A Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts, &c. Volume II (part 15)

Obs. Solution of stannic chloride is much used by dyers, under the names of ‘SPIRITS OF TIN,’ ‘DYERS’ SPIRITS,’ ‘TIN MORDANT,’ &c., the proportions of the ingredients and the state of dilution being various, according to circumstances or the caprice of the manufacturer. A process, which has been highly recommended, and which seems preferable to all others, is to prepare a simple solution of the stannous chloride, and to convert it into a solution of the stannic chloride, either by the addition of nitric acid and a gentle heat, or by passing chlorine through it. See Tin mordants.

Stannic Hydrate. Sn(HO)4. Syn. Hydrated peroxide of tin, Stannic acid. Prep. By adding hydrate of potassium or an alkaline carbonate to a solution of stannic chloride. Soluble in acids and pure alkalies. Its compound with the latter are sometimes called STANNATES.

Stannic Iodide. SnI4. By dissolving stannic hydrate in hydriodic acid. Yellow, silky crystals.

Stannic Oxide. SnO2. Syn. Binoxide of tin, Peroxide of tin. Prep. By the action of nitric acid on metallic tin, the resulting white powder being well washed with water; or, by heating metallic tin above its melting-point, in the air. Yellow; anhydrous; insoluble.

Obs. Frémy has given the name of Metastannic acid to the oxide prepared by the action of nitric acid on metallic tin; the hydrate he calls STANNIC ACID. See Polishers’ putty.

Stannic Sulphide. SnS2. Syn. Bisulphide of tin, Bronze powder, Mosaic gold; Aurum musivum, Aurum mosaicum, Stanni bisulphuretem, L. Prep. 1. To pure tin, 12 oz., melted by a gentle heat, add of mercury, 6 oz.; to the powdered mass, when cold, add of chloride of ammonium, 6 oz.; flowers of sulphur, 7 oz; and after thorough admixture place the compound in a glass flask or matrass, and gradually heat it, imbedded in sand, to low redness, and continue the heat for several hours, or until white fumes cease to be disengaged; the ‘aurum musivum’ remains at the bottom of the vessel, under the form of soft and very brilliant gold-coloured flakes.

2. (Berzelius.) Stannic oxide and sulphur, of each 2 parts; chloride of ammonium, 1 part; mix, and expose it to a low red heat, in a glass or earthenware retort, until sulphurous fumes cease to be evolved.

Used as a metallic gold colour, or substitute for powdered gold, in bronzes, varnish work, sealing-wax, &c.

TIN FI′LINGS. See Tin powder (below).

TINFOIL, Lead in. Tinfoil very rarely consists of pure tin; generally it contains more or less lead. According to the recent analysis of August Vogel, who has examined a great number of samples from very different sources, it contains from 1 to 19 per cent. of lead. There are, however, specimens of tinfoil which contain so little lead that it hardly gives a reaction with the appropriate tests.

Since tinfoil is so much used for covering articles of diet, or of confectionery, or of perfumery, it was a matter of some interest to determine whether or not there was any danger of transference of lead from the wrapper to the contents. A number of experiments upon soap, chocolate, and different kinds of dry sugar, which had been enveloped in tinfoil very highly charged with lead, showed that there was no contamination with lead. Cheese, on the other hand, on account of its being moist, and being closely in contact with the foil, did take up lead.

Of course the lactic acid of the cheese would also favour the taking up of the metal. A point worthy of being recorded in connection with this matter is the rapid diminution of the lead toward the centre of the cheese. Often plenty of lead was found in the rind, and none a little way in the cheese.

TIN GLASS†. See Bismuth.

TIN MOR′DANTS. Syn. Dyers’ spirit, Solution of tin, Spirit of t., Nitromuriate of t.† These, as noticed above, vary greatly in their composition and character.

Prep. 1. Take of aquafortis, 8 parts; sal ammoniac or common salt, 1 part; dissolve, and add, very gradually, of grain tin, 1 part; and, when dissolved, preserve it in stoppered bottles from the air. This is the common ‘SPIRIT OF TIN’ of the dyers.

2. (Berthollet.) Nitric acid, at 30° Baumé, 8 parts; sal ammoniac, 1 part; dissolve, then add by degrees, of tin, 1 part; and when dissolved, dilute the solution with 1-4th of its weight of water.

3. (Dambourney.) Hydrochloric acid, at 17° Baumé, 4 parts; nitric acid, at 30° Baumé, 1 part; mix, and add by degrees, of Molucca tin, 1 part.

4. (Hellot.) Nitric acid and water, of each 1 lb.; sal ammoniac, 1 oz.; nitre, ⁄2 oz.; dissolve, then add, by degrees, of granulated tin, 2 oz.

5. (Poerner.) Nitric acid and water, of each 1 lb.; sal ammoniac, 1⁄2 oz.; dissolve, then add, by very slow degrees, of pure tin. beaten into ribands, 2 oz.

6. (Schoeffer.) Nitric acid and water, of each 2 lbs.; sal ammoniac, 2 oz.; pure tin, 4⁄2 oz.; as last. All the above are used chiefly for dyeing scarlet, more particularly with cochineal.

7. (LAC SPIRIT.) From grain tin, 1 lb, slowly dissolved in hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1·19), 20 lbs. Recommended as a solvent for lac dye. For use, ⁄4 to 1 lb. of the liquid is digested on each lb. of the dye for 5 or 6 hours, before adding it to the dye bath.

8. Hydrochloric acid, 6⁄4 lbs.; aquafortis, ⁄2 lb.; grain tin, gradually added, 1 lb. Recommended for lac dye.

TIN-PLATE. Iron-plate covered with a coating of tin, by dipping it into a bath of that metal.

TIN POW′DER. Syn. Tin filings, Tin dust; Stanni pulvis (Ph. E & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Melt grain tin in an iron vessel, pour it into an earthenware mortar heated a little above its melting-point, and triturate briskly as the metal cools; lastly, sift the product, and repeat the process with what remains in the sieve.

2. (Ph. D.) Melt grain-tin in a black-lead crucible, and, whilst it is cooling, stir it with a rod of iron until it is reduced to powder; let the finer particles be separated by means of a sieve, and when, after having been several times in succession shaken with distilled water, the decanted liquor appears quite clear, let the product be dried for use.

Obs. Powdered tin is also prepared by filing and rasping.—Dose, 2 to 4 dr., as a vermifuge. Polishers’ putty, coloured with ivory black, is frequently substituted for this powder, and hence arises the ill effects that sometimes follow its use.

TIN′NING. Proc. 1. Plates or vessels of brass or copper, boiled with a solution of stannate of potassa, mixed with turnings of tin, become, in the course of a few minutes, covered with a firmly attached layer of pure tin.

2. A similar effect is produced by boiling the articles with tin filings and caustic alkali or cream of tartar.

Obs. By either of the above methods chemical vessels made of copper or brass may be easily and perfectly tinned.

3. The following method for tinning copper, brass, and iron in the cold, and without apparatus, is by F. Stolba.

The requisites for accomplishing this object are:—1st. The object to be coated with tin must be entirely free from oxide. It must be carefully cleaned and care be taken that no grease spots are left; it makes no difference whether the object be cleaned mechanically or chemically. 2nd. Zinc powder; the best is that prepared artificially by melting zinc, and pouring it into an iron mortar. It can be easily pulverised immediately after solidification; it should be about as fine as writing sand. 3rd. A solution of protochloride of tin containing 5 or 10 per cent., to which as much pulverised cream of tartar must be added as will go on to the point of a knife. The object to be tinned is moistened with the tinned solution, after which it is rubbed hard with the zinc powder. The tinning appears at once. The tin-salt is decomposed by the zinc, metallic tin being deposited. When the object tinned is polished brass or copper, it appears as beautiful as if silvered, and retains its lustre for a long time. 4th. (C. Paul.) The zinc or iron articles are immersed in a mixture of 1 part sulphuric or nitric acid with 10 parts of water; a solution of copper sulphate or acetate is then slowly added. After the deposition of a thin layer of copper, the articles are removed, washed, moistened with a solution of 1 part ‘tin crystals,’ in 2 parts water and 2 parts hydrochloric acid, and then shaken up with a mixture of fine chalk and copper. Ammonium sulphate, which is prepared by dissolving 1 part of copper sulphate in 16 parts of water, and adding ammonia until a clear dark blue liquid is obtained.

The articles may now be tinned by immersion in a solution of 1 part of tin crystals with 3 parts white argol in water. Brass, copper, or nickel goods, also iron and zinc articles which have been copper-plated, may be silvered by treatment (after thorough cleansing), with a solution of 14 grams silver in 26 grams of nitric acid, to which is added a solution of 120 grams of potassium cyanide in 1 litre water, and also 28 grams of finely powdered chalk.

TINS, To Clean. All kinds of tins, moulds, measures, &c., may be cleaned by being well rubbed with a paste made of whiting and water. They should then be rubbed with a leather, and any dust remaining on them should be removed by means of a soft brush. Finally, they must be polished with another leather. Always let the inside of any vessel be cleaned first, since in cleaning the inside the outside always becomes soiled. For very dirty or greasy tins, grated bath-brick and water must be used.

TINC′TURE. Syn. Tinctura, L.; Teinture, Fr. Tinctures (TINCTURÆ; ALCOOLÉS, ALCOOLATURES) are solutions of the active principles of bodies, obtained by digesting them in alcohol more or less dilute. Ethereal tinctures (TINCTURÆ ÆTHEREÆ; ETHÉROLÉS, ETHÉROLATURES) are similar solutions prepared with ether.

Prep. “Tinctures are usually prepared by reducing the solid ingredients to small fragments, coarse powder, or fine powder, macerating them for 7 days, or longer, in proof spirit or rectified spirit, straining the solution through linen or calico (or paper), and finally expressing the residuum strongly, to obtain what fluid is still retained in the mass. They are also advantageously prepared by the method of displacement or percolation.” (Ph. E.) “All tinctures should be prepared in closed glass (or stoneware) vessels, and be shaken frequently during the process of maceration.” (Ph. L.) Cooper’s patent jars are very convenient for the preparation of tinctures, as they are made with wide mouths large enough to admit the hand, and yet may be closed in an instant, with as much ease and certainty as an ordinary stoppered bottle.

Tinctures are better clarified by repose than by filtration, as in the latter case a considerable portion is retained by the filtering medium, and lost by evaporation. The waste in this way is never less than 10% of spirit. In all ordinary cases, it is sufficient to allow the tincture to settle for a few days, and then to pour off the clear supernatant portion through a funnel loosely choked with a piece of sponge or tow; after which the remaining foul portion of the liquid may be filtered through bibulous paper in a covered funnel. The filtration should be conducted as rapidly as possible, for the double purpose of lessening the amount lost by evaporation and the action of the air on the fluid. Tinctures which have been long exposed to the air frequently lose their transparency within a few days after being filtered, owing to the oxidisement and precipitation of some portion of the matter previously held in solution, a change which occurs even in stoppered bottles. Resinous and oily tinctures, as those of myrrh, tolu, and lavender (comp.), may be generally restored to their former brightness by the addition of a quantity of rectified spirit, equal to that which they have lost by evaporation; but many tinctures resist this mode of treatment, and require refiltering.

Ethereal tinctures are best prepared by percolation, and should be both made and kept in stoppered bottles.

Mr Umney says:—It must always be remembered that the quantity of spirit required to make the measure of tinctures to a given bulk, will only be strictly uniform, in so far as the operators proceed under precisely the same circumstances.

No causes will be found to influence results more than the manufacture of tinctures upon a small, as compared with a large, scale, and the use of the screw as compared with the hydraulic press, in the final removal of the spirit from the mare; even the temperature of summer and winter may cause a variation in the results.

Qual. The tinctures of the shops are usually very uncertain and inferior preparations, owing to their manufacture being carelessly conducted, and refuse drugs and an insufficient quantity of spirit being employed in their production. It is a general practice among the druggists to substitute a mixture of equal parts of rectified spirit and water, or a spirit of about 26 u. p., for proof spirit; and a mixture of 2 galls. of water with 5 galls. of rectified spirit, for rectified spirit. In some wholesale drug-houses all the simple tinctures (except those that are of a very active or valuable kind, as Laudanum, for instance) are made with 1 lb. of the dry ingredient to the gall. of spirit, irrespective of the instructions in the Pharmacopœia. Appearance is the object which is alone aimed at, without reference to quality. If the tincture be perfectly transparent, and has a good colour, the conscience of the seller and the stomach of the consumer are alike satisfied.

Assay. 1. The RICHNESS in ALCOHOL may be readily determined by Brande’s method of alcoholometry; but more accurately by the method of M. Gay-Lussac (see Alcoholometry). That of tinctures containing simple extractive, saccharine, or like organic matter, in solution, may be approximately found from the boiling-point, or from the temperature of the vapour of the boiling liquid.

2. The QUANTITY of SOLID MATTER per cent. may be ascertained by evaporating to dryness 100 grains-measure, in a weighed capsule, by the heat of boiling water.

3. The QUANTITY of the INGREDIENTS used in the preparation of tinctures may be inferred from the weight last found, reference being had to the known per-centage of extract which the substances employed yield to spirit of the strength under examination. When the ingredients contain alkaloids, or consist of saline or mineral matter, an assay may be made for them.

Uses, &c. Tinctures, from the quantity of alcohol which they contain, are necessarily administered in small doses, unless in cases where stimulants are indicated. The most important and useful of them are those that contain very active ingredients, such as the tincture of opium, foxglove, hemlock, henbane, &c. In many instances the solvent, even in doses of a few fluid drachms, acts more powerfully on the living system than the principles it holds in solution; and, when continued for some time, produces the same deleterious effects as the habitual use of ardent spirits. When the action of a substance is the reverse of stimulant, it cannot with propriety be exhibited in this form, unless the dose be so small that the operation of the spirit cannot be taken into account, as with the narcotic tinctures. Hence, this class of remedies are in less frequent use than formerly.

The following list embraces all the formulæ of the tincturæ of the London, Edinburgh, Dublin, and British Pharmacopœias, with a few others likely to be useful to the reader. These will furnish examples for the preparation of others in less general use, care being had to proportionate the ingredients with due reference to the proper or usual dose of tinctures of that class.

Tincture of Ac′etate of I′ron. Syn. Tinctura ferri acetatis (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Solution of persulphate of iron, 5; acetate of potash, 4; rectified spirit, q. s.; dissolve the acetate of potash in 20 of water and add 16 of spirit to the solution of iron; mix the two liquids, and shake well occasionally for an hour, then filter, and add to the filtered liquid sufficient rectified spirit to make up 40.—Dose, 5 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. D.) To water, 9 fl. oz., add of pure sulphuric acid, 6 fl. dr.; and in the mixture, with the aid of a gentle heat, dissolve sulphate of iron, 8 oz.; next add of pure nitric acid, ⁄2 fl. oz., previously diluted with water, 1 fl. oz., and evaporate the resulting solution to the consistence of a thick syrup; dissolve this in rectified spirit, 1 quart; also dissolve of acetate of potash, 8 oz., in another quart of rectified spirit; and having thoroughly mixed the solutions, by frequent agitation in a large bottle, filter the whole, with expression, first through calico, and then through paper. Sp. gr. ·891.—Dose, 15 to 60 drops, in water, in the same cases as in the other chalybeates.

Tincture of Acetate of Zinc. Syn. Tinctura zinci acetatis, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Acetate of potash and sulphate of zinc, of each 1 oz.; rub them together, then add of rectified spirit, 16 fl oz.; macerate for a week, and filter. Astringent. Diluted with water, it is used as a collyrium and injection.

Tincture of Ac′onite. Syn. Tinctura aconiti (Ph. L.), Tinct. aconiti radicis (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Powdered root, 1; rectified spirit to percolate, 8; macerate for 48 hours with three fourths of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press the marc and add spirit to make up 8.—Dose, 5 to 15 minims, twice or thrice a day.

2. (Ph. L.) Take of aconite root, coarsely powdered, 15 oz. (20 oz.—Ph. D.); rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, press, and filter.

Obs. These tinctures differ materially in strength.—Dose. Of the Ph. L., 5 to 10 drops; of the Ph. D., 3 to 6 drops, two or three times daily (carefully watching its effects); in rheumatism, gout, syphilis, &c., where a narcotic sedative is indicated. Diluted with water, it forms an excellent embrocation in rheumatism, neuralgia, &c. It should be applied by means of a small sponge, tied to the end of a stick or glass rod. The Ph. D. formula is nearly the same as that for Dr Turnbull’s concentrated tincture of aconite root, and that given by Dr Pereira. The TINCTURA ACONITI FOLIORUM of the Ph. U. S. is made with 1 oz. of the dried leaves to 8 fl. oz. of rectified spirit.

Tincture of Aconite, Ethereal. Syn. Tinctura aconiti ætherea. (P. Cod.) Prep. Powdered aconite, 4 oz.; sulphuric ether, 16 oz. (by weight). It is best prepared by percolation.

Tincture of Ailanthus Bark. Syn. Tinctura ailanthi corticis. Prep. Take Of ailanthus bark, bruised, 1⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate for seven days in a closed vessel with occasional agitation, then strain, press, filter, and add sufficient spirit to make 1 pint.—Dose. From ⁄2 to 2 fl. dr.

Tincture of Al′oes. Syn. Tinctura aloës (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Socotrine aloes, 1; extract of liquorice, 3; proof spirit, 40; macerate seven days, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make 40.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Socotrine or hepatic aloes, coarsely powdered, 1 oz.; extract of liquorice, 3 oz.; water, 1⁄2 pint; rectified spirit, ⁄2 pint; macerate for 7 days, and filter. The formula of the Ph. E. is nearly similar. Purgative and stomachic.—Dose, ⁄4 to fl. oz.

Tincture of Aloes, Alkaline. Syn. Tinctura aloës alkalina. (Swediaur.) Prep. Aloes, ⁄2 oz.; extract of liquorice, 1⁄2 dr.; cinnamon water, 8 oz.; proof spirit, 8 oz.; carbonate of soda, 1 oz. Digest, and strain.—Dose, 1 dr. to 4 dr.

Tincture of Aloes (Compound). Syn. Tincture of aloes and myrrh; Tinctura aloës composita (Ph. L.), Tinctura aloës et myrrhæ (Ph. E.), Elixir aloës†, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. & E.) Socotrine or hepatic aloes, coarsely powdered, 4 oz.; hay saffron, 2 oz.; tincture of myrrh, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, with occasional agitation, and strain. The Dublin College (1826) omits the saffron.

2. (Wholesale.) From aloes, 1 lb.; myrrh, ⁄4 lb.; hay saffron, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 5 pints; water, 3 pints; as the last. Purgative, stomachic, and emmenagogue.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 fl. dr.

Tincture of Amber. Syn. Tinctura succini. (P. Cod.) Prep. Amber, in fine powder, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 6 oz. Digest for 6 days and filter.—Dose, 20 to 30 drops.

Tincture of Amber, Alkaline. Syn. Tinctura succini alkalina. (Ph. E. 1744.) Prep. Rub 2 oz. of amber with a sufficient quantity of carbonate of potash to form a soft paste; dry this, and digest it in 16 oz. of rectified spirit for 8 days.

Tincture of Ambergris. Syn. Tinctura ambergriseæ. (P. Cod.) Prep. Ambergris, 1 part; rectified spirit, 10 parts. Macerate 10 days.

Tincture of Ammo′′nia (Compound.) Syn. Tinctura ammoniæ composita (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Mastic, 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. dr.; digest until dissolved, decant, add, of oil of lavender, 14 drops; stronger solution of ammonia, 1 pint; and mix well.

2. (Ph. L. 1836; Aqua luciæ; Eau de luce.) As the last, but adding 4 drops of oil of amber along with the oil of lavender.

Obs. This preparation is reputed antacid, antispasmodic, and stimulant.—Dose, 10 to 20 drops, in water; in hysteria, low spirits, &c. In the East Indies, eau de luce is regarded almost as a specific for the bite of the cobra di capello and other venomous reptiles.

Tincture of Ammo′′nia-chlo′′ride of I′ron. Syn. Ammoniated tincture of iron, Mynsight’s a. t. of i.; Tinctura ferri ammonio-chloridi (Ph. L.). Tinctura ferri ammoniati, L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Ammonio-chloride of iron, 4 oz.; proof spirit and distilled water, of each 1 pint; dissolve.—Dose, 20 to 60 drops, or more; as a stimulant, chalybeate tonic. “A fl. oz. of this, on potassa being added, yields 5·8 gr. of sesquioxide of iron.” (Ph. L.)

Tincture of Ammoniacum. Syn. Tinctura gummi ammoniaci. (P. Cod.) Prep. Gum ammoniacum, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 20 oz. (by weight). Digest 10 days, and strain.

Tincture of Angelica. Syn. Tinctura angelica. (Aust. Ph.) Prep. Dried angelica root, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 6 oz. Digest, and filter.—Dose, 1 dr.

Tincture of Angostu′ra. Tincture of cusparia.

Tincture, Antiscorbutic. Syn. Tinctura antiscorbutica, Tinctura armoracue composita. (P. Cod.) Prep. Fresh horseradish root, 8 oz.; black mustard seed, 4 oz.; muriate of ammonia, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz. (by weight); compound spirit of scurvy grass, 16 oz. (by weight). Macerate 10 days.

Tincture of Ants. Syn. Tinctura formicarum. (Ph. G.) Prep. Ants recently collected, cleaned, and bruised, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 3 oz. (by weight). Digest 8 days.

Tincture of Ar′nica. Syn. Tinctura arnicae, T. a. florum, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor. and Hamb. Cod.) Flowers of Arnica montana, 1⁄2 oz.; spirit, sp. gr. ·900 (15⁄2 o. p.), 1 lb.; digest for 8 days, and strain, with expression.—Dose, 10 to 30 drops; in diarrhœa, dysentery, gout, rheumatism, paralysis, &c.

Tincture of Arnica Root. Syn. Tinctura arnicae (B. P.), Tinctura arnicæ radicis, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Bruised root, 1; rectified spirit to percolate, 20; macerate forty-eight hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, and, when it ceases to drop, pour on the remaining spirit, let it drain, wash the marc, press, filter, and make up to 20—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. From arnica root, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; as the last.

Tincture, Aromatic. Syn. Tinctura aromatica. (Gr. Ph.) Prep. Cinnamon, 4 oz.; cardamoms, 1 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; galangal root, 1 oz.; ginger, 1 oz.; all in coarse powder; proof spirit, 3 lbs. 2 oz. (by weight). Macerate 8 days, and strain.

Tincture, Aromat′ic. Compound tincture of cinnamon.

Tincture of Artichoke. Syn. Tinctura cynaræ. Prep. Fresh artichoke leaves, bruised, 2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 lb. Digest for 7 days, express and filter.

Tincture of Assafœtida. Syn. Tinctura assafœtidæ (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Assafœtida (small fragments), 1; rectified spirit, 8; macerate seven days, strain, filter, and add spirit to make 8.—Dose, ⁄2 dr. to 1 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Assafœtida (small), 5 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days—Ph. D), and filter. “It cannot be made by percolation with delay.” (Ph. E.)

3. (Wholesale.) Assafœtida, 2⁄2 lbs.; boiling water, 2 quarts; dissolve, add of rectified spirit, 1⁄2 gall.; agitate well for 3 or 4 days, then let it settle, and decant the clear portion.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 fl. dr.; in hysteria, flatulent colic, &c.

Tincture of Assafœtida (Ammo′′niated). See Fetid Spirit of Ammonia.

Tincture of Assafœtida, Ethereal. Syn. Tinctura assafœtidæ etherea. (P. Cod.) Prep. Assafœtida, 1 part; alcoholised ether, 5 parts (by weight). Macerate for 10 days. The ether is made by mixing equal weights of ether and rectified spirit.

Tincture, Asthmat′ic. Compound tincture of camphor.

Tincture, Astringent. Syn. Tinctura astringens. (Dr Copland.) Prep. Catechu, ⁄2 oz.; myrrh, ⁄2 oz.; Peruvian bark, 2 dr.; balsam of Peru, 1⁄2 dr.; spirit of horseradish, 1⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1⁄2 oz. Digest. For sponginess of the gums.

Tincture, Balsamic. Syn. Tinctura balsamica. (P. E. 1744.) Prep. Copaiba, 1 oz.; balsam of Peru, 3 dr.; balsam of Tolu, 2 dr.; benzoin, ⁄2 dr.; saffron, 1 scruple; rect. spirit, 16 oz.; digest 4 days in a sand bath, and strain.

Tincture, Balsam of Copaiba. Syn. Tinctura balsami copaibæ. (Guibourt.) Prep. One part of copaiba to 8 of alcohol. Digest and filter.

Tincture of Balsam of Gilead. Syn. Tinctura balsami gileadensis. (Guibourt.) Prep. One part of balsam to 8 of rectified spirit.

Tincture of Bal′sam of Peru. Syn. Tinctura balsami Peruviani, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1788.) Balsam of Peru, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz.; dissolve. Pectoral, stimulant, and fragrant.—Dose, 10 to 30 drops.

Tincture of Balsam of Tolu. Tincture of Tolu.

Tincture of Bark. Tincture of cinchona.

Tincture of Belladon′na. Syn. Tinctura belladonnæ (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) The dried leaves in coarse powder, 1; proof spirit, 20; macerate forty-eight hours in 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, and when it ceases to drop, add the remaining spirit, let it drain, wash and press the marc; filter and make up 20.—Dose, from 5 to 20 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Dried leaves of belladonna, 4 oz. (5 oz. in coarse powder—Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14—Ph. D.), press, and filter.

3. (Wholesale.) From the dried leaves, 1 lb.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; macerate 14 days.—Dose, 5 to 10 drops, gradually increased; also externally, diluted with water.

Tincture of Benzoin. Syn. Tinctura benzoini. (Ph. G.) Prep. Benzoin, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 10 oz. (by weight). Digest for 8 days, frequently shaking; then filter.

Tincture of Ben′zoin (Compound.) Syn. Friar’s balsam, Traumathc b., Balsam for cuts, Commander’s balsam, Vervain’s b., Wound b., Jesuits’ drops, Wade’s d.; Tinctura benzoini composita (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), Tinct. benzoës comp., Balsamum TRAUMATICUM, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Benzoin, 8; prepared storax, 6; balsam of Tolu, 2; socotrine aloes, 1⁄2; rectified spirit, 80; macerate seven days, filter, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 80.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1 dr., triturated with mucilage or yolk of egg.

2. (Ph. L.) Gum benzoin, coarsely powdered, 3⁄2 oz.; prepared storax, 2⁄2; balsam of Tolu, 10 dr.; Socotrine or hepatic aloes, in coarse powder, 5 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate, with frequent agitation, for 7 days, and strain.

3. (Ph. E.) Benzoin, 4 oz.; balsam of Peru, 2⁄2 oz.; East Indian (hepatic) aloes, ⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart.

Obs. Either of the above formulæ produces a most beautiful tincture, truly balsamic. The following is, however, very generally employed by the wholesale druggists, and the product, though possessing a very rich colour, is thin and watery.

4. (Wholesale.) From gum benzoin, 4 lbs.; aloes (lively coloured), 1⁄4 lb.; liquid storax, 1 lb.; balsam of Tolu, ⁄4 lb.; powdered turmeric (best), 9 oz.; rectified spirit, 5⁄2 galls.; digest with frequent agitation for 10 days, then add of hot water, 1⁄2 gall., again digest for 4 days, and, after 24 hours’ repose, decant the clear portion.

Dose, 10 drops to 2 fl. dr.; as a stimulating expectorant, in chronic coughs, and various breath affections. It is also employed to stop the bleeding from cuts, &c., and promote their healing.

Tincture, Bitter. Syn. Tinctura amara (Ph. G.) Prep. Unripe oranges, 2 oz.; centaury, 2 oz.; gentian root, 2 oz.; zedoary root, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 35 oz. (by weight). Digest 8 days, and strain.

Tincture, Bitter Stomach′ic. Tincture of gentian.

Tincture of Black Snake-root. Syn. Tinctura cimicifugæ, Tinctura actææ racemosæ. Prep. Bruised root of black snake-root, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz.—Dose, 1 dr. to 2 dr.

Tincture of Blessed Thistle. Syn. Tinctura cardui benedicti. (Ph. Bruns) Prep. Blessed thistle, 6 oz.; rectified spirit, 2 pints.

Tincture of Blood Root. Syn. Tinctura sanguinariæ. (Ph. U. S.) Prep. Blood root in moderately fine powder, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 32 oz.; made by percolation.—Dose. As a stimulant and alterative, 30 to 60 drops; as an emetic, 3 to 4 dr.

Tincture, Brandish’s. Alkaline tincture of rhubarb.

Tincture of Buchu. Syn. Tinctura diosmæ, T. bucku (Ph. E.), T. buchu (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Buchu bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate for forty-eight hours with ⁄4 of the spirit, pack in a percolator and let it drain, then pour on the rest of the spirit; when it ceases to drop, press and wash the marc, filter and make up to 8.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Buchu leaves, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate 7 days (14 days—Ph. D.); or proceed by the method of percolation.—Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; as a tonic, sudorific, and diuretic. It is inferior to the fresh infusion.

Tincture of Calum′ba. Syn. Tinctura calumbæ (B. P., Ph. L. &. E.), T. colombæ (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Bruised calumba, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate forty-eight hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, and let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Calumba root, finely sliced, 3 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate a week (14 days.—Ph. D.), press, and filter. “Or, more conveniently, by percolation, allowing the calumba, in moderately fine powder, to first soak in a little spirit for 6 hours.” (Ph. E.)

Obs. This tincture is commonly made with 1 lb. of calumba root to the gallon of a mixture of equal parts of rectified spirit and water.—Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr.; as a stomachic bitter and tonic, usually joined with soda or chalybeates.

Tincture of Cam′phor. Syn. Spirit of wine and camphor, Camphorated spirit; Tinctura camphoræ; (Ph. E. & D.), Spiritus camphoræ (Ph. L.), Spiritus camphoratus, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Camphor, 2⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve. This is only one half as strong as the Ph. L. preparation.

2. (Ph. D.) Camphor, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz. Stimulant and anodyne.—Dose, 10 to 60 drops. Also as a liniment for sprains, bruises, chronic rheumatism, &c. For the Ph. L. formula, see Spirit.

Tincture of Camphor (Compound). Syn. Camphorated tincture of opium Asthmatic elixir, Paregoric e., Asthmatic tincture; Tinctura camphoræ composita (B. P., Ph. L.), Tinctura opii camphorata (Ph. E. & D.), Elixir paregoricum, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Opium, in coarse powder, 40 gr.; benzoic acid, 40 gr.; camphor, 30 gr.; oil of anise, ⁄2 dr.; proof spirit, 20 oz.; macerate seven days, strain, wash the marc with spirit, and filter 20 oz.—Dose, 15 to 60 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Camphor, 50 gr.; powdered opium and benzoic acid, of each 72 gr.; oil of aniseed, 1 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, and filter. The formulæ of the Ph. E. & D. are nearly similar. The oil of aniseed, probably one of the most useful and characteristic of the ingredients, was omitted in the Ph. L. 1824, but was restored in that of 1836.

3. (Wholesale.) From powdered opium, 3 oz.; benzoic acid, camphor, and oil of aniseed, of each 2 oz.; rectified spirit and water, of each 3 galls.; as before.

Obs. This tincture is a popular and excellent pectoral and anodyne, where there are no inflammatory symptoms.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 fl. dr.; in troublesome coughs, &c. ⁄2 fl. oz. contains about 1 gr. of opium.

Tincture of Canthar′ides. Syn. Tinctura Cantharidis (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), Tinctura lyttæ, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Cantharides, in coarse powder, 1; proof spirit, 80; macerate, agitating occasionally, for seven days, in a closed vessel, strain, press, filter, and add sufficient proof spirit to make up 80.—Dose, 5 to 20 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Powdered cantharides, 4 dr. (⁄2 oz.—Ph. D.), and strain, with expression.

3. (Wholesale.) From powdered cantharides, 2⁄4 oz.; rectified spirit and water, of each ⁄2 gall.; as the last.—Dose, 10 drops, gradually raised to 1 fl. dr., in any bland liquid; in fluor albus, gleets, incontinence of urine, lepra, &c. It should be used with caution. The Ed. College recommends it to be prepared by displacement.

