and distil 7 pints. Very fine.

Esprit de Suave. [Fr.] From the essences of cloves and bergamot, of each 1⁄2 fl. dr.; neroli, 1 fl. dr.; essence of musk, 1 fl. oz.; spirit of tuberose and rectified spirit, of each 1 pint; spirits of jasmin and cassia, of each 1 quart; dissolve, then add of eau de rose, 1 pint, and mix well.

Esprit de Tain. [Fr.] Syn. Spirit of lemon thyme; Spiritus thymi, L. From tops of lemon thyme, 2 lbs.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; distil 7 pints.

Esprit de Violettes. [Fr.] Syn. Spirit of violets, Essence of v., E. of orris. From Florentine orris root, reduced to coarse powder, ⁄4 lb.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; by simple maceration for a fortnight. A stronger and finer article (ESSENCE OF VIOLETS) is prepared from orris root, 5 lbs., to rectified spirit, 1 gall.; by percolation.

Extrait de Bouquet. [Fr.] Extract of nosegay.

Extrait de Maréchale. [Fr.] See Eau de Maréchale (above).

Extrait de Millefleurs. [Fr.] See Eau de Millefleurs (above).

Extrait de Rondeletia. [Fr.] See Esprit (above).

Odeur, Délectable. [Fr.] From oils of lavender, bergamot, rose-geranium, and cloves, of each 1 fl. dr.; eaux de rose and fleurs d’orange, of each ⁄4 pint; rectified spirit, 1⁄2 pint.

Odeur Suave. [Fr.] See Esprit (above).

Spirit of Cytherea. From the spirits of violets, tuberose, clove-gillyflower, jasmin (No. 2—see above), roses (No. 2), and Portugal, of each 1 pint; orange-flower water, 1 quart; mix.

Spirit of the Flowers of Italy. Syn. Esprit de fleurs, Fr. From the spirits of roses (No. 1—see above), jasmin (No. 2), oranges (No. 3), and cassia (No. 2), of each 4 pints; orange-flower water, 3 pints; mix.

Victoria Perfume. See Esprit de la reine (above).

SPIT′TING OF BLOOD. See Hæmoptysis.

SPLINT. This is the common name given to an enlargement of the bone in horses; which generally occurs below the knee, between the large and small splint bones, usually on the inside of the limb. It mostly results from fast driving or riding, or from the animal having been much worked while young, or made to unduly traverse hard or paved roads. The splint is a frequent cause of lameness if it develops just under the knee, since it interferes with and circumscribes the free movement of the joint. It is very essential to have recourse to prompt measures directly this affection shows itself.

The treatment usually prescribed is the constant application to the part of cold water, if the splint he accompanied by much tenderness or inflammation. This may be accomplished by bandages soaked in cold water, taking care to renew the cold water as soon as it becomes warm. Mr Finlay Dun advises the horse, where practicable, to stand for an hour several times a day up to the knees in a stream or pool of water. In addition he prescribes rest for ten days or a fortnight, and when the heat and tenderness have been subdued the application of a blister, or of biniodide of mercury ointment, or the hot iron.

SPONGE. Syn. Spongia, S. officinalis, L. Sponge is a cellular fibrous structure, produced by marine animals of the humblest type, belonging to the subkingdom Protozoa. The finest quality is imported from Smyrna, and is known as Turkey sponge; another, called West Indian or Bahama sponge, is much less esteemed, being coarse, dark coloured, and very rotten.

Sponge, as collected, and also as generally imported, contains many impurities, more especially sand, most of which may be removed by beating it, and by washing it in water. Amusing disputes often arise between the smaller importers and the wholesale purchasers on this subject—the privilege of beating it before weighing it, the number of minutes so employed, and even the size of the stick, being often made important matters in the ‘haggling.’

1. Bleached sponge (WHITE SPONGE; SPONGIA DEALBATA) is prepared by soaking ordinary sponge in very dilute hydrochloric acid, to remove calcareous matter, then in cold water, changing it frequently, and squeezing the sponge out each time, and next, in water holding a little sulphuric or sulphurous acid, or, still better, a very little chlorine, in solution; the sponge is, lastly, repeatedly washed and soaked in clean water scented with rose or orange-flower water, and dried.

2. The sponges are first soaked in hydrochloric acid to remove the lime, they are then washed in water, and afterwards placed for ten minutes in a 2 per cent. solution of permanganate of potassium. When taken out they have a brown appearance; this is owing to the deposition of manganous oxide, and may be removed by steeping the sponge for about two minutes in a 2 per cent. solution of oxalic acid, to which a little sulphuric acid has been added. As soon as the sponges appear white they are well washed out in water to remove the acid. Strongly diluted sulphuric acid may be used instead of oxalic acid.

3. Sponges can be bleached by first soaking them in hydrochloric acid, diluted with 1⁄2 parts of water, until no more carbonic acid is given off; then wash in pure water, and afterwards leave in a bath composed of 2 lbs. of hyposulphite of soda, 12 lbs. of water, and 2 lbs. of hydrochloric acid. If the sponge be afterwards dipped in glycerin and well pressed, to remove excess of liquid, it remains elastic, and can be used for mattresses, cushions, and general upholstery. Sponge mattresses prepared in this way are now finding great favour. It is, of course, not necessary to bleach the sponge where it is intended to be used for such purposes.

Burnt sponge (SPONGIA USTA—Ph. D.) is prepared by heating the cuttings and unsaleable pieces in a closed iron crucible until they become black and friable, avoiding too much heat, and allowing the whole to cool before exposing it to the air. It was formerly in great repute in bronchocele and scrofulous complaints.—Dose, 1 to 3 dr., in water, or made into an electuary or lozenges. When good burnt sponge evolves violet fumes of iodine on being heated in a flask along with sulphuric acid.

Compressed or WAXED SPONGE (SPONGIA CERATA, S. COMPRESSA) is sponge which has been dipped into melted wax and then compressed between two iron plates until cold. When cut into pieces it forms ‘SPONGE TENTS,’ which are used by surgeons to dilate wounds.

Sponge, To Clean a. There is nothing more pleasant for washing the skin than a fresh good sponge, or the reverse when not kept thoroughly clean. Without the greatest care, a sponge is apt to get slimy long before it is worn out. It may be made almost as good as, in fact often better than, new, by the following process:—Take about 2 or 3 oz. of carbonate of soda, or of potash; dissolve in 2⁄2 pints of water; soak the sponge in it for 24 hours, then wash and rinse it in pure water. Then put it for some hours in a mixture, 1 glassful of muriatic acid to 3 pints of water; finally, rinse in cold water, and dry thoroughly. A sponge should always be dried, if possible, in the sun every time it has been used.

SPONGES Employed in Washing Wounds, Purification of. M. Leriche advises the sponge to be first saturated with a solution of 4 parts of permanganate of potassium in 100 parts of water; then passed through a solution of sulphurous acid, and finally washed thoroughly with water. The sponges are said to become perfectly disinfected and deodorised, whilst the tissue is not affected by the treatment.

SPOROKTON. See Sulphurous anhydride.

SPOTS and STAINS. 1. Oil and Grease spots on boards, marble, &c., when recent, may be removed by covering them with a paste made of fullers earth and hot water, and the next day, when the mixture has become perfectly dry, scouring it off with hot soap-and-water. For old spots, a mixture of fullers earth and soft soap, or a paste made of fresh-slaked lime and pearlash, will be better; observing not to touch the last with the fingers.

2. Recent spots of OIL, GREASE, or WAX, on woollen cloth or silk, may be removed with a little clean oil of turpentine or benzol; or with a little fullers earth or scraped French chalk, made into a paste with water, and allowed to dry on them. They may also be generally removed by means of a rather hot flat-iron and blotting-paper or spongy brown paper, more especially if the cloth, or one of the pieces of paper, be first slightly damped. Old oil and GREASE SPOTS require to be treated with ox-gall or yolk of egg, made into a paste with fullers earth or soap. Paint spots, when recent, generally yield to the last treatment. Old ones, however, are more obstinate, and require some fullers earth and soft soap made into a paste with either ox-gall or spirit of turpentine.

The ‘American Chemist’ gives the following method for extracting grease-spots from books or paper:—Gently warm the greased or spotted part of the book or paper, and then press upon it pieces of blotting paper one after another, so as to absorb as much of the grease as possible. Have ready some fine, clear, essential oil of turpentine heated almost to a boiling state; warm the greased leaf a little, and then with a soft, clean brush, wet with the heated turpentine both sides of the spotted part. By repeating this application the grease will be extracted. Lastly, with another brush dipped in rectified spirits of wine go over the place, and the grease will no longer appear, neither will the paper be discoloured.

Fruit and WINE STAINS, on linen, commonly yield easily to hot soap-and-water. If not, they must be treated as those below.

Ink spots and RECENT IRON MOULDS on washable fabrics may be removed by dropping on the part a little melted tallow from a common candle, before washing the articles; or, by the application of a little lemon juice, or of a little powdered cream of tartar made into a paste with hot water. Old ink spots and iron moulds will be found to yield almost immediately to a very little powdered oxalic acid, which must be well rubbed upon the spot previously moistened with boiling water, and kept hot over a basin filled with the same.

Boettger recommends the use of pyrophosphate of soda for the removal of ink stains from coloured woven tissues, to be applied in the form of a concentrated solution. The recent ink stains are readily removed, but older stains require washing and rubbing with the solution for a long time.

Stains arising from ALKALIES and ALKALINE LIQUORS, when the colours are not destroyed, give way before the application of a little lemon juice; whilst those arising from the weaker acids and acidulous liquids yield to the fumes of ammonia, or the application of a little spirit of hartshorn or sal volatile.

Stains of marking ink may be removed by soaking the part in a solution of chloride of lime, and afterwards rinsing it in a little solution of ammonia or of hyposulphate of soda; or they may be rubbed with the tincture of iodine, and then rinsed as before.

Nitric acid stains, to remove. The yellow stain left by nitric acid can be removed either from the skin or from brown or black woollen garments by moistening the spots for awhile with permanganate of potash, and rinsing with water. A brownish stain of manganese remains, which may be removed from the skin by washing with aqueous solution of sulphurous acid. If the spots are old they cannot be entirely removed. See Balls, Clothes, Hands, Scouring, Stains, &c.

SPRAIN. Syn. Subluxatio, L. An injury of a joint, in which it has been strained or twisted in an unnatural manner, without actual dislocation. Pain, swelling, and inflammation, are the common consequences, which must be combated by purgatives, repose, and a low diet, with refrigerant lotions, or warm fomentations, according to circumstances. In extreme cases, blood should be taken. Where there is simple stiffness and weakness, exercise is often serviceable.

Treatment for the Horse and other Animals. Foment. Apply lead lotion and refrigerants.

If for Curb use counter-irritants, or red iodide of mercury ointment, or the firing iron; and if for a horse a high-heeled shoe.

SPRAT. The Clupea Sprattus (Linn.), a small fish of the herring family, abounding on our coasts. Gutted, coloured, and pickled, it is sold for anchovies, or as British anchovies, and much used to make the sauce of that name. Sprats contain about 6 per cent. of fat.

SPRENGEL’S PUMP. See Air pump.

SPRINKLES. See Bookbinding.

SPRUCE. See Beer, Essence, and Powders.

SPUNK. See Amadou.

SQUILL. Syn. Scilla (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The bulb of “Urginea Scilla,” sliced and dried. In small doses, squill acts as a stimulating expectorant and diuretic; in larger ones, as an emetic and purgative. With the first intention it is generally given in substance (powder), in doses of 1 to 3 or 4 gr.; with the latter, either made into vinegar or oxymel (which see). It is an excellent remedy in coughs, &c., after the inflammatory symptoms have subsided.

STAGGERS. There are two varieties of the disease known under this name by which horses are affected, viz. stomach staggers, and grass or sleepy staggers. The first, which occasionally kills the horse in twelve or fifteen hours after the attack, is generally induced by an overladen stomach and improper food. The animal has perhaps partaken largely and rapidly, and after too long a fast, of some diet to which it is unaccustomed, such as vetches, clover, or grass. These undergo decomposition within the stomach and intestines, and give rise to such an evolution of gas, as either to set up inflammation of the stomach and intestines, or to lead to their rupture, in which latter case the result is, of course, fatal. The symptoms are a quick and feeble pulse, attempts at vomiting, a staggering gait, whilst very frequently the animal sits on its haunches like a dog. Sleepy staggers, which is a more chronic manifestation of the disease, is most common during the summer and autumn months, and generally occurs amongst horses fed on tough and indigestible food, such as vetches or rye grass, from which circumstances the complaint has been called ‘grass staggers.’ Both kinds of the disease require the same treatment.

Mr Finlay Dun prescribes a brisk purge, consisting of 6 dr. of aloes in solution, with a dr. of calomel and 2 oz. of oil of turpentine; also the injection every hour of clysters, consisting of salt, soap, or tobacco smoke, the abdomen being at the same time diligently rubbed and fomented with water nearly boiling. To ward off stupor he recommends the frequent administration of 2 or 3 dr. of carbonate of ammonia, with an ounce or two of spirit of nitrous ether, or of strong whiskey toddy, combined with plenty of ginger. To guard against a return of the attack light and easily digestible food should be administered every four or five hours, and occasional mild purgatives should be given.

Horses are also subject to another form of staggers called ‘mad staggers.’ This disease originates, however, in causes wholly dissimilar from those just stated, being the result of phrenitis or inflammation of the brain. The animal is frequently very furious and excited, and seems wholly unable to control itself, throwing itself madly about, and attempting to run down anybody that comes in its way; it is also frequently unable to keep on its legs, and when it falls, plunges, and struggles violently.

The treatment recommended is prompt and copious bloodletting, combined with active purges and enemas, with refrigerant lotions to the head.

STAINED GLASS. The art of painting or staining glass resembles enamel painting, in the effect being produced by fluxing certain metallic substances, as oxides or chlorides, on its surface, by means of heat applied in a suitable furnace. The operations it embraces are difficult, and require great promptitude and experience to prove successful. The colours or compounds employed are, for the most part, similar to those noticed under Enamel and Paste.

STAINS. Discolorations from foreign matters. Liquid dyes are also frequently termed ‘stains.’ See Spots, &c., and below.

Stains, Blood. Spots of dried blood on wood, linen, &c., however old, are easily recognised by the microscope; but simple stains or marks of blood of a slight character, especially those occurring on iron or steel, are recognised with greater difficulty. To obviate this, H. Zollikofer adopts the following plan:—The spot is removed, by scraping, from the surface of the metal, and the resulting powder is digested in tepid water, when a liquid is obtained which exhibits the following reactions:

1. The liquid is neutralised with acid, and heated to ebullition, when opalisation occurs, or a dirty red coagulum forms.

2. The coagulum is dissolved in hot liquor of potassa; the solution, if blood (hæmatin) be present, is diachromatic, or appears green by transmitted light and red by reflected light.

3. By the addition of concentrated chlorine water, in excess, to either solution, white flocks of albumen and chlorhæmatin separate, which are free from iron, as tested by sulphocyanide of potassium.

Obs. The last two reactions are said to be characteristic. Very old spots must be boiled in water containing a little liquor of potassa. See Dr Taylor’s ‘Medical Jurisprudence,’ and Blood.

Stains, Bookbinder’s. See Leather, Marbling, &c.

Stains, Confectioner’s. These are similar to those noticed under Liqueur. Mineral colours, especially mineral blues, greens, and yellows, must on no account be used, as they are nearly all dangerous poisons; nor is there any inducement to use them, since the vegetable substances referred to afford, by proper management, every shade that can be possibly required. These stains are also used for cakes and pastry.

Stains, Liqueur. See Liqueur.

Stains, Map. See Maps, Velvet colours, &c.

STAM′MERING. Syn. Blæsitas, L. Occasionally this depends on some organic affection, or slight malformation of the parts of the mouth or throat immediately connected with the utterance of vocal sounds; but, much more frequently, it is a habit resulting from carelessness, or acquired from example or imitation. When the latter is the case, it may be generally removed by perseveringly adopting the plan of never speaking without having the chest moderately filled with air, and then only slowly and deliberately. Hasty and rapid speaking must not be attempted until the habit of stammering is completely subdued. Nervous excitement and confusion must be avoided as much as possible, and the general health attended to, as circumstances may direct. This variety of stammering is commonly distinguished by the person being able to sing without hesitation. Stammering depending on elongation of the uvula, and other like causes, may be generally removed by a simple surgical operation.

STAN′NIC ACID. Peroxide of tin.

STARCH. C6H10O5. Syn. Amylaceous fecula; Amylum, L. One of the most important and widely diffused of the proximate principles of vegetables being found, in greater or less quantity, in every plant. The mealy and farinaceous seeds, fruits, roots, and the stem-pith of certain trees, consist chiefly of starch in a nearly pure state. Wheat contains about 75% and potatoes about 15% of this substance. From these sources the fecula is obtained by rasping or grinding to pulp the vegetable structure, and washing the mass upon a sieve, by which the torn cellular tissue is retained, whilst the starch passes through with the liquid, and eventually settles down from the latter as a soft, white, insoluble powder, which, after being thoroughly washed with cold water, is dried in the air, or with a very gentle heat.

Wheat starch (AMYLUM, B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.) is commonly prepared by steeping the flour in water for a week, or a fortnight, during which time the saccharine portion ferments and the starch granules become freed, for the most part, from the glutinous matter which envelops them, by the disintegrating and solvent action of the lactic acid generated by the fermentation. The sour liquor is then drawn off, and the feculous residue washed on a sieve; what passes through is allowed to settle, when the liquid is again drawn off, and the starch thoroughly washed from the slimy matter; it is then drained in perforated boxes, cut up into square lumps, placed on porous bricks to absorb the moisture, and, lastly, air- or stove-dried.

In the preparation of starch from potatoes (potato starch) and other like vegetable substances, the roots or tubers, after being washed and peeled, either by hand-labour or by machinery, are rasped by a revolving grater, and the pulp washed on hair sieves until freed from feculous matter. Successive portions of the pulp are thus treated until the vessel over which the sieves are placed, or into which the washings run, is sufficiently full. The starch held in suspension in the water having subsided to the bottom, the water is drawn off, and the starch stirred up with fresh water, and again allowed to subside. This operation is repeated several times, with fresh water, until the starch is rendered sufficiently pure for commercial purposes, when it is washed and dried as before. The waste fibres and the washing waters are used as manure.

The starch manufactory at Hohenziatz treated 1216 tons of potatoes for starch between the 4th October, 1874, and the 6th February, 1875. The waste water after passing through precipitating vats, &c., for the purpose of collecting all the particles of starch, was conducted into a reservoir and mixed with spring water. This water was conducted over a meadow of 18·5 acres, and then passed to a meadow of 4·95 acres, and from this to the third and last, which contained 6·19 acres. The 29·64 acres received the water from 1064 tons of potatoes, or for each acre 4·38 cwt. of potash, 1·26 cwt. of phosphoric acid and 1·27 of nitrogen.

The following table shows analysis (1) of potato water; (2) of the same diluted; (3) of water from the first meadow; (4) water from the second meadow; 1 litre contained—

1. 2. 3. 4.

mg. mg. mg. mg.

Whole solid matter 1857·8 323·8 322·8 262·0

Organic matter 1134·2 101·8 38·0 78·8

Inorganic matter 723·8 222·0 348·8 183·2

Potash 212·5 55·0 41·2 8·2

Phosphoric acid 56·6 5·5 trace trace

Nitrogen 140·7 12·0 4·0 9·1

Ammonia 37·4 0 0 0

Nitric acid 3·8 trace trace trace

The disappearance of ammonia and phosphoric acid in 2 is accounted for by the precipitation of phosphate of magnesium and ammonium on the addition of the spring water.

The harvest in hay before the use of potato water was 19·13 cwt. per acre, and afterwards 31·88 cwt. The composition of the hay is better than before, as will be seen by the following comparative table:—

1 2

Moisture 15·00 15·00

Woody matter 22·66 22·88

Mineral matter 7·64 8·69

Sol. in ether 2·00 2·30

Albumen 10·89 15·85

Extractable matter not containing nitrogen 41·81 35·34

100·00 100·00

In the manufacture of starch from rice and Indian corn (rice starch, maize starch), a very dilute solution of caustic soda, containing about 200 gr. of alkali to each gallon of liquid, is employed to facilitate the disintegration and separation of the gluten and other nitrogenised matters. A weak solution of ammonia, or sesquicarbonate of ammonia, is also similarly employed with advantage. The gluten may be recovered by saturating the alkali with dilute sulphuric acid. Such starch does not require boiling, and is less apt than wheat starch to attract moisture from the atmosphere. Most of the so-called ‘wheaten starch’ of commerce used by laundresses is now prepared from rice.

To whiten the starches made from damaged roots and grains, and the coarser portions of those from sound ones, a little solution of chloride of lime is occasionally added to the water, followed by another water containing a very little dilute sulphuric acid; every trace of the last being afterwards removed by the copious use of pure soft or spring water.

The bluish-white starch used by laundresses is coloured with a mixture of smalts and alum in water, and is regarded as unfit for medicinal purposes.

Prop., &c. Starch is insoluble in cold water, and in alcohol and most other liquids, but it readily forms a gelatinous compound (amidin) with water at about 175° Fahr.; alcohol and most of the astringent salts precipitate it from its solutions; infusion of galls throws down a copious yellowish precipitate, containing tannic acid, which is redissolved by heating the liquid; heat and dilute acids convert it into dextrin and grape sugar; strong alkaline lyes dissolve it, and ultimately decompose it. Sp. gr. 1·53.

To the naked eye it presents the appearance of a soft, white, and often glistening powder; under the microscope it is seen to be altogether destitute of crystalline structure, but to possess, on the contrary, a kind of organisation, being made of multitudes of little rounded transparent bodies, upon each of which a series of depressed parallel rings, surrounding a central spot or hilum, may be traced. The starch granules from different plants vary both in magnitude and form. Those of potato starch and canna starch (tous les mois) are the largest, and those of rice and millet starch the smallest, the dimensions ranging from ⁄200 to the ⁄10000 of an inch. The granules of arrow-root and tous les mois are ovoid, those of potato starch both oblong and circular those of tapioca muller-shaped, and those of wheat starch circular.

Identif. One of the commonest frauds practised upon the profession and the public is the admixture of the cheaper kinds of starch, chiefly potato farina, with arrow-root, and vending manufactured for genuine tapioca, sago, and other articles of diet, used for invalids and children. These sophistications are most easily detected with a good microscope.

Starch, I′odide of. Syn. Amyli iodidum, Amyli iodatum, L. Prep. (Ph. Castr. Ruthena.) Iodine, 24 gr.; rectified spirit, a few drops; rub them to a powder; then add of starch, 1 oz., and again triturate, until the mass assumes a uniform colour. Recommended by Dr A. Buchanan, of Glasgow, as producing the alterative effects of iodine, without the usual irritant action of that medicine.—Dose. A teaspoonful, or more, in water-gruel, or any bland liquid, twice or thrice a day.

Starch, Soluble Iodide of. (Petit.) Prep. Iodine, 12 grammes; starch, 100 grammes; ether, q. s. Dissolve the iodine in the ether, pour the resulting solution over the starch, and triturate until the ether has sufficiently evaporated. Put the product in a porcelain capsule and expose it to the heat of a boiling water bath for half an hour, with occasional stirring. This treatment is sufficient to render it entirely soluble in hot water.

Dr Bellini strongly recommends iodide of starch as a valuable antidote in cases of poisoning by caustic alkalies, alkaline, or earthy sulphides, and vegetable alkaloids. The advantages attending its employment, he says, are: that it may be administered in large doses; that it does not possess the irritating properties of free iodine; and that it readily forms harmless compounds with the substances named. To avoid the subsequent decomposition of the latter, he advises its administration to be followed by an emetic. As an antidote to alkaline and earthy sulphides, the author thinks it preferable to all others. In cases of poisoning by ammonia, caustic potash, or soda, it is applicable when acid drinks are not on hand.

STARCHING (Clear). Muslins, &c., are ‘clear-starched’ or ‘got-up’ by laundresses in the following manner:—Rinse the articles in three waters, dry them, and dip them into thick-made starch, which has been previously strained through a piece of muslin; squeeze them, shake them gently, and again hang them up to dry; when they are dry, dip them twice or thrice into clear water, squeeze them, spread them on a linen cloth, roll them up in it, and let them lie an hour before ironing them. Some persons put a morsel of sugar into the starch, to prevent its sticking whilst ironing, and others stir the starch with a candle to effect the same end; both these practices are as injurious as unnecessary. The best plan to prevent sticking is simply to use the best starch, and to make it well, and to have the irons quite clean and highly polished. Mr W. B. Tegetmeier recommends the addition of a small piece of paraffin (a piece of paraffin candle-end) to the starch, to increase the glossiness of the ironed fabric.

STARS. (In pyrotechny.) Prop. 1. (Brilliant—Marsh.) Nitrate, 52⁄2 parts; sulphur and black antimony, of each 13 parts; reduce them to powder, make them into a stiff paste with isinglass, 1⁄2 parts, dissolved in a mixture of vinegar, 6⁄2 parts; and spirits of wine, 13 parts; lastly, form this into small pieces, and whilst moist, roll them in meal gunpowder.

2. (White—Ruggieri.) Nitre, 16 parts; sulphur, 7 parts; gunpowder, 4 parts; as the last.

3. (Golden rain.)—a. (Ruggieri.) Nitre and gunpowder, of each 16 parts; sulphur, 10 parts; charcoal, 4 parts; lampblack, 2 parts; mix, and pack it into small paper tubes.

b. (Ruggieri.) Nitre, 16 parts; sulphur and gunpowder, of each 8 parts; charcoal and lampblack, of each 2 parts; as the last.

c. (Marsh.) Mealed gunpowder, 66⁄4 parts; sulphur, 11 parts; charcoal, 22⁄4 parts; as before. Used for the ‘garniture’ of rockets, &c. See Pyrotechny.

STAVES′ACRE. Syn. Stavesacre seeds; Staphisagriæ semina, Staphisagria (Ph. L. & D.), L. “The seed of Delphinium Staphisagria, Linn.” (Ph. L.) This article is powerfully emetic and cathartic, but is now scarcely ever used internally. Mixed with hair powder, it is used to kill lice. An infusion or ointment made with it is said to be infallible in itch, but its use requires some caution.

STAYS. Syn. Corset. Stays, “before womanhood, are instruments of barbarity and torture, and then they are needed only to give beauty to the chest. It is the duty of every mother, and every guardian of children, to inquire the purpose for which stays were introduced into female attire. Was it for warmth? If so, they certainly fulfil the intention very badly, and are much inferior to an elastic woollen habit, or one of silk quilted with wool. Was it to force the ribs, while yet soft and pliable, into the place of the liver and stomach, and the two latter into the space allotted for other parts, to engender disease and deformity to the sufferer and her children for generations? Truly, if this were the object, the device is most successful, and the intention most ingeniously fulfilled.” (Eras. Wilson.)

“Only observe,” exclaimed Dr John Hunter—“only observe, if the statue of the Medicean Venus were to be dressed in stays, and her beautiful feet compressed into a pair of execrably tight shoes, it would extort a smile from an Heraclitus, and a horse-laugh from a Cynic.”

“The Turkish ladies express horror at seeing Englishwomen so tightly laced.” (Lady M. W. Montague.) See Distortions.

STEAM. The application of steam of the laboratory, as a source of heat, is commonly effected by means of double pans, to the space between which steam, at a moderate pressure, is introduced, the arrangements being such as to permit of the condensed steam, or distilled water, being removed, by means of a cock, nearly as soon as formed, or as may be desirable. Another plan is to place coils of metal pipe along the bottom of cisterns, vats, &c., formed either of wood or metal, and to keep them supplied with high-pressure steam.

“It is quite susceptible of positive proof that by no arrangement yet discovered, can more than two thirds of the heat generated by a given quantity of coal, during combustion, be fairly absorbed and utilised in any of our manufactories; and, moreover, there are undeniable facts, which demonstrate that seldom, in the burning of coal, are more than three fourths of the total heat, which might be eliminated, actually obtained; thus justifying the supposition that one half of all the coal now consumed is virtually wasted and lost to society.” To lessen, as much as possible, this loss various improvements have been made, “which, for the most part, have consisted in lengthening the flues, and exposing a larger surface of the boiler to the action of the heated air passing from the furnace to the chimney.” “Remembering that air is an extremely bad conductor of heat, and that water about to be converted into steam is also a bad conductor, it is evident that time must form an important element in the perfect transmission of heat from one of these to the other; and hence, with a great velocity of current existing in the flues, very little heat would pass from air, however high its temperature, to water contained in a boiler, and so circumstanced with respect to its all but gaseous condition.” The results of the experiments on fuel made at the Museum of Practical Geology by Sir H. de la Beche and Dr Lyon Playfair go clearly to show that “to open the damper of a steam-boiler furnace is pretty generally to diminish the effective power of the fuel.” “Great waste of coal now arises from this simple circumstance; and much of the heat of the fire, which ought to go to the boiler, is lost by its (too) hasty transmission up the chimney. If, however, there be thus far room for improvement in the direction just indicated, still wider is the vacant space, caused by imperfect combustion, or, in technical phrase, ‘bad stoking,’ merely because the stoker, to economise his labour, and to avoid trouble, throws on to the bars of his furnace a thick layer of fuel, by which loss is caused in two or three directions.” These are, principally, imperfect combustion, and the volatilisation of fuel, as smoke, &c., from an insufficient supply of air, and from a mass of mere red-hot coke or cinder, two or three inches thick, lying between the boiler and the hottest part of the furnace; which last, according to Dr Kennedy, is about one inch above the fire-bars. Besides which, “in passing over this red-hot coke, the carbonic acid would be converted into carbonic oxide, and thus not only remove a quantity of carbon equal to its own, without yielding any additional heat, but actually with the production of cold, or, in other words, the absorption of heat.” (‘Dict. Arts, Manuf., and Mines.’) This points to the evident policy of using a smoke-consuming furnace, as noticed elsewhere.

Another matter worthy of remark is the constant waste of heat, and, consequently, of fuel, in laboratories and manufactories in which steam is employed, owing to the exposed condition of the pipes, boilers, and pans. All of these should be well ‘clothed’ or covered by some non-conducting medium, to prevent loss of heat by radiation, and by contact with the atmosphere. Not only does economy dictate such a course, but the health and comfort of the workpeople demand that the atmosphere in which they labour should be as little heated and poisoned as possible.

Table of corresponding Pressure and Temperatures of Steam. By Arago and Dulong.

Pressure in Atmospheres. Temperature, Fahr. Pressure in Atmospheres. Temperature, Fahr.

Degrees. Degrees.

1 212· 13 380·66

1⁄2 234· 14 386·94

2 250·5 15 392·86

2⁄2 263·8 16 398·48

3 275·2 17 403·83

3⁄2 285· 18 408·92

4 293·7 19 413·78

4⁄2 300·3 20 418·46

5 307·5 21 422·96

5⁄2 314·24 22 427·28

6 320·36 23 431·42

6⁄2 326·26 24 435·56

7 331·7 25 439·34

7⁄2 336·86 30 457·16

8 341·78 35 472·73

9 350·78 40 486·59

10 358·88 45 499·14

11 366·85 50 510·6

12 374·

A cubic inch of water, during its conversion into steam, under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere, expands into 1696 cubic inches, or nearly a cubic foot.

One part, by weight, of steam, at 212° Fahr., when condensed into cold water, is found to be capable of raising 5·6 parts of the latter from the freezing to the boiling point. See Fuel, Pit-coal, Smoke, &c.

STEAR′IC ACID. HC18H35O2. Syn. Stearin (Commercial). This is obtained from stearin (see below), by saponification.

Prep. 1. Repeatedly dissolve and crystallise commercial stearic acid in hot alcohol, until its melting point becomes constant at not less than 158° Fahr. Pure.

2. (Chevreul.) Saponify mutton suet with caustic potassa, and dissolve the newly formed soap in 6 times its weight of hot water; to the solution add 40 or 50 parts of cold water, and set the mixture aside in a temperature of about 52° Fahr.; after a time separate the pearly matter (stearate and margarate of potassa) which falls, drain and wash it on a filter, and dissolve it in 24 parts of hot alcohol of sp. gr. ·820; collect the stearate of potassa which falls as the liquid cools, recrystallise it in alcohol, and decompose it, in boiling water, with hydrochloric acid; lastly, wash the disengaged stearic acid in hot water, and dry it.

3. (Commercial.) Ordinary tallow is boiled in large wooden vessels, by means of high pressure steam, with about 16% of hydrate of lime (equiv. to 11% of pure lime), for 3 or 4 hours, or until the combination is complete, and an earthy soap is formed, when the whole is allowed to cool; the product (stearate of lime) is then transferred to another wooden vessel, and decomposed by adding to it 4 parts of oil of vitriol (diluted with water) for every 3 parts of slaked lime previously employed, the action being promoted by steam heat and brisk agitation; after repose, the liberated fat is decanted from the sediment (sulphate of lime) and water, and is then well washed with water, and by blowing steam into it; it is next allowed to cool, when it is reduced to shavings by means of a number of knives worked by machinery, and in this divided state is placed in canvas bags and submitted to the action of a powerful hydraulic press, by which a large portion of the oleic acid which it contains is expelled; the pressed cakes are then a second time exposed to the action of steam and water, again cooled, and coarsely powdered, and again submitted to the joint action of steam and pressure; they are, lastly, melted, and cast into blocks for sale.

Obs. This product is a more or less impure mixture of stearic acid and other fatty bodies, particularly the so-called margaric acid, now generally regarded as a mixture of palmitic and stearic acids. The hard, fatty acids of vegetable origin (palmitic, cocinic, myristic, &c.), now so extensively used as candle materials, are obtained from the natural oils and butters by the process known as ‘sulphuric acid saponification,’ which consists in treating the fatty bodies with 5 or 6% of concentrated sulphuric acid at a high temperature (about 350° Fahr., produced by superheated steam), and distilling the resulting mass by the aid of steam heated to about 560° Fahr. Frequently the operations of hot and cold pressing are resorted to in order to free the product from the softer fats.

By a patent process employed at Price’s candle works the natural vegetable fats are decomposed into their constituents (fatty acids and glycerin) by the action of superheated steam alone, without previous ‘saponification’ with lime or sulphuric acid.

Another method for the preparation of commercial stearic acid is that of Messrs Moinier and Bontigny. This process is thus described in the ‘Chemical Technology’ of Messrs Ronalds and Richardson:—Two tons of tallow and 900 gall. of water are introduced into a large rectangular vat of about 270 feet capacity.

The tallow is melted by means of steam admitted through a pipe coiled round the bottom, and the whole kept at the boiling heat for an hour, during which a current of sulphurous acid is forced in. At the end of this period 6 cwt. of lime, made into milk with 350 gall. of water, are added. The mixture soon acquires consistence, and becomes frothy and viscid. The whole is now agitated in order to regulate the ebullitions, and prevent the sudden swelling up of the soapy materials. The pasty appearance of the lime soap succeeds, and it then agglomerates into small nodular masses.

The admission of sulphurous acid is now stopped; but the injection of the steam is continued until the small masses become hard and homogeneous. The whole period occupies eight hours, but the admission of the sulphurous acid is discontinued at the end of about three hours. The water containing the glycerin is run off through a tube into cisterns prepared to receive it.

The arrangements for preparing sulphurous acids are retorts, into which are put sulphuric acid and pieces of wood; upon the application of heat the sulphurous acid passes off, and is conveyed by leaden pipes into the vessels containing the tallow. The lime soap formed is then moistened with 12 cwt. of sulphuric acid, at 150° Fahr., diluted with 50 gall. of water. The whole is thoroughly agitated and the steam cautiously admitted, so as not to dilute the acid too much until the decomposition is general at all points. This occupies about 3 hours, and in 2 or 3 hours more the sulphate of lime has collected at the bottom, while the fatty acids are floating on the surface of the solution of the bisulphate of lime. Several processes of washing with steam and water are necessary to ensure the removal of the sulphate of lime, &c., and after settling for 4 hours the fatty acids are forced through a fixed siphon, into a vat, where they are again washed with water; they are then siphoned at last into a trough lined with lead, on the bottom of which are placed leaden gutters, pierced below by long pegs of wood. The fatty acids are then placed in clothes and subjected to pressure in the stearin cold press.

In 1871 Professor Boek of Copenhagen, after a careful microscopic and chemical investigation, discovered that the neutral fats were composed of a congeries of little globules enclosed in albuminous envelopes. To the presence of these latter substances in the fat he attributed the difficulty of eliminating the fatty acids from it by means either of sulphuric acid, except in excess, or of alkali, except under great pressure; conceiving that both these agents as employed under the usual methods were expended in rupturing and destroying the albuminous coverings.

The inconveniences arising from the above processes are, in the case of the excess of the sulphuric acid, a considerable destruction of the fatty acid, as well as the necessity of its distillation, and the consequent danger of conflagration; whilst in the case of the alkali, this must either be used in quantities much greater than theory requires, or else be heated under great pressure, at the risk of giving rise to an explosion.

In Professor Boek’s process these dangers, together with the waste of material, are avoided. By submitting the fat for a limited time and at a given temperature to the action of a small quantity of sulphuric acid, the albuminous envelopes are broken and partly destroyed. The neutral fat thus liberated is then placed in open tanks in water, by which, after the expiration of several hours, it becomes decomposed. When this is completely effected the glycerin, dissolved in the water used for the decomposition, is removed; the fatty acids which remain behind, and which amount to 94 per cent. of the original fat, being at this stage of the operation dark brown or blackish in colour.

In this condition they are placed in open tanks, and dilute solutions of certain agents are poured upon them, whereby the albuminous débris as well as the colouring matters with which they are associated become oxidised, whilst the specific gravity of these latter is in consequence so increased as to cause them to subside to the bottom of the tank, leaving the fatty acids, now greatly whitened, on the upper part of the liquid.

The acids after being washed 2 or 3 times with dilute acid and water are then cooled, and hot-pressed in the usual manner, and the stearic acid thus obtained is said to have a higher melting point, and to be larger in yield than that obtained by any other method, an oleic acid of excellent quality being at the same time produced.

In 1874 a French patent was taken out for an improvement in the manufacture of stearic acid. The patentee employs carbon disulphide to increase the fluidity of the oleic acid, so that the warm pressure of the crude stearic acid is avoided. The addition of the carbon disulphide may be made either before or after the cold pressing of the stearic acid. The crude fat acid is melted in a special apparatus, and 20 per cent. of the disulphide is mixed with it whilst in the fluid state. It is then left to cool and subjected to cold pressure. The stearic acid thus obtained should be free from oleic acid.

Prop., &c. Pure stearic acid crystallises in milk-white needles, which are soluble in ether and in cold alcohol, and forms salts with the bases, called stearates. The commercial acid is made into candles. See Candles, Fat, Oils (Fixed), and Tallow.

STE′ARIN. C57H110O6. The solid portion of fats which is insoluble in cold alcohol.

Prep. Pure strained mutton suet is melted in a glass flask along with 7 or 8 times its weight of ether, and the solution allowed to cool; the soft, pasty, semi-crystalline mass is then transferred to a cloth and is strongly pressed as rapidly as possible, in order to avoid unnecessary evaporation; the solid portion is then redissolved in ether, and the solution allowed to crystallise, as before. The product is nearly pure.

Prop., &c. White; semi-crystalline; insoluble in water and cold alcohol; soluble in 225 parts of cold ether, and freely so in boiling ether. It melts at 130° Fahr. The stearin of commerce is stearic acid.

STEAROP′TEN. The name given by Herberger to the concrete portion or camphor of volatile oils. Bizio calls it stereusin.

STEEL. This important material may be defined as iron chemically combined with sufficient carbon to give it extreme toughness and hardness without brittleness. According to one of our greatest authorities on metallurgy, steel should contain from ·833% to 1·67% of carbon, these numbers referring respectively to the softest and the hardest varieties.

By some authorities silicon in small quantities is supposed to be a useful ingredient in steel, and to increase its capacity for being hardened; an opinion dissented from by others, who hold that its presence has a tendency to interfere with the welding of the metal. Faraday and Stodart believed that the addition of small quantities of chromium and iridium to steel served to improve its quality, and the same has been asserted of tungsten and titanium; but on these points there is still a divergence of opinion, and no satisfactory decision has yet been arrived at concerning them.

Manganese has also been credited with the property of improving steel, but as it has been found that only a very minute quantity of the manganese is taken up by the steel, an indirect influence may possibly be exercised by it, viz. its power of uniting with the stage, and of carrying away any prejudicial excess of sulphur and phosphorus with it; and in this manner it may contribute to the increased purity of the metal. The addition of manganese to cast steel constitutes Mr Heath’s patent, the chief advantage of which is that blistered steel made from British bar iron can be substituted for the much more expensive Swedish and Russian iron, in certain branches of iron manufacture.

“Among the various substances which are frequently present in malleable iron and in cast iron, those which are more prejudicial to the quality of steel are sulphur, phosphorus, and copper. The amount of sulphur in steel of the best quality rarely exceeds ·012; within the limit of ·1 per cent. it is considered to render the metal more capable of being welded at a moderate heat, but to make it red short. Phosphorus also renders steel more capable of being welded, and at the same time makes its cold short when it amounts to ·1 per cent. The best steel rarely contains so much. Copper renders steel decidedly red short when present in very small amount, and for this reason iron smelted from ores containing copper pyrites is not suitable for making steel.”

Within the last few years great attention has been paid to the investigation of the chemistry of steel. The researches of Despretz and Fremy tend to the conclusion that nitrogen exercises a very important influence over the phenomena of ‘steeling,’ and that carbon plays a less necessary part; while those of Caron and Deville still refer the formation of steel to the chemical combination of iron with carbon. There is no test of the value of steel beyond its elasticity and temper, and the fineness, equality, and smoothness of its grain.

Cast iron, wrought iron, and steel are all combinations of iron and carbon, differing in the amount they contain of the latter element. As cast iron contains a larger and wrought iron a smaller proportion of carbon than steel, it follows that to convert the cast iron into steel, its excess of carbon must be removed; whilst conversely, to make the wrought iron into steel, the requisite amount of carbon must be added to it.

Thus it is that the various processes for the manufacture of steel (with the exception of those which propose to obtain it direct from the ores) are directed to one or other of these ends, viz. the decarburation of cast or pig iron, and the carburation of wrought or malleable iron.

1. In the first, or decarburation method, the oxygen of the air plays an important part. Best carbon is heated with coal or charcoal, in some works on the refining hearth, in others upon the bed of the puddling furnace. The oxygen burnt off the excess of carbon from the iron and steel is left. Payen says that when the iron contains slag, the ferrous silicate present in this takes part in the reaction.

The steel obtained by this method is called natural steel. It is afterwards subjected to forging, and being of inferior quality is employed in the manufacture of springs for machinery, railway carriages, wheel tyres, ploughs, and other farming implements.

The following Table, from ‘Payen’s Industrial Chemistry’ gives the Composition of several kinds of Steel.

Carbon.

Kind of Steel. Locality. Fe. Mn. Cu. Combined. Graphitic.

Natural Steel Siegen ... ... ·379 1·698 ...

Ditto Solingen ... ... ... 1·570 ...

Puddled Steel Hartz ... 0·12 ... 1·380 ...

Cement Steel English ... ... ... 1·807 ...

Ditto German ... ... ... ·416 ·080

Cast Steel Sheffield ... ... ... ·950 ·220

Ditto Ditto ... ... ... 1·758

Ditto French ... ... ... ·65

Sword Steel Damascus ... ·070 ... 1·089

Ditto Ditto ... trace ... ·775

Wootz Indian ... ... ... 1·500

Ditto Ditto 98·092 ... ... 1·333 ·312

Cast Steel German ... trace ·300 1·180

Ditto English ... ·024 ·066 1·275

Bessemer Steel Dowlais ... ·576 ·025 ·490

Ditto Sweden ... trace ... ·085

Ditto ... ... ·179 ... ·300

Ditto ... ... ·256 ... ·700

Ditto ... ... ·468 ... ·950

Ditto ... ... ·355 ... 1·050

Wired Barrow-in-Furness ... ·214 ... ·200

Rail Heads German ... ·386 ... ·138

Rails ... ... ·264 ... ·150

Ditto ... ... ·638 ... ·046

Boiler Plates ... ... ·136 ... ·250

Ditto ... ... ·273 ... ·300

Kind of Steel. Si. S. P. Authority.