Tincture of Cantharides (Ethereal). Syn. Tinctura cantharidis etherea. (P. Cod.) Prep. Powdered cantharides, 1 oz.; acetic ether, 10 oz. (by weight). Macerate for 10 days in a stoppered bottle, express, and filter.

Tincture of Capsicum. Syn. Tincture of cayenne pepper; Tinctura capsici (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Capsicum, bruised, 1; rectified spirit, 27; macerate 48 hours with three fourths of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit; as soon as it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 27.—Dose, 10 to 20 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Capsicum, bruised, 10 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest 14 days (or percolate,—Ph. E.).—Dose, 10 to 60 drops; in atonic dyspepsia, scarlet fever, ulcerated sore throat, &c. It is also made into a gargle.

3. (Ph. D.) Cayenne pods, bruised, 1⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate for 14 days. This is of fully twice the strength of the preceding.

Tincture of Capsicum (Concentrated). See Essences.

Tincture of Capsicum with Veratria. Syn. Tinctura capsici cum veratria. (Dr Turnbull.) Prep. Dissolve 4 gr. of veratria in 1 oz. of concentrated tincture of capsicum.

Tincture of Card′amoms. Syn. Tinctura cardamomi (Ph. E.), Tinct. amomi repentis, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1836.) Cardamom seeds, 3⁄2 oz. (4⁄2 oz.—Ph. E.); proof spirit, 1 quart; digest for 14 days (or percolate—Ph. E.).

Obs. The shells should be sifted from the seeds before maceration, and the latter are preferably ground in a pepper-mill instead of being bruised in a mortar. Aromatic and carminative.—Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr., as an adjunct to purgative mixtures.

Tincture of Cardamoms (Compound). Syn. Stomachic tincture; Tinctura cardamomi composita (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D), Tinctura stomachica, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Cardamom seeds, freed from their pericarps, bruised, 1; caraway, bruised, 1; raisins, freed from their seeds, 8; bruised cinnamon, 2; cochineal, in powder, ⁄2; proof spirit, 80; macerate 48 hours with ⁄4 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and let it drain, pour upon it the remainder of the spirit, and, when it ceases to drop, press, wash the marc with spirit to make up 80.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 dr.

2. (P. L.) Cardamoms (without the shells), caraways, and cochineal, of each, bruised, 2⁄2 dr.; cinnamon, bruised, 5 dr.; raisins, stoned, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate 7 days, then strain, with expression.

3. (Ph. E., and Ph. L. 1836.) As the last, but using only 1 dr. of cochineal, and macerating 14 days; or, “it maybe prepared by the method of displacement.” (Ph. E.)

4. (Wholesale.) From cardamoms and caraway seeds, of each 4 oz.; cochineal (s. g.), 6 oz.; cassia, 8 oz.; sultana raisins, 5 lbs.; proof spirit, 4 galls. (or rectified spirit and water, of each, 2 galls.); macerate, &c., as before.

Obs. The Dublin College omitted the cochineal and raisins in their Ph. of 1826, but have restored them in their new one. The order of the London College to stone the raisins is seldom adopted in practice; by which the tincture is rendered unfit to be employed in dispensing prescriptions containing quinine or other alkaloids. When pharmaceutists are too lazy to follow the instructions in their Pharmacopœia, they had better use sultana raisins, which have no stones.—Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; as a cordial and stomachic, but chiefly as an adjunct, for its colour and flavour.

Tincture of Cascaril′la. Syn. Tinctura cascarillæ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Cascarilla, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, let it drain, and pour on the remainder of the spirit, and, when it ceases to drop, wash the marc, press, filter, and make up 8.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Cascarilla, bruised, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days—Ph. D.; or percolate—Ph. E.). An excellent tonic and stomachic; chiefly employed as an adjunct to mixtures, &c.—Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

Tincture of Cas′sia. Syn. Tincture cassiæ (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Cassia, 3⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, or percolate. Stomachic and carminative.—Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

Tincture of Castor. Syn. Tinctura castorei (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), Tinct. castorei Rossici, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Castor, in coarse powder, 1; rectified spirit, 20; macerate seven days, strain, and wash the marc with spirit sufficient to make up to 20.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Castor, bruised, 2⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate—Ph. E.).

Obs. The Dublin College ordered Russian castor in their Ph. of 1826; but the scarcity and high price of that variety, we fear, too often precludes its use. The tincture of the shops is usually made with only 8 oz. of castor to the gall. of proof spirit. Nervine and antispasmodic.—Dose, 20 drops to 2 fl. dr.; in hysteria, epilepsy, &c.

Tincture of Castor (Ammo′′niated). Syn. Elixir fœtidum, Tinctura castorei composita, T. c. ammoniata (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Castor, bruised, 2⁄2 oz.; assafœtida, in small fragments, 10 dr.; spirit of ammonia, 1 quart; digest 7 days in a well-closed vessel. Stimulant and antispasmodic.—Dose and uses, as the last. With the addition of ⁄2 oz. of opium, it forms the Elixir Uterinum, or Elixir Castorei Thebaicum of foreign Pharmacopœias.

Tincture of Castor (Ethereal). Syn. Tinctura castorei ætherea. (P. Cod.) Prep. Castor, in powder, 1 oz.; alcoholised ether (see Ethereal Tinct. of Assafœtida), 10 oz. (by weight).

Tincture of Castor Oil Seeds. Syn. Tinctura ricini. Castor oil seeds bruised are digested with five times their weight of rectified spirit. This tincture is stated to be 4 times the strength of the oil.

Tincture of Cat′echu. Syn. Compound tincture of catechu; Tinctura catechu composita (Ph. L.), T. catechu (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Pale catechu, in coarse powder, 2⁄2; cinnamon, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 20: macerate for seven days with agitation, strain, press, and filter, and add spirit to make up 20.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Catechu, in powder, 3⁄2 oz. (4 oz.—Ph. D.); cinnamon, bruised, 2⁄2 oz. (2 oz.—Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate—Ph. E.).

3. (Wholesale.) From catechu, 2 lbs.; oil of cassia, 3 fl. dr.; rectified spirit and water, of each 1 gall.; macerate for 10 days.—Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr., as a warm astringent; in diarrhœa, &c., either alone, or combined with chalk.

Tincture of Cevadilla. Syn. Tinctura sabadillæ. (Dr Turnbull.) Prep. Digest the seeds of cevadilla (freed from their capsules), and bruised, for ten days in as much rectified spirit as will cover them; express and filter. For external use only in rheumatism.

Tincture of Chamomile. Syn. Tinctura anthemidis. (Aust. Ph.) Dried chamomile flowers, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint.

Tincture of Chiret′ta. Syn. Tinctura chiraytæ (B. P.), Tinctura chirayta, T. chirettæ (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (B. P.) Chiretta, cut small and bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.—Dose, 15 to 60 minims; B. Ph. dose ⁄2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. D.) Chiretta or chirayta (bruised), 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days. Tonic and stomachic.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 fl. dr.

Tincture of Chloroform (Compound). Syn. Tinctura chloroformi composita. (B. P.) Prep. Mix 2 fl. oz. of chloroform with 8 fl. oz. of rectified spirit and 10 fl. oz. of compound tincture of cardamoms.—Dose, 20 to 40 minims.

Tincture of Cinchona. Syn. Tincture of bark; Tinctura cinchonæ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), T. corticis Peruviani, T. c. P. simplex, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Yellow cinchona bark, in coarse powder, 4; proof spirit, 20; macerate 48 hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make 30.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Yellow cinchona bark (bruised), 8 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days (or percolate—Ph. E.).

Obs. The Dublin College orders pale bark, and the Edinburgh either species, according to prescription.—Dose, 1 to 3 fl. dr.; as a tonic, stomachic, and febrifuge.

Tincture of Cinchona (Ammoniated). Syn. Tinctura cinchonæ ammoniatæ. (Ph. L. 1824.) Prep. Peruvian bark, 4 oz.; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 32 fl. oz. Macerate for 10 days.—Dose, ⁄2 dr. to 1 dr.

Tincture of Cinchona (Compound). Syn. Compound tincture of bark, Huxham’s t. of b., Fever tincture; Tinctura cinchonæ compositæ (B. P.), Tinctura cinchonæ compositæ (Ph. L., E., & D.), Tinct. corticis Peruviani composita, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Pale cinchona bark, in coarse powders; bitter orange peel, cut small and bruised, 2; serpentary, bruised, 1; saffron, ⁄4; cochineal, ⁄8; proof spirit, 40: macerate 48 hours with 30 of spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain, then pour on the remainder of the spirit; when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 40.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Pale bark, bruised, 4 oz.; dried bitter orange-peel, 3 oz. (2 oz.—Ph. D.); serpentary root, bruised, 6 dr.; hay saffron, 2 dr.; cochineal, in powder, 1 dr.; macerate for 7 days (14 days—Ph. D.; or percolate—Ph. E.); press, and filter.

3. (Wholesale.) From pale bark, 3⁄2 lbs.; dried orange peel, 2 lbs.; serpentary root, 4 oz.; hay saffron, 1 oz.; cochineal, ⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 4 galls. (or rectified spirit and water, of each 2 galls.); macerate for 14 days.

Obs. in the Ph. E. yellow bark is ordered.—Dose and use, as the last.

Tincture of Cinchona (Pale). Syn. Tincture of pale bark; Tinctura cinchonæ PALLIDÆ (Ph. L.), L. Prep. From pale bark, as the last.

Tincture of Cinna′mon. Syn. Tinctura cinnamomi (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Cinnamon, in coarse powder, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.

2. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon, bruised, 3⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate—Ph. E.). In the shops cassia is usually substituted for cinnamon, and spirit 26 u. p. for proof spirit.—Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; as a cordial, aromatic, and stomachic.

Tincture of Cinnamon (Compound). Syn. Aromatic tincture; Tinctura cinnamomi composita (Ph. L., E., & D.), T. aromatica, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon, bruised, 1 oz.; cardamoms (bruised, without the shells), ⁄2 oz.; long pepper and ginger, of each 2⁄2 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest for 7 days (or percolate—Ph. E.). The Ph. E. omits the ginger, and uses ⁄2 oz. more cardamoms.

2. (Ph. D.) Cinnamon, 2 oz.; cardamoms, 1 oz.; ginger, ⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days. The following form is current in the wholesale houses.

3. Cassia, 1 lb.; cardamoms, 6 oz.; long pepper and ginger, of each ⁄4 lb.; oil of cassia, 1⁄2 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 4 galls, (or rectified spirit and water, of each 2 galls.). Cordial, aromatic, stomachic.—Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr.; in atonic gout, debility, flatulence, &c.

Tincture of Cloves. Syn. Tinctura caryophylli. (Guibourt.) Prep. Cloves, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 16 oz. Macerate 10 days.

Tincture of Coch′ineal. Syn. Tinctura cocci cacti (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Cochineal, in powder, 1; proof spirit, 8: macerate 7 days; strain, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.—Dose, 30 to 90 minims twice a day. Used chiefly for colouring medicines.

2. (Ph. D.) Cochineal, in fine powder, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Antispasmodic and sedative; but chiefly employed for its colour.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 fl. dr.

Tincture of Cochineal (Ammoniated). Syn. Tinctura cocci ammoniata. (Dr Eberle.) Prep. Cochineal, ⁄2 oz.; water of ammonia, ⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz.—Dose, 5 drops in hooping-cough.

Tincture of Col′chicum. Syn. Gout tincture, Tincture of meadow saffron; Tinctura colchici seminum (B. P.); Tinctura colchici (Ph. L., & E.), T. seminum colchici (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. Colchicum seed, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8: macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and let it drain, then pour on the remainder of the spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.—Dose, 15 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Seeds of meadow saffron (Colchicum autumnale), bruised (finely ground in a coffee-mill—Ph. E.), 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days—Ph. D.; or percolate—Ph. E.); then press, and filter.—Dose, 15 to 20 drops to 1 fl. dr.; in gout, &c.

Tincture of Colchicum Bulbs. Syn. Tinctura colchici e radice. (P. Cod.) Prep. Macerate 1 part of the bulbs in 5 parts (by weight) of proof spirit, for 10 days.

Tincture of Colchicum (Compound). Syn. Tinctura colchici composita (Ph. L.), Spiritus colchici ammoniatus, L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Colchicum seeds, bruised, 5 oz.; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 1 quart; digest for 7 days, then press, and filter.—Dose, 20 drops to 1 fl. dr.; in gout, &c.

Tincture of Colchicum Flowers. Syn. Tinctura florum colchici; Eau medicinale d’Husson. (Dr Wilson.) Prep. Take of the fresh juice of colchicum flowers, 2 parts; French brandy (or proof spirit), 1 part; mix, and in a few days decant, or filter, and preserve it in small bottles in a cool place.

Tincture of Colocynth. Syn. Tinctura colocynthidis. (Ph. G.) Colocynth, 1 part; rectified spirit, 10 parts. Dose, 6 to 20 drops.

Tincture of Contrayerva. Syn. Tinctura contrayervæ. (P. Cod.) Prep. Contrayerva root, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint.

Tincture of Copai′ba (Alkaline). Syn. Tinctura copaibæ alkaline, L. Prep. (Lewis Thompson.) Dissolve carbonate of potassa, 2 oz., in water, 1 pint, and add to this balsam of copaiba, in a thin stream, constantly stirring, until the mixture, at first white and milky, becomes clear, like jelly or amber, which will generally take place when about a pint of balsam has been added; set the mixture aside for two or three hours, then pour in of rectified spirit, 1 quart, and mix the whole together. Sweet spirit of nitre may be substituted for spirit of wine, provided it does not contain free acid.—Dose, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls.

Tincture of Croton. Syn. Tinctura crotonis. Prep. Croton seed, 1 part; rectified spirit, 5 parts. (Beasley.)

Tincture of Cu′bebs. Syn. Essence of cubebs; Tinctura cubebæ (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), Tinctura piperis cubebæ, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Cubebs, in powder, 1; rectified spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain; pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Cubebs (bruised or ground in a pepper-mill), 1 lb.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, press out the liquor, and filter.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1 fl. dr., three or four times a day; in gonorrhœa, &c.

3. (Ph. D., & Ph. L. 1836.) Cubebs, 5 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart (proof spirit—Ph. D. 1826); macerate for 14 days.—Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

Tincture of Cuspa′′ria. Syn. Tinctura cuspariæ (Ph. E.), T. angosturæ, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Angostura bark or cusparia, 4⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest or percolate. Tonic, stimulant, and stomachic.—Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

Tincture of Deadly Nightshade. Tincture of belladonna.

Tincture, De Coetlogon’s. Haffenden’s tincture.

Tincture of Digita′lis. Tincture of fox-glove.

Tincture of Elaterium. Syn. Tinctura elaterii. Prep. Extract of elaterium, 8 gr.; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz.—Dose, ⁄2 dr. to 2 dr.

Tincture of Elecampane′. Syn. Tinctura inulæ, T. Helenii, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Powdered elecampane, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate for 15 days. Tonic, deobstruent, and expectorant.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 fl. dr.; in dyspepsia, palsy, dropsies, uterine obstructions, &c.

Tincture of Er′got. Syn. Tinctura secalii cornuti, Tinctura ergotæ (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Ergot, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 4; macerate 48 hours with 3 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with the spirit to make up 4.—Dose, 15 to 60 minims.

2. (Apothecaries’ Hall.) Ergot (ground in a coffee-mill), 2⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; digest for 7 days.—Dose. A teaspoonful; to excite the action of the uterus in labour.

3. (Ph. D.) Ergot, 8 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days, and strain, with expression.—Dose, 20 drops to 1 fl. dr.; as the last.

Tincture of Ergot (Ammoniated). Syn. Tinctura ergotæ ammoniata. (Gore.) Prep. Bruised ergot, 4 oz.; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 10 oz.; macerate for a month, express, and filter.—Dose, 30 drops every 10 minutes till it excites uterine contractions.

Tincture of Ergot (Ethereal). Syn. Tinctura ergotæ ætherea (Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Ergot, bruised, 15 oz.; ether, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, press, and filter.—Dose, 10 drops to 1 fl. dr.

Tincture of Eucalyptus. Syn. Tinctura eucalypti globuli. (Dorvault.) Prep. Eucalyptus (globulus) leaves, cut, 1 part; alcohol (80 per cent.), 5 parts. Digest 5 days, and filter.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

Tincture of Euphorbium. Syn. Tinctura euphorbii. (Ph. G.) Prep. Euphorbium, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 10 oz. (by weight). Digest 8 days.

Tincture, Febrifuge. Syn. Tinctura febrifuga. (Dr Clutton.) Prep. Febrifuge spirit, ⁄2 pint; angelica root, 1⁄2 dr.; serpentary, 1⁄2 dr.; cardamom seeds, 1⁄2 dr. Digest and filter.

Tincture of Flea-bane. Syn. Tinctura Erigeronis. Prep. Dried Canada flea-bane (Erigeron Canadense), 4 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz. Macerate, express, and filter.

Tincture of Foxglove. Syn. Tinctura digitalis (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Dried foxglove leaves, 4 oz. (5 oz.—Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days—Ph. D.; or percolate—Ph. E.); then press, and strain.

2. (B. P.) Digitalis leaves in coarse powder, 2⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 part. Proceed as for tincture of aconite. (B. P.)

Obs. This tincture is a powerful sedative, diuretic, and narcotic. The commencing dose should be 10 drops, gradually and cautiously increased to 30, or even 40; in asthmas, dropsies, fevers, phthisis, &c. “If 40 fl. oz. of spirit be allowed to pass (percolate) through the sp. gr. will be ·944; and the solid contents of 1 fl. oz. will amount to 24 gr.” (Ph. E.)

Tincture of Galanga. Syn. Tinctura galangæ. (Ph. Amst.) Prep. Galangal root, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 6 oz.—Dose, 30 to 60 drops.

Tincture of Gal′banum. Syn. Tinctura galbani, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Galbanum, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 32 fl. oz.; digest 7 days. Stimulant and antispasmodic.—Dose, 1 to 3 fl. dr. “If less nauseous than tincture of assafœtida, it is also less powerful.” (Dr A. T. Thomson.)

Tincture of Galls. Syn. Tinctura gallæ (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), Tinctura gallarum (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1 (B. P.) Galls, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate for 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, and then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Galls, in powder, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days—Ph. D.; or percolate—Ph. E.); then express the liquid, and filter it. Astringent and styptic.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 fl. dr. It is chiefly used as a test for iron.

Tincture of Garden Marigold. Syn. Tinctura calendulæ. Prep. A saturated tincture of the leaves and flowers of the garden marigold is prepared with whisky, and is reputed to be of service as an application for lacerated wounds.

Tincture of Garden Nightshade (Ethereal). Syn. Tinctura solani ætherea. (P. Cod.) Prep. Powdered leaves of garden nightshade, 4 oz.; sulphuric ether, 16 oz. (by weight). Make by percolation.

Tincture of Gentian (Ammo′′niated). Syn. Tinctura gentianæ ammoniatæ, L.; Elixir antiscrofuleux, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Gentian, 1 oz.; sesquicarbonate of ammonia, ⁄4 oz.; proof spirit, 32 fl. oz. As the last; but preferred in acidity and low spirits.

Tincture of Gen′tian (Compound). Syn. Bitter stomachic tincture; Tinctura gentianæ composita (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), Tinctura amara, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Gentian, bruised, 1⁄2; bitter orange peel, bruised, ⁄4; cardamom seeds, bruised, ⁄4; proof spirit, 20; macerate for 48 hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, and then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 20.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Gentian root, sliced and bruised, 2⁄2 oz.; dried orange peel, 10 dr.; cardamoms, bruised, 5 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate—Ph. E.). The Edinburgh College substitutes canella for cardamoms, and adds of cochineal, ⁄2 dr.

3. (Ph. D.) Gentian root, 3 oz.; dried bitter orange peel, 1⁄2 oz.; cardamoms, ⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days.

4. (Wholesale.) Gentian, 2⁄2 lbs.; dried orange peel, 1⁄4 lb.; bruised cardamoms, 2⁄2 lbs.; proof spirit, 4 galls. (or rectified spirit and water, of each 2 galls.); digest as last.

Obs. This is an excellent and popular stomachic bitter and tonic—Dose, 1 to 2 fl dr.; in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, &c.

Tincture of Geranium. Syn. Tinctura geranii. Prep. Dried roots of Geranium maculatum, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 2 pints. Astringent. Used chiefly in gargles.

Tinc′ture of Gin′ger. Syn. Tinctura zingiberis (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.). Prep. 1. (B. P.) Ginger, bruised, 1; rectified spirit, 8; macerate the ginger 48 hours in 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, let it drain, pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop press, filter, and add spirit to make 8.—Dose, 10 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Ginger, bruised, 2⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate—Ph. E.).

3. (Wholesale.) Coarsely powdered unbleached Jamaica ginger, 1⁄4 lb.; rectified spirit (or spirit distilled from the essence), 1⁄2 gall.; water, ⁄2 gall.; digest as above. Stimulant and carminative.—Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

Obs. The formula of the Ph. D. 1826 resembles the above; that of the last Ph. D. orders 8 oz. of ginger to 1 quart of rectified spirit. The product is, consequently, of fully 3 times the strength of that of the others, and is similar to the common ESSENCE OF GINGER of the shops.

Tincture of Ginger (Stronger). Syn. Tinctura zingiberis fortior. (B. P.) Pack tightly in a percolator, ginger in fine powder, 10 oz., and pour over it carefully ⁄2 pint of rectified spirit. After two hours more add more spirit, and let it percolate slowly until 1 pint of tincture has been collected.—Dose, 5 to 20 minims.

Tincture of Gold-Thread. Syn. Tinctura coptis. (Dr Wood.) Prep. Gold-thread, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz.—Dose, 1 dr. Tonic.

Tincture, Gout. Syn. Tinctura antarthritica, L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Graves’s.) Take of dried orange peel and powder of aloes and canella, of each 2 oz.; rhubarb, 1 oz.; French brandy (or proof spirit), 1 quart; digest a week, and strain, with expression.—Dose, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls night and morning.

2. (Dr Wilson’s.) Tincture of colchicum flowers.

3. Tincture of colchicum.

Tincture of Green Hellebore Root. Syn. Tinctura veratri viridis. (B. P.) Prep. Green hellebore root, in coarse powder, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint. Prepared as tincture of aconite. (B. P.)

Tincture of Gua′iacum. Syn. Tinctura guaiaci (Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. (Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836.) Guaiacum resin (powdered), 7 oz. (8 oz.—Ph. D.); rectified spirit, 1 quart; digest for 14 days, and filter. An excellent sudorific; in chronic gout and rheumatism.—Dose, 1 to 3 fl. dr., taken in milk.

Tincture of Guaiacum (Alkaline). Syn. Tinctura guaiaci alkalini. (Dr Dewees.) Prep. Guaiacum, 5 oz.; carbonate of potash or of soda, 3 dr.; pimento, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 2 pints.—Dose. A teaspoonful 3 times a day in dysmenorrhœa.

Tincture of Guaiacum (Compound). Syn. Ammoniated tincture of guaiacum, Volatile t. of g., Rheumatic drops; Tinctura guaiaci composita (Ph. L.), T. g. ammoniata (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Guaiac resin, in fine powder, 4; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 20; macerate 7 days, filter, and wash the filter with the spirit to make up 20.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1 dr., with 1 dr. of mucilage or yolk of egg, to form an emulsion.

2. (Ph. L.) Guaiacum, in coarse powder, 7 oz.; aromatic spirit of ammonia (spirit of ammonia—Ph. E.), 1 quart; digest for 7 days, and decant or filter. A powerful, stimulating sudorific and emmenagogue; in chronic rheumatism, gout, amenorrhœa, &c.—Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr. in milk, or some viscid liquid.

Tincture of Guaiacum Wood. Syn. Tinctura guaiaci ligni. (P. Cod.) Prep. One part of the rasped wood to 5 parts by weight of proof spirit. Digest 10 days and strain.

Tincture of Guarana. Syn. Tinctura paulliniæ. (Dorvault.) Prep. Alcoholic extract of guarana, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz. Dissolve.

Tincture, Haffenden’s Balsam′ic. Syn. De Coetlogon’s balsamii tincture. This is a nostrum, of many virtues, prepared from tincture of serpentary (of double strength), 1⁄2 fl. oz.; compound of tincture of benzoin, 1 fl. oz.; tinctures of Tolu and opium, of each ⁄2 fl. oz.; with rectified spirits, q. s. to render the mixture ‘bright,’ should it turn milky. (‘Anat. of Quackery.’)

Tincture, Hatfield’s. Prep. From gum guaiacum and soap, of each 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest for a week. Used as TINCTURE OF GUAIACUM; also externally.

Tincture of Hedge-Hyssop. Syn. Tinctura gratiolæ. (Reece.) Prep. Dried hedge-hyssop, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 32 oz.

Tincture of Hel′lebore. Syn. Tincture of BLACK HELLEBORE; Tinctura hellebori (Ph. L.), L. Tinctura hellebori nigri. Prep. (Ph. L.) Black hellebore root, bruised, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate 7 days, then strain, with expression.

Obs. This tincture is a powerful emmenagogue, and was a favourite remedy with Dr Mead in uterine obstructions and certain cutaneous affections.—Dose, 20 drops to 1 fl. dr. See Tincture of Veratrum.

Tincture of Hem′lock. Syn. Tinctura cicutæ, T. conii (Ph. L. & E.), T. conii maculati, L. Prep. 1, (Ph. L.) Dried hemlock leaves, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest a week, press, and filter. In the Ph. L. 1836, cardamom seeds, 1 oz., was added.

2. (Ph. E.) Fresh hemlock leaves, 12 oz.; express the juice, bruise the residuum, and treat it, by percolation, first with tincture of cardamoms, 10 fl. oz., and next with rectified spirit, 1⁄2 pint; mix the liquids, and filter. Deobstruent and narcotic.—Dose of the Ph. L., 20 to 60 drops; that of the Ph. E. tincture is less, it being a much stronger and certain preparation. See Hemlock.

3. (B. P.) Hemlock fruit, bruised, 2⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Proceed as for tincture of aconite (B. P.).

Tincture of Hemp. Tincture of Indian Hemp.

Tincture of Hen′bane. Syn. Tinctura hyoscyami (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.). Prep. 1. (B. P.) Hyoscyamus leaves, dried and bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, pack in a percolator, and when it has drained pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.—Dose, 15 to 60 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Dried leaves of henbane, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days—Ph. D.; or percolate—Ph. E.), then press, and filter. Anodyne, sedative, soporific, and narcotic.—Dose, 20 drops to 2 fl. dr.

Obs. This, as well as the TINCTURES OF FOXGLOVE, HEMLOCK, HOPS, JALAP, LOBELIA INFLATA, RHATANY, SAVINE, SQUILLS, SENNA, VALERIAN WORMWOOD, &c., is usually prepared by the druggists with 1 lb. of the dried leaves (or dried drugs) to each gall. of a mixture of equal parts of rectified spirit and water.

Tincture of Hops. Syn. Tinctura lupuli (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), Tinctura humuli, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Hop, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours in 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, add the remaining spirit, and when fluid ceases to drop, wash the marc, filter, and make up 8.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Hops, 6 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest 7 days, then press, and filter. Anodyne, sedative, and soporific.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 fl. dr. For the formula of the Ph. E. and D., see Tincture of Lupulin.

Tincture of Hops (Compound). Syn. Tinctura lupuli composita, Liqueur des teigneux. (P. Cod.) Prep. Hops, 1 oz.; smaller centaury, 1 oz.; orange peel, 2 dr.; carbonate of potash, 12 gr.; proof spirit, 18 oz. (by weight).

Tincture of Horse-Chestnut. Syn. Tinctura hippocastanei. Prep. Horse-chestnut bark, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 2 pints. Macerate for 10 days, and filter.

Tincture, Hudson’s. Tooth tincture.

Tincture, Huxham’s. Compound tincture of cinchona.

Tincture of Indian Hemp. Syn. Tinctura cannabis Indicæ (B. P.), Tinctura cannabis, T. c. Indicæ (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (B. P.) Extract of Indian hemp, 1; rectified spirit, 20; dissolve.—Dose, 5 to 20 minims with 1 dr. of mucilage, adding 1 oz. of water.

2. (Ph. D.) Purified extract of Indian hemp, ⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, ⁄2 pint; dissolve. 21 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of the extract.

Obs. The formula of O’Shaughnessy and the Bengal Ph. are similar.—Dose, 10 drops every ⁄2 hour in cholera; 1 fl. dr. every ⁄2 hour in tetanus till the paroxysms cease, or catalepsy is induced.

Tincture of Indian Tobac′co. Tincture of lobelia.

Tincture of I′odine. Syn. Tinctura iodinei (Ph. E.) Tinctura iodinii, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Iodine, 2⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve, and preserve it in well-closed bottles.—Dose, 5 to 30 drops, twice or thrice daily, where the use of iodine is indicated. Externally, as a paint, &c.

Obs. The formulæ of Magendie, the Ph. U. S., and the Paris Codex, are similar.

Tincture of Iodine (Colourless). Syn. Tinctura iodi decolorata. (Ph. G.) Prep. Iodine, 10 oz.; hyposulphite of soda, 10 oz.; distilled water, 10 oz. Digest with gentle heat, occasionally shaking; and, when the solution is completed, add liquor ammoniæ (·960), 16 oz. (by weight), shake together, and add rectified spirit, 75 oz. (by weight).

Tincture of Iodine (Compound). Syn. Antiscrofulous drops; Tinctura iodi (B. P.), Tinctura iodinii composita (Ph. L. & D.), L. Prep. 1. Iodine, ⁄2; iodide of potassium, ⁄4; rectified spirit, 20; dissolve.—Dose, 5 to 20 minims. Also an excellent application to the throat in diphtheria.

2. (Ph. L. & D.) Iodine, 1 oz.; iodide of potassium, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve.—Dose, &c., as the last.

Tincture of Iodine (Ethereal). Syn. Tinctura iodinii ætherea. Prep. Iodine, 2 scruples, sulphuric ether, 1⁄2 fl. oz.

Tincture, Iodoform (Ethereal). Syn. Tinctura iodoformi ætherea. (Odin & Lemaire.) Prep. Crystallised iodoform, 15 gr.; ether at 60° Baumé, 1 dr. (by weight).

Tincture of Ipecacuan′ha. Syn. Tinctura ipecacuanha, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Ipecacuanha (coarsely powdered), 1 oz.; spirit, sp. gr. ·897 to ·900 (16 to 17 o. p.), 8 oz.; macerate for 8 days. The tincture of the P. Cod. has twice its strength.—Dose, 10 or 12 drops to 2 fl. dr., according to the intention.

Tincture of Jaborandi. Syn. Tinctura jaborandi. (‘Ph. Journ.’) Prep. Powdered jaborandi leaves, 10 oz.; rectified spirit, q. s. Percolate until a pint of tincture is obtained.—Dose, 10 minims to 1 or 2 dr.

Mr Shuttleworth, the Editor of the ‘Canadian Pharmaceutical Journal,’ thus utilises the residue left after making tincture of myrrh. He says “that, from fifty-two pounds of the residue of percolation, dissolved in boiling water, strained and allowed to deposit, he obtained twelve gallons of mucilage, forming an excellent substitute for paste, and possessing unlimited keeping qualities. Although scarcely so adhesive as gum Arabic, this latter property may be obtained by the addition of a little molasses.”

Tincture of Jal′ap. Syn. Tinctura jalapæ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Jalap, in coarse powder, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate for 48 hours in six of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and when the fluid ceases to pass, pour on the remaining spirit, press, filter, and add spirit to make 8.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Jalap, coarsely powdered, 5 oz. (10 oz.—Ph. L. 1836; 7 oz.—Ph. E.); proof spirit, 1 quart (1⁄2 pint—Ph. D.); macerate for 7 days (or percolate—Ph. E.), then press, and filter. Cathartic.—Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.