Natural Steel ·038 ... ... Karsten.

Ditto ·020 ... ... Lampadius.

Puddled Steel ·006 (at·12) trace Brauns.

Cement Steel ·100 ... ... Berthier.

Ditto ... ... ... Bromeis.

Cast Steel ... ... ... Ditto.

Ditto ... ... ... Karsten.

Ditto ·040 ... ... ...

Sword Steel ... (Ni·07 Wo·01) ...

Ditto ... (Ni·21 Co trace Wo trace) ...

Wootz ·600 ... ... ...

Ditto ·045 (as 037) ... Henry.

Cast Steel ·330 (Ni ·12) ·020 ...

Ditto ·213 (as·007) ... ...

Bessemer Steel ·009 ·003 ·036 ...

Ditto ·008 trace ·025 Brusewitz.

Ditto ·044 do. ·033 Ditto.

Ditto ·032 do. ... Ditto.

Ditto ·047 do. ·032 Ditto.

Ditto ·067 do. ... Ditto.

Wired ·179 ·030 ·026 Ditto.

Rail Heads ·306 ·040 ·034 Ditto.

Rails ·091 ·025 ·032 Ditto.

Ditto ·634 ·045 ·093 Ditto.

Boiler Plates ·016 ·010 ... Ditto.

Ditto ·056 ·040 ·041 Ditto.

Krupp’s cast steel, manufactured at Essen, near Cologne, is a natural steel, being made on the bed of a puddling furnace. It is obtained from hæmatite and spathic ore, coke being used for the smelting. The proportion of carbon in Krupp’s steel is about 1·2 per cent. When required for ordnance it is fused with a little bar iron in pots, each of which holds 30 lbs. It sometimes happens that in the manufacture of a huge gun or cannon the contents of as many as 1200 of these pots are required. When this is the case the pots are emptied of their molten contents simultaneously into a channel leading to the cast, 400 well-drilled men being required to carry out the operation.

It is very essential that castings of such magnitude should be allowed to cool very gradually. They are therefore enveloped in hot cinders for two or three months, after which they are ready for the forging.

2. The carburation method. This is generally effected by the process known as ‘cementation,’ which is carried out as follows:—Two chests, made of fire-brick or stone, one narrow end of each of which is shown in the accompanying plate, are so fixed in a dome-shaped furnace, so that the flames from the hearth beneath can effectually play around them.

The process renders it necessary that the temperature of the furnace should be steadily maintained for some days; and this is achieved by surrounding the furnace with a conical wall of brick-work, as shown in the cut. The chests are usually about 10 or 12 feet in length, 3 feet in height, and 3 feet in depth. A layer of charcoal of a fineness to pass through a sieve of a ⁄4 inch mesh, or of soot, is placed on the bottom of each chest, and upon this the bars of wrought iron which are intended for conversion into steel. The bars inside must be of iron of the best quality, and generally about 3 inches broad and ⁄4 of an inch thick. When arranged regularly a little distance apart, the interstices between them are filled up with charcoal, with which they are then covered to a depth of about an inch. Similar layers of bars, similarly arranged, succeed to this first one, until the chests are filled.

They are then covered in to a depth of 6 inches with a luting of damp clay or sand. Each chest when thus filled contains from 5 to 6 tons of iron. One of the bars projects through an opening at the end of the chest, to facilitate an inspection of it from time to time by a workman, so that he may be enabled to judge of the progress of the operation. The materials of which the chests are composed render it important that the temperature of the furnace should be carefully and gradually increased, as a too sudden accession of heat would lead to the splitting of the chests. The temperature necessary to effect the carburation of the iron has been found to be that required for the melting of copper, viz. 1996° Fahr. When this temperature is reached it is maintained for eight or ten days, or even longer, the period depending upon the thickness of the iron, and the degree of hardness it is desired it shall possess. Six or eight days are sufficient to yield steel of a moderate degree of hardness. At the end of the requisite time the fire is gradually put out, and the chests as gradually cooled, a process which occupies about another ten days.

The effect of the treatment to which the iron bars have been subjected has been, in the first place, to entirely alter their interior structure; for if they are broken asunder at any part, instead of showing the fibrous arrangement observable in bar iron, they present a closely granular one. In the second place, chemical analyses demonstrate that the iron has combined with about 1 per cent. of carbon, and that this combination has not only taken place on the surface of the bar, but has extended throughout its whole substance. It is because of this perfect impregnation of the iron by the solid carbon that the process by which it has thus been converted into steel is called ‘cementation.’

Two suggestions have been offered in explanation of the blistered surface presented by the steel. One of these, the theory of Mr T. H. Henry, is that part of the carbon in penetrating into the body of the bar iron had combined with the small quantity of sulphur present in the iron, and that the bisulphide of carbon thus formed becoming vaporised by the elevated temperature, in escaping through the soft surface of the metal, has caused its blistered condition. The second conjecture is that the blebs have arisen from the extrication of carbonic oxide, which had been formed in the bar by the union of the carbon with the small quantity of oxide of iron or slag accidentally remaining in it.

Graham has shown that soft iron has the power of absorbing or occluding at a low red heat 4·15 times its volume of carbolic oxide, which the metal, when it becomes cold, retains, but which it parts with when subjected to a temperature such as that which prevailed in the cementation box. This fact seems to offer a reasonable confirmation of the reaction it has been surmised takes place during the cementation process, and which is supposed to be as follows:

The small quantity of atmospheric oxygen remaining in the chest unites with the carbon to form carbonic oxide. This carbonic oxide gives up half its carbon to the iron (which thereby becomes converted into steel), and in doing so changes to carbonic acid, which becomes reduced to carbonic oxide by the absorption of more carbon from the charcoal, which carbon the carbonic oxide again transfers to the iron.

The above reaction may not improbably occur throughout the substance of the bar. By some chemists, cyanogen compounds are supposed to be present in the cementation powder, and the cyanogen contained in these is supposed to be the carrier of the carbon to the iron.

“The blistered steel obtained by this process is, as would be expected, far from uniform, either in composition or texture; some portions of the bar contain more carbon than others, and the interior contains numerous cavities. In order to improve its quality it is subjected to a process of fagotting similar to that employed in the case of bar iron; the bars of blistered steel, being cut into short lengths are made up into bundles, which are raised to a welding heat, and placed under a tilt hammer weighing about 2 cwt., which strikes 200 or 300 blows in a minute; in this way, the several bars are consolidated into one compound bar, which is then extended under the hammer till of the required dimensions.

“The bars, before being hammered, are sprinkled with sand, which combines with the oxide of iron upon the surface, and forms a vitreous layer which protects the bar from oxidation. The steel which has been thus hammered is much denser and more uniform in composition; its tenacity, malleability, and ductibility are greatly increased, and it is fitted for the manufacture of shears, files, and other tools. It is commonly known as shear steel. Double shear steel is obtained by breaking the tilted bars in two, and welding these into a compound bar. The best variety of steel, however, which is perfectly homogeneous in composition, is that known as cast steel, to obtain which about 30 lbs. of blistered steel are broken into fragments, and fused in a fire-clay or plumbago crucible, heated in a wind furnace, the surface of the metal being protected from oxidation by a little glass melted upon it. The fused steel is cast into ingots, several crucibles being emptied simultaneously into the same mould. Cast steel is far superior in density and hardness to shear steel, but, since it is exceedingly brittle at a red heat, great care is necessary in forging it. It has been found that, in addition to 100 parts of the cast steel, of one part of a mixture of charcoal and oxide of manganese, produces a very fine grained steel, which admits of being cast on to a bar of wrought iron in the ingot mould, so that the tenacity of the latter may compensate for the brittleness of the steel; when the compound bar is forged, the wrought iron forming the back of the implement, and the steel its cutting edge.”

Another distinct method from the cementation one, by which the carburation of iron is affected, is that in which scrap or malleable iron is mixed with pig or cast iron, this latter being fused with the scrap iron in quantity sufficient to afford such an amount of carbon as is necessary to convert the mixture into steel. Steel made by this operation is entirely homogeneous, the tilting process which precedes the casting of the steel obtained by cementation is therefore unnecessary. The pig iron is placed on the bed (made of refractory sand) of one of Siemens’ regenerative furnaces, heated by gaseous fuel. The temperature in this furnace is so intense that the pig iron becomes perfectly liquid, and, when in this condition, the scrap iron, which has been previously heated to redness in an adjoining refractory furnace, is added, it becomes dissolved by it. Iron may also be carburetted by heating wrought iron bars in carburetted hydrogen. This process, however, is seldom had recourse to.

In the manufacture of Bessemer steel both the carburation and decarburation processes are practised. From 1 to 5 tons of pig or cast iron in a molten state are run from a contiguous blast, cupola, or reverberatory furnace, with an apparatus known as a converter, which is previously heated up to redness by means of coke. The converter is figured under two aspects in the annexed engraving.

This vessel, which is generally made of boiler plates of sheet iron, has an inside lining, consisting of a siliceous fireproof material, and is perforated at the bottom with a number of concentric little openings, which are the orifices of as many little tubes or tuyeres, that lead into an outside main tube, as shown in the plate. By means of these tubes condensed air is forced into the mass of melted metal, which is soon thrown into violent commotion, and sends out a shower of ignited sparks. The oxide of iron formed at the same time being set into active movement by the incoming blast of air, is brought into intimate contact with every particle of the carbon and silicon contained in the cast iron, and converts the former into carbonic oxide, which burns with its characteristic flame at the mouth of the converter, and the silica into silicic acid, which enters into the slag, and floats, in the form of foam, on the top of the heavier molten iron.

The removal of the carbon (which is known by the discontinuance of the carbonic oxide flame) being thus accomplished, the iron has next to be submitted to the carburetting operation. This is performed by running into the liquid iron in the converter such a quantity of molten pig or cast iron as contains the required proportion of carbon.

The pig iron used for this purpose generally contains, in addition to a large amount of carbon, a very perceptible quantity of manganese. The converter (as shown in the plate) is then by means of the trunnion tilted, so that its contents can be run into a ladle and transferred to the necessary moulds. The time of conversion occupies from ten to twenty minutes.

By Bessemer’s process the sulphur present in the pig iron is almost entirely eliminated; the greater part of the silicon is also separated, together with the carbon, and almost in the same proportion; but the phosphorus is not removed, and, owing to the oxidation of some iron, the amount is actually greater in the finished steel than in the pig iron.

Bessemer’s steel is in large demand, and is excellently suited for rails for railroads, cannon, boiler plates, armour plates, and similar heavy material, for the manufacture of which it has largely supplanted wrought iron, but not at all adapted for the manufacture of knives, razors, lancets, or similar instruments, in which a sharp or keen edge is desirable.

The Bessemer process, which is largely adopted by the manufacturers of steel throughout Europe and America, has proved a source of princely income to its inventor, who obtains a bounty of a shilling on every ton of steel made by it. In Europe alone in 1859 5⁄2 million cwts. Seventy per cent. of this quantity was the produce of British industry.

Latterly, attempts have been made to obtain steel direct from the ores. The efforts made in this direction have been greatly stimulated by the invention of the regenerating furnace of Siemens. In these furnaces, in which an intense temperature is obtained by means of the combustion of inflammable gases (chiefly consisting of carbonic oxide, hydrogen, and carburetted hydrogen), the ore after (in one process) being melted in hoppers by means of the burning gases, runs down, and is gradually dissolved in some melted pig iron placed on the hearth of the furnace. When this latter has been sufficiently diluted with the decarbonised iron the operation is complete.

Properties of Steel. The effects of temperature upon steel are remarkable, and a knowledge of them has proved of great practical utility in the manufacture of the various steel-ware articles that are so indispensable to our every-day wants and needs. If forged and soft steel is heated, and then suddenly cooled, it becomes hard, the hardness varying with the temperature and the rapidity with which this has been reduced. The higher the temperature and the more rapidly it is cooled, the greater will be its hardness. Steel, which has been heated until white-hot, and then suddenly plunged into a bath of cold mercury, acquires a hardness nearly equalling that of the diamond. That, however, which the steel gains in hardness, it loses in pliancy and elasticity, besides becoming so brittle as to be of no possible use.

Soft steel, which has been made hard by heating it to redness, and by subsequent sudden immersion in cold water, may be reconverted into soft steel by again heating it to redness and allowing it to cool suddenly. By stopping short, however, of heating it to redness, its hardness may be proportionally modified.

Hence steel articles, varying as much in the qualities of hardness and elasticity as a lancet and watch-spring, are made either by ‘heating down’ hard steel to requisite temperature and allowing it to cool, or by ‘heating up’ soft steel to the necessary point and also letting it gradually cool. When steel is so treated it is said to be tempered or annealed. If polished steel be heated over a flame to a temperature of 430° F. its surface becomes of a very pale yellow colour; the colour passes through different shades of yellow and blue with each successive increase of temperature, until when raised to 600° F. it becomes blackish blue.

These effects are due to the formation on the surface of the steel of films of oxide of different degrees of thickness, and to the action of the light on these. They are precisely analogous to those which are caused when a ray of reflected light falls upon any other body, the surface of which is composed of thin layers, which are continually changing in thickness, such as a soap-bubble, or a thin coating of tar or oil swimming on water, and which are exemplified in Newton’s rings.

As each shade of colour is an index of the temperature of the steel, and as this determines its adaptability for various purposes, all that the workman has to do, when he requires it for any special object, is to heat it by the proper methods (such as a bath of oil, or tallow, or melted metal) until it acquires the desired colour, and then to allow it to gradually cool.

The following table, exhibiting the different melting points of steel when employed in the manufacture of different kinds of works, together with the corresponding colours, the composition of the metallic baths, &c., is from Dr Wagner’s ‘Handbook of Chemical Technology,’ edited by W. Crookes, Esq., F.R.S.

Composition of Metallic Mixture.

Lead. Tin. Melting Point. Temperature.

Lancets 7 4 220° C Hardly pale yellow.

Razors 8 4 228° ” Pale yellow to straw yellow.

Penknives 8⁄2 4 232° ” Straw yellow.

Pairs of scissors 14 4 254° ” Brown.

Clasp-knives, joiners’ and carpenters’ tools 19 4 265° ” Purplish colour.

Swords, cutlasses, watch-springs 48 4 288° ” Bright blue.

Stilettos, boring tools, and fine saws 50 2 292° ” Deep blue.

Ordinary saws in boiling linseed oil 316° ” Blackish blue.

Steel is of a greyish-white colour, and has a sp. gr. varying from 7·66 to 7·93. During hardening the sp. gr. becomes reduced from 7·93 to 7·66, whilst it experiences a slight increase of volume. The property (already pointed out) that steel possesses of becoming hard after being heated to redness, and suddenly chilled, does not belong to pure iron, such as may be obtained by electrolysis. Unlike pure iron, too, steel presents a granular instead of a fibrous structure when broken; the best samples closely resembling silver in this respect. The chemical difference between hard and soft steel appears to consist in the much more intimate combination of the carbon with the iron in the hard variety than in the soft. In this latter kind the carbon seems to be only mechanically mixed, for if it be immersed in hydrochloric acid the iron is dissolved, and leaves the carbon behind. Steel is the most tenacious of all the metals, being greater than that of either cast or malleable iron.

What is termed case-hardening (which see) is a process by which small articles of iron, such as keys, gun-locks, &c., are superficially converted into steel. It is performed by heating the articles in contact with iron filings or powdered charcoal. Another method is to make the iron substance red hot, and then to sprinkle powdered potassic ferrocyanide all over it.

STEREOCHROMY. This is a branch of the pictorial art confined to the embellishment of walls and monuments. In the operations by which it is accomplished it will be seen that the soluble silicates (water glass) play an important part.

The foundation for the future picture or coloured design must be of some durable stone or imperishable cement. Over this is first placed a layer of lime mortar, to which is applied when it is dry and has become sufficiently hard, a solution of water glass, by which all the interstices of the mortar are filled up. Another coating of mortar made of sharp sand and a lye of chalk is next laid on, and this, after it has been carefully smoothed, properly levelled on the surface, and become quite dry, is washed over and thoroughly impregnated with water-glass solution. When this last layer has become dry it is ready to receive the painting, which must be executed in water colours. After laying on these colours may be permanently fixed by covering them with water glass. The following are the colours used:—Zinc white, chrome green, chrome oxide, cobalt green, chrome red, zinc yellow, oxide of iron, sulphide of cadmium, ultramarine, ochre, &c. Vermillion is inadmissible, since, in fixing, it turns from red to brown. Cobalt ultramarine, on the contrary, increases greatly in brilliancy upon the application of the fixing solution. Stereochromatic paintings are found to be very durable, and impervious to damp, smoke, or variations of temperature.

STE′REOTYPE METAL. See Type metal.

STER′LING. The truth of the old proverb, that “all is not gold which glitters,” is often painfully experienced by the purchaser of modern jewelry. The following table will, therefore, prove highly useful to the reader in determining the value of articles in gold, provided he ascertain the ‘fineness’ of the metal, either by examination or written warranty:—

Sterling value of Gold of different degrees of ‘Fineness,’

Carats. Fine. Value per oz. Troy.

£ s. d.

24 carats 4 4 11⁄2

23 ” 4 1 5

22 ” 3 17 10⁄2 (British standard)

21 ” 3 14 4

20 ” 3 10 9⁄2

19 ” 3 7 3

18 ” 3 3 8⁄2 (lowest Hall-mark)

17 ” 3 0 2

16 ” 2 16 7⁄2

15 ” 2 13 1

14 ” 2 9 6⁄2

13 ” 2 6 0

12 ” 2 2 5⁄2

11 ” 1 18 11

10 ” 1 15 4⁄2

9 ” 1 11 10

8 ” 1 8 3⁄2

7 ” 1 4 9

6 ” 1 1 2⁄2

5 ” 0 17 8

4 ” 0 14 2

3 ” 0 10 7⁄2

2 ” 0 7 1

1 ” 0 3 6

STEREO-METAL. A remarkable alloy recently invented by Baron de Rosthorn, of Vienna, and used in place of ordinary gun-metal. It consists of copper and spelter, with small proportions of iron and tin, and to these latter its peculiar hardness, tensile strength, and elasticity, are attributed.

STETH′OSCOPE. An instrument employed in auscultation. It consists of a tube (usually made of wood, sometimes of gutta percha) widening considerably at one end, and but slightly at the other. The wide end is applied to the chest or other part of the patient, the physician putting his ear at the other end; and from the sounds emitted by the heart, lungs, &c., the state of these parts is ascertained.

STEW′ING. A method of cooking food intermediate to frying and boiling, performed by simmering it in a saucepan or stewpan, with merely sufficient water to prevent burning, and to effect the object in view; the whole being served up to form the ‘dish.’ It is undoubtedly the most simple and economical, and, when skilfully conducted, one of those best calculated to develop the flavour and nutritious qualities of animal food. The following is one of the most popular stews:—

Stew, Irish. Prep. (Soyer.) Take about 2 lbs. of scrag or neck of mutton; divide it into ten or twelve pieces, and lay them in the pan; add 8 large potatoes and 4 onions cut into slices, season with 1⁄2 teaspoonful of pepper, and 3 do. of salt; cover all with water, put it into a slow oven, or on a stove, for two hours, then stir it all up well, and serve it up in deep dishes. If a little more water is added at the commencement, you can take out, when half done, a nice cup of broth.

STILL. A vessel or apparatus employed for the distillation of liquids on the large scale. The forms of stills, and the materials of which they are made, vary according to the purposes for which they are intended, some being exceedingly simple, whilst others are equally elaborate and complicated. The engr. represents the most common and useful apparatus of this kind, and the one almost exclusively employed in the laboratory. It is used as follows:—After the fluid and other matters (if any) are put into the still, the head is placed on and connected with the worm-tub or refrigerator, and the joints are all securely luted. For ordinary liquids, a stiff paste made with linseed meal and water, to which a little chalk may be added, answers well for this purpose. For corrosive liquids, nothing is better than elastic bands or rings interposed between the joints, which are then ‘brought home,’ as it is called, with screws or clamps. Heat is next applied, and the worm-tub is supplied with cold water in sufficient quantity to preserve its contents at a proper temperature; the application of the heat being so regulated that the liquid may drop from the end of the refrigerator quite cold and unaccompanied with vapour. For highly volatile liquids a closed receiver should be provided.

Of the various forms of distillatory apparatus that patented by Coffey in 1832 is the one almost universally employed in this country. It yields the strongest spirits obtainable on a large scale. Coffey’s still (of which a drawing is given on the next page) effects a great economy in the expenditure of heat, by causing the liquid to be exposed to a very extended heated service; whilst it effects the evaporation of the alcohol from the wash by passing a current of steam through it.

The wash is pumped from the ‘wash charger’ into the worm-tub, which passes from top to bottom of the rectifier. In circulating through this tube it experiences a slight elevation of temperature. Arrived at the last convolution of the tube in the rectifier, the wash passes by the tube M in at the top of the ‘analyser.’ It falls, and collects on the top shelf till this overflows, whence it falls on the second shelf, and so on to the bottom. All the time this operation is going on steam is passed up from the steam boiler through fine holes in the shelves, and through valves opening upwards. As the wash gradually descends in the analyser it becomes rapidly weaker in alcohol, partly from condensation of steam which is passed into it, and partly from loss of alcohol, either evaporated or expelled by the steam, till when it arrives at the bottom it has parted with the last traces of spirits.

At the same time the vapour, as it rises through each shelf of the analyser, becomes constantly richer in alcohol, and contains less and less water because of its condensation; it then passes from the top of the analyser in at the bottom of the lower compartment of the rectifier. Here it ascends in a similar way, bubbling through the descending wash, until it arrives at F, above which it merely circulates round the earlier windings of the wash pipe; the low temperature of which condenses the spirits; which, collecting on the shelf at F, flows off by the tube into the finished spirit condenser.

To still further effect a saving of heat, the water for supplying the boiler is made to pass through a long coil of pipe, immersed in boiling spent wash, by which means its temperature is raised before it enters the boiler.

Another variety of distillatory apparatus is that of Siemens’ (see page 1566), much employed in the distillation of brandy.

It consists of two mash stills set in a boiler, and capable of being alternately used by means of the three cocks (a, b, and c). L is the boiler; P one of the mash retorts; K is the low wine receiver; R the fore warmer, a reservoir in which the condensed water intended as feed water of the boiler is collected; C is the dephlegmator; B a reservoir for the vapours condensed in C.

From the dephlegmator the vapour passes to a condenser, not shown in the engraving.

The mash warmer consists of a cylindrical portion (i i), the lower part of which has an indentation (c). In the cylinder is placed a narrower portion (o o) of the real mash, containing a vessel, fitted with the heading tube (f n). The upper part of the fore warmer is fitted to the lower part by means of the flange (h h); r is a stirring apparatus, which is frequently set in operation during the process of distillation. The vapours from the second still are carried into the depression (c) under the fore warmer, which, in order that the vapours may come into contact with the phlegma, is covered with a sieve.

The vapours surround the under part of the mash reservoir, and enter into the tube (f), through which they pass to the lower cylinder of the dephlegmator. The condensed water of the dephlegmator is conducted into the reservoir (A). The upper and under part of the fore warmer are made of cast iron, but the interior bottom and heating surfaces are made of copper. This kind of fore warmer has the advantage of uniformly distributing the heat, while it can be easily cleansed.

The dephlegmator (C) is so contrived that the rectified vapour can be conveyed to the condenser by two separate pipes placed in an opposite direction to each other, which are joined again in close proximity to the condenser.

The remainder of the details will be seen by studying the engraving.

Another distilling apparatus is that known as Derosne’s, which is an improvement upon one invented by Cellier-Blumenthal. This apparatus is only designed for the distillation of wine, and not, like the previous ones, of mash.

The engraving on page 1568 gives a representation of it.

It consists of two stills (A and A′); the first rectifier (B); the second rectificator (C); the wine warmer and dephlegmator (D); the condenser (F); the regulator (E); a contrivance for regulating the flow of the fluid wine from the cistern (G).

The still A′, which, as well as the still A, is filled with wine, acts as a steam boiler. The low wine vapours evolved come, when they have arrived in the rectifiers, in contact with an uninterrupted stream of wine, whereby dephlegmation is effected; the vapour, thus enriched in alcohol, becomes stronger in the vessel (D), and thus arrives at the cooling apparatus (F). In order that a real rectification should take place in the rectificators the stream of wine should be heated to a certain temperature, which is imparted to it by the heating of the condensed water. The steam from the still A′ is carried by means of the pipe (Z) to the bottom of the still A.

Both stills are heated by the fire of the same furnace. By means of the tube B′ the liquid contained in the still A can be run into the still A′. The first rectificator (B) containing a number of semicircular discs of unequal size, placed one above the other, and which are so fastened to a vertical centre rod that they can be easily removed and cleansed. The larger discs, perforated in the manner of sieves, are placed with their concave surfaces upwards.

In consequence of this arrangement the vapours ascending from the stills meet with large surfaces moistened with wine, which, moreover, trickles downward in the manner of a cascade from the discs, and comes, therefore, into very intimate contact with the vapours. The second rectificator (C) is fitted with six compartments; in the centre of each of the partition walls (iron or copper plates) a hole is cut, and over this hole, by means of a vertical bar, is fastened an inverted cup, which nearly reaches to the bottom of the compartment wherein it is placed. As a portion of the vapours are condensed in these compartments, the vapours are necessarily forced through a layer of low wine, and have to overcome a pressure of a column of liquid two centimètres high. The fore warmer and dephlegmator (D) is a horizontal cylinder made of copper fitted with a worm, the convolutions of which are placed vertically. The tube (M) communicates with this worm, the other end of which passes to O. A phlegma collects in the convolutions of this tube, which is richer in alcohol in the formost windings, and weaker in those more remote; this fluid, collecting in the lower part of the spirals, may be drawn off by means of small tubes, thence to be transferred, at the operator’s pleasure, either all or in part, by the aid of another tube and stopcocks, to the tube (O), or into the rectificator.

By means of the tube (L) the previously warmed wine of the dephlegmator can be run into the rectificator. The condensor (F) is a cylindrical vessel closed on all sides, and containing a worm communicating with the tube (O).

The other end of the condensing tube carries the distillate away. On the top of this portion of the apparatus the tube (K) is placed, by means of which wine is run into the dephlegmator. The cold wine flows into the cooling vessel by the tube (I).

Another variety of distillatory apparatus, invented by Langier, is that represented in the accompanying cut.

The fluid intended for distillation flows from the tube (s) into the funnel (p), thence into the vessel (A), entering its lower part, and serving to condense the alcoholic vapour. From this vessel the warmed fluid passes by means of the tube (r) into the lower part of the second vessel (B), where dephlegmation takes place by means of a condensing tube. From B the fluid flows through the tube (c) into the second still (C), which is heated by the hot gases evolved from the fire, kept burning under the first still (D); in the still (C) the fluid undergoes a rectification, and the vinasse flows by the tube (e) into the still (D); m is the pipe for conveying the hot vapour from D into C; the tube (b) carries the alcoholic vapours into the dephlegmator. The tube (d) conveys the phlegma into the still (C); g and h are glass gauging-tubes for indicating the height of the fluid in the interior of the stills; the tube (l) conveys the uncondensed vapours from the dephlegmator into the condensing apparatus, while i carries the vapours formed in the vessel (B) into the condensing apparatus.

The alcohol condensed in the cooling apparatus flows, as shown in the cut, into the vessel (o), provided with a hydrometer, which shows the strength of the liquid. The cooling apparatus of the vessel (B) consists of seven compartments or sections formed by wide spirals, to each of which, at its lower level, is attached a narrow tube, all of which tubes are connected to the tube (d), which latter conveys the condensed fluids back into the still.

A very simple form of apparatus in use is that figured below.

A is a cylinder made of cast iron or copper, in which the fluid to be distilled is heated by a spiral tube made of copper. The inlet of this tube is shown at b and the outlet at a.; c serves to carry off the vinasse; B is the dephlegmator, through which the fluid to be distilled continually flows in a downward direction, while the vapour of the low wine evolved in A ascends uninterruptedly.

The dephlegmator is so constructed as to have as large a surface and as many points of contact as possible. The vapour ascends to the reservoir (E), and passes into the rectifier (C) by the tube (F). The condensed portion returns through the tube (H) to the dephlegmator, whilst the uncondensed vapour passes on to the condenser of the vessel (D), where it becomes condensed, and is carried off through M. The liquid intended for distillation is kept in a tank (not shown in the engraving), placed above the apparatus, and is conveyed to the latter by the tube (L I), fitted with the stop-cock (K), so that the liquid arrives first in D, is next conveyed to C, thence through G into the dephlegmator, and finally into the cylinder.

Divers adaptations for heating by steam have been arranged, in a very convenient form, by Mr Coffey. His so-called Esculapian still affords the pharmaceutical chemist the means of conducting the processes of ebullition, distillation, evaporation, desiccation, &c., on the small scale. The following cut represents his apparatus.

For further information on the subject of stills consult ‘Ure’s Dictionary,’ ‘Illustrated Chemistry,’ and Wagner’s ‘Chemical Technology.’

STIM′ULANTS. Syn. Stimulantia, L. Medicines or agents which possess the power of exciting vital action. They are divided in general stimulants, or those which affect the whole system, as mercury or bark; and local or topical stimulants, or those which affect a particular organ or part only, as mustard applied as a poultice. Diffusible stimulants are general stimulants the effects of which are rapid but fugacious, as ether or alcohol. “Much discrimination and caution are required in the administration of articles of this class, because, if given when inflammation is present, they are liable to create more mischief than benefit; but they are called for when, on the decline of that condition of an organ or organs, a state of relaxation or torpidity exists. In this state of things a gentle stimulation materially assists the functions, and is productive of much benefit.”

STINGS. See Bites.

STIR-ABOUT. Thick gruel formed of oatmeal and water boiled together. When eaten with cold milk, it forms the porridge of the Scotch; and when mixed with the liquor in which meat or vegetables have been boiled, it is called beef brose, kale brose, &c.

STOCK. Among cooks, is condensed soup or jelly, used to make extemporaneous soup, broth, &c.

STOM′ACH AFFEC′TIONS. Those of a character to admit of being usefully noticed in a popular work are referred to under the heads Appetite, Dyspepsia, Sickness, &c.

Dr Budd recommends small doses of ipecacuanha as a remedy for those cases of indigestion in which digestion is slow, and the food lies heavily on the stomach, and there is an inability for mental or bodily exertion for some time after meals. He says it should be given in the morning, fasting, and in quantity barely sufficient to occasion a slight feeling of vermiculating motion in the stomach, but without causing any sensation of pain or nausea. The dose to produce this effect varies from ⁄4 to 2 gr. He thinks there is no other medicine which appears so effectual in removing the affections in question. Small doses of rhubarb, ginger, and cayenne pepper, have a similar kind of action, and may be given singly or together for the same purpose. “I generally prescribe from ⁄2 to 1 gr. of ipecacuanha, in a pill, with 3 or 4 gr. of rhubarb. With many, a favourite remedy for the discomfort resulting from slow digestion is a grain of cayenne pepper, with 3 or 4 gr. of rhubarb. The best time for giving these medicines is shortly” (say ⁄2 an hour) “before any meal after which a sense of oppression is usually felt.”

STOPP′ERS, when obstinately immoveable in bottles, are the most safely treated by patiently hitting them upwards alternately on opposite sides with a piece of wood. When this fails the part may be dipped into hot water.

“Another method of removing a bottle-stopper is to insert its head into a chink, and then endeavouring to turn the bottle with both hands. If the neck of the stopper break, the hand is out of the way of danger. An upright board, such an one as supports the ends of a set of shelves, should be selected in a convenient situation in the laboratory, and a vertical slit cut through it about a foot in length, an inch in width above, but gradually decreasing in size, so as to be about one third of an inch at the bottom. The top of the hole may be about the height of the breast. This aperture will in one part or another receive and retain the head of almost any stopper, and prevent its turning with the bottle. Then by wrapping a cloth about the bottle and grasping it with both hands, the attempt to turn it round so as to move the stopper may be made with any degree of force which it may be thought safe to exert. The force employed should never be carried so far as to cause fracture anywhere, but the attempts, if unavailing with the application of a moderate degree, should be desisted. Another and very successful method of removing a stopper is to turn the bottle round when held horizontally over the small flame of a spirit lamp or candle applied to the neck. The heat should be applied only to the part round the plug of the stopper, and in a few moments, when that has become warm, the stopper should be tapped with the piece of wood as before stated. As soon as the stopper moves by tapping it is to be taken out, and must not be replaced till the glass is cold.

“The application of heat in this manner must be short and the operation altogether, to be successful, must be a quick one. If the contents of the bottle are fluid, it should be so inclined that they must not become heated; if they are volatile this method should be tried very carefully, lest the vapour formed within should burst the bottle.

“It is often advantageous to put a little olive oil round the edge of the stopper at its insertion, allowing it to soak in for a day or two. If this be done before the heat be applied, it frequently penetrates by increased facility; by oil, heat, and tapping very obstinate stoppers may be removed.

“When a stopper has been fixed by crystallisation from solution, water will sometimes set it free, and it is more efficacious in such cases than oil, because it dissolves the cement. When the cementing matter is a metallic oxide or sub-salt, a little muriatic acid may be useful if there be no objection to its application arising from the nature of the substance within.”

A writes in ‘New Remedies’ suggests that, in attempting to extricate the fixed stopper by means of knocking with a piece of wood, the motion given to it when putting it in should be reversed, that is, the stopper should be knocked from right to left.

STORM-GLASS. A philosophical toy, consisting of a thin glass tube about 12 inches long and ⁄4 inch in diameter, about three fourths filled with the following liquid, and covered with a brass car having an almost capillary hole through it, or else tied over with bladder.

The solution. Take of camphor, 2 dr.; nitre 1⁄2 dr.; sal ammoniac, 1 dr.; proof spirit 2⁄4 fl. oz.; dissolve, and place it in the tube above referred to. Used to foretell changes of the weather.

STOVES. In England the open grate or fireplace, because of its cheerful appearance and the sense of comfort it suggests when filled with glowing coal, is the favorite and general receptacle for the fuel with which we warm our apartments. The cozy appearance, however, of our old-fashioned English grate, constitutes its chief, if not its only merit; for it not only fails in uniformly warming and effectively ventilating our apartments, but it more or less sets into circulation a number of draughts of cold air, and besides occasionally filling our rooms with smoke and spoiling our furniture by the deposition of soot and dust, wastes our fuel, by allowing it to escape unconsumed in the shape of smoke, and thus pollutes the atmosphere of our cities and towns.

In France, Germany, Belgium, Russia, and other European countries, as well as in America and Canada, the stove or closed fireplace is used. The domestic stove of these countries is made either of sheet or cast-iron, or fire-clay. The iron stoves, being mostly composed of thin plates, soon absorb and radiate the heat; and although this property enables them to rapidly warm an apartment, it has the disadvantage, if the stove becomes red-hot, of allowing the escape through the heated metal into the surrounding air of the carbonic acid generated in the stove; and furthermore, in its immediate vicinity converts a portion of it into carbonic oxide. Such stoves must necessarily be unsafe unless used in well-ventilated apartments. Another effect of the over heating of the stove is to desiccate or parch the air, and to render it irritating when breathed. The fire-clay stoves are free from these drawbacks, and continue to radiate from their surfaces a large amount of heat, even when the fuel with which they have been supplied is consumed. But although we exclude the close stove from our sitting rooms and dormitories, it is in frequent requisition in halls, picture-galleries, churches, theatres, lecture-rooms, and the like.

“Stove literature,” if such a term may be applied to the various treatises descriptive of the multitude of patterns in use, which have emanated alike from inventors and their critics, is so voluminous that it is impossible for us to attempt to give even a list of the numberless stoves in use, to say nothing of a commentary on their relative value. Of close stoves suitable for heating spaces other than dwelling or sleeping-rooms, mention may be made of Arnott’s stove, and one known as “The Belfast.” These stoves are serviceable when it is desirable to keep up a fire for some time, as in heating a lobby. They have the advantage of requiring little, if any, attention after the fuel has been placed in them and ignited.

Of late years, gas-stoves, both for heating and cooking purposes, have come largely into use. One of those for the former purpose is called the “Pyropneumatic.” The inner part of this apparatus is formed of lumps of fire-clay traversed by vertical air-passages which communicate with the external air by a special channel. The air becomes heated as it passes through the lumps of fire-clay, and rising to the top of the stove, escapes therefrom by an outlet into the room. Another so-called “ventilating” warming gas-stove is Mr George’s “Culirogen.” It consists of a stove made of thin-rolled iron, inside of which is a coil of wrought-iron tubing open at the top of the stove. The lower end of this tubing is in connection with an iron pipe which is carried through the wall of the apartment, and fed with air from without. Gas is the fuel generally used to heat the inside of the stove. The continuous current of air as it rushes into the iron pipe from without, thus becomes warmed as it ascends into the coil, which it leaves to become diffused into the surrounding apartment, whilst the products of combustion of the gas used as fuel are, by means of a pipe attached to the stove, carried into the chimney, as with coal fire.

A gas-cooking apparatus possesses many advantages over an ordinary coal fire. In the first place, it is more cleanly; in the second, it affords a much more uniform and equable temperature; in the third, it forms no smoke, and in the fourth it is more economical as well as expeditious.

Mr Eassie gives the following practical suggestions to intending purchasers of gas-stoves:—

“It is not necessary here to enter into a description of any of the numberless common patterns extant, but it might be well to record the opinion of the best engineers, that the simplest gas-stove is the best. They should not be surrounded by a non-conducting material, as that affords no advantage, but the contrary. An Argand or fish-tail burner should also be used instead of rings pierced for so many separate jets, and where practicable, the Bunsen-burner should be employed, as the mixture of common air with the gas not only prevents the formation of soot, but also intensifies the heat.”

STRABIS′MUS. Syn. Squinting. This need not be described. When one eye only is affected, an excellent plan is to blindfold the sound eye during several hours each day, until the affection be removed. When both eyes are affected, a projecting piece of pasteboard, in the line of the nose, may be worn as much as possible with the same object. In bad cases of squinting inwards, as it is called, the division of the internal rectus muscle of the eyeball by a skilful surgeon, is said to often relieve the deformity.

STRANGULATION. See Hanging.

STRAP′PING. Spread adhesive plaster. Used to dress wounds, &c.

STRASS. See Enamel.

STRAW′BERRY. Syn. Fragaria, L. The fruit of Fragaria vesca (Linn.), or strawberry plant. Strawberries are, perhaps, the mildest of all the cultivated fruits; they are cooling, and slightly laxative and diuretic; rubbed on the teeth, they dissolve the tartar, and whiten them. They were formerly in repute in gout, stone, and consumption. The root of the plant is aperient.

Strawberry essence, factitious. Nitric ether, 1 part; acetate of ethyl, 5 parts; forminate of ethyl, 5 parts; butyrate of ethyl, 5 parts; salicylate of methyl, 1 part; acetate of amyl, 3 parts; butyrate of amyl, 2 parts; glycerin, 2 parts; alcohol, 100 parts.

STRAW PLAIT, and the articles made of it, are bleached by exposing them to the fumes of burning sulphur in a close chest or box; or, by immersing them in a weak solution of chloride of lime, and afterwards well washing them in water. Water acidulated with oil of vitriol or oxalic acid is also used for the same purpose. Straw plait may be dyed with any of the simple liquid dyes.

STRINGHALT. The same as Chorea, which see.

STRON′TIUM. Sr. The metallic base of the earth strontia. It was discovered by Sir H. Davy, in 1808. It closely resembles barium, but is less lustrous. With chlorine it combines to form a chloride of strontium, a somewhat deliquescent salt, soluble in 2 parts of cold and in less of boiling water, and freely soluble in alcohol. With oxygen it forms an oxide.

Test. Strontium salts are precipitated by sulphuric acid and alkaline carbonates and sulphate. They are distinguished from barium by not giving such a decided precipitate with sulphates, and by not being precipitated by bichromate of potassium. From calcium, by sulphates of calcium solution giving a precipitate, and by concentrated solutions giving a precipitate with chromate of potassium. It is distinguished from magnesium by the insolubility of its sulphate.

Strontium, Oxide of. SrO. Syn. Protoxide of strontium, Strontia. Prep. Quite pure crystalline nitrate of strontium. Prop. Greyish-white powder, uniting with water to form a white, somewhat soluble substance, the hydrate of strontium, Sr(HO)2.

With acids it forms various salts, of which the carbonate is a white insoluble powder, and the nitrate a white crystalline salt, soluble in 5 parts of cold water, and in alcohol; communicating a brilliant red colour to flame.

STROPH′ULUS. A papular eruption peculiar to infants. There are several varieties:—In strophulus intertinctus, red gum, or red gown, the pimples rise sensibly above the level of the cuticle, possess a vivid red colour, and are usually distinct from each other; they commonly attack the cheeks, forearm, and back of the hand, and, occasionally, other parts of the body.—In strophulus albidus, or white gum, there are a number of minute whitish specks, which are, sometimes, surrounded by a slight redness. The two preceding varieties commonly occur during the first two or three months of lactation.—In strophulus confertus, rank red gum, or tooth rash, which usually appears about the fourth or fifth month, the pimples usually occur on the cheeks and sides of the nose, sometimes on the forehead and arms, and still less frequently on the loins. They are smaller, set closer together, and less vivid, but more permanent than in the common red gum.—In strophulus volaticus small circular patches or clusters of pimples, each containing from 6 to 12, appear successively on different parts of the body, accompanied with redness; and as one patch declines another springs up near it, by which the efflorescence often spreads gradually over the whole face and body.—In strophulus candidus the pimples are larger than in the preceding, and are pale, smooth and shining; it principally attacks the upper parts of the arms, the shoulders, and the loins. The last two varieties commonly appear between the third and ninth month.

The treatment of the above affections consists chiefly in removing acidity and indigestion and duly regulating the bowels by an occasional dose of magnesia or rhubarb, or both combined. Diarrhœa may be met by the warm bath and the daily use of arrowroot (genuine), to which a teaspoonful or two of pure port wine has been added; and itching and irritation may be alleviated by the use of a lotion consisting of water, to which a little milk, lemon juice, borax, or glycerin, has been added.

STRYCH′NINE. C21H22N2O2. Syn. Strychnina, Strychnia (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. Dissolve hydrochlorate or sulphate of strychnine in distilled water, and throw down the alkaloid with ammonia, carefully avoiding excess; redissolve the precipitate in hot rectified spirit, and collect the crystals which form as the liquid cools.

2. (Ph. D.) Nux vomica (in powder), 1 lb., is digested for 24 hours in ⁄2 gall. of water acidulated with 2 fl. dr. of sulphuric acid, after which it is boiled for half an hour, and the decoction decanted; the residuum is boiled a second and a third time with a fresh ⁄2 gall. of water acidulated with 1 fl. dr. of the acid, and the undissolved matter is finally submitted to strong expression; the decoctions are next filtered and concentrated to the consistence of a syrup, which is boiled with rectified spirit, 3 pints, for about 20 minutes, hydrate of calcium, 1 oz., or q. s., being added in successive portions during the ebullition, until the solution becomes distinctly alkaline; the liquid is then filtered, the spirit distilled off, and the residuum dissolved in diluted sulphuric acid, q. s.; ammonia, in slight excess, is added to the filtered solution, and the precipitate which falls is collected upon a paper filter, and dried; it is next redissolved in a minimum of boiling rectified spirit, and digested with ⁄2 oz. of animal charcoal for 20 minutes; the filtered liquid, as it cools, deposits strychnine, in crystals.