Tincture of Jalap (Compound). Syn. Tinctura jalapæ composita. (Ph. E. 1744.) Prep. Jalap root, 6 dr.; black hellebore root, 3 dr.; juniper berries, ⁄2 oz.; guaiacum shavings, ⁄2 oz.; French brandy, 24 oz.; digest for 3 days, and strain. The Eau de Vie Allemande of the Paris Codex is: Jalap, 8 oz.; turpeth root, 1 oz.; scammony, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 96 oz. (by weight).—Dose, 4 dr.

Tincture of Ki′no. Syn. Tincture kino (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Kino, in powder, 1; rectified spirit, 10; macerate 7 days, filter, and make up 10.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Powdered kino, 3⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate—Ph. E.), and filter. Astringent.—Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr., combined with chalk mixture; in diarrhœa, &c.

A writer in the ‘American Journal of Pharmacy’ says the following formula will yield a tincture which has no tendency to gelatinise like the simple tincture of the B. P.:

Kino, in fine powder, 1⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz.; water, 4 oz.; glycerin, 4 fl. oz. Mix the alcohol, water, and glycerin together, and having mixed the kino with an equal bulk of clean sand, introduce in a percolator, and pour on the menstruum.

Mr Haselden says, that for some years past he has preserved tincture of kino from gelatinising by keeping it in bottles holding 2 oz. only.

Tincture of Lactu′′carium. Syn. Tinctura lactucarii, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Powdered lactucarium, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest or percolate. Anodyne, soporific, antispasmodic, and sedative.—Dose, 20 to 60 drops; in cases for which opium is unsuited, 10 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of lactucarium.

Tincture of Larch. Syn. Tinctura laricis. (B. P.) Prep. Larch bark, in coarse powder, 2⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint. Macerate the bark for 48 hours in 15 oz. of the spirit in a closed vessel, agitating occasionally; then transfer to a percolator, and when the fluid ceases to pass, continue the percolation with the remaining 5 oz. of spirit. Afterwards subject the contents of the percolator to pressure, filter the product, mix the liquid, and add rectified spirit, q. s. to make 1 pint.—Dose, 20 to 30 minims.

Tincture of Lav′ender (Compound). Syn. Red lavender, Red lavender drops, Red hartshorn; Tinctura lavendulæ composita (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), Spiritus lavandulæ compositus (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) English oil of lavender, 90 minims; English oil of rosemary, 10 minims; cinnamon, bruised, 150 gr.; nutmeg, bruised, 150 gr.; red sandal wood, 300 gr.; rectified spirit, 40 oz.; macerate the cinnamon, nutmeg, and red sandal wood in the spirit for 7 days, then press out and strain; dissolve the oils in the strained tincture, and add sufficient rectified spirit to make 40 oz.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon and nutmegs, of each, bruised, 2⁄2 dr.; red sanders wood, sliced, 5 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, then strain, with expression, and dissolve in the strained liquid, oil of lavender, 1⁄2 fl. dr., oil of rosemary, 10 drops.

3. (Ph. L. 1836.) Spirit of lavender, 1⁄2 pint; spirit of rosemary, ⁄2 pint; red sanders wood (rasped), 5 dr.; cinnamon and nutmegs (bruised), of each 2⁄2 dr.; macerate for 14 days.

4. (Ph. E.) Spirit of lavender, 1 quart; spirit of rosemary, 12 fl. oz.; cinnamon, 1 oz.; nutmeg, ⁄2 oz.; red sanders, 3 dr.; cloves, 2 dr.; as No. 1.

5. (Ph. D.) Oil of lavender. 3 fl. dr.; oil of rosemary, 1 fl. dr.; cinnamon, 1 oz.; nutmegs, ⁄2 oz.; cloves and cochineal, of each ⁄4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days.

6. (Wholesale.) From oil of cassia, ⁄4 fl. oz.; oil of nutmeg, 1 fl. oz.; oils of lavender and rosemary, of each 4⁄2 fl. oz.; red sanders (rasped), 3 lbs.; proof spirit, 6 galls., (or rectified spirit and water, of each 3 galls.); digest 14 days. Should it be cloudy, add a little more proof spirit.

Obs. Compound tincture of lavender is a popular stimulant, cordial, and stomachic.—Dose, 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls (⁄2 to 2 fl. dr.); in lowness of spirits, faintness, flatulence, hysteria, &c.

Tincture of Lem′ons. Syn. Tinctura limonum (Ph. L.), Tinctura limonis (B. P., Ph. D., Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Fresh lemon peel, sliced thin, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate for 7 days in a closed vessel with occasional agitation, strain, press, filter, and make up with spirit to 8.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 dr.

2. Fresh lemon peel, 3⁄2 oz. (cut thin, 5 oz.—Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days—Ph. D.), then express the liquid, and filter it. An aromatic bitter and stomachic.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 fl. dr.

Tincture of Lobe′′lia. Syn. Tincture of Indian tobacco; Tinctura lobeliæ inflatæ, Tinctura lobeliæ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Lobelia, dried and bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and let it drain, pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, press and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.—Dose, 10 to 30 minims, but 1 dr. may be given for dyspnœa; 4 dr. as an emetic.

2. (Ph. L.) Dried and powdered lobelia inflata, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days—Ph. D.; or percolate—Ph. E.), press, and filter.—Dose. As an expectorant, 10 to 60 drops; as an emetic and antispasmodic, 1 to 2 fl. dr., repeated every third hour until it causes vomiting. It is principally employed in spasmodic asthma, and some other pulmonary affections.

Tincture of Lobelia (Ethereal). Syn. Tinctura lobeliæ ætherea (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. Lobelia, dried and bruised, 1; spirit of ether, 8; macerate 7 days, press, and strain 8.—Dose, 10 to 30 minims as an antispasmodic.

2. (Ph. L.) Indian tobacco, powdered, 5 oz.; ether, 14 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 26 fl. oz.; macerate 7 days, press, and filter.

3. (Ph. E.) Dry lobelia, 5 oz.; spirit of sulphuric ether, 1 quart; by digestion for 7 days, or by percolation.—Dose, 6 or 8 drops to 1 fl. dr.

4. (Whitlaw’s.) From lobelia, 1 lb.; rectified spirit and spirit of nitrous ether, of each 4 pints; sulphuric ether, 4 oz.—Dose, &c., as the last.

Tincture of Lu′pulin. Syn. Tincture of hops; Tinctura lupuli (Ph. E.), Tincturæ lupulinæ (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Lupulin (the yellowish-brown powder attached to the scales of hops, separated by friction and sifting), 5 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days (or proceed by displacement—Ph. E.), press, and filter.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 fl. dr. See Tincture of Hops.

Tincture of Malate of Iron. Syn. Tinctura ferri malatis; Tinctura ferri pomata. (Ph. G.) Prep. Extract of malate of iron (see Extract of Apples), 2 oz.; spirituous cinnamon water, 18 oz. Dissolve and filter.—Dose, 15 to 30 minims.

Tincture of Mastic. Syn. Tinctura mastiches. Prep. Mastic, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used in making Eau de Luce. If required for stopping hollow teeth, double the quantity of mastic must be used.

Tincture of Mat′ico. Syn. Tinctura matico (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Matico leaves, in coarse powder, 8 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days, and strain, with expression.—Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr., as an internal astringent or hæmostatic. It is a very feeble remedy, as matico leaves are destitute of either tannin or gallic acid, and derive their power of stopping local bleeding from the peculiar mechanical construction of their surface.

Tincture of Mea′dow Saf′fron. Tincture of colchicum.

Tincture of Mone′sia. Syn. Tinctura monesiæ, L. Prep. From monesia, 2⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate a week. Astringent.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 fl. dr.

Tincture of Musk. Syn. Tinctura moschi, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Musk, 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz.; digest 7 days. Antispasmodic; but principally used as a perfume, being too weak for medical use.

Tincture of Musk (Artificial). Syn. Tinctura moschi artificialis. (Van Mons.) Prep. Artificial musk, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 2 oz.

Tincture of Musk Seed. Syn. Tinctura abelmoschi seminum. (Dr Reece.) Prep. Musk seed, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz. Digest seven days, and strain.—Dose, 1 fl. dr.

Tincture of Myrrh. Syn. Golden tooth-drops; Tincturæ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Myrrh, in coarse powder, 1; rectified spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and when it ceases to drop, pour on the remaining spirit, wash the marc, press, and make up to 8.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1 dr. More frequently used mixed with water to form a gargle.

2. (Ph. L.) Myrrh, in powder, 3 oz. (3⁄2 oz., Ph. E.; 4 oz.—Ph. D.); rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days,—Ph. D.; or by displacement—Ph. E.), and filter.

3. (Wholesale.) Myrrh (in coarse powder), 2⁄4 lbs.; rectified spirit, 2 galls.; water, 1 gall.; as the last.

Obs. Tincture of myrrh is tonic and stimulant.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1 fl. dr., as an adjuvant in mixtures, gargles, &c. Chiefly used diluted with water, as a dentifrice or wash for ulcerated and spongy gums.

Tincture of Myrrh (Alkaline). Syn. Tinctura myrrhæ alkalizæ. (Ph. E. 1744.) Prep. Powdered myrrh, 1⁄2 oz.; solution of carbonate of potash, a sufficient quantity; mix into a soft paste, dry it, and add rectified spirit, 1 pint. Digest for 6 days, and strain.

Tincture of Myrrh (Compound). Syn. Tinctura myrrhæ composita, L. Prep. From myrrh and socotrine aloes, of each 2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 3 galls.; water, 2 galls.; digest for 14 days. This is frequently substituted for ‘COMPOUND TINCTURE OF ALOES’ in the wholesale trade.

Tincture of Nux Vomi′ca. Syn. Tinctura nucis vomicæ, L. Prep. 1. Nux vomica, 1; rectified spirit, 10; soften the nux vomica by steam, dry rapidly, and reduce to fine powder. Macerate 48 hours in three fourths of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, press, filter, and make up to 10.—Dose, 10 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Nux vomica (ground in a coffee-mill), 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz.; macerate 7 (14) days.—Dose, 5 to 20 drops; in paralysis, &c. It is poisonous.

Tincture of Nux Vomica (Ethereal). Syn. Tinctura nucis vomicæ ætherea. (Ph. G.) Prep. Coarsely powdered nux vomica, 1 oz.; spirits of ether, 10 oz. (by weight). Macerate for 8 days.

Tincture, Odontalgic. Syn. Toothache tincture; Tinctura odontalgica, L. Prep. 1. Tincture of opium, 1 fl. dr.; ether, 2 fl. dr.; oil of cloves, 15 drops.

2. Rectified spirit, 3 fl. dr.; chloroform, 2 dr.; creasote, 1 dr.; mix.

3. (Collier.) Pellitory of Spain, 4 dr.; camphor, 3 dr.; opium, 1 dr.; oil of cloves, 2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz.; digest for a week.

4. (Niemann.) Digest 60 or 80 common lady-birds (Coccinella septempunctata—Linn.) in rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz. for 8 days, and strain.

Obs. The above are commonly applied, on a small piece of lint, in toothache. For other formulæ see Drops, Tinctures of Myrrh and Pellitory, &c.

Tincture of O′pium. Syn. Laudanum, Liquid, L., Anodyne tincture, Thebaic t.; Tinctura opii (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), Thebaica, Laudanum liquidum, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Opium, in coarse powder, 1⁄2; proof spirit, 20; macerate 7 days, strain, express, filter, and add spirit to make 20.—Dose, 10 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Powdered opium, 3 oz. (3 oz.—Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days—Ph. D.), and strain, with expression.

3. (Ph. E.) Opium, sliced, 3 oz.; boiling water, 13⁄2 fl. oz.; digest, with heat, for 2 hours, break down the opium with the hand, strain, and express the infusion; then macerate the residuum for about 20 hours in rectified spirit, 1 pint 7 fl. oz.; next strain, press, mix the watery and spirituous infusions, and filter.

Obs. This preparation has a deep brownish-red colour, and the characteristic odour and taste of opium. 14 minims or measured drops of the London, and about 15 minims of the Edinburgh and Dublin tinctures, are equivalent to 1 gr. of dry opium, or 1·12 gr. of ordinary opium. 14 minims of this tincture are equal to about 25 drops of it poured from a bottle. Its sp. gr. is ·952 (Phillips).—Dose, 10 to 60 drops; as an anodyne, sedative, or hypnotic. The following form is substituted for that of the Pharmacopœia by many of the wholesale drug houses:—Take of Turkey opium, 2⁄2 lbs.; boiling water, 9 quarts; digest till dissolved or disintegrated, cool; add of rectified spirit, 2 galls.; and, after repose for 24 hours, decant the clear portion. Prod. 4 galls.

Tincture of Opium (Ammo′′niated). Syn. Ammoniated tincture of opium, Scotch paregoric; Tinctura opii ammoniata (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Opium, in powder, 100 gr.; saffron, cut small, 180 gr.; benzoic acid, 180 gr.; oil of anise, 60 minims; strong solution of ammonia, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 16 oz.; macerate 7 days in a closed vessel, with occasional agitation, strain, and add sufficient rectified spirit to make up 20 oz.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Benzoic acid and hay saffron, of each 6 dr.; opium, sliced, 4 dr.; oil of aniseed, 1 dr.; spirit of ammonia (Ph. E.), 1 quart; digest for a week, and filter. Stimulant antispasmodic, and anodyne.—Dose, 20 to 80 drops; in hysteria, hooping-cough, &c.

Obs. This preparation is called ‘PAREGORIC,’ or ‘PAREGORIC ELIXIR,’ in Scotland, but should be carefully distinguished from the compound tincture of camphor, which passes under the same names in England; as the former contains about 4 times as much opium as the latter. 80 minims, or 145 poured drops, contain about 1 gr. of opium.

Tincture of Opium (Cam′phorated). Compound tincture of camphor.

Tincture of Opium (Ecard’s, or Bamberg’s). Syn. Tinctura opii Ecardi, Ecard’s or Bamberg’s thebaic tincture. Prep. Opium, 2 oz.; cloves, 1 dr.; cinnamon water, 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 4 oz. Digest in a warm room for 6 days, and strain.

Tincture of Opium (Fetid). Syn. Tinctura opii fœtida. (Ph. Fulda.) Prep. Castor oil, 4 oz.; assafœtida, 2 oz.; salt of hartshorn, 1 oz.; dry opium, 4 dr.; rectified spirit, 32 oz.—Dose, 15 minims to 1 dr.

Tincture of Opium (Odourless). Syn. Tinctura opii deodorata. (Ph. U. S.) Prep. Opium dried, and in moderately fine powder, 2⁄2 troy oz.; ether, rectified spirit, of each 8 oz. (o. m.); water, a sufficient quantity. Macerate the opium with ⁄2 pint of the water for 24 hours, and express. Repeat this operation twice with the same quantity of water, mix the express liquids and evaporate to 4 oz. (o. m.); let cool, and shake repeatedly in a bottle with the ether. When it has separated by standing, pour off the ethereal solution, and evaporate the remaining liquid till all the ether has disappeared. Mix the residue with 20 oz. (o. m.) of water, and filter. When the liquid has ceased to pass, add enough water to make the filtrate measure 1⁄2 pint (o. m.). Lastly, mix in the spirit.

Tincture of Or′ange Peel. Syn. Tinctura aurantii (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), T. corticis aurantii, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Dried bitter orange peel, cut small and bruised, 1; proof spirit, 10; macerate for 7 days in a closed vessel with occasional agitation, then strain, press, and filter, add sufficient proof spirit to make 10.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Dried orange peel, 3⁄2 oz. (4 oz.—Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; digest for 7 days (14 days—Ph. D.; or by percolation—Ph. E.), press, and filter. A grateful bitter stomachic.—Dose, 1 to 3 fl. dr.; chiefly as an adjuvant in mixtures, &c.

Tincture of Orange Peel (Fresh). Syn. Tintura aurantii recentis. (B. P.) Prep. Bitter orange, rectified spirit, of each a sufficient quantity. Carefully cut from the orange the coloured part of the rind in thin slices, and macerate 6 oz. of this in 1 pint of spirit for a week, with frequent agitation; then pour off the liquid, press the dregs, mix the liquid products, and filter; finally, add sufficient spirit to make 1 pint.—Dose, 1 dr. to 2 dr.

Tincture of Orange, with Iron. Syn. Tinctura ferri aurantiaca. (Ph. Wurt.) Prep. Iron filings, 4 oz,; Seville oranges deprived of their seeds, no. 4. Beat them together, leave them for 2 days; then add Madeira wine, 10 oz.; spirits of orange peel, 2 oz. Digest, express, and filter.

Tincture of Orris Root. Syn. Tinctura iridis. Prep. Freshly powdered orris root, 1 part; proof spirit, 5 parts. Sold as Esprit de Violette.

Tincture of Ox-gall. Syn. Tinctura fellis bovini. Prep. Inspissated ox-gall, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Digest until dissolved.

Tincture of Paracress. Syn. Tinctura spilanthi composita. Prep. Paracress, dried and bruised, 2 oz.; pyrethrum root in coarse powder, 2 oz.; spirit, 10 oz. (by weight). Digest 8 days. Sialagogue.

Tincture of Pareira Brava. Syn. Tinctura Pareiræ bravæ. (Brodie). Prep. Pareira brava root, 2 oz.; French brandy, 1 pint. Digest for 7 days.

Tincture of Pel′litory. Syn. Toothache tincture; Tinctura pyrethri (B. P.) Prep. 1. (B. P.) Pellitory root, in coarse powder, 4; rectified spirit, 20; macerate for 48 hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, then pack it in a percolator, let it drain, and pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press, filter, and make up to 20.

2. Pellitory of Spain (bruised), 1 oz.; rectified spirit, ⁄4 pint; digest a week. In the P. Cod. a tincture is ordered prepared with spirit about 41 o. p., and another prepared with spirit of sulphuric ether.

3. (Compound.—Brande.) Pellitory root, 4 dr.; camphor, 3 dr.; oil of cloves, 2 dr.; opium, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 6 fl. oz.; digest for eight days. Both the above are used for the toothache. See Tincture, Odontalgic.

Tincture of Pepper (Stomachic). Syn. Tinctura piperis stomachica; Essentia stomachica polychresta (Spielman.) Prep. Capsicum, 1 oz.; black pepper, 2 dr.; long pepper, 2 dr.; white pepper, 2 dr.; solution of acetate of potash, 6 oz.; spirit of ammonia, 1 oz. Digest and filter.

Tincture of Perchloride of Iron. Syn. Tinctura ferri perchloridi. (B. P.) Prep. Mix 5 fl. oz. of strong solution of perchloride of iron with 15 fl. oz. of rectified spirit.—Dose, 10 to 30 minims.

Tincture of Phos′phorus (Ethereal). Syn. Æther phosphoratus, Tinctura phosphori ætherea, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Hann. 1831.) Phosphorus (powdered by agitation with rectified spirit), 16 gr.; ether, 2 oz.; macerate, with agitation, for 4 days, then decant the clear portion, and preserve it in a stoppered bottle, in a cool dark situation.

2. (P. Cod.) Phosphorus, cut small, 1 part; ether, 50 parts; digest with occasional agitation for 1 month, and decant the clear.—Dose, 5 to 15 drops, in any bland vehicle, thrice daily; in impotency, low sinking conditions of the system, &c.

Tincture of Poplar Buds. Syn. Tinctura populi. (Van Monc.) Prep. Poplar buds, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 24 oz. Macerate and filter.

Tincture of Quas′sia. Syn. Tinctura quassiæ (B. P., Ph. E), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Quassia in chips, ⁄4; proof spirit, 20; digest 7 days; filter, and make up to 20.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Quassia, in chips, 10 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest 7 days. Bitter, tonic.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 fl. dr.; in dyspepsia, &c.

Tincture of Quassia (Compound). Syn. Tinctura quassiæ composita (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Cardamoms and cochineal, of each, bruised, ⁄2 oz.; powdered cinnamon and quassia chips, of each 6 dr.; raisins, 7 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest for 7 days (or by percolation), then press, and filter. Aromatic and tonic.—Dose and use, as the last.

Tincture of Quinine (Ammoniated). Syn. Tinctura quininæ ammoniata. (B. P.) Prep. Sulphate of quinine, 160 gr.; solution of ammonia, 2⁄2 fl. oz.; proof spirit, 17⁄2 oz.; dissolve the quinine in the spirit with a gentle heat, and add the solution of ammonia.—Dose, ⁄2 dr. to 2 dr.

Tincture of Quinine (Compound). Syn. Fever drops; Tinctura quinæ (B. P.); Tinctura quinæ composita (Ph. L.) Prep. 1. (B. P.) Sulphate of quinia, 1; tincture of orange peel, 60; dissolve with a gentle heat, digest for 3 days with occasional agitation and strain.—Dose, 1 to 1⁄2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Sulphate of quinine, 5 dr. 1 scrup. (or 320 gr.); tincture of orange peel, 1 quart; digest, with agitation, for 7 days, or until solution is complete.

Obs. Unless the tincture employed as the solvent be of the full strength, some of the disulphate remains undissolved. It is an excellent medicine when faithfully prepared.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 fl. dr.; in debility, dyspepsia, &c.

Tincture of Red Gum. Syn. Tinctura gummi rubri. (Mr Squire.) Prep. Red gum, 1 part; rectified spirit, 4. Digest and strain.—Dose, 20 to 40 minims.

Tincture of Red Lav′ender. Compound tincture of lavender.

Tincture of Rhat′any. Syn. Tinctura krameriæ (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Rhatany, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours in 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator; when it ceases to drop, pour on the remaining spirit, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. D.) Rhatany root, in coarse powder, 8 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days, then press, and filter. Astringent.—Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr. The formula of the Ph. U. S. is similar.

Tincture of Rhododendron. Syn. Tinctura rhododendri. (Niemann.) Prep. Leaves of Rhododendron Chrysanthum, 2 oz.; French brandy, ⁄2 lb.; sherry, ⁄2 lb. Digest for 15 days.

Tincture of Rhu′barb. Syn. Tinctura rhei (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Rhubarb, bruised, 2; cardamom seeds, bruised, ⁄4; coriander, bruised, ⁄4; saffron, ⁄4; proof spirit, 20; macerate for 48 hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and when it ceases to drop pour on the remaining spirit, press and wash the marc, and add spirit to make up 20.—Dose. As a stomachic, 1 to 2 dr.; as a purgative, ⁄2 to 1 oz.

2. (Ph. E.) Powdered rhubarb, 3⁄2 oz.; cardamom seeds, bruised, ⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest, or proceed by the method of displacement.

3. (Ph. L. 1824.) Rhubarb, 2 oz.; cardamoms, 4 dr.; saffron, 2 dr.; proof spirit, 32 fl. oz. Both the above are cordial, stomachic, and laxative.—Dose, 1 fl. dr, to 1 fl. oz.

Tincture of Rhubarb (Aqueous). Syn. Tinctura rhei aquosa. (Ph. G.) Prep. Rhubarb, 10 oz.; borax, 1 oz.; carbonate of potash, 1 oz.; boiling water, 85 oz. Infuse for ⁄4 hour, then add rectified spirit, 10 oz. (by weight); let stand 2⁄2 hours, and add cinnamon water, 15 oz.

Tincture of Rhubarb (Compound). Syn. Tinctura rhei composita (Ph. L. & D.). Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Rhubarb, sliced, 2⁄2 oz.; liquorice root, bruised, 6 dr.; ginger (bruised) and hay saffron, of each 3 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, then press, and filter.

2. (Ph.) Rhubarb, 3 oz.; cardamoms, 1 oz.; liquorice root, ⁄2 oz.; saffron, ⁄4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days.

3. (Ph. L. 1824.) Rhubarb, 2 oz.; liquorice root, 4 dr.; ginger and saffron, of each 2 dr.; proof spirit, 16 fl. oz.; water, 12 fl. oz.

Obs. This tincture is a popular remedy in diarrhœa and colic, and is an especial favourite with drunkards.—Dose, as a stomachic, 1 to 3 fl. dr.; as a purgative, ⁄2 to 1⁄2 fl. oz. The tincture of rhubarb of the shops is mostly inferior, being generally deficient both in rhubarb and spirit. The following forms we have seen extensively employed in the wholesale trade:—East Indian rhubarb, 20 lbs.; boiling water, q. s. to cover it; infuse for 24 hours, then slice the rhubarb, and put it into a cask with moist sugar, 14 lbs.; ginger, bruised, 3⁄2 lbs.; hay saffron, 1 lb.; carbonate of potash, ⁄2 lb.; bruised nutmegs, ⁄4 lb.; rectified spirit, 19 galls.; water, 21 galls.; macerate with frequent agitation for 14 days, decant the clear portion, and press and filter the bottoms. Those houses that adhere to the Ph. L. for 1824 substitute cardamom seeds, 5 lbs., for the ginger. For the corresponding Ph. E. formula see the last article.

Tincture of Rhubarb (Brandish’s Al′kaline). Syn. Tinctura rhei alkalina brandishii, L. Prep. From rhubarb, in coarse powder, 1⁄2 oz.; Brandish’s alkaline solution, 1 quart; macerate for a week. In the original formula only ⁄2 oz. of rhubarb is ordered.—Dose, 20 drops to 2 fl. dr., in any bland liquid, not acidulous; in acidities, dyspepsia, &c.

Tincture of Rhubarb and Aloes. Syn. Sacred elixir†; Tinctura rhei et aloës (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Rhubarb, in powder, 1⁄2 oz.; Socotrine or East Indian aloes, 6 dr.; cardamom seeds, bruised, 5 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate 7 days, or percolate. A warm stomachic purgative.—Dose, ⁄2 fl. oz. to 1 fl. oz.

Tincture of Rhubarb and Gen′tian. Tinctura rhei amara, Tinctura rhei et gentianæ (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Rhubarb, 2 oz.; gentian, ⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; proceed as for the last. Stomachic, tonic, and purgative.—Dose, 1 fl. dr. to 1 fl. oz.

Tincture of Rhubarb and Sen′na. Syn. Warner’s gout cordial; Tinctura rhei et sennæ (Ph. U. S.), L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) Rhubarb, 1 oz.; senna and red sanders wood, of each 2 dr.; coriander and fennel seed, of each 1 dr.; saffron and extract of liquorice, of each ⁄2 dr.; stoned raisins, 6 oz.; proof spirit, 2⁄2 pints; macerate for 14 days. A popular stomachic and laxative.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1⁄2 fl. oz.

Tincture (Riemer’s Nervous). Prep. From oil of juniper, 1 part; volatile liquor of hartshorn, 4 parts; rectified spirit, 16 parts.—Dose, 1 teaspoonful in water.

Tincture of Rose. Syn. Tinctura rosæ. Prep. Dried red rose, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Digest for 10 days.

Tincture of Rosemary. Syn. Tinctura rosmarini. (Ph. Bruns.) Prep. Flowering tops of rosemary, 1⁄2 oz.; spirit of rosemary, 6 oz. Digest, express, and filter.

Tincture, Ruspini’s. See Tincture, Tooth.

Tincture of Saf′fron. Syn. Tinctura croci (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), T. c. sativæ, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Saffron, 1; proof spirit, 20; macerate 48 hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, and then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 20.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Hay saffron, 2 oz. (2 oz.—Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart (1 pint—Ph. D.); proceed either by maceration (for 14 days—Ph. D.) or by displacement. Stimulant, and emmenagogue.—Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr. Chiefly used for its colour and flavour.

Tincture of Saponin. Syn. Tinctura saponini. Prep. Bark of Quillai Saponaria, 1 part; alcohol (90 per cent.), 4 parts. Heat to ebullition and filter.

Tincture of Sarsaparilla (Compound). Syn. Tinctura sarzæ composita, Liqueur dépurative. (François.) Prep. Sarsaparilla, guaiacum, china root, sassafras, of each 1 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz.

Tincture of Savine. Syn. Tinctura sabinæ. (B. P.) Prep. Savine tops, dried, and coarsely powdered, 2⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Proceed as for tincture of aconite.

Tincture of Scammony. Syn. Tinctura scammonii. (P. Cod.) Prep. Scammony, 4 oz.; rect. spirit, 20 oz. (by weight).

Tincture of Senega. Syn. Tinctura senegæ. (B. P.) Prep. Senega, bruised, 2⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Prepared as tincture of aconite.

Tincture of Senna (Compound). Syn. Tincture of senna, Elixir of health†; Tinctura sennæ (B. P.), Tinctura sennæ compositæ (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Senna, broken small, 5; raisins, freed from seeds, 4; caraway, bruised, 1; coriander, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 40; macerate the ingredients 48 hours in three fourths of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, and when it ceases to drop, pour on the remaining spirit; press, filter, and make up 40.—Dose, 2 to 8 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Senna, 3⁄2 oz.; caraway seeds, bruised, 3⁄2 dr.; cardamom seeds, bruised, 1 dr.; stoned raisins, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, press, and filter.

3. (Ph. E.) Senna and stoned raisins, of each 4 oz.; sugar, 2⁄2 oz.; corianders, 1 oz.; jalap, 6 dr.; caraways and cardamoms, of each 5 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest, or proceed by percolation.

4. (Ph. D.) Senna, 4 oz.; caraway and cardamom seeds, of each, bruised, ⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days.

5. (Wholesale.) From senna, 6 lbs.; treacle, 2 lbs.; caraways, ⁄4 lb.; cardamoms, ⁄4 lb.; rectified spirit and water, of each 4 galls.; as before. Carminative, stomachic, and purgative.—Dose, ⁄4 to 1 fl. oz.

Obs. “If Alexandrian senna be used for this preparation, it must be freed from cynanchum (argol) leaves, by picking.” (Ph. E.)

Tincture of Ser′pentary. Syn. Tincture of Virginian snake root; Tinctura serpentarie (B. P., Ph. L., & E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Serpentary, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours, with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain; pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc to make up 8.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Serpentary, bruised, 3⁄2 oz. (cochineal, 1 dr.—Ph. E); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or by percolation—Ph. E.), strain, and filter. Stimulant, tonic, and diaphoretic.—Dose, 1 to 3 fl. dr.

Tincture of Sesquichloride of Iron. Syn. Tincture of muriate of iron, Tincture of steel, Steel drops; Tinctura ferri perchloridi (B. P.), Tinctura ferri sesquichloridi (Ph. L. & D.), T. ferri muriatis (Ph. E.), Ferri muriatis liquor, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Strong solution of perchloride of iron, 1; rectified spirit, 3; mix.—Dose, 10 to 30 minims in water.

2. (Ph. L.) Sesquioxide of iron, 6 oz.; hydrochloric acid, 1 pint; mix, and digest in a sand bath, frequently shaking (with a gentle heat, for a day—Ph. E.), until solution is complete, then add, when cold, of rectified spirit, 3 pints, and (in a short time) filter. Sp. gr. ·992. “1 fl. oz., potash being added, deposits nearly 30 gr. of sesquioxide of iron.” (Ph. L.)

3. (Ph. D.) Iron wire, 8 oz.; pure hydrochloric acid, 1 quart; distilled water, 1 pint; mix, and dissolve by a gentle heat; next add, in successive portions, of pure nitric acid, 18 fl. dr.; evaporate by a gentle heat to a pint, and, when cold, mix this in a bottle with rectified spirit, 1⁄2 pint; lastly, after 12 hours, filter. Sp. gr. 1·237.

Obs. This tincture is an active ferruginous tonic.—Dose, 10 to 30 drops, gradually increased, taken in water, ale, or wine. In the old tinctura martis, Ph. L., iron filings, and in the T. ferri muriatis, Ph. E. 1817, black oxide of iron, were used instead of the sesquioxide or carbonate. ‘Bestuchef’s nervine tincture’ of the P. Cod. is prepared by dissolving 1 dr. of dry sesquichloride of iron in 7 dr. of spirit of sulphuric ether. See Golden drops.

Tincture of Sesquini′trate of Iron‡. Syn. Tinctura ferri sesquinitratis, L. Prep. (Onion.) Iron filings, ⁄2 oz.; nitric acid (1·5), 2⁄4 oz.; dissolve, add of hydrochloric acid (1·16), 6 dr., simmer for 2 or 3 minutes, cool, add of rectified spirit, 8 oz., and filter. Proposed as a substitute for the last preparation, but the name misrepresents its chemical constitution.

Tincture of Soap. Syn. Tinctura saponis. (P. Cod.) Prep. White soap, 3 oz.; carbonate of potash, 1 dr.; proof spirit, 5 oz. (by weight). Dissolve.

Tincture of Soap with Turpentine. Syn. Tinctura saponis terebinthinata. Baumé de vie externe. Prep. White soap, 3 oz.; oil of turpentine, 3 oz.; spirit of wild thyme, 2 lb.; white of ammonia, 2 oz.

Tincture of Squills. Syn. Tinctura bechica, Tinctura scillæ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Dried squill, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate for 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, and pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press, filter, and make up to 8.—Dose, 15 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Squills, recently dried and sliced (or in coarse powder), 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days—Ph. D.; or by percolation—Ph. E.), press and filter. A stimulating expectorant and diuretic.—Dose, 10 to 30 drops; in chronic coughs, and other bronchial affections.

Tincture of Squills (Alkaline). Syn. Tinctura scillæ alkalina. (Ph. G.) Prep. Squill, 8 parts; caustic potash, 1 part; rectified spirit, 50 parts; macerate, 8 days.

Tincture of Stavesacre (Concentrated). Syn. Tinctura staphisagriæ concentrata. (Dr Turnbull.) Prep. Digest stavesacre seeds in twice their weight of rectified spirit. For external use in neuralgic and rheumatic affections, as a substitute for solution of delphinia.

Tincture, Stomach′ic. Compound tincture of cardamoms. Compound tincture of gentian is also, occasionally, so called.

Tincture of Stramo′′nium. Syn. Tincture of thorn-apple; Tinctura stramonii (B. P., Ph. D. & U. S.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Stramonium seeds, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, let it drain, and pour on the remaining spirit. When it ceases to drop, press, filter, and add spirit to make 8.—Dose, 10 to 20 minims.

2. (Ph. D.) Stramonium or thorn-apple seeds (bruised), 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days (or by displacement—Ph. U. S.), then press, and filter. Anodyne.—Dose, 10 to 20 drops; in neuralgia, rheumatism, &c. Said to be superior to laudanum.

Tincture, Styptic. Syn. Tinctura styptica. (Ph. L. 1746.) Prep. Calcined sulphate of iron, 1 dr.; French brandy, coloured by the cask, 2 lbs.

Tincture, Sudorific. Syn. Tinctura sudorifica. (Ph. E. 1744.) Prep. Serpentary root, 5 dr.; cochineal, 4 dr.; castor oil, 1 dr.; saffron, 2 scruples; opium, 1 scruple; spirit of Mindererus, 16 oz. Digest for 3 days and strain.

Tincture of Sum′bul. Syn. Tinctura sumbuli (B. P.) Prep. 1. (B. P.) Sumbul, bruised fine, 1; proof spirit, 8; digest 7 days and filter.—Dose, 15 to 30 minims.

2. From sumbul, bruised, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for a week, and strain, with expression. Stimulant and tonic.—Dose, 10 to 30 or 40 drops.

Tincture of Tartrated Iron. Syn. Tinctura martis tartarizata. Prep. Pure iron filings, 100 parts; cream of tartar, 250, rectified spirit, 50 parts (by weight). Put the filings and tartar into an iron kettle with sufficient water to form a paste, leave them for 24 hours, add 3000 parts of soft water and boil for 2 hours, stirring constantly and supplying the waste of water. Decant and filter the liquor, and evaporate it till it has the density of 1·286, and add the spirit.—Dose, 3 to 6 drops.

Tincture of Thorn-apple. Tincture of stramonium.

Tincture of Thuja. Syn. Tinctura thujæ. Fresh leaves of thuja, 1 part; spirit (90 per cent.), 10 parts. Macerate for 10 days, and filter.—Dose, 10 drops in water. The leaves of thuja are collected in June and July. Those of the T. orientalis and T. occidentalis, have the reputation in Belgium of curing smallpox.

Tincture of Tobac′co. Syn. Tinctura nicotianæ, Tinctura tabaci, L. Prep. From pure manufactured tobacco, 1⁄4 oz,; proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate for 7 days. Compound spirit of juniper is often used instead of proof spirit. Sedative and narcotic.—Dose, 10 to 30 drops. A tincture is also made from the fresh leaves. See Vegetable juices and Tinctures (Ethereal).

Tincture of Tol′u. Syn. Tinctura tolutanus (B. P.), Tinctura tolutana (Ph. L. & D.), T. balsami Tolutani, T. Toluiferæ balsami, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Balsam of Tolu, 1; rectified spirit, 8; dissolve, filter, and make up to 8.—Dose, 15 to 30 minims, mixed with mucilage or syrup.

2. (Ph. L.) Balsam of Tolu, 2 oz. (3⁄2 oz.—Ph. E.); rectified spirit, 1 quart (1 pint—Ph. D.); dissolve (by the aid of a gentle heat—Ph. E. & D.), and filter.

Obs. This tincture is reputed pectoral and expectorant; but it is chiefly used as an adjuvant in mixtures, on account of its flavour.—Dose, 10 to 60 drops.

Tincture, Tooth. Prep. 1. (Greenhough’s.) From bitter almonds, 2 oz.; Brazil wood, cinnamon, and orris root, of each ⁄2 oz.; alum, cochineal, and salt of sorrel, of each 1 dr.; spirit of scurvy grass, 2 fl. oz.; proof spirit, 1⁄2 pint; macerate a week.

2. (Hudson’s.) From the tinctures of myrrh and cinchona, and cinnamon water, equal parts, with a little arquebusade and gum Arabic.

3. (Ruspini’s.) From orris root, 8 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; ambergris, 20 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; digested for 14 days. The above are used as cosmetics for the teeth and gums. The last has long been a popular dentifrice.

Tincture, Toothache. Odontalgic tincture. See also Drops, Essence, &c.

Tincture of Turmeric. Syn. Tinctura curcumæ. (Dr Wood.) Prep. Turmeric, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 6 oz.

Tincture of Turpentine. Syn. Tinctura terebinthinæ. (P. Cod.) Prep. Venice turpentine, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint.

Tincture of Tuyaya. Syn. Tinctura tuyayæ. Prep. Tuyaya root, in powder, 12 oz.; proof spirit, 36 oz.; macerate for 14 days. If for internal use it must be diluted with four times its volume of spirit.—Dose, 1 to 10 minims. In syphilis.

Tincture of Vale′rian. Syn. Tinctura valerianæ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Valerian bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate the valerian 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, let it drain, pour on the remainder of the spirit; when it ceases to drop, press and filter, washing the marc with spirit to make up 8.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Valerian root, bruised, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate 7 days (14 days—Ph. D.; or by percolation—Ph. E.), press, and filter. Tonic and antispasmodic.—Dose, 1 to 3 fl. dr.; in hysteria, epilepsy, &c.

Tincture of Valerian (Compound). Syn. Ammoniated tincture of valerian, Volatile t. of v.; Tinctura valerianæ composita (Ph. L.), T. v. ammoniata (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Valerian, bruised, 1; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 8; macerate the valerian 7 days, press, filter, and add spirit to make up 8.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Valerian root, bruised, 5 oz.; aromatic spirit of ammonia (simple—Ph. E.), 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or by percolation—Ph. E.), then press, and filter. Stimulant, tonic, and antispasmodic.—Dose and use, same as those of the simple tincture, than which it is thought to be more powerful. The tincture of the shops is generally made with only 1 lb. of the root to the gallon.

Tincture of Vanilla. Syn. Tinctura vanillæ. (Ph. G.) Prep. Vanilla pods, 1 part; rectified spirit, 5 parts. Macerate 8 days.

Tincture of Veratria. Syn. Tinctura veratriæ. (Magendie.) Prep. Veratria, 4 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 dr.

Tincture of Vera′trum. Syn. Tincture of white hellebore; Tinctura veratri viridis; Tinctura hellebori albi, T. veratri (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Green hellebore root, in coarse powder, 4; rectified spirit, 20; macerate the powder with 15 of the spirit 48 hours, agitating occasionally, pack it in a percolator, let it drain, pour on the remainder of the spirit, when it ceases to drop, press, filter, wash the marc with spirit to make up 20.—Dose, 5 to 20 minims.

2. (Ph. E.) White hellebore, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; digest or percolate.—Dose, 10 drops, 2 or 3 times a day, gradually increased; in gout, rheumatism, &c., as a substitute for colchicum; also, externally.

Tincture of Virginian Snake Root. Tincture of serpentary.

Tincture of Vittie-vayr. Syn. Tinctura vetiveriæ, L. Prep. From vittie-vayr (roots of Andropogon muricatis), 2⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate a week. Stimulant, tonic, and sudorific.—Dose, 15 to 30 drops.

Tincture, Vulnerary. Syn. Tinctura vulneraria. (P. Cod.) Prep. Fresh leaves of wormwood, angelica, basil, calamint, fennel, hyssop, marjoram, balm peppermint, origanum, rosemary, rue, savory, sage, wild thyme, St John’s wort tops, lavender tops, of each 1 oz. (all cut up); rectified spirit, 20 oz. (by weight). Digest 10 days.

Tincture of Walnuts. Syn. Tinctura inglandis. (Ph. Dan.) Prep. Green shells of walnut, 6 oz.; proof spirit, 24 oz. Digest for 6 days.

Tincture of Walnut Leaves. Syn. Tinctura inglandis foliorum. (Mr Ince.) Prep. Dried walnut leaves, 16 oz.; macerated for 7 days in a gallon of proof spirit.—Dose, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls. To prevent sickness, or to cover the taste of cod-liver oil.

Tincture, Warburg’s Fever. Syn. Tinctura febrifuga Warburgii. The composition was for a long time kept secret; but in 1875 Dr. W. published the following formula for it, through Prof. Maclean:—Aloes (Soc.), lb. j; Rad. Rhei, Sem. Angelic., Conf. Damocrat. āā ℥iv; Rad. Helenii, Croci Sat., Sem. Fœnic., Cretæ ppt. āā ℥ij; Rad. Gent., Rad. Zedoar., Pip. Cubeb., Myrrhæ, Camphoræ, Boleti laric., āā ℥j. Digest with 500 oz. of proof spirit in a water-bath for 12 hours; express, and add quinin. disulph. ℥x. Then replace in water-bath until the quinine is dissolved. Filter when cool. Dose, ⁄2 oz. (undiluted) after an aperient.

Tincture of Wild Cherry Bark. Syn. Tinctura pruni virginianæ. Prep. Wild cherry bark, bruised, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Digest 14 days, press, and filter. May also be made by percolation.

Tincture of Winter Cherry. Syn. Tinctura physalis alkikengæ. Prep. Take of the whole plant, dried, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint. Digest for 10 days, strain, and filter. Diuretic and febrifuge.—Dose, ⁄2 dr. to 1 dr.

Tincture of Wormwood. Syn. Tinctura absinthii. (Ph. G.) Prep. Dried wormwood, 6 oz.; proof spirit, 30 oz. (by weight.); macerate for 8 days, and strain.—Dose, 1 dr.

Tincture of Wormwood (Compound). Syn. Tinctura absinthii composita. (P. Cod.) Prep. Dried wormwood tops, 1 oz.; gentian, bitter orange peel, of each 1 oz.; germander, 1 oz.; rhubarb, ⁄4 oz.; aloes, 2 dr.; cascarilla, 2 dr.; proof spirit, 2 pints.

Loss of Spirit in making Tinctures by the British Pharmacopœia.—Mr Umney gives the following table, as embodying the result of his experience:—

Quantity made. Alcohol ·838 to make up measure. Alcohol ·920 to make up measure. Loss p. c. by volume. Gain p. c. by volume.

Galls. Pints. Pints.

Tinct. aconit 4 2·5 ... 7·9

Tinct. arnicæ 10 3·0 ... 3·8

Tinct. aurantii 10 ... 5·0 6·3

Tinct. belladonnæ 2 ... ·7 4·1

Tinct. benz. comp. 5 ... ... ... 10·0

Tinct. buchu 2 ... 1·0 6·3

Tinct. calumbæ 5 ... 3·0 7·1

Tinct. camphor, comp. 10 ... ·5 ·7

Tinct. cantharid 4 ... ·6 1·9

Tinct. capsici 5 1·0 ... 2·5

Tinct. cardam. co. 20 ... ... ... 2·5

Tinct. cascarillæ 5 ... 2·0 5·0

Tinct. castor 2 ·5 ... 3·2

Tinct. catechu 5 ... No loss. ...

Tinct. chirettæ 2 ... 2·0 12·5

Tinct. cinchonæ 10 ... 12·0 15·0

Tinct. cinchonæ co. 10 ... 9·0 11·3

Tinct. cinnam. 5 ... 4·0 10·0

Tinct. cocci 1 ... ·25 3·1

Tinct. colchici sem. 2 ... 1·5 9·4

Tinct. conii 2 ... ·75 4·6

Tinct. croci 1 ... ·60 7·5

Tinct. cubebæ 2 ·5 ... 3·2

Tinct. digitatis 5 ... 3·0 7·5

Tinct. ergotæ 2 ... 2·0 12·5

Tinct. ferri acet. 1 1·2 ... 15·0

Tinct. gallæ 1 ... ·4 5·0

Tinct. gent. co. 10 ... 7·0 8·7

Tinct. hyoscyami 10 ... 6·0 7·5

Tinct. jalapæ 5 ... 2·0 5·0

Tinct. kino 1 No loss. ... ...

Tinct. krameriæ 5 ... 2·0 5·0

Tinct. lavand. comp. 20 2·0 ... 1·3

Tinct. limonis 2 ... 1·5 9·4

Tinct. lobeliæ 3 ... 2·5 10·5

Tinct. lobeliæ æther. 3 3·5 ... 14·5

Tinct. lupuli 5 ... 4·0 10·0

Tinct. myrrhæ 5 2·5 ... 6·2

Tinct. nuc. vom. 4 ·0 ... 6·2

Tinct. opii 10 ... ·75 1·0

Tinct. opii ammon. 2·5 ·5 ... 2·5

Tinct. pyrethri 1 1·0 ... 12·5

Tinct. quassiæ 1 ... ·7 8·7

Tinct. rhei 10 ... 4·0 5·0

Tinct. sabinæ 2 ... ·8 5·0

Tinct. scillæ 5 ... 3·0 7·5

Tinct. senegæ 1 ... ·75 9·3

Tinct. sennæ 10 ... 2·0 2·5

Tinct. serpentar 1 ... ·9 10·9

Tinct. stramon. 1 ... ·5 6·3

Tinct. sambul 3 ... 1·0 4·2

Tinct. valer. ammon. 5 3·5 ... 4·4

Tinct. valerian 5 ... 2·3 5·7

Tinct. veratri virid. 2 2·5 ... 15·6

Tinct. zingiber 5 2·5 ... 6·3

Tinct. zingiber fort. 10 3·6 ... 37·5

Tincture of Yellow Jasmine. Syn. Tinctura gelsemii sempervirens. Prep. Yellow jasmine, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint.—Dose, 20 to 40 minims.

Tincture of Zedoary. Syn. Tinctura zedoariæ. (Ph. Amst.) Prep. Zedoary root, 1 part; rectified spirit, 8 parts. Digest and filter.

Tincture of Zedoary (Compound). Syn. Tinctura zedoariæ composita; Wedel’s Essentia Carminativa. Prep. Zedoary, 4 oz.; calamus, galangal, of each 2 oz.; chamomile, aniseed, caraway seed, of each 1 oz.; bay-berries and cloves, of each 6 dr.; orange-peel and mace, of each 4 dr.; peppermint water and rectified spirit, of each 24 dr. In 6 days strain, and add hydrochloric ether, 4 oz.

TINCTURES (Concentrated). Syn. Tincturæ concentratæ Haenli, L. Prep. (Ph. Baden.) Digest 8 parts of the vegetable powder in 16 of spirit of the sp. gr. ·857 (45 o. p.), for 4 days, at 72° Fahr., with occasional agitation, then press, and filter; to the marc or residuum add as much spirit as it has absorbed, and again press, and filter; the weight of the mixed liquors should be 16 parts. In this way are prepared concentrated tinctures of aconite leaves; arnica and chamomile flowers; belladonna, digitalis, hemlock, henbane, peppermint, and savine leaves; ipecacuanha and valerian roots, &c.

TINCTURES (Cu′linary). See Essences, Spirits, &c.

TINCTURES (Ethe′′real). Syn. Tincturæ æthereæ, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the vegetable substance, 1 oz.; sulphuric ether, 4 oz. (or 6 fl. oz.); by maceration, for 4 days, in a well-closed vessel; or, preferably, by percolation in a cylindrical glass vessel furnished with a stopper, and terminating at the lower end in a funnel, obstructed with a little cotton. The powder being introduced over the cotton, pour on enough ether to moisten it, put in the stopper, fix the tube into the neck of a bottle, and leave it for 48 hours; then add, gradually, the remaining portion of the ether, and, lastly, enough water to displace the ether absorbed. In this manner are prepared the ethereal tinctures of aconite leaves, arnica flowers, belladonna, hemlock, foxglove, tobacco, pellitory, solanum, valerian, stramonium, &c., of the Paris Codex.

The ethereal tinctures of amber, ambergris, assafœtida, cantharides (acetic ether), castor, musk, tolu, &c., are prepared by maceration only.

TINCTURES (Odorif′erous). These are prepared from odoriferous substances by the usual processes of digestion or percolation. See Spirits.

TINCTURES from Recent Vegetables. See Vegetable juices.

TIN′DER (German). See Amadou.

TISANE. [Fr.] Syn. Ptisan; Ptisana, L. This form of medicine is much used in France. Tisanes may be readily prepared by slightly medicating barley, rice, or tamarind water, lemonade, &c. See Decoction, Infusion, Julep, Ptisan, &c., and below.

Tisane, Antimonial. (Brera.) Lemonade, 2 pints; tartar emetic, 2 gr.; sugar, q. s.

Tisane, Antiscorbutic. An infusion of buckbean and the fresh roots of horseradish.

Tisane, Antivenereal. Various compound decoctions of sarsaparilla are known by this name.

Tisane of Arnica. (P. Cod.) As elder flower tisane.

Tisane of Arnica Flowers. (P. Cod.) Prep. Arnica flowers, ⁄2 oz.; boiling water, 6 pints. Infuse half to an hour and filter through paper. Prepare in the same manner saffron tisane.

Tisane of Asparagus. (P. Cod.) Asparagus root, ⁄4 oz.; boiling water, 2 pints. Infuse 2 hours, and strain. Tisanes are prepared in the same way from the roots of elecampane, comfrey, strawberries, rhatany, soap-wort, spruce-fir buds, Peruvian bark, dulcamara and burdock root.

Tisane of Bread. Syn. Decoctum album. (P. Cod.) Prep. Prepared hartshorn, 1 oz.; bread crumb, 2 oz.; gum Arabic, 1 oz.; water, sufficient quantity to yield 5 pints; boil for ⁄2 hour, strain through a coarse sieve, and add white sugar, 6 oz.; orange-flower water, 1 oz.

Tisane of Cassia. (P. Cod.) Prep. Extract of cassia, 1 oz.; dissolve in 5 pints of water at 140° F.

Tisane, Common. A decoction of pearl-barley and couch-grass, flavoured with liquorice root.

Tisane of Couch Grass. (P. Cod.) Prep. Root of couch grass, sliced, 6 dr. Boil for ⁄2 hour with water sufficient to yield 2 pints.

Tisane of Elder Flowers. (P. Cod.) Prep. Elder flowers, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1⁄4 pint. Macerate for ⁄2 hour, and strain.

Tisane of Gentian. (P. Cod.) Prep. Gentian, sliced, ⁄2 oz.; cold water, 5 pints. Infuse 4 hours, and strain. In the same manner prepare tisanes of quassia, simaruba, and rhubarb.

Tisane of Groats. From groats, as tisane of pearl barley.

Tisane of Guaiacum Wood. (P. Cod.) Prep. Guaiacum shavings, 1⁄4 oz. Boil for 1 hour with sufficient water to yield 2 pints, and strain.

Tisane of Gum. Syn. Eau de gomme. Prep. Bruised gum Arabic, 1 oz.; water, 2⁄2 pints. Dissolve without heat, and strain.

Tisane of Iceland Moss. (P. Cod.) Prep. Just boil 2⁄2 dr. of Iceland moss in a little water and throw away the first decoction, then wash the remaining moss with cold water; then add a fresh quantity of water, and boil for ⁄2 hour, so as to obtain 2 pints.

Tisane of Irish Moss. (P. Cod.) Prep. Wash 90 gr. of carrageen in cold water; then, after boiling ten minutes, add water in sufficient quantity so as to yield 2 pints.

Tisane of Liquorice. (P. Cod.) Prep. Sliced liquorice, 1 oz.; boiling water, 5 pints. Infuse 2 hours, and strain. Prepare in the same manner (but infusing for ⁄2 hour) tisanes from the dried leaves of borage, wormwood, holy thistle, chicory, fumitory, ground ivy, pellitory, wild pansy, soapwort, scabious, from the cones of the hop, aniseed, red-rose leaves, lesser centaury tops, and linseed.

Tisane of Mezereon. (P. Cod.) Prep. Mezereon bark, 2 dr.; water, 2⁄2 pints; boil to 1⁄4 pint, and strain.

Tisane of Orange Leaves. (P. Cod.) Prep. Leaves of the orange tree, ⁄2 oz.; boiling water, 5 pints; infuse ⁄2 hour, and strain. Prepare in the same manner tisanes from the leaves of wormwood, maiden-hair, hyssop, balm, mint, and sage; and from the flowers of white mullein, chamomile, red poppy, mallow, marshmallow, lime, coltsfoot, and violet.

Tisane of Pearl Barley. (P. Cod.) Prep. Wash ⁄4 oz. of pearl barley in cold water; strain off water, and boil in a sufficient quantity of water, so as to yield 2 pints. Tisanes of groats and rice are made in the same manner.

Tisane, Pectoral. An infusion of the roots of liquorice and marshmallow, Canadian maidenhair, and the flowers of the red poppy and coltsfoot, in a decoction of rice.

Tisane of Rice. (P. Cod.) Prepared in the same manner as tisane of pearl barley.

Tisane of Rice, with Lemon. (Augustin.) Prep. Washed rice, 1 oz.; water, 4 lbs.; boil, strain, add barley sugar, ⁄2 dr.; lemon juice, 1 oz.

Tisane of Roses with Milk. (P. Cod.) Prep. Conserve of roses, 1 oz.; new milk, 1 pint. Rub together, and strain.

Tisane, Royal. From senna, fresh chervil, and sulphate of soda, of each 4 dr.; aniseed and cinnamon, of each 1 dr.; 1 lemon, sliced; cold water, 1⁄4 pint; macerate for 24 hours, stirring occasionally, then press and filter. Aperient.—Dose. A wineglassful, or more, repeated every half-hour, until it operates.

Tisane of Salep. (P. Cod.) Prep. Boil 1 dr. of salep in 16 oz. of water, and strain.

Tisane of Senega. (P. Cod.) Prep. Senega, 1 oz.; boiling water, 5 pints. Infuse for 2 hours, and strain. Prepare in the same manner tisanes of the roots of marshmallow and valerian.

Tisane of Sulphuric Acid. (P. Cod.) Limonade sulfurïque. Prep. Sulphuric acid (1·84), 72 minims; water, 4⁄2 pints; syrup, 10 oz. (by weight); mix s. a. Prepare in the same manner nitric and phosphoric acid lemonade; the first with acid of sp. gr. 1·42; the second with acid of sp. gr. 1·45.

Tisane of Tamarinds. (P. Cod.) Prep. Pulp of tamarind, 1 oz.; boiling water, 2 pints. Infuse ⁄2 hour.

Tisane, Tartaric. (P. Cod.) Prep. Syrup of tartaric acid, 2 oz.; water, 18 oz. Prepare in the same manner with their respective syrups, lemonades of citric acid, gooseberries, cherries, and raspberries.

TIS′SUE (Blis′tering). See Vesicants.

TITA′NIUM. A rare metal, discovered by Klaproth in 1794, and examined by Wollaston in 1822. It is occasionally found at the bottom of the smelting furnaces of iron works, in combination with nitrogen and cyanogen, under the form of minute crystals, having a coppery lustre.

TOAD-IN-THE-HOLE. One to six ounces of flour, break the contents of one egg, and stir in by degrees one pint of milk, taking care to keep the mixture free from lumpiness. Place meat or ox kidney cut in slices in a greased pie dish or tin; then pour the batter over the meat after adding a pinch of salt, and let it bake for an hour to an hour and a quarter. The batter should be allowed to stand before being cooked.

TOAST (Essence of). This is liquid burnt sugar or spirit colouring. Used to make extemporaneous toast-and-water (3 or 4 drops to the glass), and to flavour soups, gravies, &c.

TOAST AND WATER. Toast a crust of bread, taking care not to char it, and put it into a pint of cold water, in a covered vessel. After standing half an hour it will be ready for use.

TOBAC′CO. Syn. Tabacum (Ph. L., E., & D.), L.; Tabac, Fr. The prepared leaf of Nicotiana Tabacum (Linn.), or other species of the same genus. The name was given to this herb by the Spaniards, because it was first seen by them at Tabasco, or Tabaco, a province of Yucatan, in Mexico.

The tobacco of commerce is chiefly obtained from Virginia, and other parts of the United States, and recently from Japan and California, but the finest varieties are imported from Havannah and from the East. The plants are gathered when mature, during hot dry weather, and are hung up in pairs, in sheds, to dry. When sufficiently dry, the leaves are separated from the stems, bound up in bundles, and these are formed into bales, or packed in hogsheads, for exportation.

Prep. To impart to the dried leaves the characteristic odour and flavour of tobacco, and to render them agreeable to smokers and snuffers, it is necessary that they should undergo a certain preparation, or kind of fermentation. If a fresh green leaf of tobacco be crushed between the fingers, it emits merely the herbaceous smell common to most plants; but if it be triturated in a mortar along with a very small quantity of quicklime or caustic alkali, it will immediately exhale the peculiar odour of manufactured tobacco. This arises from the active and volatile ingredients being liberated from their previous combination, by the ammonia developed by fermentation, or the action of a stronger base. Tobacco contains a considerable quantity of chloride of ammonium, and this substance, as is well known, when placed in contact with lime or potassa, immediately evolves free ammonia. If we reverse the case, and saturate the excess of alkali in prepared tobacco by the addition of any mild acid, its characteristic odour entirely disappears. In the preparation of tobacco previously to its manufacture for sale, these changes are effected by a species of fermentation. Pure water, without any addition, is quite sufficient to promote and maintain the perfect fermentation of tobacco. The leaves soon become hot and evolve ammonia; during this time the heaps require to be occasionally opened up and turned over, lest they become too hot, take fire, or run into the putrefactive fermentation. The extent to which the process is allowed to proceed varies, for different kinds of snuff or tobacco, from one to three months.

Qual., &c. Tobacco is a powerful narcotic, sedative, and emetic; and is also cathartic and diuretic; but the last in a weaker degree than either squills or foxglove. Its action is violently depressing and relaxing, producing fainting and even death, in comparatively small quantities. Toxicologists rank it among the more active narcotico-acrid poisons; and physicians, when they wish to produce sudden physical prostration, in accidents or spasmodic diseases, order an enema of the infusion or smoke of tobacco. Its deleterious properties depend on the presence of narcotine, one of the most frightful vegetable poisons known, of which ordinary Virginia tobacco contains from 6 to 7%.

“The chief sources of tobacco in Europe are Germany, Holland, Salonica, Hungary, and Russia; in Asia, the principal are China, Japan, the East Indies, Latakia, and other parts of Asiatic Turkey, Persia, Java, Syria, and Manilla; in Africa, Algiers; in South America, Varinas, Brazil, Uruguay, New Grenada, Paraguay, Cumana, and other fields are most productive; while the great tobacco districts of North America are the United States, Mexico, Cuba, Hayti, and Porto Rico. The extent to which these and others are severally laid under contribution by the manufacturers of this country is shown by the following partial analysis of the imports of 1873 and 1874:”

From 1873. 1874.

lb. lb.

Germany 687,720 856,646

Holland 5,429,511 7,356,798

France 1,436,985 1,712,839

Greece 330,712 84,161

Turkey 1,430,572 696,132

British India 3,068,109 2,359,987

Philippine Islands 171,803 780,098

China 2,136,637 1,398,467

Japan 4,846,892 2,948,036

Spanish West India Islands 295,654 242,304

New Grenada (United States of Columbia) 2,199,885 1,617,573

Argentine Republic 340,787 663,940

United States of America 57,593,826 53,567,555

Other countries 1,404,640 1,890,679

81,382,733 76,175,215

Most of the so-called Havannah cigars which arrive in England are shipped from German ports. It appears that a higher price is obtainable for dark than for light-coloured cigars, the demand for the former being about three times as large as for the latter. Unfortunately, however, owing in a great measure to the partial failure of the tobacco crops of late years, light-coloured tobacco is much more common than dark. In order, therefore, to render the cigars made of light-coloured tobacco saleable at a higher price, and also to improve the appearance of old and faded cigars, if we are to believe a pamphlet recently published at Bremen, where there are several of these manufactories, various infusions have of late been prepared and largely sold, under the name of “Havanna brown,” “sap brown,” and “condensed sauce.” All these preparations are now openly advertised, and directions given for using them. None of these infusions contain anything particularly injurious, most of them consisting of brown vegetable dyes; nevertheless, they enable the manufacturer to give to cigars made of old and faded leaves the appearance of good Havannah cigars. A German paper states that if a piece of white blotting paper, saturated with diluted sal ammoniac, is passed a few times lightly over the cigar, the colouring matter, if any has been used, will come off on it, whereas the natural brown of the tobacco leaf will remain.

Tobacco Adulteration.—The popular belief that bad cigars are made of cabbage leaves is not justified by the last official report on tobacco adulteration. This document contains a tabulated account of the seizures of spurious tobacco made in the United Kingdom since 1864; and in the whole paper there is no mention whatever of the much-suspected vegetable. Its place in the black list is supplied by a variety of ingredients large enough to rejoice the heart of any member of the Anti-Tobacco League. The dishonest dealer in things smokeable is shown by the report to make use of three different sorts of materials besides that which he professes to employ. The first sort is required for the actual substance of the cigar; the second for improving its outward appearance; and the third for imparting to it what is supposed to be a better taste. In the former category the favourite substances seem to be the leaves of the lime tree, the husks of wheat and oats, cotton, yarn, and tonquin bean. But there are numerous cases where the ingredients have been much more curiously selected, and have included cocoa-nut fibre, small seeds, cotton, wood, and bread. At one establishment 50 lbs. of ‘tobacco dust’ were found and analysed, when it was shown to contain string, wood, nails, grindings of tobacco-pipe, dirt, and all sorts of refuse. Another large class of materials is apparently used for securing the adhesion and consistency of the cigar when made. Amongst these starch is the most prominent; but it includes gum and amidine, blue, gum Arabic, glue, glycerin, and essential oils. The colour of the fabrication is the next thing to be attended to, and for this purpose resort is had to yellow ochre, red sandalwood, logwood, lampblack, and Venetian red. As for the flavour of the cigar, it is varied to suit the most diverse tastes; but the usual object seems to be to impart to it a pleasing sweetness of tone. Accordingly saccharine matter, and especially treacle, is very largely pressed into the service. For those who like a rather more decided taste, liquorice, salt, logwood, glycerin, and aniseed are used. It is in Dublin where the latter ingredient is most fashionable, while Edinburgh is fondest of treacle and sugar, and East London is addicted to liquorice. (‘Pall Mall Gazette.’)

Tobacco, British. Syn. Herb tobacco; Tabacum Anglicum, Species sternutoriæ, L. Prep. Take of thyme, marjoram, and hyssop, of each 2 oz.; betony and eyebright, 3 oz.; rosemary and lavender, of each 4 oz.; coltsfoot, 1 lb.; mix, press them together, and cut the mass in imitation of manufactured foreign tobacco. Some asthmatic subjects add 5 or 6 oz. of stramonium or thorn-apple leaves; and others add ⁄2 lb. of genuine tobacco.

Tobacco, Indian. See Lobelia.