3. (Ph. B.) Nux vomica 1 lb., acetate of lead 180 gr., solution of ammonia q. s., rectified spirit q. s., distilled water q. s. Subject the nux vomica for two hours to steam in any convenient vessel; chop or slice it; dry it in a water bath or hot-air chamber, and immediately grind it in a coffee mill. Digest the powder at a gentle heat for 12 hours with two pints of the spirit and 1 pint of the water, strain through linen, express strongly, and repeat the process twice. Distil off the spirit from the mixed fluid, evaporate the watery residue to about 16 oz., and filter when cold. Add now the acetate of lead, previously dissolved in distilled water, so long as it occasions any precipitate; filter; wash the precipitate with 10 oz. of cold water, adding the washings to the filtrate; evaporate the clear fluid to 8 oz., and when it has cooled add the ammonia in slight excess, stirring thoroughly. Let the mixture stand at the ordinary temperature for 12 hours; collect the precipitate on a filter, wash it once with a few ounces of cold distilled water, dry it in a water-bath or hot-air chamber, and boil it with successive portions of rectified spirit, till the fluid scarcely tastes bitter. Distil off most of the spirit, evaporate the residue to the bulk of about ⁄2 oz., and set it aside to cool. Cautiously pour off the yellowish mother-liquor (which contains the brucia of the seeds) from the white crust of strychnia which adheres to the vessel. Throw the crust on a paper filter, wash it with a mixture of two parts of rectified spirit and one of water, till the washings cease to become red on the addition of nitric acid; finally, dissolve it, by boiling it with 1 oz. of rectified spirit, and set it aside to crystallise. More crystals may be obtained by evaporating the mother-liquor. [Strychnine is more readily obtained, and in greater purity, from St Ignatius’s Bean.] The usual dose of strychnia and its salts to commence with is from ⁄30th to ⁄12th of a grain, to be very slowly increased, carefully watching its effects. Magendie says the salts are more active than their base.

Prop. A white, inodorous, infusible powder; or small, but exceedingly brilliant, transparent, colourless, octahedral crystals; soluble in about 7000 parts of water at 60°, and in 2500 parts at 212° Fahr.; freebly soluble in hot rectified spirit; insoluble in absolute alcohol, ether, and solutions of the caustic alkalies; imparts a distinctly bitter taste to 600,000 times its weight of water (1 part in 1,000,000 parts of water is still perceptible—Fownes); exhibits an alkaline reaction; and forms salts with the acids, which are easily prepared, are crystallisable, and well defined.

Tests.—1. Potassium hydrate and the carbonate produce, in solutions of the salts of strychnia, white precipitates, which are insoluble in excess of the precipitant, and which, when viewed through a lens magnifying 100 times, appear as aggregates of small crystalline needles. In weak solutions the precipitate only separates after some time, in the form of crystalline needles, which are, however, in this case, perfectly visible to the naked eye.—2. Ammonia gives a similar precipitate, which is soluble in excess of the precipitant.—3. Bicarbonate of sodium produces, in neutral solutions, a like white precipitate, which is insoluble in excess, but which redissolves on the addition of a single drop of acid; in acid solutions no precipitate occurs for some time in the cold, but immediately on boiling the liquid.—4. Nitric acid dissolves pure strychnia and its salts to colourless fluids, which become yellow when heated. Commercial strychnine, from containing a little brucine, is reddened by this test.—5. A minute quantity of strychnine being mixed with a small drop of concentrated sulphuric acid, placed on a white capsule or slip of glass, forms a colourless solution, but yields, on the addition of a very small crystal of bichromate of potassium, or a very minute portion of chromic acid, a rich violet colour, which gradually changes to red and yellow, and disappears after some time. The ⁄1000th of a grain yields very distinct indications.—6. Pure oxide or peroxide of lead produces a similar reaction to the last, provided the sulphuric acid contain about 1% of nitric acid.

Pois. The characteristic symptom is the special influence exerted upon the nervous system, which is manifested by a general contraction of all the muscles of the body, with rigidity of the spinal column. A profound calm soon succeeds, which is followed by a new tetanic seizure, longer than the first, during which the respiration is suspended. These symptoms then cease, the breathing becomes easy, and there is stupor, followed by another general contraction. In fatal cases these attacks are renewed, at intervals, with increasing violence, until death ensues. One phenomenon which is only found in poisonings by substances containing strychnine is, that touching any part of the body, or even threatening to do so, instantly produces the tetanic spasm.

Treat. The stomach should be immediately cleared by means of an emetic, tickling the fauces, &c. To counteract the asphyxia from tetanus, &c., artificial respiration should be practised with diligence and care. “If the poison has been applied externally, we ought immediately to cauterise the part, and apply a ligature tightly above the wound. If the poison has been swallowed for some time, we should give a purgative clyster, and administer draughts containing sulphuric ether or oil of turpentine, which in most cases produce a salutary effect. Lastly, injections of chlorine and decoction of tannin are of value.”

According to Ch. Gunther, the greatest reliance may be placed on full doses of opium, assisted by venesection, in cases of poisoning by strychnia or nux vomica. His plan is to administer this drug in the form of solution or mixture, in combination with a saline aperient.

Uses, &c. It is a most frightful poison, producing tetanus and death in very small doses. Even ⁄24 gr. will sometimes occasion tetanic twitchings in persons of delicate temperament. ⁄4 gr. blown into the throat of a small dog produced death in 6 minutes. In very minute doses it acts as a useful tonic in various nervous diseases, chronic diarrhœa, leucorrhœa, &c.; in slightly larger ones, it has been advantageously employed in certain forms of paralysis, in tic douloureux, impotence, &c.—Dose, ⁄24 to ⁄16 gr. (dissolved in water by means of a drop of acetic or hydrochloric acid), gradually and cautiously increased until it slightly affects the muscular system. Externally, ⁄8 to ⁄4 gr. at a time.

The Edinburgh College ordered the nux vomica to be exposed for two hours to steam, to soften it, then to chop or slice it, next to dry it by the heat of a vapour bath or hot air, and, lastly, to grind it in a coffee-mill. In the process of the Ph. L. 1836 magnesia was employed to effect the precipitation. In the last Ph. L. strychnine appears in the Materia Medica. Most of that of commerce is now obtained from St Ignatius’s bean, which, according to Geiseler, yields 1⁄4% of it; whereas 3 lbs. of nux vomica produce little more than 1 dr. Commercial strychnine may be freed from brucine by digesting the powder in dilute alcohol.

The salts of strychnine, which are occasionally asked for in trade, are the acetate (strychniæ acetas), hydrochlorate or muriate (s. murias—Ph. D.), hydriodate (s. hydriodas), nitrate (s. nitras), phosphate (s. phosphas), and sulphate (s. sulphas). All of these may be easily formed by simply neutralising the acid previously diluted with 2 or 3 parts of water, with the alkaloid, assisting the solution with heat; crystals are deposited as the liquid cools, and more may be obtained by evaporating the mother-liquor.

STRYCHNOS. See Nux vomica and Bean, St Ignatius’s.

STUC′CO. The name of several calcareous cements or mortars. Fine stucco is the third or last coat of three-coat plaster, and consists of a mixture of fine lime and quartzose sand, which, in application, is “twice hand floated and well trowelled.” See Cements.

STUFFING. Seasoning, placed in meat, poultry, game, &c., before dressing them, to give them an increased relish. The same materials formed into balls, are added to soups, gravies, &c., under the name of Forcemeat.

Prep. 1. (For fowls, &c.) Shred a little ham or gammon, some cold veal or fowl, some beef suet, a small quantity of onion, some parsley, a very little lemon peel, salt, nutmeg, or pounded mace, and either white pepper or cayenne, and bread crumbs, pound them in a mortar, and bind it with 1 or 2 eggs.

2. (For hare, or anything in imitation of it.—Mrs Rundell.) The scalded liver, an anchovy, some fat bacon, a little suet, some parsley, thyme, knotted marjoram, a little shalot, and either onion or chives, all chopped fine, with some crumbs of bread, pepper, and nutmeg, beaten in a mortar with an egg.

3. (For goose.) From sage, onion, suet, and crumb of bread. Geese are now, however, more commonly stuffed with veal stuffing.

4. (For veal—Soyer.) Chop ⁄2 lb. of suet, put it into a basin with ⁄4 lb. of bread crumbs, a teaspoonful of salt, a ⁄4 do. of pepper, a little thyme or lemon peel chopped, and 3 whole eggs; mix well.

Obs. 1 lb. of bread crumbs and one more egg may be used; they will make it cut firmer. This, as well as No. 1, is now commonly employed for poultry and meat. Ude, a great authority in these matters, observes that “it would not be amiss to add a piece of butter, and to pound the whole in a mortar.” “Grated ham or tongue may be added to this stuffing.” (Rundell.) This is also used for turkeys, and for ‘forcemeat patties.’

STUFFING (Birds, &c.). The skins are commonly dusted over with a mixture of camphor, alum, and sulphur, in about equal quantities; or, they are smeared with Bécœur’s arsenical soap, noticed under Soap. According to Crace Calvert, carbolic acid, which is worth only about 2s. per gall., is superior to all other substances for preserving the skins of birds and animals, as well as corpses. See Taxidermy, Practical.

STURDY. This disease, known also by the name of Gad, which attacks cattle and sheep, but more particularly the latter, is caused by the presence in the brain of the animal, of a hydatid—a creature enclosed in a sac of serous fluid. This hydatid develops from the ova of the tape worm, in the animal’s body, whence it has gained an entrance, with the grass which constitutes the cattle or sheep’s food upon which it has been voided by dogs and other animals.

It is most common in sheep of from 6 to 8 months old, and, as might be expected, with those which feed in damp meadows. The animals attacked by it turn round and round in one position, lose their gregarious habits, seem dazed, and refuse their food; which latter circumstance frequently causes death by inducing starvation.

As regards the treatment of this disease Mr Finlay Dun writes: “A stout stocking wire thrust up the nostrils has long been used with occasional success, to get rid of the hydatid; but the use of the trocar and canula now sold by most surgical instrument makers is much safer and better. The sheep is placed with its feet tied upon a table or bench, and the head carefully examined, when a soft place may often be detected, indicating that the hydatid lies underneath. A portion of the skin is dissected back and the trocar and canula introduced, when the hydatid will often come away as the trocar is withdrawn.” Mr Dun says “that, should the trocar fail to extract it, it must be drawn to the surface by a small syringe made for the purpose. Furthermore, the wound, after the removal of the hydatid, must be treated with a cold water dressing.”

All cattle similarly affected should be treated as above.

STUR′GEON. Several species of Acipenser pass under this name. The common sturgeon is the Acipenser sturio (Linn.). The roe is made into ‘caviare,’ the swimming-bladder into ‘isinglass.’

STY. Syn. Stye, Stian; Hordeolum, L. A small inflamed tumour, or boil, at the edge of the eyelid, somewhat resembling a barleycorn. It is usually recommended to promote its maturation by warm applications, since “the stye, like other furunculous inflammations, forms an exception to the general rule, that the best mode in which inflammatory swellings can end is resolution.”

STYP′TICS. Syn. Styptica, L. Substances which arrest local bleeding. Creasote, tannic acid, alcohol, alum, and most of the astringent salts, belong to this class.

Styptic, Brocchieri’s. A nostrum consisting of the water distilled from pine tops.

Styptic, Eaton’s. A solution of sulphate disguised by the addition of some unimportant substances. “Helvetius’s styptic was for a long time employed under this title.” (Paris.)

Styptic Helvetius’s. Syn. Stypticum helvetii, L. Iron filings (fine), and cream of tartar, mixed to a proper consistence with French brandy. See Powder, Helvetius’s.

STY′RAX. Syn. Storax, Storax balsam; Styrax (Ph. L., & E.), L. “The liquid balsam of an uncertain plant.” (Ph. L.) The “balsamic exudation of Styrax officinale, Linn.” (Ph. E.), or cane storax tree. Two or three varieties are known in commerce:—Liquid storax (styrax liquida), lump of red storax (s. in massis), which is generally very impure; storax in tears (s. in lachrymis), and storax in reeds (s. calamita). The last are now seldom met with in trade.

Prepared Storax (styrax colata; s. præparata, B. P., Ph. L.) is obtained by dissolving storax, 1 lb., in rectified spirit, 4 pints, by a gentle heat, straining the solution through linen, distilling off greater part of the spirit, and evaporating what is left to a proper consistence by the heat of a water bath. It is less fragrant than the raw drug.

Storax is stimulant, expectorant, and nervine. It was formerly much used in menstrual obstructions, phthisis, coughs, asthmas, and other breath diseases. It is now chiefly used as a perfume.—Dose, 6 to 20 or 30 gr. (10 to 20 gr. twice a day, B. P.).

A factitious strained Storax is made as follows:—1. Balsam of Peru, 1 lb.; balsam of tolu, 4 lbs.; mix.

2. Gum benzoin, 8 lbs.; liquid storax, 6 lbs.; balsam of tolu and Socotrine aloes, of each 3 lbs.; balsam of Peru, 2 lbs.; N.S.W. yellow gum, 7 lbs.; rectified spirit, 7 gall.; digest, with frequent agitation, for a fortnight, strain and distil off the spirit (about 5⁄2 galls.) until the residuum has a proper consistence. Prod. 28 lbs.

3. Liquid storax, 1 oz.; Socotrine aloes, ⁄4 lb.; balsam of tolu, 2 lbs.; rectified spirit, q. s.

SUB-. See Nomenclature and Salts.

SU′BERIC ACID. Obtained by boiling rasped cork for some time in nitric acid.

SUBLIMA′TION. The process by which volatile substances are reduced to the state of vapour by heat, and again condensed in the solid form. It differs from ordinary distillation in being confined to dry solid substances, and in the heat employed being, in general, much greater.

SUB′STANTIVE COLOURS, in the art of dyeing, are such as impart their tints to cloth and yarns without the intervention of a mordant; in contradistinction to adjective colours, which require to be fixed by certain ‘intermedes,’ or substances which have a joint affinity for the colouring matter and the material to be dyed.

SUCCIN′IC ACID. C4H4O4H2. Syn. Acidum succinicum. Prep. From amber, in coarse powder, mixed with an equal weight of sand, and distilled by a gradually increased heat; or from the impure acid obtained during the distillation of oil of amber; the product in both cases being purified by wrapping it in bibulous paper, and submitting it to strong pressure, to remove the oil, and then resubliming it.

From malic acid, by fermentation, or by digestion with hydriodic acid in sealed tubes.

Prop., &c. Colourless; inodorous (when pure); crystallises in oblique rhombic prisms; soluble in 5 parts of cold and in 2⁄2 parts of boiling water; fusible and volatile, without decomposition. Its salts are called ‘succinates,’ most of which are soluble. Succinate of ammonium is used as a test for iron. Succinic acid is distinguished from benzoic acid by its greater solubility, and by giving a brownish or pale red bulky precipitate with ferric chloride in neutral solutions; whereas that with benzoic acid is paler and yellower.

Uses, &c. Succinic acid is antispasmodic, stimulant, and diuretic, but is now seldom used.—Dose, 5 to 15 gr.

SUC′CORY. Chicory, or wild endive. (See Chicory.)

SUDORIF′ICS. See Diaphoretics.

SU′ET. Syn. Sevum, Sebum, L. This is prepared from the fat of the loins of the sheep or bullock by melting it by a gentle heat, and straining the liquid fat. In this state it forms the ADEPS OVILLUS (Ph. D.), SEVUM (Ph. L. & E.), SEVUM OVILLUM, or SEVUM PRÆPARATUM, employed in medicine and perfumery, as the basis of ointments, cerates, plasters, pommades, &c.

Suet, Mel′ilot. Syn. Sevum meliloti, L. Prep. From suet, 8 lb.; melilot leaves, 2 lb.; boil until the leaves are crisp, strain, and allow it to cool very slowly, so that it may ‘grain well.’ Used by farriers, and to make melilot plaster.

SUFFOCA′TION. The treatment varies with the cause. See Asphyxia, Charcoal, Drowning, Hanging, Sulphuretted Hydrogen, &c.

SUG′AR. C12H22O11. Syn. Cane sugar; Saccharum, L.; Sucre, Fr. This well-known and most useful substance is found in the juice of many of the canes or grasses, in the sap of several forest trees, and in the roots of various plants. In tropical climates it is extracted from the sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum), in China from the sweet sorgho (Sorghum saccharatum), in North America from the sugar-maple (Acer saccharinum), and in France, Germany, Russia, and Belgium, from white beet-root (Beta vulgaris, var. alba).

Until of late years the ordinary sugar consumed in this country was that chiefly sent from the West Indian Islands, South America, the Mauritius, &c., and was the produce of the sugar cane; recently, however, large and increasing quantities of beet-root sugar have found their way into the English markets from the Continental factories.

The Saccharum officinarum, of which there are several varieties, the sugar-cane ranges in height from 6 to 15 feet, and in diameter from 1 to 2 inches. In order to obtain the saccharine juice contained in it, the cane, stripped of its leaves, is cut just before the commencement of inflorescence, the period in which it is richest in juice. As this sap or juice is found to abound most in sugar, when taken from the lower part of the stem, the cane is cut off nearly close to the ground.

The stump which remains develops into a fresh plant, and one plant thus treated will last several years, not, however, without a gradual diminution in the size of the successive crops.

In South America and the West Indies a variety known as the Otaheita cane is extensively cultivated, since it is very productive and yields a large amount of juice.

The annual average produce in raw sugar for a hectare (about 2⁄4 English statute acres) of land is in

Martinique 2000 kilos.

Guadaloupe 3400 ”

Mauritius 4000 ”

Brazil 6000 ”

Sugar-cane growing in the below-mentioned places has, according to the analysis of the three chemists whose names are appended, the following composition:—

(a.) (b.) (c.)

Péligot. Dupuy. Icery.

Sugar 18·0 17·8 20·0

Water 72·1 72·0 69·0

Cellulose 9·9 9·8 10·0

Salts — 0·4 0·7-1·2

The cane, therefore, may be said to yield 90 per cent. of juice, which latter contains from 18 to 20 parts of pure sugar. However, the actual quantity obtained is rarely if ever more than 1 lb. of sugar to a gallon of juice, or 10 per cent.; and much more frequently only 8 per cent.

A large part of this loss is due to the prolonged exposure of the cane juice during its repeated boilings to heat, whereby a large proportion of its crystallisable sugar is converted into the uncrystallisable variety which passes away in the form of molasses and treacle. Another important cause of loss is the retention of a large amount of juice by the cane.

The following figures will convey an idea of the enormous quantities of cane sugar produced and consumed yearly throughout the globe. It is taken from ‘British Manufacturing Industries,’ one of a series of excellent industrial manuals published by Mr Sandford, of Charing Cross:—

Cuba 600,000 tons.

The other West Indian colonies 250,000 ”

Java and Sumatra 170,000 ”

China 140,000 ”

French colonies in America and Africa 120,000 ”

Brazil 100,000 ”

Mauritius 80,000 ”

British Guiana 80,000 ”

Porto Rico 90,000 ”

Manilla 60,000 ”

Mexico 35,000 ”

Egypt Large and growing.

The late Dr Edward Smith found that 98 per cent. of indoor operatives partook of 7⁄2 oz. of sugar per adult weekly; that 96 per cent. of Scotch labourers use it; and 80 per cent. of Irish. He further states that in Wales sugar is commonly used to an average extent of 6 oz. per adult weekly; but that there is a marked difference in the rate of consumption in the northern and southern portions of the principality. In North Wales, for example, the average amount per head is 11⁄4 oz.; whereas in South Wales it is only 3 oz.

The manufacture of sugar is exclusively conducted on the large scale. The recent canes are crushed between rollers, and the expressed juice is suffered to flow into a suitable vessel, where it is slowly heated to nearly the boiling-point, to coagulate albuminous matter. The crushed canes generally supply the fuel needed for this purpose. The ashes left after the combustion of the canes are carefully collected and used as a manure for future crops of sugar cane.

The cut below represents a press for the extraction of the juice from the canes. By means of the screws (i i), the rollers are adjusted to the proper distance apart; the upper roller is half the size of the two lower ones, and all are moved by cogged wheels fitting on to the axes of the rollers. The sugar-canes are transferred from the slate gutter (d d) to the rollers (a c), which press them a little; and from thence they are carried over the arched plate (n) to the rollers (c b). The pressed sugar-canes fall over the gutter (f), the expressed juice collecting in g g, and running off through h. A small quantity of milk of lime is then added to the juice to remove mechanical impurities, and the skimmed and clarified juice, after being sufficiently concentrated by rapid evaporation in open pans, is transferred to coolers, and thence into upright casks perforated at the bottom, and so placed that the syrup, or uncrystallisable portion, may drain off into a tank or cistern from the newly formed sugar. During the period of crystallisation it is frequently agitated, in order to hasten the change, and to prevent the formation of large crystals. The solid portion of the product forms moist, raw, or muscovado sugar; the uncrystallisable syrup, molasses or treacle.

Raw sugar is refined by redissolving it in water, adding to the solution albumen, under the form of serum of blood or white of egg, and, sometimes, a little lime-water, and heating the whole to the boiling-point; the impurities are then removed by careful skimming, and the syrup is decoloured by filtration through recently burnt animal charcoal; the clear decolorised syrup is next evaporated to the crystallising-point in vacuo, and at once transferred into conical earthern moulds, where it solidifies, after some time, to a confusedly crystallised mass; this, when drained, washed with a little clean syrup, and dried in a stove, constitutes ordinary loaf, lump, or refined sugar. Sometimes in washing the crystallised mass for the purpose of removing the coloured syrup which is mingled with it, the process known as ‘claying’ is followed.

In this case, instead of white syrup being used, a layer of thin mud or a paste of thin pipe-clay is poured into the mould on to the base of the inverted sugar cone, through which the water escaping from the mud or pipe-clay permeates, and carries with it the coloured syrup. Neither the mud nor the pipe-clay mix with the sugar, but remaining on the top soon become hard, when they are removed. As the syrup running from the moulds still contains a large quantity of crystalline cane sugar, this is recovered as follows:

The syrup, after being sufficiently concentrated by boiling in the vacuum pan, is removed and allowed to cool, when it assumes the appearance of a crystalline magma known as ‘crushed sugar.’

Crushed sugar is a mixture of a large quantity of sugar crystals with uncrystallisable syrup. To get rid of this latter from the crystals, the mass is placed in quantities of 3 or 4 cwts. at a time in a ‘centrifugal machine.’ This, of which an engraving is given below, consists, as will be seen, of a drum fixed on a vertical axis. The walls of the drum are made of perforated metal, or are formed of meshed wire work, and the drum itself enclosed in an outer metal cylinder, which is fixed, and, of course, unperforated. When the drum is made to revolve on its axis at the rate of 1000 or 1200 revolutions in a minute, the syrup flying off by centrifugal action, and escaping through the perforation at the sides of the drum, is received into the outer cylinder, whence it escapes by a trough into a proper receptacle, leaving behind the crystals in the interior of the drum.

a is an open drum of fine meshed wirework, caused to revolve in the cast-iron vessel (b b), by means of the bevel wheels (c d), gearing with a motive power. The motion of the drum can be stopped by means of the brake (e), and regulated by the weights placed at o.