TOD′DY. Obtained from various species of palms, by cutting off the end of the flowering bud, and collecting the sap. Used, fresh, as a cooling beverage; and, after fermentation, as an intoxicating one. Sweetened grog is so called in Cornwall, and in some other parts of England.

TOF′FY. Syn. Everton toffy. A sweetmeat prepared by heating brown sugar, in a saucepan or skillet, with about one half its weight of fresh butter, for 15 to 20 minutes, or until a ‘little of it dropped into cold water forms a lump that breaks crisply,’ it is then poured into a little buttered tin mould.

TOM′BAC. An alloy consisting of copper, 16 lbs.; tin, 1 lb.; zinc, 1 lb. Red tombac is composed of copper, 10 lbs.; zinc, 1 lb.

TON′ICS. Medicines that increase the tone of the muscular fibre, and impart vigour to the system.

TON′QUIN REMEDY. Syn. Pulvis Trunchinensis, P. alexipharmicus Sinensis, L. Prep. From valerian, 20 gr.; musk, 16 gr.; camphor, 6 gr.; mix. Antispasmodic and alexiterial, in doses of 6 to 12 gr., in hooping-cough, &c.; 1 dr., in hydrophobia, exanthemata, and mania.

TOOTH′ACHE. Syn. Odontalgia, L. This annoying affection frequently arises from sympathy with a disordered stomach. In such cases a saline purgative should be administered, and an emetic, if required. When cold is the cause, an excellent remedy is a hot embrocation of poppy-heads, followed by the use of flannel and diaphoretics. When it arises from a hollow or decayed tooth, the best application is a piece of lint moistened with creasote, or a strong spirituous solution of creasote, and closely rammed into the cavity of the tooth. Laudanum, the essential oils of cloves, caraway, and cajeput, and essence or tincture of pellitory of Spain, are also used in the same way. To prevent the recurrence of the latter kind of toothache, the cavity should be filled with an amalgam of gold, or with mineral marmoratum, or some other good cement. In many cases, chewing a piece of good ginger, or, still better, a small piece of pellitory, will afford relief in a few minutes. The celebrated John Wesley recommended a ‘few whiffs’ at a pipe containing a little caraway seed mixed with the tobacco. A slight ‘shock’ from a voltaic battery will often instantly remove the toothache after all other means have failed. See Drops, Essence, Tincture, &c.

TOOTH CEMENTS. See Dentistry.

Obs. It is absolutely necessary for success that the teeth be well cleaned out, and wiped dry, before applying any of the above stoppings or cements.

TO′PAZ. See Gems.

TOR′MENTIL. Syn. Tormentillæ radix; Tormantilla (Ph. L. & E.), L. The root or rhizome of Potentilla Tormentilla, It is astringent and febrifuge, without being stimulant.—Dose, 20 to 60 gr.; in agues, diarrhœa, &c.; also, formerly, in syphilis.

TORTOISE-SHELL, to Polish. Dip a soft linen rag into rouge powder, and rub the tortoise-shell with it, and finish off with the hand. Tortoise-shell combs will not lose their polish if they are rubbed with the hand, after removal from the hair.

TOUCH-NEEDLES. See Assaying.

TOUCH-WOOD. See Amadou.

TOUS-LES-MOIS. The fecula of the roots of Canna edulis (Ph. D.); intended as a substitute for arrow-root. To the naked eye, it closely resembles the finest quality of potato-starch, but under the microscope its granules are found to be oblong, oval, with a concentric structure, and larger than those of the potato tuber.

TOXICOL′OGY. See Poison.

TRAG′ACANTH. See Gum.

TRANSPA′′RENCIES. Water-colour pictures on paper, linen, or calico, if executed in non-opaque or glazing colours, may be converted into transparencies by simply brushing over their backs with Canada balsam, thinned down, when necessary, with a little oil of turpentine. For coarse work, boiled oil may be employed.

TRAPS, HOUSE. With few exceptions, the endless varieties of traps advertised for house-drains are all modifications of the older forms of the syphon, the midfeather and the ball-trap. The syphon trap consists of a bent tube with a deep curve, in which the water lies and acts as an hydraulic valve.

The following conditions are essential for its proper action. The curve must be of such a depth as to ensure a height of not less than ⁄4 inch of water always standing above the highest level of the water in the curve. The outlet pipe attached to the trap should not be too small nor have too sudden a fall as it leaves the trap, otherwise when ‘running full’ of water, all the water will be sucked out of it by the pipe beyond, owing to the too narrow bore and too perpendicular inclination of this latter.

The midfeather trap consists of a round or square box or receptacle, into the upper part of which, on one side, an inlet pipe discharges, whilst at a corresponding height on the opposite side there is an outlet pipe. The upper part of the box is divided by a partition, which dips at least ⁄4 inch below the surface of the water, always standing in the receptacle, at the level of the outlet pipe. The principle, therefore, of the midfeather is similar to the syphon trap. The receptacle is so arranged that any heavy substances collected at the bottom can from time to time be removed. A useful variety of the midfeather is ‘Dean’s patent drain-trap,’ manufactured by Edwards, of Ruabon.

The ball-trap is not in very general use. By this arrangement the drain is trapped by means of a hollow ball, which rises with the water in the drain until it is carried against and closes an orifice.

The common ball-trap is stated to be inefficient and unsatisfactory. The facility with which it can be removed or placed out of gear often leads, in the hands of careless servants, to the untrapping of the drain altogether. A good description of common sink trap is Antel and Lock’s, shown in the accompanying engraving, which explains itself.

Amongst the circumstances that impair the efficiency of house-traps may be included the neglect to allow the passage of water through them sufficiently often, and with force enough to flush and cleanse the trap, and renew the water in it. The results are, that the water becomes saturated with sewage exhalations, which escape into and contaminate the air in the house; and that the trap becomes either dry or choked up.

Another contingency to which house-traps are exposed when the drains are made to form a continuous and disconnected system with the sewers, is that of the water being sucked out of the trap, owing to the combined effect of the pressure of sewer air and the aspirating power of the house, into which the sewer-gas would then pass unchecked.

In our articles Drainage and Sinks, we have pointed out the peril attaching to the intimate connection between the house-drains and sewers, and given in the former practical directions for its avoidance.

To rest in the belief that the danger can be removed (although the risk may be slightly diminished) by the use of traps alone, is to entertain a very false sense of security.

TRAUMAT′IC BALSAM. Compound tincture of benzoin is known by this name. See Tincture.

TRAUMAT′ICINE. This article, as manufactured by the Gutta Percha Company, is simply a solution of white and dry unmanufactured gutta percha in bisulphuret of carbon. A small portion dropped on a wound, or raw surface, almost instantly forms a pliable, waterproof, and air-tight defensive covering to the part. The only objection to the preparation is the fetid odour of the menstruum, which, however, is lost in a few seconds, or may be obviated by employing chloroform as the solvent.

TREA′CLE. Syn. Molasses; Theriaca (B. P.), Theriaca, Sacchari fæx (Ph. L. & E.), L. The viscid, brown, uncrystallisable syrup which drains from moist sugar during its formation (molasses), and from the sugar-refining moulds (sugar-house molasses). The last, according to Dr Ure, has generally the sp. gr. 1·4, and contains about 75% of solid matter.

Treacle is more laxative than sugar, and always contains more or less free acid. It is used as the vehiculum in some of the pill-masses of the Ph. L. See Sugar.

Treacle, German. Syn. Theriaca Germaniæ, L. An evaporated infusion or decoction of juniper berries. It is sweet-tasted, aromatic, and diuretic.

Treacle, Venice. Syn. London treacle; Theriaca, T. androchi, L. The theriaca of the Ph. L. 1746 consists of 61 ingredients, and contains 1 gr. of opium in 75 gr.; that of the Paris Codex consists of 72 ingredients, and contains 1 gr. of opium in 72 gr.; that of the Ph. E. 1744 consists of 10 ingredients, and contains 1 gr. of opium in every 100 gr. It is prepared as follows:—Take of serpentary root, 6 oz.; valerian and contrayerva roots, of each 4 oz.; aromatic powder, 3 oz.; guaiacum resin, castor, and nutmeg, of each 2 oz.; saffron and opium (dissolved in a little wine), of each 1 oz.; clarified honey, 75 oz.; reduce all the dry ingredients to fine powder, then mix them. The confections or electuaries of catechu and opium are the representatives of the above polypharmic compounds in the modern British Pharmacopœias.

TRI-, TRIS-. See Nomenclature.

TRIBASIC PHOSPHATE OF LIME. Syn. Tricalcic phosphate. (Ca3(PO4)2.) Tricalcic phosphate occurs nearly pure in the mineral known as osleolite. See Calcium phosphate for its artificial preparation.

TRIMETHYLAMINE. Syn. Trimethylia.

C3H9N, or { CH3 } n.

{ CH3 }

{ CH3 }

An ammonia found in large quantities in the roe of the herring. It also occurs in putrefying flour and urine, and is the ingredient which gives to the Chenopodium vulvaria its peculiar and disagreeable odour. It may also be obtained by distilling ergot of rye with caustic potash. Trimethylia is a volatile fluid, with a very pungent and unpleasant fishy smell. It boils at about 41° F. It is metameric with propylamine.

TRIPE. This is the paunch, or first portion of the ruminant stomach of the ox. It is nutritious and easy of digestion, except when very fat. Letheby gives the following as its composition:

Nitrogenous matter 13·2

Fat 16·4

Saline matter 2·4

Water 68·0

100·0

Tripe, Fried in Batter. “Tripe is cut into pieces about three inches square, and dipped into a batter made of six ounces of flour, one tablespoonful of oil, or one ounce of butter, and half a pint of tepid water. Mix the oil with the flour, add the water by degrees, whip the whites of two eggs to a stiff froth, stir into the batter, dip the tripe in, throw it into a saucepan of boiling fat, let it fry three or four minutes, take it out, and drain.”

TRIP′OLI. Syn. Rotten stone; Alana, Terra cariosa, L. A mineral employed as a polishing powder, originally imported from Tripoli, in Barbary. It consists almost entirely of silica, and is composed of the skeletons of minute infusoria, the precise character of which is readily distinguishable under the microscope.

TRIS′MUS. See Tetanus.

TRITURA′TION. Syn. Tritura, Trituratio, L. The act of rubbing a solid body to powder. See Pulverisation.

TRO′CHES. See Lozenges.

TRO′NA. A native carbonate of soda, found on the banks of the soda-lakes of Sokena, in Africa.

TROPH′AZOME. A concentrated infusion of minced lean meat mixed with the fluid obtained from the residuum after being heated for 20 minutes in a water bath, and flavoured with salt and spices, the whole being, lastly, simmered for a few minutes. Excellent for convalescents.

TROUT. The Salmo furio of Linnæus, a highly-esteemed fish, found in most of the rivers and lakes of this country. Other members of the genus salmo are also so called, as, S. eriox, the bull or grey trout; S. ferox, the great grey or lake trout; S. trutta, the salmon trout, &c. All of these varieties are in the finest condition from the end of May to late in September.

The trout contains about 6 per cent. of fat. It is desirable to cook this fish as soon as convenient after taking it.

TRUSSING. This is a well-known operation performed on poultry or game previous to their being roasted or boiled. It simply consists in drawing or removing the intestines and other objectionable parts. In doing this, care must be taken to avoid rupturing the gall-vessel, which, if broken, would impart a very bitter flavour to the poultry, &c., extremely difficult of removal.

The cook should never take for granted that poultry or game, when it comes from the dealer, has been thoroughly cleansed inside, out, in order to be safe in this matter, should always make a point of cleansing it herself.

TULUOLE. Syn. Tuluol; Benzoene (C7H8.) One of the hydrocarbons homologous with benzol, with which it occurs associated with xylol and isocumole, in the light oil obtained from the distillation of coal tar. It is also one of the products of distillation of balsam of Tolu, and would seem to be identical with the retinaptha obtained by Pelletier and Walter from the distillation of rosin. If oxidised by means of chromic acid it yields benzoic acid. Its boiling point is 230° F., and its sp. gr. 0·87.

TUMOURS. Tumours, of which there are a great variety, are abnormal growths, occurring in different parts of the body. Sir Jas. Paget describes them as belonging to the class of overgrowths or hypertrophies, their most constant distinctive characters being—1. Their deviations, both in respect to size and shape, from the normal type of the body in which they are found. 2. Their apparently inherent power and method of growth. 3. Their development and growth being independent of those of the rest of the body, and continuing with no evident purpose, when the rest of the body is only being maintained in its normal type.

Tumours are divided by pathologists into malignant and innocent or benign.

In the former division is included cancer. The most common varieties belonging to the second division are cutaneous cysts, fatty tumours, and fibro-cellular tumours. Cutaneous cysts, which may occur under any part of the skin, are most frequently met with in the scalp. They mostly arise from “the morbid growth of natural ducts or follicles, or by the enormous growth of elementary structures, which increase from the form of cells or nuclei, and become closed sacs with organised walls capable of producing other growths.”

The most commonly occurring tumour is the fatty one. It usually develops itself on the bodies of persons of from forty to fifty years of age. It seldom occasions inconvenience, and appears to be in no way prejudicial to health; occasionally, however, these tumours are very unsightly and unpleasant to look upon. The fat of which they are composed appears to differ in no respect from ordinary human fat. The uterus is the principal seat of the fibro-cellular tumour. It occurs also in the scrotum, the bones and the subcutaneous tissue. These tumours sometimes attain great size, and grow very rapidly. They are sometimes met with exceeding 40 lbs. in weight. Certain polypi belong to this class of tumour.

A pseudo tumour is occasionally met within surgical practice, which may often be mistaken for a real one, by the unwary or inexperienced practitioner. This, which is known as a phantom tumour, appears to be caused by muscular contraction. Sir Jas. Paget, writing on this subject, says: “The abdominal muscles of hysterical women are most often affected, sometimes with intentional fraud. The imitation of a tumour may be so close as to require great tact for its detection; but chloroform, by relaxing the muscles, dissipates the swelling. Occasionally the apparent tumours move.

TUNG′STEN. W. Syn. Tungstenum. Wolframium, L. A heavy, grey, brittle metal, discovered by Delhuyart.

The word tungsten, in Swedish, signifies ‘heavy stone’ (tung-sten), the name being applied to the element because the source from which it is obtained is a heavy mineral called Wolfram. Wolfram may be regarded as a variable double tungstate of iron and manganese, and the tungsten occurs in this. A native tungstate of copper has been discovered in Chili. Tungsten is also found in the mineral scheelite, a tungstate of lime. From this latter compound it may be procured by digesting finely-powdered scheelite in hydrochloric acid. Chloride of calcium is formed, together with insoluble tungstic acid. Upon heating the acid to bright redness in a stream of hydrogen gas, the metal is left behind. When thus procured it is of a dark-grey colour, but under the burnisher it may be made to assume a metallic lustre. Metallic tungsten may also be obtained by the reduction of tungstic acid, by means of charcoal at a white heat. When procured by this method it is unaffected by hydrochloric or diluted sulphuric acid, although it becomes reconverted into tungstic by the action of nitric acid.

When tungsten occurs in the pulverulent form, it burns easily into tungstic anhydride, when heated in the air; and is oxidised and dissolved when boiled with the caustic alkalies or their carbonates in solution. An alloy, possessed of extreme hardness, may be procured when tungsten is combined with steel, in the proportion of 1 part of tungsten to 10 parts of steel.

There are two known oxides of tungsten, viz. a dioxide (WO2) and a trioxide (WO3). According to Wöhler there is a third oxide, having the composition (WO2WO3).

Dioxide, or Binoxide of Tungsten. (WO2.) This is an indifferent oxide, and is obtained by treating tungstic acid with hydrogen at a low red heat. It occurs as a brown powder, which absorbs oxygen greedily from the air, and is dissolved by boiling with solution of caustic potash, hydrogen being evolved and potassium tungstate being formed.

Trioxide of Tungsten. (WO3.) Syn. Tungstic anhydride. This may be obtained by decomposing wolfram with aqua regia, and evaporating to dryness. The resulting tungstic acid is dissolved in ammonia, and the ammonic tungstate purified by crystallisation. When this ammonic tungstate is heated in the air, it loses ammonia and water, pure tungstic trioxide being left behind.

Tungstic Acid. (H2WO4.) This compound may be procured by adding an excess of hydrochloric acid to a boiling solution of the trioxide in any of the alkalies. It occurs as a yellow powder.

Tungstic Chloride. (WCl6.) This may be obtained by heating tungsten in chlorine, when it sublimes in bronze-coloured needles, which are decomposed by water. When gently heated in hydrogen, this chloride becomes converted into tetrachloride (WCl4).

Bisulphide of Tungsten. (WS2.) By heating a mixture of bitungstate of potash with sulphur, and washing the product with hot water, a black crystalline substance, having the above composition, may be obtained, resembling plumbago in appearance.

Of the salts of tungsten, tungstate of baryta has been used as a substitute for white lead in painting; but the most important of these is the tungstate of soda, described below. See also Tungstic glue.

TUNGSTATE OF SODIUM. Na2WO4. This salt is used for rendering linen, cotton, and other fabrics uninflammable; also as a substitute for stannate of sodium as a mordant in dyeing. It may be prepared by adding 9 parts of finely-powdered tungsten to 8 parts of fused carbonate of sodium, and continuing the heat for some time; on boiling the cooled and pulverised mass with water, evaporating the filtrate to dryness, and treating the residue with luke-warm water, the salt dissolves out. Muslin steeped in a 20% solution of this salt is perfectly uninflammable when dry, and the saline film left upon its surface is so smooth that the muslin may be ironed without difficulty.

TUNGSTIC GLUE. Tungstic glue has been suggested as a substitute for hard india rubber, as it can be used for all the purposes to which this latter is applied. It is thus prepared:—Mix together a thick solution of glue with tungstate of soda and hydrochloric acid. A compound of tungstic acid and glue is precipitated, which, at a temperature of 86° to 104° F., is sufficiently elastic to be drawn out into very thin sheets.

TUNNY FISH, a la Parisienne. As a rule tunny fish is very indigestible, and may be described as “neither fish, flesh, fowl, nor good red herring;” nevertheless, some of our readers may come across this fish, and will be glad to hear of a way in which to make it palatable and digestible. Take three or four pounds of fresh tunny fish, lard it with bacon as you would veal; cook it gently in its own gravy for three hours, with salt, pepper, sweet herbs, little onions, and a small quantity of water. When well cooked, tunny fish makes a nice dish cold for breakfast.

TUR′BOT. The Rhombus maximus (Cuvier), said to be the best, and excepting the halibut, the largest of our flat fishes. Dutch turbots are the most esteemed.

Composition of the turbot:

Nitrogenous matter 18·1 per cent.

Fat 2·9 ”

Saline matter 1·0 ”

Water 78·0 ”

100·0

TUR′KEY. See Poultry.

TUR′MERIC. Syn. Curcuma (Ph. L. & D.), L. The rhizome of Curcuma longa. The best is imported from Ceylon. It is stimulant and carminative, but is chiefly used in dyeing yellow, and as an ingredient in curry powder; also as a test for alkalies. It gives a fugitive golden yellow with wold, and an orange tinge to scarlet. It dies wool and silk, mordanted with common salt, or sal ammoniac, a fugitive yellow.—Dose, 10 to 30 gr. See Curcumine.

Composition of an average sample of Curcuma longa:

Water 14·249

Curcumin 11·000

Turmeric 12·075

Volatile oil 1·000

Gum 8·113

Starch 3·627

Extractive 3·388

Woody fibre 46·548

Ash, included in above weights [5·463]

100·000

Under the microscope turmeric presents a very characteristic structure, viz. “a cellular tissue containing large, loose, yellow cells, with here and there small, but very distinct, starch granules, similar in shape and size to those of Curcuma arrowroot, and some woody fibre and dotted ducts. The yellow granular cells can readily be identified whenever they occur.

TURNBULL’S BLUE. Syn. Ferricyanide of iron; Ferri ferricyanidum, L. Prep. Precipitate a solution of protosulphate of iron with another of red prussiate of potash (ferricyanide of potassium.)

Obs. This is a variety of Prussian blue, remarkable for its beautiful colour, and may be distinguished from the ordinary Prussian blue of commerce by its action on the yellow prussiate of potash. When boiled in a solution of the latter it is decomposed, a portion is dissolved, and a grey residue remains.

TURNER’S YELLOW. See Yellow pigments.

TURNIP. The Brassica napus. This vegetable possesses but little nutritive value, as will be inferred from the annexed description of its composition given by Letheby:

Nitrogenous matter 1·2

Starch 5·1

Sugar 2·1

Salt 0·6

Water 91·0

100·0

Turnips should always be thoroughly cooked, otherwise they are very liable to produce indigestion.

TURN′SOLE. See Litmus.

TUR′PENTINE. Syn. Turpentin; Terebinthina. (Ph. L., E., D.), L. “An oleo-resin flowing from the trunk, the bark being removed, of Pinus palustris (pitch or swamp pine) and Pinus Tœda (loblolly or old field pine).” (Ph. L.) “From Pinus sylvestris (the Scotch fir).” (Ph. D.) “From various species of Pinus and Abies.” (Ph. E.) It is viscid, of the consistence of honey, and transparent; by distillation it is resolved into oil of turpentine, which passes over into the receiver; and into resin, which remains in the still.

Turpentine, Bordeaux. Syn. French turpentine. From the Pinus maritima, or cluster pine. Solidifies with magnesia. (Lindley.)

Turpentine, Chian. Syn. Chio turpentine, Cyprus t., Scio t.; Terebinthina Chia (Ph. L. & E.), L. “An oleo-resin flowing from the incised trunk of Pistachia terebinthus” (Linn.). (Ph. L.) It is pale, aromatic, fragrant, and has a warm taste, devoid of acrimony or bitterness. It is much adulterated. A factitious article (terebinthina Chia factitia), made as follows, is also very generally sold for it:—Black resin, 7 lbs.; melt, remove the heat, and stir in of balsam of Canada, 7 lbs.; oils of fennel and juniper, of each 1 fl. dr.

Turpentine, Venice. Syn. Terebinthina veneta (Ph. E.), L. Liquid resinous exudation from the Abies Larix, or larch tree. It is sweeter and less resinous-tasted than common turpentine, but is now scarcely ever met with in trade. That of the shops is wholly a factitious article, made as follows:—Black resin, 48 lbs.; melt, remove the heat, and add of oil of turpentine, 2 galls.

TUR′PETH MINERAL. Basic sulphate of mercury.

TURRET OF CHESTNUTS. A ‘Turret of Chestnuts’ (Tourelle de Marrons) is the name of a most toothsome dish. Take rather over two pounds of chestnuts, peel, and cook them in water, with a pinch of salt therein, then put them, whilst hot, into a colander. Beat into a paste, with a little milk, sugar, and vanille. Put the mixture into a mould in the form of a turret, about an inch thick; when quite firm, open the mould and turn out the contents carefully, glaze with syrup. Fill the middle with whipped cream, flavoured with chocolate or vanille.

TUR′TLE. Syn. Green turtle. The Testuda midas (Linn.), a chelonian reptile, highly esteemed for its flesh, eggs, and fat.

TUSSILA′GO. See Coltsfoot.

TU′TENAG. A name sometimes applied to German silver; at others, to pale brass and bell metal. “In India zinc sometimes goes under this name.” (Brande.)

TUT′TY. Syn. Tutia, Tuthia, Impure oxide of zinc. The sublimate that collects in the chimneys of the furnaces in which the ores of zinc are smelting. Drying; astringent. Used in eye-waters and ointments.

TYPE METAL. An alloy formed of antimony, 1 part; lead, 3 parts; melted together. Small types are usually made of a harder composition than large ones. A good stereotype metal is said to be made of lead, 9 parts; antimony, 2 parts; bismuth, 1 part. This alloy expands as it cools, and, consequently, brings out a fine impression.

TYPHOID FEVER. Syn. Gastric fever, Enteric or Intestinal fever, Low fever, Common continued fever, Infantile remittent, Endemic fever, Pythogenic fever. Although the term ‘typhoid’ expresses the fact that this particular form of fever resembles typhus, the researches of later pathologists, including Perry, Lombard, Stewart, and Jenner, have satisfactorily demonstrated that the two diseases are altogether distinct.

“Typhus and typhoid fevers differ,” says Sir Thomas Watson, “notably and constantly in their symptoms and course, in their duration, in their comparative fatality, in the superficial markings which respectively belong to them, and which warrant our classing them among the exanthemata, in the internal organic changes with which they are severally attended, and (what is the most important and the most conclusive) in their exciting causes.”

About the beginning of the present century, the French practitioners, after several post-mortem examinations, were the first to point out that the specifically distinguishing feature of this disease was an internal exanthema. This salient characteristic, coupled with the highly infectious nature of typhoid fever, have caused it to be defined by pathologists as “a contagious eruptive fever occurring on the mucous membrane of the intestines, and therefore removed from view.”

The morbid appearance presented by the intestinal mucous membrane, varies with the time that elapses between the period of seizure and death. If the patient dies within the week, the follicles on the membrane present a thickened appearance, and are raised above it, whilst they are seen to be filled with a yellowish, cheesy-looking substance. The result of these details is to give the bowels the appearance of being covered with pustules.

When death has occurred at a later period ulceration more or less extensive has been observed to have set in.

The influence of age in predisposing to typhoid fever is forcibly illustrated in the following table extracted from Dr Walter Blyth’s ‘Dictionary of Practical Hygiène’:

Years of Age. Per cent.

Under 5 0·98

From 5 to 9 9·44

” 10 ” 14 18·16

” 15 ” 19 26·86

” 20 ” 24 19·69

” 25 ” 29 10·15

” 30 ” 34 5·36

” 35 ” 39 3·40

” 40 ” 44 2·09

” 45 ” 49 1·08

” 50 ” 54 0·60

” 55 ” 59 0·33

” 60 ” 64 0·33

” 65 ” 69 0·08

” 70 ” 79 1·33

Dr Murchison asserts that those under thirty are more than four times as liable to be attacked by typhoid fever as persons over that age. The practical bearing of the above figures is obvious. Typhoid patients should only be nursed by the middle aged.

The season of the year also exercises an influence over the development and spread of this disease. In most countries it prevails with the greatest violence, and is most general, in Autumn, and much more frequently follows a very hot and dry summer than a damp one. The carriers of the typhoid poison are the alvine and possibly the cutaneous and other excretions. The disease may therefore be conveyed by contact with the hands or skin of an infected patient, by his urine, by his body linen, the bed clothes, or by dissemination from these into the surrounding air. But the most fertile and unquestionable cause of propagation is the contamination of drinking water by matter derived from the fœcal discharges of typhoid patients, which having soaked into the soil from the privy into which they had found their way, filtered from thence into a neighbouring well, or by means of drains proceeding from a privy or cesspool, into a stream. We can easily understand that the disease when traced to potable water, should always assume so virulent and frequently fatal a character. The fever poison is thus directly conveyed into the stomach, and hence easily reaches the intestines, whence the disease originates. This will also account for the very small quantity of infected water which it has found communicates the disease.

The outbreak of typhoid fever in Marylebone, in 1874, which attacked some 500 persons, was traced to the milk vended by a certain company; this milk having been placed in cans that had merely been washed out and cooled with water obtained from a well into which it was discovered the excreta from a typhoid patient had percolated from an adjoining privy. After the statement of these facts, the thorough and efficient disinfection of all the excretions, immediately they leave the body of the patient, as well as of his body and bed linen, mattresses, &c., and also of the sick apartment, will be obvious.

The best method of effecting this will be to follow the instructions given by Dr William Budd, for the prevention of the propagation of this disease, which are as follows:

“The means by which typhoid fever may be prevented from spreading are very simple, very sure, and their cost, next to nothing.

“They are founded on the discovery that the poison by which this fever spreads is almost entirely contained in the discharges from the bowels.

“These discharges infect (1) the air of the sick room; (2) the bed and body linen of the patient; (3) privy and the cesspool, or the drains proceeding from them.

“In these various ways, including the contamination of drinking water, already described, the infection proceeding from the bowel discharges often spreads the fever far and wide. The one great thing to aim at, therefore, is to disinfect these discharges on their very escape from the body, and before they are carried from the sickroom. This may be perfectly done by the use of disinfectants. One of the best is made of green copperas.

“This substance, which is used by all shoemakers, is very cheap, and may be had everywhere. A pound and a half of green copperas to a gallon of water is the proper strength. A teacupful of this liquid put into the night-pan every time before it is used by the patient renders the bowel discharge perfectly harmless. One part of Calvert’s liquid carbolic acid in fifty parts of water is equally efficacious.

“To disinfect the bed and body linen, and bedding generally, chloride of lime, or Macdougal’s, or Calvert’s powder is more convenient.

“These powders should be sprinkled by means of a common dredger on soiled spots on the linen, and about the room to purify the air.

“All articles of bed and body linen should be plunged, immediately on their removal from the bed, into a bucket of water containing a tablespoonful of chloride of lime, or Macdougal’s or Calvert’s powder, and should be boiled before being washed; a yard of thin white gutta percha, placed beneath the blanket, under the breech of the patient, by effectually preventing the discharges from soaking into the bed is a great additional safeguard. The privy or closet, and all drains communicating with it, should be flushed twice daily with the green copperas liquid, or with carbolic acid diluted with water.

“In towns and villages where the fever is already prevalent, the last rule should be put in force for all the houses, whether there be fever in them or not, and for all public drains.

“In the event of death, the body should be placed as soon as possible in a coffin sprinkled with disinfectants. Early burial is on all accounts desirable.

“As the hands of those attending on the sick often become unavoidably soiled by the discharges from the bowels, they should be frequently washed.

“The sick room should be kept well ventilated day and night.

“The greatest possible care should be taken with regard to the drinking water. When there is the slightest risk of its having become tainted with fever poison, water should be got from a pure source, or should at least be boiled before being drunk.

“Immediately after the illness is over, whether ending in death or recovery, the dresses worn by the nurses should be washed or destroyed, and the bed and room occupied by the sick should be thoroughly disinfected. These are golden rules.

“Where they are neglected the fever may become a deadly scourge; where they are strictly carried out it seldom spreads beyond the person first attacked.”

No part of the globe appears to be exempt from the visitations of typhoid fever, since it occurs not only in all the older countries of Europe and Asia and Africa, but in those also included in the North and South American Continents, as well as in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. It would appear also to have prevailed in the earliest ages, since it is evidently alluded to in the works of Hippocrates, Galen, and others. Later writers, including Sydenham and Hoffman, also constantly refer to it under a different name.

Pathologists differ as to the time that this disease lies dormant in the system before developing itself. Some practitioners contend that the usual period is from ten to fourteen days, whilst others think it is much less than this, and, in some instances, that it may not exceed one or two days.

The late Dr Murchison entertained the latter opinion. The symptoms, when they show themselves, are as follows:—An irritable condition of the stomach, accompanied by sickness or vomiting; pain, with more or less tenderness, about the abdomen; sometimes the patient suffers from great constipation, at others from diarrhœa; he also experiences great prostration of strength, has a feeble pulse, and a brown furred tongue; he is extremely restless, and at night frequently delirious; the lower limbs are frequently cold; he passes but little urine, and that of an offensive smell; the stools are dark, offensive, and very frequently bloody, this latter being a very characteristic accompaniment of typhoid fever. Bleeding from the nose sometimes occurs. The perspiration has a sour and fetid odour. After seven or eight days, small rose-coloured spots or petechiæ make their appearance on the skin.

Treatment.—The abdomen should be leeched, and mustard poultices applied. If not too prostrated, the patient should be given a hot bath; but if he be not sufficiently strong to venture upon this, ablution of the whole of the body with hot water and soap should be had recourse to, the operation being performed by means either of a sponge or a flannel.

An effervescing draught, consisting of twenty grains of carbonate of ammonia, dissolved in water, to which a tablespoonful of lemon-juice should be added, ought to be administered, and drunk whilst effervescing, every three or four hours. The diet should consist of beef tea, nutritious broth, milk, and eggs.

The necessity of thorough ventilation of the patient’s apartment, together with the methods of disinfection of the bodily discharges, the linen, &c., have been already emphasised in the directions given by Dr Budd for the prevention of the propagation of this fever.

It is, perhaps, needless to state that the outline of treatment given above is intended only for adoption by the emigrant, or of any one so unfortunately situated with regard to locality as to be unable to secure the services of a medical practitioner. Where these are obtainable the patient or his friends should use all speed in procuring them.

Horses.—Horses are occasionally attacked with typhoid fever, the symptoms of which bear a general resemblance to those which characterise the disease in the human subject. The appearances presented after death are also very similar, particularly in the lesions observable in the mucous membrane of the intestines. As in man, the disease is greatly aggravated by insanitary surroundings and depressing external agencies, and by the animals partaking of water containing decaying organic matters.

Upon the commencement of the attack give a few doses of calomel or laudanum, or of tincture of aconite, and if the bowels are costive two or three drachms of aloes, afterwards keeping up the laxative effect by mild clysters and mashes. Afterwards administer, three or four times a day, a drachm each of chlorate of potash and chloride of ammonium, adding to these an ounce of oil of turpentine or ether, or sweet spirit of nitre, if the animal exhibit dulness or weakness. If there is tenderness or pain about the abdomen, apply hot fomentations constantly, and should there be much flatulence give occasional drenches of ammonia, carbonate of ammonia, or whiskey and water.

The food of the animal must be nutritive and generous. He should be kept in a loose box, his legs should be bandaged in flannel, and warm rugs should envelop his body. Rest and quiet are essential. During convalescence let him have small doses of gentian, chloride of iron, with ale.

TYPHUS FEVER. This fever is known under various names, such as Spotted typhus, Jail fever, Ship fever, Camp fever, Military fever, Irish ague, Famine fever, Brain fever, Pestilential fever, Malignant fever, Ochlotic fever, Typho-rubeoloid.

“1. Typhus prevails for the most part in great and wide-spread epidemics.

“2. The epidemics appear during seasons of general scarcity and wants, or amidst hardships and privations arising from local causes, such as warfare, commercial failures, and strikes among the labouring population. The statement that they always last for three years and then subside is erroneous.

“3. During the intervals of epidemics, sporadic cases of typhus occur, particularly in Ireland, and in the large manufacturing towns of Scotland and England.

“4. Although some of the great epidemics of this country have commenced in Ireland, and spread thence to Britain, appearing first in those towns on the west coast of Britain where there was the freest intercourse with Ireland, it is wrong to imagine that all epidemics have commenced in Ireland, or that typhus is a disease essentially Irish. The disease appears wherever circumstances favorable to its development are present.

“5. In many epidemics typhus has been associated with relapsing fever, and the relative proportion of the two fevers has varied greatly.

“6. From the earliest times, typhus has been regarded as a disease of debility, forbidding depletion, and demanding support and stimulation.

“7. The chief exception to the last statement originated in the erroneous doctrines taught in the early part of this century, according to which the disease was looked upon as symptomatic of inflammation or congestion of internal organs.

“8. The success believed at one time to follow the practice of venesection was only apparent. It was due to the practice, for the most part, having been resorted to in cases of relapsing fever and acute inflammations, and to the result having been compared with those of the treatment by stimulation of the much more mortal typhus.

“9. Although typhus fever varies in its severity and duration at different times, and under different circumstances, there is no evidence of any change in its type or essential characters. The typhus of modern times is the same as that described by Fracastorius and Cordames. The period during which epidemic fever was said to present an inflammatory type was that in which relapsing fever was most prevalent, and the times in which the type has been described as adynamic have been those in which relapsing fever has been scarce or absent.” (Murchison.)

In the article ‘Typhoid fever’ it has been stated that its propagation was mainly due, and had been very clearly traced, to the drinking of water contaminated by the alvine discharges of typhoid patients; in the dissemination of typhus, on the contrary, the air in the neighbourhood of the infected person appears to be the great medium for the conveyance of the disease, the poison, it is conceived, being disseminated into the surrounding atmosphere from the surface of the body or the lungs of the patient, or from the cloths, body linen, &c., worn and discarded by him. Hence it is we find, as we should expect, in the past no less than in the present, that the spread and degree of virulence of the malady have always been associated with overcrowding and bad ventilation. Although amongst the causes that predispose and induce susceptibility to its attacks, as shown above, are poverty and consequent deficiency of food and clothing, and squalor, it has been demonstrated that, with all these unfavorable conditions, patients may often recover from typhus provided they are supplied with a sufficiency of fresh air.

The fact that of late years typhus has rarely visited the inmates of our prisons, barracks, or shops, and that their comparative immunity from it has been coincident with improved ventilation and the avoidance of overcrowding, can lead to no other deduction than that previous to this reform these sanitary conditions were altogether neglected. We may narrate some of these outbreaks of typhus that have taken place previous to the application of hygienic principles to the treatment of the disease. During an assize held at Cambridge in 1522, the disease which had broken out amongst the prisoners, spread to the justices, the bailiffs, and other officers, as well as to many people frequenting the court-house, with the result that many of those so seized died.

Another outbreak of a very malignant character occurred at Exeter in 1586. Some Portuguese were captured at sea, and (the words of the old historian who records the fact clearly indicate the cause of the virulent nature of the malady) were “cast into the deep pit and stinking dungeon.” When brought into court they imparted the contagion to those around them. The judge and eleven out of the twelve jurymen who were thus attacked died, whilst the disease spread through and devastated the whole country.

A fourth case is recorded by Howard “at the Lent assizes in Taunton in 1730. Some prisoners who were brought there from Ivilchester Jail infected the court, and Lord Chief Baron Pengelly, Sir James Shepherd, serjeant, John Pigot, Esq., sheriff, and some hundreds besides, died of the jail distemper.”

Another eruption, which broke out during an assize held at the Old Bailey in 1750, resulted in the contraction of the disease by the Judge, the Lord Mayor, and the Alderman, and caused the death of forty persons who were present in the close and narrow court-house during the judicial proceedings. One circumstance recorded in connection with this last attack needs no comment. It is to the effect that “a hundred prisoners were put into two rooms measuring fourteen feet by eleven feet, and seven feet high.” The instances above quoted explain why it was this disease acquired the name of jail fever.

During the present century six different epidemics of typhus have broken out amongst the convicts on board the Toulon Galleys. They occurred in 1820, 1829, 1833, 1845, 1855, and 1856. Although the above statement of facts indisputably points to the intimate connection existing between the prevalence and violent character of typhus and overcrowding, and consequent contamination and vitiation of the air breathed by the patient, it is still a moot point with pathologists whether the disease can be generated de novo by these conditions, or whether they merely assist to disseminate and intensify it. Dr Parkes, writing on this subject, says:—“With reference to the particular kind of fever in Metz, it may be noticed that an important argument against the production of exanthematic typhus from simple overcrowding has been drawn from the experience both of Metz and Paris. In both places during the sieges there was overcrowding, wretchedness, and famine, particularly at Metz; yet, as pointed out by Professor Chauffard to the Académie de Médicine, there was scarcely any or no typhus, as there had been in the wars of the first Napoleon. There was typhus in the German besieging force, but so strict was the blockade that it was not imported into Metz, and was not generated there.”

The mortality which has been caused in large armies by the ravages of typhus has been enormous. During the ‘thirty years’ warfare that desolated Germany from 1619 to 1648, innumerable soldiers fell victims to it, the Bavarian army alone having lost 20,000 men from this cause. Typhus also committed appalling havoc among the legions of the first Napoleon, the Bavarian contingent of the French army in the Campaign in 1812, lost nearly 26,000 men from this cause; whilst in Mayence 25,000 of Napoleon’s soldiers in garrison perished from the same cause in six months. More lately, viz. during the Crimean campaign (in 1856), typhus slew more than 17,000 French soldiers.

It frequently infested the German armies during the Franco German war of 1869-70, and committed great havoc both amongst the hosts of Russia and Turkey in the late war between those countries.

When we turn to the civil population, we find that typhus has been no less ruthless, and has slain its myriads of these also. Confining our attention to our own country, we find it to have especially devastated Ireland, which has suffered from no less than eleven violent outbreaks of typhus within the last 130 years.

In one of these visitations, viz. that of 1840, 80,000 people are estimated to have died from the disease. The largest recorded epidemic of typhus within our islands during the present century was that of 1846. It extended over the whole of the British islands, and the number of persons attacked by it were nearly 1,400,000, out of which 1,000,000 occurred in Ireland. “The Irish flocked to England in thousands, bringing the pestilence with them. It therefore was extremely prevalent in Liverpool, no less than 10,000 persons dying of typhus in that city.” The latest outbreaks in England have been in 1862 and 1869; they were principally confined to London.

Dr Murchison says that 14,000 persons were admitted to the London Fever Hospital during the two epidemics, and that amongst them a small number only were Irish.

All European countries, as well as North America and some parts of Asia, suffer from the ravages of this alarming disease. Africa, however, as well as Australia and New Zealand, are said to be exempt from it.

Symptoms.—The symptoms of typhus are thus described by Dr Murchison:—“More or less sudden invasion, marked by rigors or chilliness; frequent compressible pulse; tongue furred, and ultimately dry and brown; bowels in most cases constipated; skin warm and dry; a rubeloid rash appearing between the fourth and seventh days, the spots never appearing in successive crops, at first slightly elevated, and disappearing on pressure, but after the second day persistent, and often becoming converted into true petechiæ; great and early prostration; heavy flushed countenance; injected conjunctivæ; wakefulness and obtuseness of the mental faculties, followed, at the end of the first week, by delirium, which is sometimes acute and noisy, but oftener low and wandering; tendency to stupor and coma, tremors, subsultus, and involuntary evacuations, with contracted pupils. Duration of the fever from ten to twenty-one days, usually fourteen. In the dead body no specific lesion, but hyperæmia of all the internal organs, softening and disintegration of the heart and voluntary muscles, hypostatic congestion of the lungs, atrophy of the brain, and œdema of the pia mater, are common.”

Treatment.—The following remarks, bearing on this branch of the subject, are suggested for adoption by the non-medical reader, in the event of his being precluded by circumstances from calling in the aid of the medical practitioner. The most important points to be observed are the isolation of the patient and the thorough ventilation of his apartment by the continuous admission into it of fresh air without stint or hindrance. Dr Parkes recommends the patient to be put in the top room of the house or hospital, since there is strong evidence to show that the contagious virus is volatile and ascends through the atmosphere.

The forms of disinfection best suited for adoption in this disease, together with the method of employing them, will be found fully described in the article ‘Disinfectants,’

The body of the patient should also be frequently sponged with Condy’s fluid, properly diluted, or covered with olive oil, to which has been added a small quantity of carbolic acid.

As internal remedies, dilute hydrochloric or nitro-hydrochloric acids have been highly commended. Chlorate of potash, in large doses, was formerly much employed.

These remedies may be supplemented by the use of saline medicines, sudorifics, and moderate purgatives. The diet should consist largely of milk and water, beef tea, broth, and such like digestible and nutritious food.

UDDER, Inflammation of. Syn. Garget mammitis. Amongst domestic animals, cows are the most frequently subject to this affection. It is most common amongst those cows that have lately calved or have been thoroughly milked. Heifers and even young cows that have never had a calf, however, are not exempt from it, and occasionally suffer from its attacks. The inflammation varies in intensity, in some cases only showing itself in a dryness, tenseness, heat and tenderness of the skin of the udder, whilst in others it is much more serious, and extends to the interior parts and vessels; in the latter case, giving rise to hard lumps amongst the softer texture of the udder.

Inflammation of the udder appears to result from various causes—indigestion, over driving, the too long retention of the milk in the udder, and cold; it is also very frequently associated with murrain, rheumatism, and swelling of the joints.

Treatment.—If the disease be constitutional, as indicated by the suddeness of the attack, the best course will be to administer at once a good dose of Epsom or Glauber salts combined with a little ginger, and to give copious doses of nitre. A modified form of this treatment should be kept up for some little time by means of gentle aperients, and smaller doses of nitre. In the milder form of inflammation, viz. in that confined to the exterior of the udder, it will be best to have recourse to spirit lotions or refrigerant applications, such as ice water, or a mixture of chloride of ammonium and nitre applied immediately after mixing with water. The udder should be kept constantly cool by means of these. When the inflammation is deeper seated, as evidenced by the presence of lumps in the udder, the continuous application of warm water is advisable. Whether the cold or hot treatment be indicated, it should be diligently kept up for a day at least. In the adoption of either the cold or hot local remedies, above specified, they should be combined with some means of support (by the agency of a proper bandage) to the udder. It is also important to have the milk removed every three or four hours; if the milking operation cause pain, a syphon should be used. The hard lumps will be found to disperse best under gentle friction applied by the hand twice a day, for an hour each time, the hand being previously anointed with lard. When the surface pits or becomes soft, and very hot, it may be assumed that suppuration has set in, in which case the confined pus must be liberated by means of the lancet.

ULCERATED SORE THROAT. This form of sore throat, in which ulcers develop themselves upon the tonsils, is a very frequent accompaniment of scarlatina, syphilis, and other diseases, in which cases to prescribe the method of treatment would be beyond our province. For ordinary ulcerated sore throat arising from cold, chronic inflammation of the part, or a low state of health, the best course will be to gargle the throat four or five times daily with either of the following gargles: 1. Alum, 30 gr.; infusion of rose, 6 oz. 2. Sulphate of zinc, 30 gr.; distilled water, 6 oz. 3. Hydrochloric acid, 1 dr.; water, 6 oz. Should these fail, touch the ulcers every morning with a solution of nitrate of silver, containing ten grains of the nitrate to an ounce of distilled water.

ULCERS. These are open sores, mostly accompanied by a discharge of pus, or serous matter. They differ from ordinary wounds by the edges showing no disposition to unite. When they extend or deepen, it is by a process of absorption; while they heal by granulation, whereby they become filled up with little granular growths of flesh. Ulcers may appear on all parts of the body, but they most frequently attack the legs and arms.

In enfeebled states of the body, wounds, boils, and abscesses may degenerate into ulcers; they are also a consequence of enlarged or varicose veins, or the result of some specific poison in the system.

Ulcers may be classed into simple, irritable, indolent, and specific.

Treatment.—When an ordinary wound or sore shows a disinclination to heal, but on the contrary, extends or deepens, it should be poulticed with bread and water or linseed meal. Should these remedies be ineffectual, an old fashioned but useful one, viz. a carrot poultice, may be applied. When the ulceration is irritable or painful, the poultices may be supplemented by the frequent use of a lotion consisting of four parts of water to one of tincture of opium, or of a warm decoction of poppy heads applied by means of a linen rag. Filling the cavity with prepared chalk has been recommended.

It sometimes happens that during poulticing, proud flesh may form in an ulcer. When this is the case, a little sugar in powder may be sprinkled over the unhealthy excrescence, or some red precipitate ointment be applied to it. Taking care not to use too much of either. When the ulcer has a bad or fetid odour, it should be washed with a lotion composed of one part of solution of chlorinated soda to sixteen parts of water; or it may be sprinkled over with charcoal powder; or with a mixture of starch and salicylic acid. The best application to bad smelling ulcers caused by varicose veins is a lotion consisting of nitric acid considerably diluted with water. Directions are given for the treatment of varicose veins, under Varix, further on. If the veins be ulcerated, the ulcers should be dressed with acetate of lead ointment previous to the application of the bandage. Very irritable ulcers are often greatly relieved by the gentle application to them of lunar caustic, and indolent ones by dressing with yellow basilicon ointment, or by the judicious use of black wash. The general health should be attended to by the administration of tonics consisting of the mineral acids, gentle aperients, and a digestible and nourishing diet. Small ulcers on the mucous membrane of the mouth or on the gums may be made to disappear instantly upon touching them with a piece of lunar caustic. Where any difficulty is experienced in the healing of an ulcer, or if it be at all of a serious nature, the medical practitioner should be consulted.

UL′MIN, ULMIC ACID. By boiling sugar in dilute sulphuric acid for a long time, a brownish-black substance is produced. Boullay and Malaguti state that this is a mixture of two distinct bodies—ulmin (sacchulmin—Liebig) and ulmic acid (sacchulmic acid—Liebig). The first is insoluble in solutions of the alkalies; the latter dissolves in them freely. A number of black uncrystallisable substances, produced by the action of powerful chemical agents upon vegetable matter, have been confounded under these names.

ULTRAMARINE′. Syn. Lapis-lazuli blue, Ultramarine b.; Cæruleum ultramontanum, L. This beautiful pigment is obtained from the blue mineral azure stone, lazulite, or lapis lazuli, the finest specimens of which are brought from China, Persia, and Great Bucharia.

Prep. Pure lapis lazuli (reduced to fragments about the size of a pea, and the colourless pieces rejected), 1 lb., is heated to redness, quenched in water, and ground to an impalpable powder; to this is added, of yellow resin, 6 oz.; turpentine, beeswax, and linseed oil, of each 2 oz.; previously melted together; the whole is next made into a mass, which is kneaded in successive portions of warm water, as long as it colours it blue; from these it is deposited on repose, and is then collected, well washed with clean water, dried, and sorted according to its qualities. The first water, which is usually dirty, is thrown away; the second gives a blue of the first quality; and the third, and following ones, yield samples of less value. The process is founded on the property which the colouring matter of azure-stone has of adhering less firmly to the resinous cement than the foreign matter with which it is associated. When azure-stone has its colour altered by a moderate heat, it is reckoned bad or factitious.

Obs. Ultramarine is the most costly, but at the same time the most splendid and permanent, of our blue pigments, and works well in oil.

Ultramarine, Artificial. Syn. Azure blue, Meissner ultramarine, Paris b., Vienna b.; Cæruleum ultramontanum factitium, L. From the researches of Clement, Desormes, and Robiquet, it has been inferred that the colour of ultramarine depends on the presence of sulphuret of sodium in a peculiar state of combination with the silicates of soda and alumina; but, according to Elsner and Tirnmon, a minute quantity of sulphuret of iron is also an essential ingredient. It is by heating mixtures of this kind that the artificial ultramarine of commerce is prepared. The finer specimens, thus obtained, are quite equal in durability and beauty of colour to those prepared from lazulite, while they are very much less expensive.

Prep. 1. Kaolin, 37 parts; sulphate of soda, 15; carbonate of soda, 22; sulphur, 18; charcoal, 8; intimately mixed and heated from 24 to 30 hours, in large crucibles; the product is then heated again in cast-iron boxes, at a moderate temperature, till the required tint is obtained; it is, finally, pulverised, washed, and dried.

2. (Gmelin.) Sulphur, 2 parts; dry carbonate of soda, 1 part; mix well; gradually heat them in a covered crucible to redness, or till the mixture fuses, then sprinkle in, by degrees, another mixture of silicate of soda and ‘aluminate of soda’ (containing 72 parts of silica and 70 parts of alumina), and continue the heat for an hour. The product contains a little free sulphur, which may be separated by water.

3. (Robiquet.) By exposing to a low red heat, in a covered crucible, as long as fumes are given off, a mixture of pure kaolin, 2 parts; anhydrous carbonate of soda and sulphur, of each 3 parts. Some manufacturers who adopt this process use 1-3rd less carbonate of soda.

4. (Tirnmon.) Take of crystallised carbonate of soda, 1075 gr.; apply a gentle heat, and, when fused in its water of crystallisation, shake in of finely pulverised orpiment, 5 gr., and, when partly decomposed, add as much gelatinous hydrate of alumina as contains 7 gr. of anhydrous alumina; finely sifted clay, 100 gr., and flowers of sulphur, 221 gr., are next to be added, and the whole placed in a covered crucible, and at first gently heated, to drive off the water; but as soon as this is effected, raised to redness, the heat being so regulated that the ingredients only ‘sinter’ together, without actually fusing; the mass is then to be cooled, finely pulverised, suspended in river water, and brought upon a filter; the product has now a very beautiful delicate green or bluish colour, but on being heated in a covered dish, and stirred about from time to time, until the temperature reaches that of dull redness, at which it must be kept for 1 or 2 hours, it changes to a rich blue. If the heat of the first calcination has been properly regulated, the whole of the mass taken from the crucible will have uniform colour; but if too little heat has been used, and the ingredients have not been properly mixed, there will be colourless parts, which should be rejected; if too much heat has been used, or the mass allowed to fuse, brown parts will appear, especially if the crucible is of a bad kind, or easily destroyed; these must also be rejected. (‘Compt. Rend.,’ 1842.)

Ultramarine Ashes. Syn. Saunder’s blue. Obtained from the resinous mass from making ultramarine, by melting it with fresh oil, and kneading it in water containing a little potash or soda; or, by burning away the wax and oil of the mass and well grinding and washing the residue with water. Very permanent, but much less brilliant than ultramarine.

Ultramarine, Cobal′tic. Syn. Chinese blue, Cobalt b., Louisa b., Höffner’s b., Thénard’s b. A very rich blue pigment, with many synonymes, prepared by slowly drying and heating to dull redness a mixture of freshly precipitated alumina (freed from water as much as possible), 8 to 10 parts; arseniate or phosphate of cobalt, 1 part. By daylight it is of a pure blue, but by artificial light the colour turns on the violet. For other formulæ see Blue pigments.

U′PAS. The Javan name for several deadly poisons. ‘Bohun upas’ is a gum-resin obtained from the bark of the Antiaris toxicaria. (See Antiarine.) The ‘upas tieuté’ is obtained from the Strychnos Tieuté, and owes its fatal power to strychnine. They are both used to poison arrows and other deadly weapons.

URA′′NIUM. U. A rare metal, discovered by Klaproth in 1789. It occurs in the pitchblende of Saxony, and the uranite of Cornwall. The chief oxides of uranium are the protoxide and the sesquioxide, or uranic oxide.

Uranic Oxide (U2O3) may be obtained in the anhydrous state by heating the hydrated sesquioxide to a temperature of 572° Fahr. The sesquioxide is capable of acting both as an acid and a base. The uranic salts are yellow.

Uranous Oxide. (UO.) This may be procured by igniting uranium oxalate in a closed vessel, or in a stream of hydrogen gas. Acids are without action upon this oxide. When, however, it is obtained as an hydrate (which it may be by treatment of its chloride with ammonia) this latter is easily acted upon by acids, and gives rise to salts having a green colour, which rapidly absorb oxygen. Peligot proposed to call this oxide Uranyl (UO.), from the tendency it showed to follow the deportment of a metal when it combined with elementary bodies.

Chlorides of Uranium. Uranium forms two chlorides, U2Cl3 and UCl2.

Uses. Its ores and oxides are occasionally used to colour glass and enamels.

U′RATES. Salts of uric acid.

U′REA. COH4N2. Syn. Cyanate of ammonium (Anomalous). A crystalline, colourless, transparent substance, discovered by Fourcroy and Vauquelin in urine, and by Wöhler as the first organic compound artificially produced.

Urea generally occurs in slender, striated, colourless prisms, as shown on next page. It is slightly deliquescent. It has a neutral reaction and a bitterish taste. It is extremely soluble in water and in hot alcohol, but very slightly so in ether. At about 248° Fahr. it melts. At a little higher temperature it becomes decomposed into ammonia, carbonate, cyanate of ammonium, and cyanuric acid; this latter being left in the retort.

The ammoniacal odour acquired by urine after a few days is due to the conversion of the urea into carbonate of ammonia, as shown by the following equation:

Urea. Water. Carb. Ammonia.

CH4ON2 + 2H2O = (NH4)2CO3.

This change is effected by the mucus of the bladder present in the urine. A solution of pure urea may be kept at ordinary temperature, or even boiled, without undergoing alteration.

Urea occurs as an essential component of the urine of man and animals, being more particularly abundant in the urinary excretion of the flesh-eating mammalia; nor is it altogether absent from the urine of birds and amphibia. According to Bischoff and Voit, urea is the result of tissue metamorphosis. The greater number of inquirers, however, hold an opposite opinion, and believe that it is derived from the albuminous constituents of the food, when these preponderate over the quantity required for the nutrition of the body. Dr Lionel Beale says his “own researches render it probable that all pabulum entering the system must, before its elements can he applied to the nutrition of the tissues, or removed by the organs of respiration or secretion, be first of all taken up by cells (chyle-corpuscles, white blood-corpuscles), and become living or germinal matter, which, after passing through certain definite stages of existence, becomes serum of the blood, and the formed matter of the red blood-corpuscles.

“The products resulting from the disintegration of this formed matter may be taken up by the germinal matter of the tissues, and at length become tissue, or by that of secreting cells, in which case it is removed in the form of the constituents of various excretions from the body altogether.” About an ounce and a quarter of urea is daily excreted by a healthy man, although of course there will be a variation in this amount principally depending upon the quantity of animal food and active exercise taken during the twenty-four hours. As might be anticipated a smaller quantity of urea is excreted by women than by men, since they are unable to indulge to the same extent in muscular exercise. A diminished quantity also results from breathing impure air, and from a diseased and unhealthy condition of the lungs or of the circulation, and also, as might be expected, from an insufficiency of food.

Prep. (Thénard.) Fresh urine, gently evaporated to the consistence of a syrup, is treated with its own volume of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1·19; the mixture is shaken and immersed in an ice bath, to solidify the crystals of nitrate of urea (p. 1689); these are washed with ice-cold water, drained, and pressed between sheets of blotting paper; they are next dissolved in water, and the solution is decomposed and precipitated with carbonate of potassium (or carbonate of barium); the whole is then gently evaporated nearly to dryness, and the residuum is exhausted with pure alcohol, which dissolves the urea, which crystallises out as the solution cools.

Urea, Factitious. Mix 28 parts of well-dried ferrocyanide of potassium with 14 of black oxide of manganese (both in fine powder), and heat them to dull redness on an iron plate. Lixiviate with cold water, add 22⁄2 parts of dry sulphate of ammonia, concentrate by evaporation with a heat not exceeding 212° F., decant the concentrated liquid, treat it with rectified spirit, and crystallise. This is intended as a cleanly substitute for the preceding.

Urea, Ni′trate of. Syn. Ureæ nitras, L. Prep. From urine, as described above; or it may be prepared by saturating artificial urea with nitric acid. Diuretic.—Dose, 2 to 5 gr. twice or thrice daily; in dropsy.

U′RIC ACID. C5H4N4O3. Syn. Lithic acid; Acidum lithicum, A. uricum, L. A substance discovered by Scheele, and peculiar to the urine of certain animals, and the excrement of serpents and several birds. The fæces of the boa constrictor consist of little else than urate of ammonium. It constitutes one of the commonest varieties of urinary calculi, and of the red gravel or sand which is voided in certain morbid states of the urine. Guano derives its principal value as a manure from the presence of urate of ammonium. The gouty concretions of the joints, popularly known as chalk-stones, consist chiefly of urate of sodium.

Prep. Dissolve the chalk-like excrement of serpents, reduced to fine powder, in a solution of caustic potassa, by boiling; then add hydrochloric acid in excess, again boil for 15 minutes, and well wash the precipitate with water.

Prop., &c. Brilliant, very minute, white and silky scales, which are tasteless, inodorous, slightly soluble in boiling water, and dissolve in strong sulphuric acid, but are again precipitated by water. It forms salts with the bases called urates, all of which are very sparingly soluble. The characteristic reaction of uric acid is, that when moistened with nitric acid and heated, it dissolves, and by evaporation yields a red compound, which, upon the addition of a drop or two of solution of ammonia, assumes a magnificent crimson colour, being converted into murexide.

Uric acid is a constituent of healthy human urine, in which it exists combined with bases in the form of urates, which, being in small quantity, are soluble in the urine. 1000 grains of the urine contain from ⁄2 grain to 1 grain of the acid. Drs Beale and Thudichum respectively estimate the amount of uric acid excreted in twenty-four hours by a healthy adult man at from 5 to 8 grains. To determine the amount of uric acid in urine proceed as follows:—To a certain weight of the urine, hydrochloric or nitric acid is added, and the urine set aside for some hours, at the end of which time, the insoluble crystals of uric acid which are formed, are washed, dried, and weighed.

With the exception of the urates, uric acid is one of the deposits most frequently met with in abnormal urine, wherein it occurs as a small reddish powder adhering to the bottom or sides of the containing vessel. As a urinary deposit, uric acid assumes a great variety of forms, that of most frequent occurrence being the rhombic, modified in many of the crystals by the rounding of two of the angles, as shown in the engraving on next page.

URINARY DISEASES. This class of disorders, which in general terms may be said to embrace affections of the kidneys, bladder, ureters, &c., comprises diseases of these parts varying greatly in character and pathological importance.

The most serious forms of kidney disease are CONGESTION of the kidney, a very frequent accompaniment of heart or lung disease; PYELITIS, or inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney; SUPPURATIVE NEPHRITIS, or inflammation of the substance of the kidney, which ends in suppuration; ACUTE NEPHRITIS, or acute Bright’s disease, acute inflammation of the kidney, frequently arising from scarlatina or cold; CHRONIC NEPHRITIS, or chronic Bright’s disease, a formidable and incurable variety of kidney affection, giving rise to dropsy, and, owing to the disintegration of the organ, to poisoning of the blood by urea. In advanced cases of this disease the urine contains a large quantity of albumen and casts of the urinary tubes.

Calculus of the Kidney. The most dangerous diseases of the bladder are those caused by the deposition in it of earthy and other concretions, known as URINARY CALCULI, which are described in the present work under Calculus. The presence of these calculi is indicated by acute pain in the bladder and urinary passages, extending to the adjacent parts, the pain being excruciating immediately after passing the urine. Sometimes during the act of excretion the stream of water is suddenly stopped.

Inflammation is another dangerous disease of the bladder, calling for the prompt summoning of the medical practitioner wherever possible.

The following particulars as to its symptoms and treatment are offered for adoption to emigrants and others so placed as to be beyond the means of medical succour.

Inflammation of the bladder commences with pain in the region of that organ, the pain becoming continuous and increasing in violence, and being accompanied with a sense of burning heat and of tenderness on pressure. The urine is frequently voided. The inflammation is sometimes so acute as to give rise to suppuration and the consequent discharge of pus with the urine. Sometimes the disease assumes a chronic character.

In the acute form of the disease recourse should be had to leeches, hot fomentations, and warm baths; a dose of calomel, to be followed by a brisk dose of castor oil, should likewise be administered. Alcoholic drinks of any kind must be carefully avoided, the patient being allowed to drink only cool demulcent beverages. With these should be combined effervescing draughts, frequently repeated, and small doses of Dover’s powder. Great relief will also be derived from the use of enemas of gruel containing laudanum. Where inflammation of the bladder arises from gout or rheumatism, it must be treated as for these diseases. A suppository, consisting of two grains of opium, combined with twenty grains of soap, is frequently of great benefit.

Should the disease become chronic, the best method of treatment will be the repeated use of mild aperients, the combined employment of uva ursi in infusion or powder, with either tincture of perchloride of iron, or the mineral acids. Spirituous liquors of any kind must be avoided. Demulcent drinks form the best beverage, and a farinaceous or milk diet the most desirable food.

Neuralgia of the Bladder. The pain which attends this disease is unaccompanied either by inflammation or irritation, and is recurrent in character. It may generally be arrested by tincture of perchloride of iron, or of iron and quinine, administered three times a day.

Irritation of the Bladder. The patient affected with this disorder gratifies the frequent desire he has to pass his urine, the operation being accompanied with pain and forcing, the most severe pain being experienced after the excretion has taken place. The tincture of perchloride of iron will also be found the best remedy for this disorder. It should be given in conjunction with the infusions of uva ursi, Pareira brava, or buchu.

Mucilaginous drinks should also be had recourse to.

Catarrh of the Bladder. The symptoms of this disease are irritation, and the presence of much mucus in the urine. The same treatment may be adopted as recommended for irritation of the bladder. If there be an absence of pain, spirits of nitre and copaiba balsam in moderate doses frequently afford relief.

Strangury. Constant micturition, only a few drops of urine passing at the time, occasioning burning and cutting pains around the parts. Strangury is generally due to some irritating cause, which should, if possible, be discovered and removed. Cantharides taken either internally, or applied externally, as in the form of a blister, will sometimes give rise to it. The patient should drink copiously of mucilaginous beverages, such as linseed tea, slippery elm bark, barley water, with gum Arabic dissolved in it. An injection consisting of thirty or forty drops of laudanum in a spoonful of gruel will be found to afford immediate relief. If the above means fail, a pill containing a grain of camphor in five grains of extract of henbane should be given, and a warm bath taken. See Gravel.