When the crystallisation of sugar is allowed to take place quietly and slowly, the product is sugar candy. The evaporation at a low temperature in vacuum pans has the effect of diminishing the yield of treacle.

Prop. Sugar requires for its solution only ⁄3rd of its weight of cold and still less of boiling water; it is slowly dissolved by cold rectified spirit; it dissolves in 4 parts of boiling rectified spirit and in 80 parts of boiling absolute alcohol; it melts by heat, and cools to a glassy amorphous mass (barley sugar); at about 400° Fahr. it suffers rapid decomposition, and fuses to a brown, uncrystallisable mass (caramel); long boiling with water increases its colour, and lessens its tendency to crystallise; its aqueous solution dissolves alkalies, earths, and many metallic oxides, with facility. The presence of cane sugar in solutions containing certain metallic salts prevents the precipitation of their oxides by alkalies. The oxides of copper and iron are amongst those thus kept in solution. Sugar also possesses the power of effecting the partial or complete reduction of many metallic oxides, if boiled with their salts; the first results is exemplified in the case of the chromates; for if a chromate be added to a solution of sugar, and to the mixture a few drops of free acid, the chromic acid suffers reduction to chromic oxide, which, dissolving in the excess of acid, imparts a green colour to the liquid. Mercuric salts become reduced to mercurous, whilst the salts of gold throw down a precipitate of the metal in fine powder. The action of strong oil of vitriol on cane sugar is very energetic. The sugar is instantly reduced to a black charred mass, whilst carbonic and formic acids are given off. The same effects are produced by exposing it to dry chlorine at a temperature of 212° F. By nitric acid of sp. gr. 1·25, cane sugar is converted into saccharic acid; if a stronger acid be employed, oxalic acid is produced. When a mixture of concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids is poured on to cane sugar, an explosive compound, resembling gun cotton, is produced. This body is known as ‘nitro-sugar.’ Weak syrups take up about half as much hydrate of calcium as they contain sugar; when slowly crystallised, it assumes the form of oblique 4-sided prisms, terminated by 2-sided summits. Sp. gr. 1·60 (1·577—Ure).

Pur. Moist or muscovado sugar and crushed lump sugar are occasionally adulterated with chalk, plaster, sand, potato-flour, and other fecula; but frequently, and in certain neighbourhoods constantly, with starch sugar or potato-sugar. These frauds may be detected as follows:

Tests.—1. Pure cane sugar dissolves freely and entirely in both water and proof spirit, forming transparent colourless solutions, which are unaffected by either sulphuretted hydrogen or dilute sulphuric acid.—2. Its solution bends the luminous rays in circumpolarisation to the right, whereas grape and fecula sugars bend it to the left.—3. (Chevallier.) Boiled for a short time in water containing 2 or 3% of caustic potassa, the liquid remains colourless; but it turns brown, which is more or less intense, according to the quantity, if starch sugar is present. Even 2 or 3% of starch sugar may be thus detected.—4. (E. Krantz.) A filtered solution of 33 gr. of cane or beet sugar in 1 fl. oz. of water, mixed with 3 gr. of pure hydrate of potassium, and then agitated with 1⁄2 gr. of sulphate of copper in an air-tight bottle, remains clear, even after the lapse of several days; but if starch sugar be present, a red precipitate is formed after some time; and if it is present in considerable quantity, the copper will be wholly converted into oxide within 24 hours, the solution turning first blue or green, and then entirely losing its colour.—5. (Trommer’s test.) A solution of cane sugar is mixed with a solution of sulphate of copper, and hydrate of potassium added in excess; a blue liquid is obtained, which, on being heated, is at first but little altered; a small quantity of red powder falls after a time, but the liquid long retains its blue tint. When grape sugar or fecula sugar is thus treated, the first application of heat throws down a copious greenish precipitate, which rapidly changes to scarlet, and eventually to dark red, leaving a nearly colourless solution. This is an excellent test for distinguishing the two varieties of sugar, or discovering an admixture of grape sugar with cane sugar. The ⁄1000th part of grape sugar may be thus detected. The proportion of oxide of copper produced affords a good criterion, not only of the purity of the sugar, but also of the extent of the adulteration.—6. (Ure.) Dissolve a little sulphate of copper (say 20 gr.) in a measured quantity of water, and add to it, in the cold, a solution of hydrate of potassium, until, by testing with turmeric paper, the liquid appears faintly alkaline, shown by the paper becoming slightly brown. If a small quantity of this test-liquor (previously well shaken) be added to an aqueous solution of the sugar, and the whole boiled, the solution becomes at first green, and then olive-green, if dextrin is present; but if it contain grape sugar, the salt of copper is immediately reduced into the state of orange and oxide; whilst a solution of pure sugar undergoes no change, or is scarcely altered.—7. M. Riffard, taking advantage of the fact that sugar, like tartaric, malic, citric acid, and albumen, prevents the precipitation of iron by ammonia, employs iron as a means for estimating sugar. A solution containing sugar and iron in a certain proportion, when saturated with ammonia, will form a compound of a fine red colour, which remains clear if no alkaline earthy metals are present. M. Riffard has applied to sugar the method proposed by M. Juette for the estimation of tartaric acid. He observed that a neutral or acid solution of crystallised perchloride of iron, when heated for a considerable time to 100° C, requires 2·710 grams of sugar, if 100 milligrams of iron are to remain in solution in the presence of ammonia. If, on the other hand, the solution is prepared simply by dissolving crystallised perchloride of iron in pure water, without the addition of an acid, 100 milligrams of iron only require 2·587 grammes of sugar to remain dissolved. In this case the liquid is perfectly clear, and remains so; but if a smaller quantity of sugar be added, it is turbid, and deposits peroxide of iron. To estimate the sugar by this process, 25·870 grammes of the substance to be tested are dissolved, the solution mixed with a few drops of oxalate of ammonia to precipitate the lime, filtered and made up with water to 250 c.c., 25 c.c. of this mixture require the addition of as many milligrams of iron as there are per cents. of pure sugar in the sample under examination, and by two tests the following results will be arrived at:—With n milligrams of iron the solution is clear. With n + 1 milligrams of iron the solution is precipitated. n representing the number of per cents. of sugar contained in the sample.—8. M. Perrot’s method for the determination of sugars by means of normal solutions is as follows:—He prepares a standard solution of copper by dissolving 39·275 grams of sulphate of copper, very pure, and dried between several folds of filtering paper, and makes it up with distilled water to 1000 c.c. Each c.c. of this solution contains 0·01 grams of copper. On the other hand, he dissolves about 25· grams of pure cyanide of potassium in 1 litre of distilled water. Of this solution 10 c.c. are taken and put in a flask, to which about 20 c.c. of ammonia are added, and the liquid is kept at a temperature of 60° or 70°. He pours in the copper solution drop by drop by means of a burette graduated into tenths of a c.c., until there appears the blue tint characteristic of salts of copper in an ammoniacal solution. The number of degrees of the burette are then read off, and indicate the quantity of copper which has been required to produce the reaction. The solution of the sugar in question (previously inverted if it is required to determine crystalline sugar) is then placed in contact with an excess of Fehling’s liquor, and reduced in the water-bath. The whole is filtered in order to collect the precipitate of suboxide, which is first well washed with hot water, and dissolved in nitric acid, diluted with an equal volume of water, and a few fragments of chlorate of potassa are added. This solution is effected on the filter, which is then carefully washed in acidulated water. The filtrate to which the washings are added is then mixed with water enough to make up 100 or 150 c.c., and is then poured by means of the burette into 10 c.c. of cyanide, mixed with 20 c.c. of ammonia as above, stopping when the blue colour appears, and reading off the quantity of copper employed. From the former experiment it is known how much copper 10 c.c. of the cyanide solution require. Hence it is easy to calculate the total amount of copper which has been present as suboxide. The amount of sugar is then found from the data that 9298 parts of copper equal 5000 of crystalline sugar, or 5263 of glucose.—9. The specific gravities and crystalline forms offer other means of distinguishing the varieties of sugar.

Concluding Remarks. Refined sugar (Saccharum—Ph. L., S. PURUM—Ph. E., S. PURIFICATUM—Ph. D.), raw sugar (S. COMMUNE—Ph. E.), and molasses or treacle (SACCHARI FÆX—Ph. L. & E.), were officinal.

The relative sweetening power of cane sugar is estimated at 100; that of pure grape sugar, at 60; that of fecula or starch sugar, at 30 to 40.

According to Messrs Oxland’s method (patented 1849) of defecating and bleaching the juice of beet-root, cane, &c., acetate of aluminium, formed by dissolving 4 lbs. of that earth in acetic acid, is boiled with each ton of sugar, and as soon as the acetic acid is nearly all driven off, a solution of tannin, formed from 1 lb. of bruised valonia and 2 galls. of hot water, is added to the boiling syrup; the excess of aluminium is afterwards separated by lime, and the usual method of further procedure adopted. By their second patent (1851), superphosphate of aluminium or of calcium is substituted for acetate of aluminium, in the proportion of about 6 lbs. of aluminium, dissolved in phosphoric acid, for each ton of sugar.

The presence of certain saline bodies in a solution of cane sugar, exercises a very prejudicial effect upon it, since these, by combining with the sugar, give rise to compounds which contribute to the more or less reduction of the sugar to the uncrystallisable condition, and to a consequent increase of the molasses.

Of one of the chief constituents of the sugar-cane that possesses this objectionable property is potash in combination with acids, both organic and inorganic. Last year a patent for the removal of these potash salts was taken out by the Messrs Newlands. The patentees proceed upon the facts that the solubility of alum in water is very trifling, and that it contains only ⁄10th part of its weight of potash. They add to a concentrated syrup a strong solution of sulphate of alumina (having by a previous examination of the syrup determined the quantity required). Sulphate of potash is thereby formed, and this, uniting with the sulphate of alumina, the resulting alum after a time deposits in a crystalline form at the bottom of the vessel containing the sugar solution. This being run off into another receptacle, the free acid, of which it now contains a large quantity, is neutralised with lime or chalk, boiled, filtered, and passed through charcoal.

The addition of the lime has also thrown down the alumina liberated by the reaction, which has carried with it and removed certain injurious nitrogenous principles previously present in the saccharine liquid.

Some few years back Messrs Dubrunfaut and Péligot being cognisant of the fact of the insolubility, in boiling water, of the compounds of sugar with lime, based upon it a method of separating crystallisable sugar from treacle. Péligot has obtained from common treacle one fourth of its weight of crystallised sugar, by dissolving the precipitated sugar lime in water, and separating the lime by passing into the mixture a stream of carbonic acid.

Sugar may be obtained from nearly all sweet vegetable substances, by a process essentially similar to that described above.

Table showing the Specific Weight of Sugar Solutions with the corresponding percentage of Cane Sugar at 17·5° C.—Gerlach.

Percentage, Cane Sugar. Specific Weight of Sol. Percentage, Cane Sugar. Specific Weight of Sol. Percentage, Cane Sugar. Specific Weight of Sol.

75 1·383,342 49 1·227,241 24 1·101,377

74 1·376,822 48 1·221,771 23 1·096,792

73 1·370,345 47 1·216,339 22 1·092,240

72 1·363,910 46 1·210,945 21 1·087,721

71 1·357,518 45 1·205,589 20 1·083,234

70 1·351,168 44 1·200,269 19 1·078,779

69 1·344,860 43 1·194,986 18 1·074,356

68 1·338,594 42 1·189,740 17 1·069,965

67 1·332,370 41 1·184,531 16 1·065,606

66 1·326,188 40 1·179,358 15 1·061,278

65 1·320,046 39 1·174,221 14 1·056,982

64 1·313,946 38 1·169,121 13 1·052,716

63 1·307,887 37 1·164,056 12 1·048,482

62 1·301,868 36 1·159,026 11 1·044,278

61 1·295,890 35 1·154,032 10 1·040,104

60 1·289,952 34 1·149,073 9 1·035,961

59 1·284,054 33 1·144,150 8 1·031,848

58 1·278,197 32 1·139,261 7 1·027,764

57 1·272,379 31 1·134,406 6 1·023,710

56 1·266,600 30 1·129,586 5 1·019,686

55 1·260,861 29 1·124,800 4 1·015,691

54 1·255,161 28 1·120,048 3 1·011,725

53 1·249,500 27 1·115,330 2 1·007,788

52 1·243,877 26 1·110,646 1 1·003,880

51 1·238,293 25 1·105,995 0 1·000,000

50 1·232,748

Sugar, Al′um. Syn. Saccharum aluminatum, Alumen saccharinum, L. From alum and white sugar, in fine powder, equal parts, formed into minute sugar-loaf shaped lumps with mucilage of gum Arabic made with rose water. Used to make astringent lotions and eye-waters.

Sugar. Bar′ley. Syn. Saccharum hordeatum, Penidium, Saccharum penidium, L. Prep. Take of saffron, 12 gr.; hot water, q. s.; sugar, 1 lb.; boil to a full ‘candy height,’ or that state called ‘crack,’ or ‘crackled sugar,’ when 2 or 3 drops of clear lemon juice or white vinegar must be added, and the pan removed from the fire and set for a single minute in cold water, to prevent its burning; the sugar must be then at once poured out on an oiled marble slab, and either cut into pieces or rolled into cylinders and twisted in the usual manner. One drop of oil of citron, orange, or lemon, will flavour a considerable quantity. White barley sugar is made with a strained decoction of barley instead of water, or starch is added to whiten it.

Sugar, Beet-root. Syn. Saccharum betæ, L. Sugar obtained from the white beet.

In the following table the names of the countries in which this plant is cultivated are given, together with the amount of sugar annually produced in each:

France 280,000 tons.

Germany 260,000 ”

Austria and Hungary 180,000 ”

Russia and Poland 130,000 ”

Belgium 50,000 ”

Holland and other countries 17,000 ”

The white beet is used in preference to the red varieties, not only because of the colour of its juice, but also in consequence of its being richer in sugar. The roots vary in their yield of sugar according to quality and the season of the year. They are generally in best condition in October. The root is made up of a series of small cells, which are filled with the saccharine fluid. According to Wagner the constituents of the sugar-beet are as follows:

Water 82·7

Sugar 11·3

Cellulose 0·8

Albumen, casein, and other bodies 1·5

Fatty matter 0·1

Organic substances, citric acid, pectin, and pectic acid. Asparagin, aspartic acid, and betain, a substance having, according to Schiebler, the formula C15H33N3O6 3·7

Organic salts, oxalate and pectate of calcium, oxalate and pectate of potassium and sodium

Inorganic salts, nitrate and sulphate of potash, phosphate of lime and magnesia

Twelve and a half hundred weight of beet yield on an average 1 cwt. of raw sugar, or 8 per cent.

The first operation in the manufacture of beet-root sugar after washing and cleansing the roots (an operation which sometimes reduces their weight 10 or 20 per cent.) is the extraction from them of the juice. This may be effected either by:

1. Pressure.

2. Centrifugal power.

3. Dialysis.

1. Pressure. The roots being put into a proper crushing machine are soon reduced to an uniform pulp, which in some manufactories is subjected to pressure wrapped in linen cloths under stone or iron rollers, and in others is placed in bags and placed under the Bramah or hydraulic press, the resulting juice being collected in proper receptacles.

2. Centrifugal power. This method is that generally employed for separating the juice from the pulp, which thus yields between 50 or 60 per cent. of juice. A weak saccharine solution, also used in sugar manufacture, is afterwards obtained by mixing the residue of the pulp with water, and subjecting it to the same process.

3. Dialysis. The application of the principle of diffusion for the extraction of the sugar from the beet-root originated with M. Robert. The fresh roots, cut into thin slices, are immersed in a little more than their own weight of water heated to about 120° F. The crystalloid sugar thus diffuses out through the cell membrane which encloses it into the surrounding water, leaving the pectous and colloid matters, such as albumen, gum, &c., behind. The operation which is so managed as to bring the same water into contact with successive quantities of root, yields a saccharine solution of nearly the same strength as the natural juice. The solution so obtained is, after concentration and the usual methods, converted into sugar. The same process is said to have been tried with cane sugar, and with equally satisfactory results.

The succeeding stages of the manufacture of beet sugar, such as refining, liming, decolorising, &c., are the same as those already described under cane sugar.

Beet sugar is in every respect identical with cane. It was discovered in 1747 by Marggraf, of Berlin, but it did not come into use until about the beginning of the present century, its manufacture at this period in France being necessitated by an edict of the first Napoleon’s, which prohibited the importation of cane sugar into that country.

The engraving represents a vacuum pan much used in the French sugar refineries.

Fig. 1 gives a perspective, and fig. 2 a sectional view of this evaporating pan.

The boiling-pan (B) consists of two air-tight hemispheres, surmounted by a funnel, connected by the tube (l) with the condenser (A). The apparatus is supplied by steam by (r s), the steam circulating in the boiling-pan by means of the pipes (g), fig. 2. By opening the lever valves (f) the juice can be run by means of the pipe (o) into the pan (p). When the pan, after continued boiling, requires to be refitted, the pipes (l and w) are connected to an air-pump. The manometer (h) shows the state of the air pressure, which can be regulated by opening the pipes connected to the vacuum chamber. By means of the gauge cylinder (G) the quantity of syrup in the boiling-pan can be ascertained, the gauge cylinder being connected to the boiling-pan by the pipes (a and i), and the height read off from the gauge tube (n). The syrup can be removed, for the purpose of ascertaining its consistency, from the gauge cylinder by means of either of the three pipes (b, c, d). By u steam can be admitted to the boiling-pan and condenser. e is generally of stout glass, and enables the state of the juice to be seen. g is the grease cock, f the manhole. The condenser consists of the jacket (B), arranged to prevent the mixing of the juice with the water used for condensation. x is the gauge. The pipe (m) conveying water to the condenser terminates in a rose. z is a thermometer showing the interior temperature of the boiling-pan.

The air-pump being set in operation the tube (c) is opened, and the gauge cylinder filled by the juice rising from q. By closing m and opening y the juice is admitted to the boiling-pan. When this is half full the steam pipe (s) is opened, the steam quickly heating the contents of the pan to the boiling point. The condenser is then placed in working; by opening the pipe (l) the steam of the juice passes into the condenser, where it is speedily condensed, passing with the water through β.

Sugar, Diabet′ic. Grape sugar found in the urine of persons labouring under diabetes. In diabetes insipidus, a substance having the general properties of a sugar, but destitute of a sweet taste, appears to be produced (Thénard.)

Sugar, Gel′atin. See Glycocine.

Sugar, Grape, C6H12O6.H2O. Syn. Glucose, Fruit sugar; Saccharum uvæ, S. fructus, L. This substance is found in the juice of grapes and other fruit, in the urine of diabetic patients, and in the liquid formed by acting on starch and woody fibre with dilute sulphuric acid.

Prep. 1. From the juice of ripe grapes or an infusion of the ripe fruit (raisins), by saturating the acid with chalk, decanting the clear liquid, evaporating to a syrup, clarifying with white of egg or bullock’s blood, and then carefully evaporating to dryness; it may be purified for chemical purposes by solution and crystallisation in either water or boiling alcohol. Like other sugar, it may be decoloured by animal charcoal.

2. From honey, by washing with cold alcohol, which dissolves the fluid syrup and leaves the solid crystallisable portion.

Prop. It is less sweet and less soluble than cane sugar, requiring 1⁄2 part of cold water for its solution; instead of bold crystals, it forms granular warty masses, without distinct crystalline faces; it does not easily combine with either oxide of calcium or oxide of lead; with heat, caustic alkaline solutions turn it brown or black, but it dissolves in oil of vitriol without blackening, the reverse being the case with cane sugar; with chloride of sodium it forms a soluble salt, which yields large, regular, and beautiful crystals. Sp. gr. 1·400.

The various fruits contain grape sugar in the following proportions:

Per Cent.

Peach 1·57

Apricot 1·80

Plum 2·12

Raspberry 4·00

Blackberry 4·44

Strawberry 5·73

Bilberry 5·78

Currant 6·10

Plum 6·26

Gooseberry 7·16

Cranberry 7·45 (according to Fresenius).

Pear 8·02 to 10·8 (E. Wolff).

Apple 8·37 (Fresenius).

” 7·28 to 8·04 (E. Wolff).

Sour cherry 8·77

Mulberry 9·19

Sweet cherry 10·79

Grape 14·93

Obs. Cane sugar is converted into grape sugar during the process of fermentation, and by the action of acids. See Sugar, and Sugar, starch (below).

Sugar, Maple. Syn. Saccharum acerinum, L. From the juice of the sugar maple. It is identical with cane sugar.

In the United States and the British Colonies of North America considerable quantities of this sugar are made. The juice is obtained by boring through the bark of the tree to a depth of about a quarter or half an inch. Each tree has generally two perforations made in it, and they are always made on that side of the tree which faces towards the south, and at a distance of about 20 inches from the ground. The juice flows into suitable vessels, into which it is conducted by reeds placed under the perforations. The period chosen for tapping the trees is that during which it is known the sap is ascending, from March to May. Sometimes the tree undergoes a second tapping in the autumn, but this is not generally practised, inasmuch as it is injurious to the tree. A daily yield of 6 galls, of juice from each incision is looked upon as a ‘good run,’ and if this 6 gall. be the produce of an old tree or ‘old bush’ they will yield 1 lb. of sugar. In a young tree or ‘young bush’ the yield of sugar from the same quantity of sap is only half. By proper care the same tree may be tapped 20 or 30 years following. Unlike the sugar-cane the juice in the maple is the richest in sugar the higher it is found from the ground. The concentrated saccharine liquid is concentrated every 24 hours. The raw crystallised sugar undergoes no refining, and being made into blocks is then sent to market.

Sugar, Milk. C12H22O11.H2O. Syn. Sugar of milk, Lactin; Saccharum lactis (Ph. D.), L. Prep. Gently evaporate clarified whey until it crystallises on cooling, and purify the crystals by digestion with animal charcoal and repeated crystallisations.

Prop., &c. White, translucent, very hard cylindrical masses or four-sided prisms; soluble in about 6 parts of cold and in 2 parts of boiling water; nearly insoluble in alcohol and ether; ammoniacal plumbic acetate precipitates it from its solutions. When an alkaline solution of grape sugar is boiled with the salts of copper, silver, or mercury, it reduces them; it produces right-handed rotation of a ray of polarised light; by boiling with dilute acid it is converted into galactose (C6H12O6); treated with nitric acid it yields mucic acid, with small quantities of saccharic, oxalic, and tartaric acid. Milk sugar is unsusceptible of the vinous fermentation, except under the action of dilute acids, which convert it into grape sugar; in solution, it is converted into lactic or butyric acid by the action of caseine and albuminous matter. Milk contains about 5% of it. (Boussingault.)

Obs. Sugar of milk is chiefly imported from Switzerland. In this country it is chiefly used as a vehicle for more active medicines, especially among the homœopathists.

Sugar, Starch. Syn. Potato sugar, Fæcula s. This is grape sugar obtained by the action of diastase on starch, in the manner noticed under Gum (British), or by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on starch, or of the strong acid on lignin, or on substances containing it.

Prep. 1. From corn. The corn is first steeped in soda lye; it is then ground wet and passed through revolving sieves to separate the husks and gluten. The starch is carried through long troughs, in which are placed transverse pieces of wood, against which the solid particles of starch lodge, and are thus separated from the washing waters. These wash waters run into a large cistern, where it undergoes fermentation into weak vinegar. The starch in the wet state is then put into a mash tub and treated for from 3 to 8 hours with 1 per cent. of sulphuric acid. The acid liquor is neutralised with chalk and evaporated in vacuum pans; and after being separated from the sulphate of lime it is run into barrels and allowed to crystallise. The grape sugar is sometimes manufactured in blocks 6 inches square, and dried on plaster plates in a current of dry air, as hot air would decolorise it. Large quantities of grape sugar manufactured as above are now produced in the United States, particularly in New Orleans, Buffalo, and Brooklyn. A considerable amount from the same source reaches this country from the Continent, and is employed in our breweries. When specially prepared for the use of the latter the blocks are crushed into small pieces about the size of malt grains. Our excise authorities prohibit the entrance of glucose into a brewer’s premises in the liquid state. In the brewing of pale sparkling ales grape is esteemed more than either cane sugar or malt, and is said to yield a more sound and wholesome liquor, and one free from the acidity, impurity, and treacly sweetness frequently found in beers brewed from raw or inferior sugars. Glucose may also be obtained from cellulose, but the process is too expensive to admit of being practically worked.

2. Potato starch, 100 parts; water, 00 parts; sulphuric acid, 6 parts; mix, boil for 35 or 40 hours, adding water, to make up for evaporation; then saturate the acid with lime or chalk, decant or filter, and evaporate the clear liquor. Under pressure the conversion is more rapid. Prod. 105%.

3. “The starch of potatoes can be converted into glucose by digestion for a few hours with parings of the potato. This operation is largely practised by German farmers in the preparation of food for fattening hogs. An excellent starch sugar can be prepared from Indian corn, which will yield alcohol one eighth cheaper, and quite as pure as that from cane sugar.”

4. Shreds of linen or paper, 12 parts; strong sulphuric acid, 17 parts (Braconnot; 5 of acid, and 1 of water—Vogel); mix in the cold; in 24 hours dilute with water, and boil it for 10 hours; then neutralise with chalk, filter, evaporate to a syrup, and set the vessel aside to crystallise. Prod. 114%. Sawdust, glue, &c., also yield grape sugar by like treatment. See Lignin.

Sugar from other Sources. Considerable quantities of East Indian cane sugar are yielded by certain Indian palms, the principal of which are the Arenga saccharifera and the Phœnix sylvestris or wild date. Another source whence large quantities of cane sugar are procured is the Sorghum saccharatum or sugar grass. This plant is exclusively grown in Ohio, and yields annually more than 15,000,000 gall. of juice, which is made into sugar.

Melezitose (C12H22O11). From larch manna.

Mycose or trehalose (C12H22O11). From Turkish manna.

Melitose (C12H24O12). From the eucalyptus.

Maltose (C12H24O12). From malt.

Eucalen (C6H12O6). By fermentation of melitose.

Sorbin (C6H12O6). From the berries of the service tree.

Effects of the varieties of Sugar on Polarised Light. Both sucrose, or cane sugar, and dextrose produce rotation upon a ray of polarised light. The plane of rotation is rotated to the right by sucrose rather more powerfully than by dextrose. It is remarkable that the uncrystallisable sugar of fruits produces an opposite rotation, viz. to the left. Since the degree of rotation is proportionate in columns of equal length to the quantity of sugar present, it has been proposed to employ this property in order to determine the quantity of sugar present in syrups. The following, according to Berthelot, are the rotatory powers of the different varieties of sugar, if equal weights of each are dissolved in an equal bulk of water; the quantities of each sugar are calculated for the formulæ annexed:

Variety. Formula. Rotation. Temperature.

° Fahr. ° Cent.

Sucrose (cane sugar) (C12H22O11) Right 73·8°

Melezitose (C12H22O11) ” 94·1°

Mycose (C12H22O11) ” 193°

Melitose (C12H24O12) ” 102°

Dextrose (grape sugar) (C6H12O6) ” 57·4°

Malt sugar (C6H12O6) ” 172°

Lœvulose (fruit sugar) (C6H12O6) Left 106° 56 13·3

Eucalin (C6H12O6) Right 50°

Sorbin (C6H12O6) Left 46·9°

Lactose (milk sugar) (C6H12O6) Right 56·4°

Glucose of ditto (galactose) (C6H12O6) ” 83·3°

Inverted cane sugar (C6H12O6) Left 28° 57 13·9

SUGAR-BOILING. The art or business of the confectioner or sugar-baker; the candying of sugar. The stages are as follow:—Well clarified and perfectly transparent syrup is boiled until a ‘skimmer’ dipped into it, and a portion ‘touched’ between the forefinger and thumb, on opening them, is drawn into a small thread, which crystallises and breaks. This is called a ‘weak candy height.’ If boiled again, it will draw into a larger string, and if bladders may be blown through the ‘drippings’ from the ladle, with the mouth, it has acquired the second degree, and is now called ‘bloom sugar.’ After still further boiling, it arrives at the state called ‘feathered sugar.’ To determine this re-dip the skimmer, and shake it over the pan, then give it a sudden flirt behind, and the sugar will fly off like feathers. The next degree is that of ‘crackled sugar,’ in which state the sugar that hangs to a stick dipped into it, and put directly into a pan of cold water, is not dissolved off, but turns hard and snaps. The last stage of refining this article reduces it to what is called ‘carmel sugar,’ proved by dipping a stick first into the sugar, and then into cold water, when, on the moment it touches the latter, it will, if matured, snap like glass. It has now arrived at a ‘full candy height.’ Care must be taken throughout that the fire is not too fierce, as, by flaming up against the sides of the pan, it will burn and discolour the sugar; hence the boiling is best conducted by steam heat.

Any flavour or colour may be given to the candy by adding the colouring matter to the syrup before boiling it, or the flavouring essences when the process is nearly complete. See Stains, &c.

SUGAR CAN′DY. Syn. Saccharum candidum, S. crystallinum, S. crystallizatum, L. Sugar crystallised by leaving the saturated syrup in a warm place (90 to 100° Fahr.), the shooting being promoted by placing sticks, or threads, at small distances from each other in the liquor; it is also deposited from compound syrups, and does not seem to retain much of the foreign substances with which they are loaded. Brown sugar candy is prepared in this way from raw sugar; white do., from refined sugar; and red do., from a syrup of refined sugar which has been coloured red by means of cochineal.

Sugar candy is chiefly used as a sweetmeat; and, being longer in dissolving than sugar, in coughs, to keep the throat moist; reduced to powder, it is also blown into the eye, as a mild escharotic in films or dimness of that organ.

SUGAR OF LEAD. Acetate of lead.

SUGAR PLUMS. Syn. Bon-bons, Dragées, Fr. These are made by various methods, among which are those noticed under Drops (Confectionery), Lozenges, and Pastils, to which may be added the following:—Take a quantity of sugar syrup, in the proportion to their size, in that state called a ‘blow’ (which may be known by dipping the skimmer into the sugar, shaking it, and blowing through the holes, when parts of light may be seen), and add a drop or two of any esteemed flavouring essence. If the ‘bon-bons’ are preferred white, when the sugar has cooled a little, stir it round the pan till it grains and shines on the surface. When all is ready, pour it through a funnel into little clean, bright, leaden moulds, which must be of various shapes, and be previously slightly moistened with oil of sweet almonds; it will then take a proper form and harden. As soon as the plums are cold, take them from the moulds; dry them for two or three days in the air, and put them upon paper. If the bon-bons are required to be coloured, add the colour just as the sugar is ready to be taken off the fire.

Crystallised bon-bons are prepared by dusting them with powdered double-refined lump sugar before drying them.

Liqueur bon-bons, now so beautifully got up by the Parisian confectioners, are obtained by pressing pieces of polished bone or metal into finely powdered sugar, filling the hollow spaces so formed with saturated solutions of sugar in the respective liqueurs, and then spreading over the whole an ample layer of powdered sugar. In the course of three or four days the bon-bons may be removed, and tinted by the artist at will. Instead of white powdered sugar ordered above, coloured sugar may be used. These bon-bons are found to be hollow spheres, containing a small quantity of the spirit or liqueur employed, and will bear keeping for many months. See Sweetmeats, &c.

SUGARS (Medicated). Syn. Saccharides; Sacchara medicata, L.; Saccharolés, Saccharures, Fr. Some of these are prepared by moistening white sugar with the medicinal substance, then gently drying it, and rubbing it to powder; in other cases they are obtained in the manner noticed under Pulverulent Extracts, or Oleosaccharum. The most valuable preparation of this class in British pharmacy is the saccharated carbonate of iron (FERRI CARBONAS CUM SACCHARO—Ph. L.).

SUINT, Gas from. By this is understood a gas prepared from the fatty materials present in the soap-suds used in washing raw wool and spun yarns. The water containing the suint and soap-suds is run into cisterns, and is there mixed with milk of lime, and left to stand for twelve hours. A thin precipitate is formed, which, after the supernatant clear liquor has been run off, is put upon coarse canvas for the purpose of draining off any impurities, sand, hair, &c., while the mass which runs through the filter is put into a tank, in which it forms, after six or eight days, a pasty mass, which, having been dug out and moulded into bricks, is dried in open air. At Rheims the first wash-water of the wool is used for making both gas and potash, because the water contains no soap and only suintate of potash. Havrez, at Verviers, has recently proposed to employ suint—which, by-the-bye, is very rich in nitrogen—for the purpose of making ferrocyanide of potassium.

The dried brick-shaped lumps are submitted to distillation, yielding a gas which does not require purification, and which possesses an illuminating power three times that of good coal gas. The wash-water of a wool-spinning mill with 20,000 spindles yields daily, when treated as described, about 500 kilos of dried suinter, as the substance is technically called. One kilo of this substance yields 210 litres of gas. Annually about 150,000 kilos of suinter are obtained, and this quantity will yield 31,500,000 litres = 1,112,485 cubic feet of gas. Every burner consuming 35 litres of gas per hour, and taking the time of burning at 1200 hours, the quantity of gas will suffice for 750 burners, and as a spinning mill of 20,000 spindles only requires 500 burners, there is an excess of gas supply available for 250 other burners, or the owner may dispose of 5000 kilos of suinter, which is valued at Augsburgh at about 3s. per 50 kilos, and at about 4s. at Mulhouse.

SUL′PHATE. Syn. Sulphas, L. A salt of sulphuric acid.

SUL′PHIDE. A salt consisting of sulphur and a metal or other basic radical. See Sulphuretted hydrogen.

SULPHINDYL′IC ACID. Syn. Sulphindigotic acid. An intensely blue pasty mass, formed by dissolving 1 part of indigo in about 15 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid. See Sulphate of Indigo.

SUL′PHITE. A salt of sulphurous acid.

SULPHOCARBOLIC ACID. (Sulphocarbolates.) Carbolic acid, when acted upon by bases, yields a class of salts termed carbolates. These compounds are very unstable; they readily absorb water from the air, which sets free carbolic acid; they usually have the powerful odour of the latter. When, however, equivalent weights of carbolic and sulphuric acids are mixed, union takes place, a definite double acid (sulphocarbolic) results, and the salts formed by this double acid with the various bases are entirely different from the simple salts of carbolic acid. They are very stable, very soluble, possess neither odour nor taste of carbolic acid, and are singularly beautiful in crystalline form.

Sulphocarbolic Acid (HC6H3SO4) is obtained by the crystallisation in long colourless needles; unlike carbolic acid, it is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, in any proportions.

Sulphocarbolate of Calcium [Ca(C6H5SO4)2 + Aq.] is obtained in very long, fine, densely interlacing crystals, which form in bulk, by their interlacement, a porous mass. Unlike the usual lime-salts, this is exceedingly soluble. This fact overcomes the great difficulty of treatment when in disease there is a deficiency of lime in the body, especially in rickets, in which disease the want of lime in the bones gives rise to distortions. The sulphocarbolate of magnesium crystallises in large, clear, rhombic prisms, easily soluble in water.

Sulphocarbolate of Copper [Cu(C6H5SO4)2] forms fine prismatic crystals of a blue colour. It is used as the zinc sulphocarbolate, chiefly as a lotion and dressing, in the proportion of 3 to 10 grains to the ounce of distilled water.

Sulphocarbolate of Iron [Fe(C6H5SO4)2] is in colourless or pale green rhombic plates. It is readily administered, and seems in some instances to be preferred to other salts of iron. It seems to have been of especial use in the skin diseases of children, wherein there is much formation of matter.

Sulphocarbolate of Sodium [Na(C6H5)SO4.Aq] is in brilliant, clear, rhombic prisms. The salt is very soluble in water. This salt can be administered as a medicine in doses of 20 to 60 gr.; it is slowly decomposed in the textures, carbolic acid being evolved. It thus becomes a very simple means of obtaining the beneficial effects of the administration of this antiseptic without the difficulties and dangers which attend it in its uncombined irritant and caustic form. It has proved of great service in the treatment of infectious diseases. Administered in the severest cases of diphtheria, malignant scarlet fever, typhoid, erysipelas, &c., the remedy has proved of extreme value.

Sulphocarbolate of Zinc [Zn(C6H5SO4)2] is chiefly employed in solution as a lotion. By high surgical authorities it is considered to answer all the purposes of the antiseptic dressing of carbolic acid. It is inodorous, and has very slight irritating action.

The Sulphocarbolates of Potassium [KC6H5SO4] and Ammonium [NH4C6H5SO4] are also brilliant crystals; they are freely soluble, administered with the greatest ease, and have been used with success as remedial agents.

SULPHOCYAN′OGEN. A well-defined salt radical, containing sulphur united to the elements of cyanogen. Its compounds are the sulphocyanides, most of which may be formed by directly saturating hydrosulphocyanic acid with the oxide or hydrate of the base; or, from the sulphocyanide of potassium and a soluble salt of the base, by double decomposition.

SULPHOFORM. Syn. Sulpoformum. An oily liquid obtained by distilling one part of iodoform with three of sulphide of mercury.

SULPHOPHE′NIC ACID. A synonym of sulphocarbolic acid. See Sulphocarbolates.

SULPHOVIN′IC ACID. C2H5HSO4. Syn. Sulphethylic acid; Acidum sulphovinicum, L. This substance is formed by the action of heat on a mixture of alcohol and sulphuric acid; it is the intermediate product which is developed in the preparation of ether. The salts are called sulphovinates or sulphothylates.

SUL′PHUR. [Eng., L.] Syn. Brimstone; Soufre, Fr. An elementary substance. That of commerce is chiefly imported from Sicily and Italy, and is a volcanic production.

Var. The principal of these are:

Amorphous sulphur, Brown s.; Sulphur amorphum, S. fuscum, S. informe, S. rubrum, L. Prepared from sublimed sulphur, by melting it, increasing the heat to from 320° to 350° Fahr., and continuing it at that temperature for about half an hour, or until it becomes brown and viscid, and then pouring it into water. In this state it is ductile, like wax, may be easily moulded in any form, is much heavier than usual, and when it has cooled does not again become fluid until heated to above 600° Fahr. The same effect is produced more rapidly by at once raising the temperature of the melted mass to from 430° to 480° Fahr.

Precipitated sulphur, Hydrate of sulphur, Milk of s.; Sulphuris hydras, Lac sulphuris, Sulphur præcipitatum (Ph. L.). Prep. 1. From sublimed sulphur, 1 part; dry and recently slaked lime, 2 parts; water, 25 parts, or q. s.; boil for 2 or 3 hours, dilute with 25 parts more of water, filter, and precipitate with dilute hydrochloric acid; drain, and well wash the precipitate, and dry it by a gentle heat. Resembles sublimed sulphur in its general properties, but is much paler, and in a finer state of division.

2. (B. Ph.) Sublimed sulphur, 5 oz.; slaked lime, 3 oz.; hydrochloric acid, 3 fl. oz., or q. s.; distilled water, q. s. Heat the sulphur and lime, previously well mixed, in 1 pint of water, stirring diligently with a wooden spatula, boil for 15 minutes and filter. Boil the residue again in ⁄2 pint of water and filter. Let the united filtrates cool, dilute with 2 pints of water, and in an open place, or under a chimney, add in successive quantities the hydrochloric acid previously diluted with 1 pint of water until effervescence ceases, and the mixture acquires an acid reaction. Allow the precipitate to settle, decant off the supernatant liquid, pour on fresh distilled water, and continue the purification by affusion of distilled water and subsidence, until the fluid ceases to have an acid reaction, and to precipitate with oxalate of ammonia. Collect the precipitated sulphur on a calico filter, wash it once with distilled water, and dry it at a temperature not exceeding 120° Fahr.

Prop. A greyish-yellow powder free from grittiness, and with no smell of sulphuretted hydrogen.

Obs. Many pharmacists regard Lac sulphuris and Sulphur precipitatum as distinct substances, and assume that by milk of sulphur is intended a preparation made by an old pharmacopœial process, in which sulphuric acid being employed, the sulphur so precipitated contains from 50 to 75 per cent. of sulphate of lime. Pareira, Royle, Atfield, and some other authorities, hold that Lac sulphuris and Sulphur precipitatum are synonymous; whilst others, including Professor Redwood (one of the compilers of the B. P.) entertain a contrary opinion.

Roll sulphur, Cane s., Stick s.; Sulphur in bacculis, S. in rotulis, S. rotundum, L. This is crude sulphur, purified by melting and skimming it, and then pouring it into moulds. That obtained during the roasting of copper pyrites, and which forms the common roll sulphur of England, frequently contains from 3 to 7% of yellow arsenic.

Sublimed sulphur, Flowers of sulphur; Flores sulphuris, Sulphur (Ph. L.), Sulphur sublimatum (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Prepared by subliming sulphur in iron vessels. For medical purposes, it is ordered to be well washed with water, and dried by a gentle heat. “A slightly gritty powder, of a fine greenish-yellow colour, without taste and without odour till heated.” (B. P.)

Sulphur vivum, Black sulphur, Crude s., Horse brimstone; Sulphur nigrum, S. caballinum, S. Griseum, L. This is crude native sulphur. It is a grey or mouse-coloured powder. The residuum in the subliming pots from the preparation of flowers of sulphur is now commonly substituted for it. It generally contains much arsenic, and is consequently very poisonous.

Pur. The sublimed sulphur of the shops is now, in general, of respectable quality, but the precipitated sulphur frequently contains about ⁄3 of its weight of sulphate of lime (plaster of Paris), owing to the substitution of sulphuric acid for hydrochloric acid in its manufacture. This is readily detected by strongly heating a little of the suspected sample in an iron spoon or shovel, when the sulphur is burnt or volatilised, and leaves behind the sulphate of lime as a white ash; this, when mixed with water, and gently dried, gives the amount of the adulteration. A still simpler plan is to dissolve out the sulphur in the sample with a little hot oil of turpentine or liquor of potassa; the undissolved portion is foreign matter.

Prop. Sulphur melts to a clear thin fluid, and volatilises at about 232° Fahr., and in open vessels rapidly takes fire, burning with a bluish flame. It is insoluble in both water and alcohol; it is soluble in oil of turpentine and the fatty oils, and freely so in bisulphide of carbon and hot liquor of potassa. With oxygen it unites to form sulphurous anhydride, and with the metals to form sulphides. Sp. gr. 1·982 to 2·015.

Estim. The determination of the quantity of sulphur, phosphorus, and chlorine, in a state of combination, especially in organic mixtures, is often rather troublesome. The proportion of sulphur is best determined by oxidising a known weight of the substances by strong nitric acid, or by fusing it in a silver vessel with 10 or 12 times its weight of pure hydrate of potassa and about half as much nitre. The sulphur is thus converted into sulphuric acid, the quantity of which can be determined by dissolving the fused mass in water, acidulating the solution with nitric acid, adding a salt of baryta, and weighing the resulting sulphate. Phosphorus is, in like manner, oxidised to phosphoric acid, the quantity of which is determined by precipitation in combination with sesquioxide of iron, or otherwise. The chlorine is correctly determined by placing a small weighed portion in a combustion-tube, which is afterwards filled with fragments of pure quicklime. The lime is then brought to a red heat, and the vapour of the liquid driven over it, when chloride of calcium is formed. The contents of the tube, when cold, are dissolved in dilute nitric acid, filtered, the chlorine precipitated by nitrate of silver, and the chlorine weighed under the form of chloride of silver. See Organic substances.

Uses, &c. Sulphur is extensively used in the manufacture of gunpowder, in bleaching, &c., &c. When swallowed, it acts as a mild laxative and stimulating diaphoretic; and has hence been long taken in various chronic skin diseases, in pulmonary, rheumatic, and gouty affections, and as a mild purgative in piles, prolapsus ani, &c. Externally, it is extensively used in skin diseases, especially the itch, for which it appears to be a specific.—Dose, 20 to 63 gr., in sugar, honey, treacle, or milk.

Sulphur, Chlo′′rides of. Several of these compounds exist but the following are the most important. 1. (Dichloride, S2Cl2.) Prepared by passing dry chlorine gas over the surface of sulphur melted in a bulbed-tube or small retort connected with a well-cooled receiver. The product is a deep orange-yellow and very mobile liquid, which possesses a disagreeable odour, and boils at 280° Fahr. It is soluble in bisulphide of carbon, and in benzol, without decomposing. It dissolves sulphur in large quantities, especially when heated. A solution of the dichloride with excess of sulphur in crude benzol is used for vulcanising caoutchouc.