U′RINE. The density of the urine varies from 1·005 to 1·030; the average, in health, being 1·020, when it contains about 380 gr. of solid matter in the pint. According to Berzelius, the proportion is about 6⁄4%, the rest being pure water. It exhibits a decidedly acid reaction, and is never alkaline, except during disease, or the use of large quantities of alkaline salts of the vegetable acids. The average quantity secreted during 24 hours may be taken at 2 pints to 3 pints; as might be supposed, a larger quantity is passed during the summer than in the winter months.

Miller gives the following as the composition of healthy urine:—

Specific gravity 1·020 In 100
parts of
solid
matter.

Water 956·80

Solid matters, 43·2. Organic matters, 29·79 Urea 14·23 33·00

Uric acid 0·37 0·86

Alcoholic extract 12·53 29·03

Watery extract 2·50 5·80

Vesical mucus 0·16 0·37

Fixed salts, 13·35 Sodic chloride 7·22 16·73

Phosphoric anhydride 2·12 4·91

Sulphuric anhydride 1·70 3·94

Lime 0·21 0·49

Magnesia 0·21 0·28

Potash 1·93 4·47

Soda 0·09 0·12

Loss 0·03

1000·00 100·00

The presence of bile in urine, or other like fluids, may be detected as follows:—Put a small quantity of the suspected liquid into a test-tube, and add to it, drop by drop, strong sulphuric acid, until it becomes warm, taking care not to raise the temperature above 122° Fahr.; then add from 2 to 5 drops of syrup (made with 5 parts of sugar to 4 of water), and shake the mixture. If the liquid contain bile, a violet coloration is observed. Acetic acid may be substituted for sugar.

Another test for bile consists in pouring a little of the suspected urine into a test tube, and adding to it a few drops of tincture of iodine, when if bile be present the fluid becomes distinctly green. Rosenbach says that urine containing bile, when passed through white filtering paper, imparts a yellow or brown colour to the paper. On allowing one drop of strong nitric acid to run down the side of the moist filter it leaves a yellow streak, soon changing to orange, with a violet border, on the outside of which blue and emerald-green zones may be observed. These colours remain visible for some time.

Dark-coloured urine, owing to substances other than bile, does not produce this play of colours.

The reagents most generally employed for detecting the presence of sugar in urine are Trommer’s (see Sugar) and Fehling’s solutions. For the effective application of Fehling’s test, Dr Roberts advises the following method of procedure:—Pour some of the Fehling’s solution into a narrow test tube to the depth of ⁄4 of an inch; heat until it begins to boil; then add 2 or 3 drops of the suspected urine. If the sugar be abundant, a thick yellow opacity or deposit of yellow suboxide are produced (and this changes to a brick-red at once if the blue colour of the test remains dominant). If no such reaction ensue, go on adding the urine until a bulk nearly equal to the test employed has been poured in; heat again to ebullition, and no change occurring, set aside without further boiling. If no milkiness is produced as the mixture cools, the urine may confidently be pronounced free from sugar, or, at any rate, it contains less than ⁄40th percent.

If the quantity of sugar is very small, viz. from a ⁄2 to ⁄40th per cent., the precipitation of the yellow or cuprous oxide does not take place immediately, but occurs after some time as the liquid cools, and the manner of the change is peculiar. First, the mixture loses its transparency, and passes from a clear bluish green to a light greenish opacity, just as if some drops of milk had fallen into the tube. This green milky appearance is quite characteristic of sugar.

Before using the Fehling’s solution it should be always examined previously to the addition of the urine, by being first boiled alone, when if it remains clear it may be pronounced in fit condition. On the contrary, should the preliminary boiling give a deposit, the solution must be discarded, and some freshly made employed instead.

Böttger has proposed the following quantitative test for the presence of sugar in urine:

He first adds some potash to the sample of urine, and then a small quantity of subnitrate of bismuth, and boils the mixture. If sugar is present, the suboxide is reduced, and metallic bismuth being liberated is precipitated as a black powder.

Another method of applying the bismuth test is as follows:—One part of crystallised carbonate of soda is dissolved in three parts of water, and added to an equal quantity of the urine. A small quantity of basic nitrate of bismuth is then added to the mixture, which is then heated to the boiling point. A black precipitate is formed if the urine contains sugar.

Horsley’s test consists in boiling with the suspected urine a mixture of equal parts of neutral chromate of potash and solution of potash, when, if sugar be present, a green colour will be produced, owing to the formation of the sesquioxide of chromium.

M. Luton’s, which is a modification of Horsley’s test, a solution of bichromate of potash is decomposed by excess of sulphuric acid, and upon the urine being boiled with the mixture, a splendid green colour is imparted to it. Urea, albumin, and the urates do not interfere with this reaction.

Vidau has observed that a mixture of equal parts of hydrochloric acid and oil of brune (oil of sesame), either in the cold, or when slightly heated, assumes a distinct rose colour in the presence of cane or grape sugar, provided 0·001 gramme of sugar is present for every c.c. of mixture.

One of the best methods for the accurate and quick estimation of the amount of sugar in urine is, perhaps, the volumetric, devised by Fehling, who employed a standard copper solution, known as ‘Fehling’s solution,’ of the following composition:

Sulphate of copper 90⁄2 grains.

Neutral tartrate of potash 364 ”

Solution of caustic soda, sp. gr. 1·12 4 fl. oz.

Add water to make up exactly 6 ”

Of this solution 200 grains are exactly decomposed by one grain of sugar.

The following is the mode of performing the analysis given by Dr Roberts:—Measure off 200 grains of the above standard solution in a 200-grain tube, pour this into a flask, and add about twice its volume of water; then place over a spirit lamp to boil. While the copper solution is being heated the urine to be analysed should be diluted with water to a known degree. In the case of ordinary diabetic urines the best dilution is one in ten. This is obtained by carefully filling a 6-ounce measure with water to the depth of 4⁄2 ounces, and then adding urine so as to make up exactly 5 ounces. The mixture will then contain exactly one tenth of urine (when the quantity of sugar in the urine is very small, a dilution of one in five, or even the undiluted urine may be employed). The next step is to fill a burette (which must be graduated to grains) with the diluted urine to 0. Then proceed to add it in successive small portions to the boiling copper solution until the blue colour has entirely disappeared. After each fresh addition from the burette, the mixture should be raised to the boiling point, and then allowed to stand a few seconds, so that the precipitated copper may subside, and the observer may see, by holding the flask between the eye and the light, whether the mixture still retains any blue colour.

As soon as the blue colour has disappeared the analysis is complete, and the quantity of diluted urine may be read off. The percentage of sugar in the urine can now be readily calculated. Suppose 125 grains had been added from the burette, this represents one tenth, or 12·5 grains of undiluted urine, and contains exactly one grain of sugar; by dividing 12·5 into 100 the per-centage of sugar is obtained, or ⁄12·5 = 8; the urine contains 8 per cent. of sugar.

Another process for the quantitative determination of sugar in urine, called by its author, Dr Roberts, “the differential density method,” is based upon the loss of density, experienced by diabetic urine, after all the sugar has been removed by fermentation. Dr Roberts says repeated examples derived from diabetic urine so treated, together with corresponding experiments made with solutions of sugar of known strength in normal urine, and in pure water, as well as theoretical calculation have warranted the conclusion, that the number of degrees of density so lost indicates as many grains of sugar per fluid ounce.

The method, which is extremely simple, is thus performed:—Into a 12-ounce bottle measure 4 fluid ounces of the diabetic urine, and drop into it a piece of fresh German yeast, about as large as a cobnut or walnut; insert a cork in the bottle, and let the cork have a nick cut in the side, to allow of the escape of the carbonic acid. Then fill an ordinary 4-ounce bottle with the same sample of urine, omitting to add any yeast, and cork it in the ordinary manner. Place both bottles in a warm situation, where the temperature is about 80° or 90° Fahr., for twenty or twenty-four hours; at the end of which time, the fermentation being over, the scum will either have cleared off or subsided. The fermented urine is then poured into a proper urine-glass, and its specific gravity ascertained.

The specific gravity of the unfermented companion portion is also taken, and by comparing the two results the loss of density is thus arrived at. Before the respective densities are taken it is best to remove the two samples to a cool place, where they should remain for two or three hours, in order that they may acquire the temperature of the surrounding air.

The two following examples may serve as illustrations of the method.

I. II.

Density before fermentation 1053 1038

Density after fermentation 1004 1013

Degrees of density lost 49 25

Grains of sugar per fluid ounce 49 25

If it be desired to bring out the result as so much per cent., this is accomplished by multiplying the number indicating the “density lost” by the coefficient 0·23. Thus, in the first of the above examples, 49 × 0·23 = 11·27; and in the second 25 × 0·23 = 5·69, which are amounts of sugar respectively per 100 parts.

In taking the densities Dr Roberts advises the operator to employ a urinometer having a long scale, since the degrees are much further apart than in the scales of the short-stemmed instruments, and are therefore more distinct and can be more easily read off.

The following are examples of diabetic urine:

No. 1 (Simon).

Specific gravity 1018·

Water 957·00

Solid constituents 43·00

Urea Traces.

Uric acid Traces.

Sugar 39·80

Extractive matter and soluble salts 2·10

Earthy phosphates 0·52

Albumen Traces.

No. 2 (Dr Percy).

Specific gravity 1042·

Water 894·50

Solid constituents 105·50

Urea 12·16

Uric acid 0·16

Sugar 40·12

Extractive matter, and soluble salts 53·06

No. 3 (Bouchardat).

Water 837·58

Solid constituents 162·42

Urea 8·27

Uric acid Not isolated.

Sugar 134·32

Extractive matters, and soluble salts 20·34

Earthy phosphates 0·38

“Diabetic urine usually possesses a peculiar smell, which has been compared with that of violets, apples, new hay, whey, horses’ urine, musk, and sour milk. Such comparisons serve only to show how difficult it is to give by description a correct idea of a particular odour. The colour of diabetic urine is generally pale. Sometimes, but not usually until after two or three days, the surface becomes coloured with a whitish film, owing to the development of the sugar fungus, and the penicillium glaucum, and gradually the urine becomes opalescent in consequence of these fungi multiplying in great numbers in every part of the fluid. See Urinary deposits (FUNGI).

“Diabetic urine has a sweet taste, and often numbers of flies are attracted to it, which fact sometimes leads the patient to suspect that the urine is not healthy.”

White merino, that has been wet with a solution of bichloride of tin, is also said to form a ready test for sugar in urine.

Albumen in urine may be detected by the nitric acid, or by the heat test. The nitric acid test is performed as follows.—Fill a test tube to about an inch with the urine, then incline the tube and pour in strong nitric acid down the side of the tube, so that the acid sinks to the bottom and displaces the urine, which by reason of its smaller specific gravity rests above it. Let the acid be added till it forms a stratum about a quarter of an inch thick at the bottom.

If the urine contain albumen three layers will be perceptible—one, perfectly colourless, of nitric acid at the bottom; immediately above this an opalescent zone of the coagulated albumen; and, on the top, the unaltered urine.

In his work, ‘Kidney Diseases and Urinary Deposits,’ Dr Lionel Beale directs attention to the very important fact that “two or three drops of nitric acid to about a drachm of albuminous urine in a test tube will produce a precipitate of albumen which will be dissolved on agitation, while, on the other hand, about half as much strong nitric acid as there is of urine will redissolve the precipitate of albumen, unless the quantity present be excessive. Albumen precipitated by nitric acid is soluble in weak nitric acid, and in a considerable excess of urine, and it is also soluble in strong nitric acid. It is therefore necessary in employing the nitric acid test to add from ten to fifteen drops of the strong acid to about a drachm of the urine suspected to contain albumen.”

Dr Roberts gives the following directions for applying the heat test:—If the urine have its usual acid reaction it becomes turbid on boiling when it contains albumen, and this turbidity persists after the addition of an acid. There are two points to be remembered on using heat alone as a test for albumen. First, that albumen is not coagulated by heat when the urine is alkaline; in such cases, therefore, it is necessary before boiling to restore the acidity by a few drops of acetic acid (carefully avoiding excess). Secondly, when the urine is neutral or very feebly acid, it may become turbid on heating, from precipitation of the earthy phosphates, but turbidity from this cause is easily distinguished from albumen by a drop of nitric or acetic acid, which instantly causes the phosphates to disappear. It may sometimes happen that the patient whose urine is to be submitted to examination for albumen may be taking large doses of nitric or hydrochloric acid. Under these circumstances Dr Bence Jones recommends the addition of ammonia to the urine, nearly to the point of neutralisation.

Mr Louis Siebold proposes a modification of Dr Roberts’s method of applying the heat test in acid states of the urine, which is as follows:—Add solution of ammonia to the urine until just perceptibly alkaline, filter, and add diluted acetic acid very cautiously until the urine acquires a faint acid reaction, avoiding the use of a single drop more than is necessary. Now place equal quantities of this mixture into two test tubes of equal size, heat one of them to ebullition, and compare it with the cold sample contained in the other test tube. The least turbidity is thus distinctly observed, and gives absolute proof of the presence of albumen, the error of confounding phosphates with albumen being out of the question, as they are precipitated by the ammonia and removed by filtration.

M. Galipe says the following is a delicate as well as trustworthy test for albuminous urine. A few drops of the urine are carefully added to a solution of picric acid contained in a small conical test glass. If albumen be present a well-marked turbidity will be produced at the point of contact between the two liquids. On applying heat the albumen agglutinates, and rises to the surface. Phosphates and urates are said not to interfere with this test.

In order to determine the quantity of albumen in urine proceed as follows:—Add a little acetic acid to the urine, and then heat it in a water bath until it boils. Or the albuminous urine may be dropped into boiling water acidulated with acetic acid. In either case collect the precipitate on a weighed filter, wash it well, dry it, and weigh it. The albumen must afterwards be incinerated, and the resulting residue, which consists of earthy salts, must be deducted from the dried precipitate.

Stolnikow adopts the following method for the quantitative estimation of albumen in urine:—The urine is diluted with water until a sample poured upon some nitric acid contained in a test tube produces still a faint white ring at the point of contact after the lapse of forty seconds. The number of volumes of water added to the volume of urine (which may be taken as one) is divided by 250, and the quotient will be the percentage of albumen in the urine. This relation has been established and confirmed by gravimetric determinations.

It is sometimes desirable to remove the albumen from the urine before proceeding to search for other substances. There are several methods of accomplishing this. If the urine be boiled the albumen will become coagulated, but in many cases it may happen, owing to the urine being slightly alkaline or neutral, that a small quantity may remain in solution. Hence it will be advisable to add a little acetic acid to the urine before applying heat to it, to remove the precipitated matters by filtration, and to exactly neutralise the acid in the filtrate. If a few crystals of sulphate of soda be heated with albuminous urine, the albumen and allied matters may be entirely removed without injury to other organic matters dissolved, and without interfering with the employment of other reagents. When it is desirable to free the urine from albumen previous to testing for sugar, this latter method will be found the best and most convenient.

The following analyses represent the amount of albumen present in the urine of two patients suffering from Bright’s disease:

No. 1 (Simon).

Specific gravity 1014·

Water 966·10

Solid constituents 33·90

Urea 4·77

Uric acid 0·40

Fixed salts 8·04

Extractive matters 2·40

Albumen 18·00

No. 2 (Dr Percy).

Specific gravity 1020·

Water 946·82

Solid constituents 53·18

Urea 7·68

Uric acid, and indeterminate animal matter 17·52

Fixed soluble salts 5·20

Earthy phosphates 0·14

Albumen 22·64

Dr Parkes records the case of a patient suffering from albuminuria, who excreted 545 grains of albumen in twenty-four hours. See Urates.

Urine frequently contains an abnormally large quantity of urea. Such urine is of high specific gravity—1·030 or more. When present in large excess the urea becomes deposited in ‘sparkling crystalline lamellæ’ of the nitrate, if it be mixed with an equal quantity of strong nitric acid in the cold.

The crystals vary slightly in character, according to the amount of nitric acid employed and the degree of concentration of the urine. Urine which thus yields, without previous concentration, the nitrate, is said to contain an excess of urea. See page 1689.

The quantity of urea present in urine is best determined by a process invented by Liebig. When a solution of pernitrate of mercury is added to one of pure urea the urea and mercuric salt unite and form an insoluble compound, of undetermined constitution. If, however, the chlorides of the alkalies and alkaline earths are present, this combination does not take place, owing to the decomposition of the mercuric nitrate, and the formation of bichloride of mercury, and a nitrate of the alkali or alkaline earth, both of which are soluble. When, however, the decomposition of the chloride has been completed, the urea may be entirely precipitated, provided a sufficient quantity of mercuric nitrate be added to the solution. In estimating the amount of urea in urine, therefore, it is only necessary to add to the urine a solution of the mercuric salt of known strength, since from the quantity of this latter which has been employed in throwing down the urea, this can easily be calculated.

In performing this analysis, three special solutions are requisite:

1. A solution consisting of one part by measure of a cold saturated solution of barium nitrate with two parts (also by measure) of saturated baryta water. This serves for the removal of the phosphates and sulphates, the presence of which in the urine would interfere with the analysis.

2. The standard solution of mercuric nitrate, which is made as follows:—772 grains of red oxide of mercury placed in a beaker are dissolved in a sufficient quantity of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·20) by a gentle heat, and evaporated over a water bath until all excess of free acid is driven off. This may be known by the liquid becoming dense and syrupy in appearance. It is then poured into a properly graduated vessel and diluted to 10,000 grain-measures. Of this solution, 10 grain-measures = 0·1 grain of urea.

3. A solution of carbonate of soda in distilled water, 20 grains to the ounce. This solution is employed to indicate when the titration is complete, and to show the operator that all the urea has been precipitated by the mercuric salt.

The operation is thus performed:

(a.) 400 grain-measures of the clear urine are mixed with 200 grain-measures of the baryta solution, No. 1. The mixture is poured into a filter, and of the clear filtrate which passes through 150 grain-measures are carefully measured off, and poured into a small beaker. This quantity of course contains two thirds, or 100 grain-measures of wine.

(b.) A graduated burette (each division of which equals a grain-measure of water) is next filled with the solution (No. 2) of mercuric nitrate, which is then dropped into the beaker containing the filtered urine, until the mixture becomes turbid. The quantity of solution that has been required to just reach the point of turbidity is then noted down; it shows that all the chloride of sodium has been decomposed, and that the urea is now beginning to precipitate.

(c.) The solution (No. 2) is now added more liberally, and thoroughly mixed with the contents of the beaker by means of a glass rod; a copious white precipitate is being formed. The operation is completed, when, of course, no more precipitate is thrown down.

(d.) This point is ascertained by means of the solution of carbonate of soda (No. 3), to a few isolated drops of which dotted about a white plate, or slab, or placed on a watch glass, give, when mixed by means of the stirring rod with a drop of the turbid mixture from the beaker, a yellow tinge, owing to the formation of hydrated oxide of mercury.

(e.) The quantity of solution of mercuric nitrate that it has taken to produce the above reaction is then noted down, and from this the portion used before the occurrence of the turbidity is deducted, the remainder, of course, being the amount required to precipitate the urea. By bearing in mind the statement already made that 10 grain-measures of the mercurial solution indicate 0·1 grain of urea, the quantity excreted in 24 hours may be arrived at by a very easy and obvious calculation.

Dr Davy’s method of estimating Urea. This consists in the decomposition of a known quantity of urine by sodium hypochlorite, the amount of urea being calculated from the resulting nitrogen. A glass tube, 12 or 14 inches in height, and graduated to tenths and hundredths of a cubic inch, is filled to more than a third of its length with mercury; a measured quantity of urine, varying from a quarter of a drachm to a drachm, is next poured into the tube, which is then filled up with a solution of sodium hypochlorite (the liquor sodæ chlorinatæ of the Dublin Pharmacopœia). This latter must be poured in quickly, and the open end of the tube immediately closed with the thumb. The tube is then shaken to ensure admixture between the urine and hypochlorite, and stood with the open end downwards in a cup filled with a saturated solution of common salt; the mercury escapes into the tube, its place being filled by the solution of salt, which being heavier than the mixture of urine and hypochlorite, retains them in the upper part of the tube. The urine becomes soon decomposed, the carbonic acid, which is one of the products of its decomposition, being absorbed by the excess of chloride of sodium present, whilst the liberated nitrogen bubbles up to the top of the tube. When no more evolution of gas takes place, the volume of nitrogen is read off, and from its amount the quantity of urea present in the amount of urine experimented upon is calculated: one-fifth of a grain of urine = 0·3098 parts of a cubic inch of nitrogen at 60° Fahr. and 30” barometric pressure.

Haughton’s method of estimating Urea from the specific gravity of the Urine. After having measured the urine voided during 24 hours, and determined the specific gravity of the whole collected amount, and then consulting the accompanying table, compiled by Professor Haughton, the number of grains of urea excreted per diem is immediately ascertained. This quantity will be shown by the figures which stand at the points where the lines running respectively from the number of fluid ounces and the ‘specific gravity’ intersect each other. Thus, suppose the daily amount of urine to have been 30 ounces, and the specific gravity 1006, the number of grains of urea contained in it will be 85. This method is inserted for urines containing sugar and albumen.

Determination of the Water. The amount of water in any sample of urine may be determined by weighing 1000 grains of the recently excreted urine into a counterpoised platinum or porcelain dish, and ascertaining the loss it has undergone after evaporation to dryness. The operation should be performed as speedily as possible. The best plan is to concentrate the urine in a water bath, the evaporation should be continued in vacuo over strong sulphuric acid, until the weight of the residue remains constant. By way of control, another sample of the same urine, consisting of 500 grains, may be operated upon at the same time, and under the same conditions.

Urinary Deposits, &c. These differ from the albumen, sugar, bile, &c., previously described, in being insoluble in abnormal urine. Sometimes they are diffused throughout the whole body of the urine, when they give it an opaque appearance. Sometimes they may be met with floating on its surface; at others they are only partially diffused through the fluid, frequently in the form of a transparent or opaque cloud, when they occupy a considerable space; whilst very often they occur in a crystalline or granular form, deposited sometimes at the bottom and sometimes at the sides of the vessel holding the urine.

Of the numberless insoluble substances met with in urine, both in health and disease, our limits will only permit us to notice those which are most important, and of frequent occurrence.

For the detection of the generality of these the microscope is indispensable. An instrument magnifying 200 to 220 diameters (⁄4 of inch objective) will generally be found sufficiently powerful, and in some instances an inch objective, magnifying 40 diameters (as in the larger forms of crystalline deposit) will answer all the purposes.

Some of the varieties of these deposits admit of a double examination, viz. a microscopical and chemical one. When this is the case, the particulars applying to each kind of investigation will be given.

Mucus. Mucus is always present in small quantity in healthy urine, in which it shows itself within a few hours after the urine has been excreted in the shape of a transparent cloud towards the bottom of the vessel containing the urine.

Pus. The presence of pus in urine is indicated by an opaque, more or less bulky, cream-like deposit at the bottom of the vessel holding the urine, to which some separated pus globules, finding their way to the supernatant liquid, give an appearance of slight turbidity. By shaking the vessel the whole of the liquid becomes turbid, owing to the equal dissemination through it of the pus globules. The pus again deposits on standing. A small quantity of albumen is always met with in the clear part of urine which contains pus; the albumen being derived from the liquor puris, the liquid by which the pus-corpuscles are surrounded.

Whenever it can be obtained in sufficient quantity, pus should always be examined chemically, as follows:—The supernatant urine being decanted, the suspected sediment is shaken up with liquor potassæ, when if it become converted into a gelatinous, viscid substance, incapable of being dropped from the tube, and when poured from it running as a slimy and almost continuous mass, it may be pronounced pus. This same gelatinous viscid mass is met with in alkaline urines containing pus, adhering to the sides of the vessel in which the urine is placed, where it has been formed by the action of the carbonate of ammonia (caused by the decomposition of the urea) upon the pus. The reaction upon the pus is the same as that which takes place when liquor potassæ is employed. The stringy viscid substance due to the last cause is frequently, but erroneously, termed mucus.

Professor Haughton’s Table for the Estimation of the Daily Excretion of Urea from the Specific Gravity.

Fluid
Ounces. Specific Gravity.

1003 1004 1005 1006 1007 1008 1009 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015

20 35 36 43 57 71 85 100 103 106 119 130 136 142

22 38 40 47 62 78 95 110 113 116 130 149 142 156

24 42 43 51 68 85 101 120 123 127 142 156 163 170

26 45 47 55 73 92 110 130 131 137 153 169 176 184

28 48 50 59 79 99 118 140 144 148 165 182 190 198

30 52 54 64 85 106 127 150 155 159 177 195 204 213

32 55 57 68 90 113 135 160 165 169 188 208 217 227

34 58 61 72 96 120 144 170 175 180 200 221 231 241

36 61 64 76 102 127 153 180 185 191 212 234 244 255

38 65 68 80 108 134 161 190 195 201 224 247 258 269

40 69 72 85 114 142 170 200 206 212 236 260 272 284

42 74 75 89 119 148 178 210 216 222 247 273 285 298

44 76 79 93 125 156 186 220 226 233 259 286 299 312

46 80 82 96 130 163 195 230 236 243 271 299 312 326

48 84 86 101 136 170 203 240 246 254 283 312 326 340

50 87 90 106 142 178 212 250 257 265 295 325 340 355

52 90 94 110 147 185 220 260 267 276 307 338 353 369

54 94 98 114 153 192 229 270 277 286 319 351 367 383

56 96 100 119 159 199 238 280 288 297 331 364 380 397

58 100 104 123 165 206 246 290 298 308 343 377 394 411

60 104 108 128 171 213 255 300 309 310 355 391 408 426

62 108 110 132 176 220 263 310 319 329 404 421 440 468

64 110 114 136 182 227 271 320 329 340 378 417 435 454

66 114 118 140 187 234 280 330 340 351 390 431 448 468

68 116 122 144 193 240 288 340 350 361 402 443 462 482

70 120 126 149 199 248 297 350 361 372 414 456 476 497

72 122 128 153 204 255 305 360 371 382 425 469 489 511

74 126 132 157 210 262 314 370 381 393 437 482 503 525

76 130 136 161 216 269 323 380 391 404 449 595 516 539

78 134 140 165 222 276 331 390 401 414 461 508 530 553

80 139 144 170 228 284 340 400 412 445 473 521 544 568

Fluid
Ounces. Specific Gravity.

1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 1021 1022 1023 1024 1025 1026 1027 1028

20 151 160 196 233 241 249 257 265 274 276 278 279 280

22 166 176 215 257 265 274 282 292 301 303 305 306 308

24 181 192 235 280 289 299 308 319 329 331 333 334 336

26 196 208 254 303 313 324 334 346 356 359 360 362 364

28 221 224 274 326 337 349 360 372 383 386 388 390 392

30 226 240 294 349 361 374 386 399 411 414 416 418 420

32 241 256 313 373 385 398 411 425 438 442 443 446 448

34 256 272 333 396 409 423 437 451 466 469 471 474 476

36 271 288 352 419 433 448 462 477 493 497 499 502 504

38 286 304 372 442 457 473 488 503 520 524 527 530 532

40 302 320 392 465 484 498 514 530 548 552 555 558 560

42 317 336 411 489 506 523 540 557 575 580 582 585 588

44 332 352 431 512 530 548 556 584 603 607 610 613 616

46 347 368 450 535 554 573 592 611 630 635 638 641 644

48 362 384 470 558 578 598 618 637 657 662 666 669 672

50 377 400 490 581 602 623 644 665 685 690 694 697 700

52 393 416 509 605 626 648 669 692 711 718 721 724 728

54 408 432 529 628 650 673 695 718 740 745 749 752 756

56 423 448 548 651 674 698 720 745 767 772 776 780 784

58 438 464 568 674 698 723 746 772 794 800 804 808 812

60 453 480 588 697 722 748 772 798 822 828 832 836 840

62 496 607 719 746 772 797 824 849 856 859 864 864 868

64 483 512 627 742 770 797 823 851 877 883 887 862 896

66 498 528 646 766 794 822 849 877 904 911 915 920 924

68 513 544 666 790 818 847 875 904 931 939 943 948 954

70 528 560 686 814 843 872 901 930 959 966 971 976 980

72 544 576 705 838 867 896 926 956 986 994 998 1004 1008

74 558 592 725 861 891 921 951 982 1014 1021 1026 1032 1036

76 573 608 745 884 915 946 977 1008 1041 1049 1054 1060 1064

78 588 624 765 907 939 971 1002 1034 1068 1076 1082 1088 1092

80 604 640 785 930 964 996 1028 1060 1096 1104 1110 1116 1120

In urines containing pus, the clear portion should always be examined for albumen, since where this is found, except in small amount, some form of kidney disease may be suspected.

But it sometimes happens that the pus is present in such small quantity in the urine as to preclude its chemical examination. Under these circumstances, recourse must be had to the microscope. Dr Lionel Beale says, “Pus-globules, which have been long removed from the body, always have a granulated appearance in the microscope, and, when fresh, do not always exhibit a well-defined nucleus; the outline is usually distinct and circular, but it is finely crenated. Upon the addition of acetic acid the globule increases somewhat in size, becomes spherical, with a smooth, faint outline, and from one to four nearly circular bodies are developed in the centre of each. If the pus-corpuscles have lain some days in the urine they will have undergone complete disintegration.”

Epithelium. A great many varieties of epithelium, derived from different parts of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra, vagina, &c., are more or less present in urine. A few of these are given in the accompanying engraving. In the various diseases peculiar to the urinary and genito-urinary organs the quantity of epithelium present in the urine is frequently considerable, and as in some cases it presents itself in an imperfect or disintegrated form, its identification, except to the experienced microscopist and physiologist, becomes a matter of great difficulty.

Casts. Casts or moulds which have been formed in the tubes of the kidneys, or in the uterus and vagina, are constantly finding their way into the urine of persons affected with acute or chronic renal diseases and uterine affections. They are very varied both in character and appearance, and difficult of recognition, except by the skilled microscopist and pathologist.

Blood-corpuscles. These, when present in quiescent urine, occur as a sediment at the bottom of the vessel. Some few globules, however, are diffused throughout the supernatant urine, and impart to it a smoky appearance, if the fluid have a marked acid reaction; whereas if the reaction be alkaline the corpuscles assume a bright red colour.

In the accompanying plate the three upper groups represent blood-corpuscles taken from the human body; the three lower those found in urine. Of these latter some will be seen to have lost their circular outline, and to have become jagged or crenated. In some cases, on the contrary, they swell and become much enlarged. These changes in appearance take place when the blood has remained for some time in the urine, and appear to be due to the forces of endosmose and exosmose.

Fungi. The chief vegetable organisms found in urine are the sugar fungus and the Penicillium glaucum. The sugar fungus is precisely the same as the yeast plant (the Torula cerevisiæ). The Penicillium is very frequently present in albuminous urine, with an acid reaction, as well as in diabetic.

Uric acid. See back.

Urates.—According to Bence Jones the soluble urates met with in healthy urine consist of uric acid, potassium, ammonium, and sodium.

In abnormal urine the urates of ammonium and sodium sometimes occur, the latter, which are the more general, presenting under the microscope the appearance shown below.

Urate of sodium is, however, much more common in the urine of children than of adults, when it presents itself in the form of spherical crystals.

In both cases the urates are associated with uric acid (resulting from their partial decomposition), represented by the small spiked crystals protruding from the spheres in the form of needle-shaped crystals. Urate of sodium occurs as the concretions known as ‘chalk stones’ in gout. But by far the most abundant kind of urates met with in abnormal urine is that known as amorphous urates, which constitute the most common variety of urinary deposits.

Heintz states that they are a mixture of urate of sodium with small quantities of the urates of ammonium, lime, and magnesium. They are very frequently seen in the urine of persons in excellent health, in which, owing perhaps to too abundant or nitrogenous diet and an insufficiency of muscular exercise, being in excess, they are thrown down when the urine cools.