2. (Chloride, Hypochloride, or Hypochlorite of the shops; Sulphuris chloridum, S. hypochloridum, S. hypochloritis, L.) This is prepared by spreading washed sulphur thinly on the bottom of a wooden box, or other chamber, and passing chlorine gas slowly over until it ceases to be absorbed.

Obs. This last compound is of variable and undetermined constitution. It has been recommended for internal use, by Derksengi, in old gouty affections, combined with pains in the stomach, and in severe nervous fever.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 gr.; dissolved in ether, and taken with old Hungary wine. It is also used externally in psoriasis inveterata, and other skin diseases.

Sulphur, I′odide of. S2I2. Syn. Biniodide of sulphur; Sulphuris iodidum (Ph. L.), Sulphur iodatum (Ph. D.), L. Prep. Into a glass flask put 1 part of sublimed sulphur, and over it place 4 parts of iodine; insert the cork loosely, and place the flask in a water bath; as soon as its contents melt, stir them with a glass rod, replace the cork, remove the bath from the fire, and let the whole cool together. When cold, break the iodide into pieces, and place it in a wide-mouthed stoppered bottle. In this way a beautiful semi-crystalline, dark grey mass, resembling antimony, is obtained. The formulæ of the B. P., Ph. L., E., & D., Ph. U. S., & P. Cod., are essentially similar. The Ph. D. orders the two substances to be powdered and mixed before heating them.

Uses, &c. It is stimulant and alterative. An ointment made of it has been recommended by Biett and others in tuberculous affections of the skin, in lepra, psoriasis, lupus, porrigo, &c.

Iodide of sulphur stains the skin like iodine, and is readily decomposed by contact with organic substances.

SULPHURA′TION. The process by which silk, cotton, and woollen goods, straw plait, &c., are subjected to the fumes of burning sulphur, or sulphurous acid, for the purpose of bleaching or decolouring them. On the large scale, this is effected in closed apartments, called ‘sulphuring rooms,’ to which sufficient air only is admitted to keep up the slow combustion of the sulphur. On the small scale, as for straw hats, bonnets, &c., a large wooden chest is frequently employed in the same way.

SUL′PHURET. Syn. Sulphide; Sulphuretum, Sulphidum, L. See Sulphide.

SULPHURET′TED HY′DROGEN (H2S). Syn. Hydrogen sulphide, Dihydric sulphide, Hydric sulphide; Hydrosulphuric acid. Sulphuretted hydrogen occurs in nature amongst the gaseous products given off by volcanoes, as well as in many mineral waters, amongst which may be instanced those of Harrogate, in England, of Moffat, in Scotland, and of Barèges, Eaux Bonnes, St. Sauveur, &c., in the Pyrenees. It is also evolved from decaying animal matter containing albumen, such as white-of-egg, as well as from putrisable animal and vegetable substances, when in contact with a soluble sulphate, and is always one of the gases present in the air of drains and sewers. Sulphuretted hydrogen may be procured by the direct union of hydrogen and sulphur, as by passing hydrogen into boiling sulphur. But this method of procuring it is rarely, if ever, adopted. The much readier process of acting upon a metallic sulphide by an acid constitutes the means by which the chemist almost invariably obtains this gas.

The details of the process are as follows:

1. About an ounce of ferrous sulphide, previously reduced to small pieces, is placed in a bottle, and then there is poured on to it a fluid ounce of sulphuric acid diluted with 8 times its bulk of water, when the following reaction ensues:—FeS + H2SO4 = H2S + FeSO4.

The gas which is immediately and copiously given off may be collected in an apparatus, a drawing and description of which are given below.

The diluted acid, having become cool, is poured through the bulb-shaped aperture down the glass tube upon the ferrous sulphide, and the evolved gas passing through the small intermediate wash-bottle into the bottle at the reader’s right hand, is absorbed by the water therein contained, the operation being continued until the water has become saturated with the gas. The glass tubes are connected with vulcanised india rubber, as shown in the above plate. Diluted hydrochloric acid is frequently substituted for sulphuric.

2. In the above process, the gas obtained, owing to the contamination of the iron sulphide, is more or less impure. When sulphuretted hydrogen is required in a state of purity, 1 oz. of antimonious sulphide must be employed instead of the iron sulphide, and instead of sulphuric 3 or 4 parts of hydrochloric acid. As heat must be applied to the mixture, it will be necessary to substitute a flask for the larger bottle, and to support it on a retort stand. In other respects the apparatus needs no alteration.

3. Sulphuretted hydrogen is also obtainable when paraffin is heated at a moderately elevated temperature with sulphur, the reaction being attended with an abundant evolution of the gas, and a simultaneous separation of carbon.

⁂ The solution of sulphuretted hydrogen, which is so indispensable to the chemist, and consequently in such constant requisition in the laboratory, unfortunately very quickly decomposes into water, and sulphur, which deposits at the bottom of the vessel containing it. To diminish as much as possible the tendency to deterioration, the solution should be made either with boiled water, or with the clear spoilt solution.

Qualities, &c. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a colourless inflammable gas, somewhat heavier than air, its specific gravity being 1·174. When ignited, it burns with a bluish flame, to water and sulphurous anhydride if the combustion take place in a sufficient quantity of air, but if the supply of air be too limited, sulphur is deposited. Under a pressure of 17 atmospheres it is condensed to a colourless and very mobile fluid, which boils at 79·6° F., and freezes at 72·8° F. to a transparent solid. Both the gas and its aqueous solution exercise a feebly acid reaction on litmus.

Sulphuretted hydrogen is highly poisonous; when inhaled in any quantity it causes fainting; and in smaller quantities, even when considerably diluted by air, if breathed for any length of time, it acts as a dangerous depressant and insiduous poison. Upon the lower animals it acts with fatal rapidity, even if diluted with 800 or 1000 parts of atmospheric air. Transmitted through tubes heated to redness, sulphuretted hydrogen becomes partially decomposed into its elements, hydrogen and sulphur. Water at 32° F. takes up 4·37 times its bulk of this gas, and at 59, 3·23 times its hulk, hence the importance of collecting it, over warm water, if required in the gaseous form.

In the presence of moisture, sulphurous anhydride and sulphuretted hydrogen, if equivalent quantities of each react upon each other, become decomposed into sulphur, water, and pentathronic acid; hence the value of sulphurous acid as a disinfectant. The deposited sulphur is found always to occur in the electro-positive condition. Chlorine, bromine, and iodine, also decompose sulphuretted hydrogen with deposition of sulphur, and formation of hydrochloric, hydrobromic, and hydriodic acids.

Hydrosulphates or Sulphides. Sulphuretted hydrogen or hydrosulphuric acid, as it is sometimes called, when brought into contact with bases in solution, gives rise to compounds, which by some chemists are regarded as hydrosulphates, or combinations of the base with hydrosulphuric acid; and by others as sulphides or combinations of the metal with sulphur, the latter reaction being attended with the elimination of water, as when a base is acted upon by hydrochloric acid. By those who hold the former view the reaction would be as follows:

K2O + H2S = K2O1H2S.

In the latter case it would be thus represented:

K2O + H2S = K2S + H2O.

The latter is the more general opinion, and it receives support from the fact that when sulphuretted hydrogen is passed into the solution of a metallic salt, an insoluble precipitate of a sulphide of the metal is thrown down. Thus, when the gas is passed into a solution of cupric sulphate, the precipitate consists of hydrated cupric sulphide, the liberated sulphuric acid renders the liquid which was before neutral, acid. The larger number of sulphides so formed, combining with water at the instance of their precipitation, occur as hydrates.

There is also a class of sulphides known as hydrosulphides, sulphydrates, or double sulphides, in which an equivalent of the metal is replaced by an equivalent of hydrogen. Examples of these are the potassic hydrosulphide (KHS), sodic hydrosulphide (NaHS), and ammonic hydrosulphide (H4NHS). No such combinations occur with hydrogen and the metals of the earth proper, and of the iron group.

Tests. Many of the hydrosulphates or sulphides may be detected, by dropping on them some hydrochloric acid, when the characteristic smell of sulphuretted hydrogen will be immediately evolved from them. Very small quantities of a sulphide may be detected as follows:—Place the suspected sulphide in a small test tube, on the upper part of which is inserted a piece of blotting paper moistened with a solution of plumbic acetate, then carefully pour some hydrochloric acid on to the substance, when, if it be a sulphide, the paper will become. immediately browned or blackened.

Many small quantities of the soluble sulphides are revealed in neutral or alkaline solutions by the rich purple colour which they form on the addition of a solution of sodic nitro-prusside. Most of them, when heated before the blow-pipe, give off the smell of sulphurous acid.

The quantitative determination of free sulphuretted hydrogen, or of a soluble sulphide in any solution, is conducted as follows:—The liquid to be tested is mixed with a small quantity of a cold solution of starch, made slightly acid with acetic acid. A solution of iodine of known strength, dissolved in potassic iodide is then added, until the liquid just begins to turn blue from the action of the excess of iodine on the starch. In this process the sulphuretted hydrogen converts the iodine into hydriodic acid, whilst sulphur is liberated.

Of course the quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen is calculated from the quantity of iodine employed. The reaction is—

2H2S + 2I2 = 4HI + S2.

The value of sulphuretted hydrogen as a reagent has already been alluded to. It throws down most of the metals from solutions of their salts in the form of insoluble sulphides; and each of the sulphides so produced in many cases being distinguished from the others by a special and characteristic colour. The sulphuretted hydrogen thus presents the metal in a form in which it can, in many instances, be easily and with certainty recognised. Thus sulphide of lead is black, of arsenic yellow, of antimony orange, of manganese salmon colour, and of zinc white. By means of sulphuretted hydrogen, also, the chemist is enabled to separate the metals into groups.

For instance, from solutions containing certain metallic salts, sulphuretted hydrogen throws down the metals as sulphides, provided the solution has been previously made slightly acid. Copper, arsenic, tin, and cadmium, are some of the metals thrown down under these conditions.

The salts of iron, nickel, cobalt, and certain others, although they do not yield precipitates under like circumstances, are found to do so if their solutions are made alkaline instead of acid. Again, there are other salts, those of the alkalies and alkaline earths, which, when sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through these solutions, give no precipitates either in acid or alkaline solutions. The chemist, therefore, in the course of an analysis, frequently avails himself of a knowledge of these facts to separate certain metals from each other.

Hydrogen, Persulphide of. Syn. Hydric persulphide, Hydrogen disulphide. To procure this substance, calcium disulphide (CaS2) in solution is poured into hydrochloric acid diluted with twice its bulk of water. The solution being gently warmed, the persulphide subsides at the bottom as an oily fluid. Hydric persulphide has a great resemblance to hydric peroxide in qualities. It bleaches, and is decomposed, with violence, when brought into contact with the oxides of manganese and silver. It easily decomposes into sulphur and sulphuretted hydrogen.

SULPHU′RIC ACID. H2SO4. Syn. Oil of vitriol, British o. of v., Vitriolic acid†; Acidum sulphuricum (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), Acidum sulphuricum venale (Ph. D.), Acidum vitriolicum†, L. This acid, in a concentrated form, was discovered by Basil Valentine towards the end of the 15th century. At first it was obtained by the distillation of green vitriol, but is now made by the oxidation of sulphurous anhydride, obtained by the combustion either of sulphur or of certain sulphides. In consequence of the growing demand for sulphur in the manufacture of gunpowder, ultramarine, and for the destruction of the vine parasites in the vineyards of France, Italy, and Spain, sulphuric acid is now seldom made by burning sulphur, but, with few exceptions, by roasting iron pyrites, or bisulphide of iron.

The following table will convey an idea of the enormous consumption of this mineral in vitriol making in England alone. The quantities given represent tons.

Date. Pyrites from Sum Total.

Norway. Germany. Belgium. Portugal. Spain. Italy. Sundry Places.

1862 4,975 6,817 9,860 53,296 33,717 ... 2,187 110,852

1863 6,736 15,409 12,059 109,180 33,213 ... 2,628 179,225

1864 16,087 12,751 7,069 118,489 15,529 ... 1,065 170,990

1865 22,229 14,727 2,121 137,787 16,393 ... 369 193,626

1866 38,262 21,574 4,006 165,993 11,910 ... 1,625 244,596

1867 77,895 34,592 2,299 105,556 50,222 ... 2,134 272,698

1868 63,007 41,559 ... 75,883 47,458 794 1,019 229,720

1869 63,091 13,983 ... 140,805 99,648 ... 2,420 319,947

1870 67,464 14,914 ... 174,459 150,990 ... 3,676 411,512

1871 74,416 12,809 ... 120,573 242,163 ... 4,581 454,542

1872 71,665 5,682 ... 180,329 257,429 ... 2,521 517,626

Of the other sulphides employed in vitriol making may be mentioned galena, or native sulphide of lead, which, when roasted, is made to give up half its sulphur. The chief consumption of this mineral is in the Harz. Copper pyrites is also used in the Harz, as well as in Swansea and Glasgow. Blende, or native sulphide of zinc, is also occasionally had recourse to.

In addition to the above sulphides, the vitriol maker in England, France, and Germany has lately largely availed himself of a compound known as ‘Laming’s mixture,’ which is an impure oxide of iron that has been used in gas manufacture for the removal from the gas of the sulphur. Laming’s mixture is consequently rich in this last element.

Associated with the pyrites in small quantities are various substances, some of which, becoming volatilised when the ore is burnt, enter the chambers with the mixed gases, and thus find their entrance into the acid, whilst others remain behind in the iron residue of impure ferric oxide, left on the hearth of the furnace after roasting. The former of these foreign bodies, which are found in most commercial acids, are described below under the section “Purification.” Amongst the solid non-volatile matters, the extraction of which from the burnt iron has been found in many works to yield a profit, are zinc, copper, silver and thallium.

At Wolcrum, in Germany, the zinc which exists in the residue in the form of sulphate is extracted by lixiviation, and then treated with common salt, the reaction giving rise to the production of sulphate of soda and chloride of zinc. The soda obtained is sufficient to pay for the working of the operation, whilst a good profit is made by the sale of the large quantities of chloride of zinc which are thus yielded.

The copper, which in some residues is met with to the amount of 4 per cent., also pays for extraction, and is sold to the smelter. It is first converted into chloride, and then precipitated by iron. The silver is recovered by Claudet’s process, which consists in precipitating it from a saline solution in which it is in the state of a soluble chloride, by iodide of potassium.

In the Widnes Copper Works the silver so extracted yields an annual profit of £3000.

Thallium is found in the fine dust caused by the combustion of the pyrites, which dust deposits in the flues between the furnace and the chambers. The metal is extracted from the dust by treating this latter with dilute sulphuric acid. The resulting sulphate is converted into chloride, and again reconverted alternately into sulphate and chloride several times, the sulphate last obtained being reduced by metallic zinc.

Selenium is also a frequent constituent in the flue dust. Some ores, after being subjected to roasting, yield iron capable of being worked. This is more particularly the case with the Spanish and Portuguese pyrites.

The following is an outline of the process by which sulphuric acid is obtained, and of the chemical changes which occur during its manufacture:

The sulphur or sulphide being placed on the hearth of the furnace, shown at A in the accompanying cut, when heated from below, soon takes fire, and combining with the oxygen of the atmospheric air, the admission of which into the furnace is regulated by an experienced workman, by the door shown in the plate, forms sulphurous anhydride. An iron pot, standing on the hearth of the furnace, contains a mixture of nitrate of soda and oil of vitriol, and this becoming heated by the burning sulphur, decomposition of the salt ensues, and fumes of nitric acid are given off. The sulphurous anhydride and nitric acid gases thus formed together with air are carried into large leaden chambers, standing on, and supported by, massive frameworks of stout timber. Steam is admitted continuously by several jets (see plate) into these chambers, which are covered at the bottom with water to a depth of about three inches.

As soon as the mixed gases enter the chamber and come into contact with the steam, the sulphurous anhydride acts on the nitric acid, forming sulphuric acid, which falls into and is absorbed by the water on the floor of the chamber, and nitric oxide, which is liberated in the chamber.

The following equation will illustrate the reaction:

2HNO3 + 3SO2 + 2H2O = 3H2SO4 + 2NO.

170 parts by weight of nitrate of soda are required to oxidise to sulphuric acid 96 parts of sulphur, whereas rarely more, and frequently less, than 5 parts of soda are required by the vitriol maker. This saving of material is effected by the function performed in the chamber by the nitric oxide resulting from the decomposition of the nitric acid.

The nitric oxide reacting upon the air in the chamber abstracts oxygen from it and becomes converted into nitric peroxide, thus:

2NO + O2 = 2NO2.

Nitric peroxide is a very unstable compound, and directly it comes into contact with the fresh sulphurous anhydride entering the chamber, it oxidises it in the presence of water to sulphuric acid, thus:

2NO2 + 2SO2 + 2H2O = 2H2SO4 + 2NO.

This deportment of the nitric oxide being continuous, it will be seen it acts the part of a carrier of oxygen from the atmospheric air contained in the chamber to the sulphurous acid, and by so doing (theoretically) renders any further supply of nitrate of soda than that required to start the process unnecessary.

As soon as the water, or rather liquid acid on the floor of the leaden chambers, has acquired the sp. gr. of 1·35 to 1·50, it is drawn off, and concentrated by boiling in shallow leaden pans to the density of about 1·72, after which it is further concentrated in green-glass or platinum retorts, until the sp. gr. reaches 1·842 to 1·846. When of sp. gr. from 1·35 to 1·50 it is called chamber acid, and when of the last strength, is used in the manufacture of salt-cake, sulphate of ammonia, some kinds of manure, and nitric acid. Sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1·720 is mostly employed in the preparation of superphosphate of lime. After concentration to 1·842 or 1·846, the clear acid is put into large globular bottles of green glass (carboys), surrounded with straw and basket-work, and is sent into the market under the name of ‘oil of vitriol.’

The leaden chambers in which the chemical changes take place, that result in the formation of the acid, vary greatly in dimensions in different works, being sometimes as much as 12 or 15 feet high, 15 or 20 wide, and from 150 to 300 feet long. They are mostly partially divided by incomplete leaden partitions, known as curtains, so arranged on the roof and the floor as to cause the currents of mixed gases to come into collision, and thus cause their admixture. Where there are a number of small separate chambers they are connected by means of leaden tubes. A chamber having a capacity of 25,000 cubic feet will yield 10 tons of acid weekly.

The sheets of lead used in the construction of the chambers are united by fusion, or melting together of their edges. If cement were used it would be speedily attacked and destroyed by the acid and gaseous products.

The process for the manufacture of sulphuric acid above described, was devised in 1774 by a calico printer of Rouen, and improved by Chaptal.

In 1776 the first vitriol factory was set up at Prestonpans, by Dr Roebuck, of Birmingham, with whom originated the idea of the leaden chambers.

Various attempts have been at different times unsuccessfully made to supersede the old process. Of these we may mention:

1. The proposal to oxidise sulphurous acid by means of chlorine in the presence of steam.

2. Persoz’s method to oxidise sulphurous acid by means of nitric acid, and to regenerate the nitric oxide resulting from the reduction of the acid by the oxygen of the air in the presence of steam.

3. a, by the decomposition of gypsum by superheated steam at a red heat; or b, by decomposing the gypsum by chloride of lead.

The failure of the above and other efforts has led to the chemist turning his attention to the elaboration and perfection of the old process, in the working of which considerable improvements have been introduced within the last ten or fifteen years; improvements resulting not only in a diminished cost of production, but in the manufacture of a purer, and therefore better acid.

The proper construction of the furnaces, ovens, and grates on which the firing of the sulphur or pyrites takes place, together with the flues, is an important condition in the manufacture of the acid; and to this end a great deal of scientific knowledge and experience have lately been applied with excellent effect. Of the many improvements in this direction for burning poor ores of pyrites is a contrivance much used in Germany, where the furnace on which it is carried out is known as Gerstenhöfer’s oven. It is shown in the accompanying drawing.

The furnace is fitted inside with a number of little fire-clay projections, arranged as shown in the plate, in banks or terraces, the function of which is to prolong the exposure of the pyrites to heat. The furnace having been previously raised to a red heat, by means of a coal or wood fire (which is then extinguished), the pyrites are admitted into it through the hoppers (a). At the base of the hoppers are grooved iron rollers, which crush the lumps of ore as they enter the chambers, and by thus reducing their size, expose a larger amount of surface to the action of heat. The greater part of the sulphur of the pyrites is thus burnt off, as the lumps pass from terrace to terrace, the heat at the same time generated by their combustion being sufficient to keep up that of the furnace. A moderate blast of air is admitted at c, whilst the sulphurous acid formed ascends through d into the leaden chambers, the spent pyrites falling out through the apertures at c.

Another improved furnace is Perret’s, which is largely used in France. In this, small lumps of pyrites are placed on horizontal plates, and exposed to the hot gases generated in kilns below. The gases, on their way to the chambers, sweep over the pyrites and rob them of their sulphur.

The most important and noticeable improvement, however, of late years in sulphuric acid manufacture is that resulting from the addition to the plant of a contrivance of Gay-Lussac. Previous to this invention, the sulphuric acid of commerce, amongst other impurities, always contained appreciable quantities of certain oxides of nitrogen, the results of which were not only the contamination of the acid, but a waste of substances, which, properly utilised, are essential for the conversion of the sulphurous and sulphuric acid, and the loss of which leads to an increased consumption of nitrate of soda. Under the old method, these valuable oxides of nitrogen, which, with a large amount of nitrogen and a small quantity of oxygen, constituted the spent air of the last leaden chamber, were carried off into the air, and consequently lost. Now, instead of being allowed to diffuse into the atmosphere, they are made to pass through a tower or chamber (shown at C in the plate below) filled with coke, through which a thin stream of sulphuric acid is made to trickle. In passing through the coke, therefore, the expiring spent gases come into contact with the sulphuric acid, to which they give up their oxides of nitrogen. From the tower (C) the acid flows into a cistern (D), whence it is pumped up to the top of another tower (E), either filled with coke, or arranged with inclined shelves, as shown in the plate. In this tower the acid meets with a current of hot sulphurous acid and air coming up from the furnace, which deprive it of the oxides of nitrogen, and the gaseous mixture enters the chambers, whilst the denitrafied acid flows off into a suitable reservoir.