An excess of the amorphous urates in urine, like the presence of pus and phosphates, is indicated by the bulky precipitate more or less diffused throughout the vessel containing the urine. A very easy test will decide as to which of the three classes of substances (if only one of them be present) the precipitate belongs. The supernatant fluid being decanted from the deposit, about an equal bulk of liquor potassæ is added to the latter, when one of three results will ensue:

1. If it be pus, and become viscid, it will exhibit the qualities already mentioned under the description of that substance.

2. If phosphates, no alteration will ensue.

3. If amorphous urate, it will at once dissolve.

When amorphous urates are uniformly distributed throughout the urine they give it a milky appearance, which may sometimes lead to its being mistaken for chylous urine, or urine throughout which fatty particles of chyle are diffused. This latter doubt, however, may be easily set at rest by gently heating it. If the turbidity is owing to the urate it will disappear; if to chyle it will remain.

If the amorphous urate be decomposed by a little hydrochloric acid, it will yield uric acid, easily recognised by its characteristic form under the microscope, or when treated with nitric acid and ammonia, will answer to the murexed test.

It sometimes happens that in testing an acid urine suspected to contain albumen, the urine may contain so large an amount of uric acid in solution that, upon adding a drop of nitric acid to it, a bulky precipitate of uric acid, exactly resembling albumen, is thrown down, and it may be erroneously regarded as this substance if examined under the microscope immediately upon its formation. Upon being allowed, however, to stand some time, and then placed under the microscope, the well-known crystals of the acid will reveal themselves.

In such urine no precipitate takes place when the liquid is heated, another essential feature in which it diverges from albumen.

Phosphates.—The urinary earthy phosphates occur under two varieties, viz. the phosphate of ammonia and magnesia, known as the triple phosphate, and the phosphate of lime.

In the engravings below, the principal crystalline forms of the triple phosphate are shown.

Of these the triangular prismatic, with the truncated extremities, is the most common. In some cases the prisms are so much reduced in length as to resemble the octahedral crystals of oxalate of lime, for which they are sometimes mistaken by the inexperienced. When any doubt exists on this point it must be set at rest by having recourse to the chemical tests given further on. The triple phosphate is rarely met with alone, urate of ammonia, and sometimes uric acid and oxalate of lime, being present, although generally occurring in neutral or alkaline urine. The triple acid is sometimes found in that which is acid.

When ammonia is added to fresh urine the triple phosphate is precipitated, and if it be then examined by the microscope it will be found to consist of beautiful stellate crystals, and to form a most attractive object. The presence of phosphoric acid can be demonstrated by the ordinary reagents.

Phosphate of lime dissolves in strong acids without effervescence. The presence of lime, as well as of phosphoric acid, can easily be verified by the usual tests.

Oxalate of lime. The principal crystalline forms of oxalate of lime, when it occurs as a urinary deposit, are the octahedral and the dumb-bell. Of these the most common is the octahedral. These octahedra (which have one axis much shorter than the other two) vary considerably in size, but there is reason to believe that the diversity in appearance which they exhibit is due to crystals of precisely the same shape occupying different positions as to the direction of their axes, when examined by the microscope. There are a great many diversities of the dumb-bell form of oxalate of lime, which seem to be derived from circular and oval crystals. The subjoined cuts illustrate the varieties of crystalline oxalates the most generally met with. When the crystals of oxalate are extremely minute, they are very liable to be overlooked, since they then appear as almost opaque cubes, and may not unnaturally be taken for urate of soda, to which they bear no slight resemblance; but from which they differ by being insoluble in potash or acetic acid, and not dissolving on the application of heat. We have already alluded to their resemblance to the dumb-bells of the earthy phosphates. Another distinctive feature is that the oxalates rarely sink to the bottom of the vessel, but are diffused through the mucous cloud, which forms in urine after a short time.

Cystine. Cystine is an occasional ingredient in urine, when it occurs as a whitish precipitate crystallised in hexagonal plates. At other times, but not so frequently, it is met with dissolved in the urine. It may be separated from the urine holding it in solution by the addition of an excess of acetic acid. Under the microscope cystine bears somewhat of a resemblance to uric acid, from which, however, it differs when under treatment with ammonia. When ammonia is added to cystine the cystine dissolves, but by the spontaneous evaporation of the ammonia remains behind in its original form; whilst, if the ammonia be allowed to escape under the same circumstance from the urate of ammonia which has been formed, this remains behind as an amorphous mass. Ammonia, therefore, dissolves the cystine without entering into chemical union with it. Potash also readily dissolves cystine, as do also oxalic acid and the strong mineral acids. It is, however, insoluble in boiling water, in weak hydrochloric acid, and, as we have seen, in acetic acid.

Obs. In the examination of urine it is important that the investigation should be conducted upon a portion taken from the whole of the urine excreted during twenty-four hours, and not on an isolated quantity voided at any particular time.

The compiler of the present article has to acknowledge his indebtedness to Dr Lionel Beale’s very valuable and exhaustive work, ‘Kidney Diseases, Urinary Deposits, &c.,’ as well as to Dr W. Roberts’s excellent book, ‘Urinary and Renal Diseases,’ to both of which volumes the reader, desirous of further and more explicit information on the subject, is referred.

URINOM′ETER. An hydrometer adapted to determining the density of urine. That of Dr Prout is the simplest and best. Urinometers should always be tested by placing them in distilled water at 60° Fahr. from 1·015 to 1·025 Beale.

URN POWDER. Crocus martis, or jeweller’s rouge.

URTICAR′IA. See Rash.

US′QUEBAUGH. Syn. Escubac. Literally, mad water, the Irish name of which, ‘whisky,’ is a corruption. At the present time it is applied to a strong cordial spirit, much drunk in Ireland, and made in the greatest perfection at Drogheda.

Prep. 1. Brandy or proof spirit, 3 galls.; dates (without their kernels) and raisins, of each, bruised, ⁄4 lb.; juniper berries, bruised, 1 oz.; mace and cloves, of each ⁄4 oz.; coriander and aniseed, of each ⁄2 oz.; cinnamon, ⁄4 oz.; macerate, with frequent agitation, for 14 days, then filter, and add of capillaire or simple syrup, 1 gall.

2. Pimento and caraways, of each 3 oz.; mace, cloves, and nutmegs, of each 2 oz; aniseed, corianders, and angelica root, of each 8 oz.; raisins, stoned and bruised, 14 lbs.; proof spirit, 9 galls.; digest as before, then press, filter, or clarify, and add of simple syrup, q. s. Should it turn milky, add a little strong spirit, or clarify it with alum, or filter through magnesia.

Obs. Usquebaugh is either coloured yellow with saffron (about ⁄4 oz. per gall.), or green with sap-green (about ⁄2 oz. per gall.); either being added to the other ingredients before maceration in the spirit.

UVA URSI. The Arctostaphylus Uva Ursi (the Bearberry) is an indigenous plant, the leaves of which are employed in medicine. Bearberry leaves contain a large percentage of tannic acid, with a small quantity of gallic acid, some resin, and a little volatile oil and extractive, together with a crystallisable principle named arbutin, which is said to be a very powerful diuretic. Another crystallisable resinous body named arbutin has also been discovered in them. Bearberry leaves either in the form of powder, infusion, or extract, are chiefly used in chronic diseases of the bladder, in which there is an abnormal secretion of mucus, such as catarrhus vesicæ, but neither acute nor active inflammation.

VACCINA′TION. See Cow-pox. (Pox.)

VAC′CINE MATTER. Syn. Lympha vacciniæ, L. This is collected either upon the points of lancet-like pieces of ivory, or by opening the pustule, and applying a small glass ball and tube (like those called by the boys in London candle-pops, or fire-pops) to the orifice, expelling part of the air in the ball by bringing a lighted taper near it; then, withdrawing the taper, the matter is sucked into the ball, in which it may be sealed up hermetically or cemented, and thus kept for a length of time. It is, however, now generally preserved between two small pieces of glass, or in straight capillary glass tubes. It is said that cotton thread is a convenient and efficient vehicle. The matter may be liquefied with a little clean water before application. A degree of heat scarcely higher than that of the blood lessens its efficacy.

VAC′UUM. Empty space; a portion of space void of matter. For experimental and manufacturing purposes, a sufficient vacuum is produced either by means of the air-pump, or by filling an inclosed space by steam, which is then condensed by the application of cold. Evaporation proceeds much more rapidly, and liquids boil at much lower temperatures in an exhausted receiver than when exposed to the air. Thus, under ordinary circumstances, in the air, ether boils at 96°, alcohol at 177°, and Water at 212° Fahr.; but in vacuo water boils at about 88°, alcohol at 56°, and ether at -20° Fahr. In the best vacuum obtainable by a powerful air-pump, water placed over oil of vitriol, to absorb the aqueous vapour as it forms, will often enter into violent ebullition whilst ice is in the act of formation on its surface. The reduction of the boiling-point with reduced pressure is practically taken advantage of by the pharmaceutist in the preparation of extracts, by the sugar refiner in the evaporation of his syrups, by the distiller in the production of certain liqueurs, and by the chemist in a variety of processes of interest or utility. See Extracts, Evaporation, Refrigeration, &c.

VALE′′RIAN. Syn. Valerianæ radix (B. P.), Valerianæ radix, Valeriana (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. “The root of the wild plant Valeriana officinalis (Linn.), or wild valerian.” (Ph. L.) An excitant, antispasmodic, tonic, and emmenagogue, not only acting on the secretions, but exercising a specific influence over the cerebro-spinal system, and in large quantities producing agitation, mental exaltation, and even intoxication.—Dose, 10 to 30 or 40 gr., thrice daily; in hysteria, epilepsy, headache (affecting only one side), morbid nervous sensibility, &c. Even the odour of it exerts a species of fascination over cats.

VALERIAN′IC ACID. HC5H9O2. Syn. Valeric acid; Acidum valerianicum, A. valericum, L. Prep. 1. A mixture of potato oil or corn-spirit oil (hydrated oxide of amyl) with about 10 times its weight of quicklime and hydrate of potassa in equal proportions, placed in a glass flask, is kept heated to about 400° Fahr., for 10 or 12 hours, by means of a bath of oil or fusible metal; the nearly white solid residuum is mixed with water, an excess of sulphuric acid added to the mixture, and the whole subjected to distillation; the distillate is supersaturated with potassa, evaporated nearly to dryness, to dissipate any undecomposed potato oil, and then mixed with weak sulphuric acid in excess; a light oily liquid (terhydrated valerianic acid) separates, which by cautious rectification, yields at first water containing a little acid, and afterwards pure monohydrated valerianic acid, which is perfectly identical with that prepared from valerian root.

2. (Ph. D.) See Valerianate of Sodium. This is a most economical process.

Prop., &c. A limpid oily liquid, smelling strongly of valerian root; it has an acid taste and reaction, and leaves a sensation of sweetness and a white spot on the tongue; is inflammable; boils at 347°; is freely soluble in alcohol and ether; dissolves in 30 parts of water, and forms salts called valerianates, most of which have a sweetish taste, are soluble, and uncrystallisable; sp. gr. ·937; placed in contact with water, it absorbs a portion of it, and is converted into the terhydrated acid, with increase of sp. gr., and reduction of the boiling-point.

VALE′′RIC ACID. See Valerianic acid.

VALO′NIA. The cup of a large species of acorn, imported from the Levant. Used in tanning leather.

VANAD′IC ACID. V2O2. Syn. Vanadic anhydride, Teroxide of v.; Acidum vanadicum, L. Prep. (Johnston.) From the native vanadate of lead, by dissolving it in nitric acid, passing sulphuretted hydrogen through the solution, to throw down lead and arsenic, filtering, and evaporating the resulting blue liquid to dryness; the residuum is then dissolved in a solution of ammonia, and a piece of sal ammoniac, considerably larger than can be dissolved, introduced; as the latter dissolves, a pulverulent precipitate of vanadate of ammonium is formed, which must be washed, first in a solution of sal ammoniac, and then in alcohol of ·860; by exposing this salt, in an open platinum crucible, to a heat a little below redness, and keeping it constantly stirred, until it acquires a dark red colour, pure vanadic acid is obtained.

Prep., &c. Vanadic acid is orange coloured, scarcely soluble in water, and forms, with the alkaline bases, soluble salts called vanadates; and with the other bases sparingly soluble salts. All of these have an orange or yellow colour. “Vanadate of ammonia mixed with solution of galls forms a black fluid, which is the best writing ink hitherto known. The quantity of salt required for this purpose is very small; the writing is perfectly black, and not obliterated by alkalies, acids, chlorine, or other reagents,” (Ure.)

VANA′DIUM. V. A rare metal discovered by Sefstom, in 1830. in some Swedish iron extracted from an iron mine near Jönköping. It has since been found in a Vanadinite lead ore met with in Scotland, Zimpanan in Mexico, and Chili, and in the iron slag of Staffordshire. Of late years a more abundant source of Vanadium has been discovered by Professor Roscoe in the cupriferous stratum of the New Red Sandstone at Alderley Edge in Cheshire. There are four, and possibly five oxides of this element.

Vanadic oxychloride. Syn. Vanadic oxytrichloride. (VOCl3.) Roscoe states there are several oxychlorides of vanadium, which, however, have not been studied. The most interesting of them is the oxytrichloride, which corresponds to the phosphorous oxychloride. This oxytrichloride is a yellow fuming liquid, which is instantly decomposed by water into vanadic and hydrochloric acids. The oxytrichloride may be obtained by heating vanadic anhydride and charcoal (mixed together) in a current of hydrogen, after which it is heated in a current of dry chlorine. An easier method is by passing dry chlorine over the sesquioxide of vanadium.

Vanadic pentoxide. Syn. Vanadic Anhydride (V2O5.). At a red hot heat this oxide fuses, and on cooling, crystallises in rhombic prisms. It is but little soluble in water; the aqueous solution, which is of a yellow tint, is strongly acid, and produces a marked reddening effect on litmus. Vanadic anhydride forms both normal and acid salts. The ammonic vanadiate (Roscoe’s meta vanadiate) is the chief source of the acid. This salt may be obtained by adding pieces of sal ammoniac to a crude solution of potassic vanadiate, the resulting ammonic vanadiate being insoluble in a saturated solution of sal ammoniac, is deposited in small crystalline grains. The vanadic anhydride may be obtained from the ammonic vanadiate by heating an aqueous solution of the salt in the open air, when the ammonia is driven off, and the vanadic anhydride is left behind. The acid ammonic vanadiate, mixed with tincture of galls, makes a very durable writing ink, unacted upon either by alkalies or chlorine. Acids turn such blue without, however, destroying it.

Vanadic triox′ide. (V2O2.), is the Vanadyl of Roscoe, who obtained it in the form of a grey metallic-looking powder, by the transmission of a current of dry hydrogen charged with the vapours of oxychloride of Vanadium, through a tube containing ignited charcoal. It dissolves in dilute acids, with evolution of hydrogen. Solutions of its salts are lavender coloured. Berzelius regarded this oxide as a metal.

Tests. The vanadiates mostly occur of a red or yellow colour. When treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, they yield a solution of a fine blue colour, a reaction that distinguishes them from the chromates, which, under similar treatment, would give a green liquid. When mixed with borax and exposed to the reducing flame of the blowpipe, compounds containing vanadium give a green glass, which turns to yellow in the oxidizing flame. Professor Roscoe, to whose researches we are indebted for all the chemical knowledge we possess respecting vanadium, says:—“All the main facts now established in connection with the chemical department of this element proved it to bear a strong analogy to the elements phosphorus and arsenic; in fact, it occupied a previously vacant place in a well-defined group of triad, or, as some chemists prefer to consider them, pentad elements. There was a property of vanadium in virtue of which it might ultimately obtain considerable importance in the arts, though in the present infancy of the history of the metal it was difficult to foretell this with any certainty. This property was the power of forming a permanent black for dyeing purposes. The black produced by the action of vanadium had the advantage over copper and aniline blacks, viz. that it was permanent, whereas the latter were liable to turn green. This application of an element that was first introduced into notice as a chemical curiosity furnished one more example of the importance of original scientific investigation. However far a newly discovered substance might seem to be removed from purposes of practical utility, we never know at what moment it might be turned to account for the benefit of the human race.”

VANIL′LA. Syn. Vanille, Fr. The dried pods of various species of Vanilla, a genus of the natural order Orchidaceæ. It is chiefly used in the manufacture of chocolate and perfumery. As a medicine it is much employed on the Continent as an aromatic stimulant and neurotic.—Dose, 6 to 12 gr.; in asthenic fevers, hysteria, hypochondriasis, impotency, &c.

Vanilla is reduced to powder (PULVIS VANILLÆ; POUDRE DE VANILLE) by slicing it, and triturating the fragments with twice or thrice their weight of well-dried lump sugar. For SUCRE DE VANILLE, 11 parts of sugar are employed.

The following table given by Messrs Tieman and Harmann, in the Journal of the Berlin Chemical Society, represents the quantities of Vanillin (the aromatic principle of Vanilla) contained in that substance, as obtained from different sources:—

Vanillin per Cent.

Mexican Vanilla (1873, harvest) 1·69

Mexican Vanilla (1874, harvest) 1·86

Mexican Vanilla Medium quality 1·32

Bourbon, best quality (1874-75) 1·91

Bourbon, (1874-75) 1·97

Bourbon, (1874-75) 2·90

Bourbon, Small medium (1874-75) 1·55

Java, best quality (1873) 2·75

Java, best quality (1874) 1·56

VANILLIN. A crystallised substance obtained from pine juice by Messrs Tiemann and Harmann. It has been shown to be identical with the aromatic principle of Vanilla.

In a paper read before the Royal Society the authors have described the process by which vanillin was artificially prepared by them. They state that the sap of the cambium of coniferous trees contains a beautiful crystalline glucoside coniferine, which was discovered by Kartig, and examined some years ago by Rubel, who arrived at the formula C24H32O12 + 3 Aq. A minute study of this compound leads us to represent the molecule of coniferine by the expression, C16H22O3 × 2 Aq., the per centages of which nearly coincide with the theoretical values of Kubel’s formula.

Submitted to fermentation with emulsine, coniferine splits into sugar, and a splendid compound, crystallising in prisms, which fuse at 73°. This body is easily soluble in ether, less so in alcohol, almost insoluble in water; its composition is represented by the formula C10H12O3. The change is represented by the equation—

C16H22O8 + H2O = C6H12O6 + C10H12O3.

Under the influence of oxidising agents, the product of fermentation undergoes a remarkable metamorphosis. On boiling it with a mixture of potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid, there passes with the vapour of water in the first place ethylic aldehyd, and subsequently an acid compound soluble in water, from which it may be removed by ether. On evaporating the ethereal solution, crystals in stellar groups are left behind, which fuse at 81°. These crystals have the taste and odour of vanilla.

An accurate comparative examination has proved them to be identical with the crystalline substance which constitutes the aroma of vanilla, and which is often seen covering the surface of vanilla pods.

On analysis, the crystals we obtained were found to contain C8H8O3. This is exactly the composition which recent researches of Carles have established for the aromatic principle of vanilla. The transformation of the crystalline product of fermentation into vanillin is represented by the following equation:

C10H12O3 + O = C2H4O + C8H8O3.

To remove all doubt regarding the identity of artificial vanillin with the natural compound, we have transformed the former into a series of salts, which have the general formula, C8H7MO3, and into two substitution products, C8H7BrO31, and C8H7TO3, both of which had previously been prepared by Carles from the natural compound.

VAN SWIETEN’S SOLUTION. Contains ⁄1000th part of its weight of corrosive sublimate; or ⁄2 gr. per fl. oz.

VAPOUR. Vapours are really gases, and amenable to substantially the same physical laws; as ordinarily understood, however, the difference between a gas and a vapour is the following:—A gas is a form of matter which exists, at ordinary temperatures and pressures, in a state of vapour; whilst a vapour has been formed by the application of heat to a body usually existing in the solid or liquid form; gases, therefore, differ from vapours only in being derived from bodies which, in the solid or liquid form, boil at very much lower temperatures.

Vapour of Ammonia. Syn. Vapor ammoniæ. (St Th. Hosp.) Solution of ammonia (·959), water, equal parts. A teaspoonful in a pint of water at 80° F. for each inhalation. In chronic laryngitis and functional aphonia.

Vapour of Benzoin. Syn. Vapor benzoini. (St Th. Hosp.) Compound tincture of benzoin, 1 oz. A teaspoonful to 1 pint of water at 140° F. In acute inflammation of the pharynx and larynx.

Vapour of Carbolic Acid. Syn. Vapor acidi carbolici. (St Th. Hosp.) Carbolic acid, 420 gr.; water, 1 dr.; 20 drops of this in 1 pint of water, at 140° F., for each inhalation. For syphilitic and carcinomatous ulcerations.

Vapour of Chlorine. Syn. Vapor chlori. (B. P.) Put chlorinated lime, 2 oz., into a suitable apparatus, moisten it with cold water, and let the vapour that arises be inhaled.

Vapour of Conia. Syn. Vapor coniæ. (B. P.) Mix extract of hemlock, 60 gr.; solution of potash, 1 dr.; and distilled water, 9 dr. Put 20 minims of the mixture on a sponge, in a suitable apparatus, that the vapour of hot water passed over it may be inhaled.

Vapour of Creosote. Syn. Vapor creosoti. (B. P.) Mix creosote, 12 minims, and boiling water, 8 oz., in an apparatus so arranged that air may be inhaled through the solution.

Vapour of Hop. Syn. Vapor lupuli. (St Th. Hosp.) Oil of hops, 6 minims; light carbonate of magnesia, 10 gr.; water, 1 oz. A teaspoonful in 1 pint of water, at 140° F., for each inhalation. Sedative.

Vapour of Hydrocyanic Acid. Syn. Vapor acidi hydrocyanici. (B. P.) Mix from 10 to 15 minims of diluted hydrocyanic acid with 1 dr. of cold water in a suitable apparatus, and let the vapour that arises be inhaled.

Vapour of Iodine. Syn. Vapor iodi. Mix tincture of iodine, 1 fl. dr., and water, 1 oz., and, having applied a gentle heat, let the vapour that arises be inhaled.

Vapour of Lactic Acid. Syn. Vapor acidi lactici. (St Th. Hosp.) Lactic acid, 20 minims; distilled water, 1 oz.; mix. For spray inhalation. Dissolves the membranous exudation in diphtheria,

Vapour of Oil of Juniper. Syn. Vapor olei juniperi. (St Th. Hosp.) English oil of juniper, 20 minims; light carbonate of magnesia, 10 gr.; water, 1 oz. A teaspoonful to 1 pint of water at 140° F. for each inhalation. For vocal weakness.

Vapour of Oil of Mountain Pine. Syn. Vapor pini plumilionis. (St Th. Hosp.) Oil of mountain pine, ⁄2 dr.; light carbonate of magnesia, 15 gr.; water, 1 oz.; 1 dr. to 1 pint of water at 140° F. for each inhalation. In chronic laryngitis.

Vapour of Oil of Myrtle. Syn. Vapor olei myrti. (St Th. Hosp.) Oil of myrtle, 6 minims; light carbonate of magnesia, 6 gr.; water, 1 oz. A teaspoonful in a pint of water at 140° F. for each inhalation. In acute tonsillitis.

Vapour of Nitrite of Amyl. Syn. Vapor amyl nitritis. (St Th. Hosp.) Nitrite of amyl, 8 minims; rectified spirit, 1 oz. A teaspoonful in a pint of water at 100° F. for each inhalation. In asthma and spasm of the glottis.

Vapour of Scotch Pine. Syn. Vapor pini Sylvestris. Oil of Scotch pine (fir-wood oil), 40 minims; light carbonate of magnesia, 20 gr.; water, 1 oz.; 1 dr. to 1 pint of water at 140° F. for each inhalation. In chronic laryngitis.

Vapour of Sulphurous Acid. Syn. Vapor acidi sulphurosi. (St Th. Hosp.) Sulphurous acid, 15 minims; water, 1 oz. For spray inhalation. Stimulant and antiseptic.

Vapour of Thymol. Syn. Vapor thymolis. Thymol, 6 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 dr.; light carbonate of magnesia, 3 gr.; water, 1 oz. 1 dr. to 1 pint of water at 140° F. for each inhalation. In pharyngitis and laryngitis when associated with exanthemata.

VARICOSE VEINS. See Varix.

VARIX. The permanent unequal dilation of a vein or veins, which are then said to be ‘varicose.’ It is known by the presence of a soft tumour, which does not pulsate, and often assumes a serpentine figure. Varicose veins of the groin and scrotum generally form a collection of knots. The treatment consists of cold applications, and pressure from bandages. Some cases are relieved by ligature. When occurring in the legs, much standing or walking should be avoided, and the use of the elastic stockings made for the purpose will be proper.

VAR′NISH. Syn. Vernis, Fr. Any liquid matter, which, when applied to the surface of a solid body, becomes dry, and forms a hard glossy coating, impervious to air and moisture.

Varnishes are commonly divided into two classes—FAT or OIL VARNISHES and SPIRIT VARNISHES. The fixed or volatile oils, or mixtures of them, are used as vehicles or solvents in the former, and concentrated alcohol in the latter. The sp. gr. of alcohol for the purpose of making varnishes should not be more than ·8156 (= 67 o. p.), and it should be preferably chosen of even greater strength. A little camphor is often dissolved in it, to increase its solvent power. The oil of turpentine, which is the essential oil chiefly employed for varnishes, should be pure and colourless. Pale drying linseed oil is the fixed oil generally used; but poppy oil and nut oil are also occasionally employed. Among the substances which are dissolved in the above menstrua are—amber, animé, copal, elemi, lac, mastic, and sandarach, to impart body and lustre; benzoin, on account of its agreeable odour; annotta, gamboge, saffron, socotrine aloes, and turmeric, to give a yellow colour; dragon’s blood and red sandal wood, to give a red tinge; asphaltum, to give a black colour and body; and caoutchouc to impart toughness and elasticity.

In the preparation of spirit varnishes care should be taken to prevent the evaporation of the alcohol as much as possible, and also to preserve the portion that evaporates. On the large scale, a common still may be advantageously employed; the head being furnished with a stuffing-box, to permit of the passage of a vertical rod, connected with a stirrer at one end and a working handle at the other. The gum and spirit being introduced, the head of the still closely fitted on and luted, and the connection made with a proper refrigerator, heat (preferably that of steam or a water bath) should be applied, and the spirit brought to a gentle boil, after which it should be partially withdrawn, and agitation continued until the gum is dissolved. The spirit which has distilled over should be then added to the varnish, and after thorough admixture the whole should be run off, as rapidly as possible, through a silk-gauze sieve, into stone jars, which should be immediately corked down, and set aside to clarify. On the small scale, spirit varnishes are best made by maceration in closed bottles or tin cans, either in the cold or by the heat of a water bath. In order to prevent the agglutination of the resin, it is often advantageously mixed with clean siliceous sand or pounded glass, by which the surface is much increased, and the solvent power of the menstruum greatly promoted.

To ensure the excellence of oil varnishes, one of the most important points is the use of good drying oil. Linseed oil for this purpose should be very pale, perfectly limpid or transparent, scarcely odorous, and mellow and sweet to the taste.—100 galls. of such an oil is put into an iron or copper boiler, capable of holding fully 150 galls., gradually heated to a gentle simmer, and kept near that point for about 2 hours, to expel moisture; the scum is then carefully removed, and 14 lbs. of finely pulverised scale litharge, 12 lbs. of red lead, and 8 lbs. of powdered umber (all carefully dried and free from moisture), are gradually sprinkled in; the whole is then kept well stirred, to prevent the driers sinking to the bottom, and the boiling is continued at a gentle heat for about 3 hours longer; the fire is next withdrawn, and, after 30 to 40 hours’ repose, the scum is carefully removed, and the clear supernatant oil decanted from the ‘bottoms,’—The product forms the best boiled or drying oil of the varnish maker.—Another method is to heat a hogshead of the oil gradually for 2 hours, then to gently simmer it for about 3 hours longer, and, after removing the scum, to add, gradually, 1 lb. of the best calcined magnesia, observing to mix it up well with the oil, and, afterwards to continue the boiling pretty briskly for at least an hour, with constant agitation. The fire is then allowed to die away, and, after 24 hours, the oil is decanted as before. The product is called ‘clarified oil,’ and requires to be used with driers. It should be allowed to lay in the cistern for 2 or 3 months to clarify.

In the preparation of oil varnishes, the gum is melted as rapidly as possible, without discolouring or burning it; and when completely fused, the oil, also heated to nearly the boiling point, is poured in, after which the mixture is boiled until it appears perfectly homogeneous and clear, like oil, when the heat is raised, the driers (if any are to be used) gradually and cautiously sprinkled in, and the boiling continued, with constant stirring, for 3 or 4 hours, or until a little, when cooled on a palette knife, feels strong and stringy between the fingers. The mixture is next allowed to cool considerably, but while still quite fluid, the turpentine, previously made moderately hot, is cautiously added, and the whole thoroughly incorporated. The varnish is then run through a filter or sieve into stone jars, cans, or other vessels, and set aside to clarify itself by subsidence. When no driers are used, the mixture of oil and gum is boiled until it runs perfectly clear, when it is removed from the fire, and, after it has cooled a little, the turpentine is added as before.

It is generally conceived that the more perfectly the gum is fused, or run, as it is called, the larger and stronger will be the product; and the longer the boiling of the ‘gum’ and oil is continued, within moderation, the freer the resulting varnish will work and cover. An excess of heat renders the varnish stringy, and injures its flowing qualities. For pale varnishes as little heat as possible should be employed throughout the whole process. Good body varnishes should contain 1⁄2 lb.; carriage, wainscot, and mahogany varnish, fully 1 lb.; and gold size and black japan, fully ⁄2 lb. of gum per gall., besides the asphaltum in the latter. Spirit varnishes should contain about 2⁄2 lbs. of gum per gall. The use of too much driers is found to injure the brilliancy and transparency of the varnish. Copperas does not combine with varnish, but only hardens it; sugar of lead, however, dissolves in it to a greater or less extent. Boiling oil of turpentine combines very readily with melted copal, and it is an improvement on the common process, to use it either before or in conjunction with the oil, in the preparation of copal varnish that it is desired should be very white. Gums of difficult solubility are rendered more soluble by being exposed, in the state of powder, for some time to the air.

Varnishes, like wines, improve by age; and should always be kept as long as possible before use.

From the inflammable nature of the materials of which varnishes are composed, their manufacture should be only carried on in some detached building of little value, and built of uninflammable materials. When a pot of varnish, gum, or turpentine catches fire, it is most readily extinguished by closely covering it with a piece of stout woollen carpeting, which should be always kept at hand, ready for the purpose.

An excellent paper, by Mr J. W. Niel, on the manufacture of varnishes, will be found in the ‘Trans. of the Soc. of Arts,’ vol. xlix. See also the articles Alcohol, Amber, Copal, Oils, &c., in this work.

Varnish, Am′ber. Prep. 1. Take of amber (clear and pale), 6 lbs.; fuse it, add of hot clarified linseed oil, 2 galls.; boil until it ‘strings well,’ then let it cool a little, and add of oil of turpentine 4 galls, or q. s. Nearly as pale as copal varnish; it soon becomes very hard, and is the most durable of the oil varnishes; but it requires some time before it is fit for polishing, unless the articles are ‘stoved.’ When required to dry and harden quicker, drying oil may be substituted for the linseed oil, or ‘driers’ may be added during the boiling.

2. Amber, 4 oz.; pale boiled oil, 1 quart; proceed as last. Very hard.

3. Pale transparent amber, 5 oz.; clarified linseed oil or pale boiled oil, and oil of turpentine, of each 1 pint; as before.

Obs. Amber varnish is suited for all purposes where a very hard and durable oil varnish is required. The paler kind is superior to copal varnish, and is often mixed with the latter to increase its hardness and durability. The only objection to it is the difficulty of preparing it of a very pale colour. It may, however, be easily bleached with some fresh-slaked lime.

Varnish, Balloon. See Varnish, Flexible (below).

Varnish, Bessemer’s. This consists of a pale oil copal varnish, diluted with about 6 times its volume of oil of turpentine, the mixture being subsequently agitated with about 1-30th part of dry slaked lime, and decanted after a few days’ repose. Five parts of the product mixed with 4 parts of bronze powder forms ‘Bessemer’s gold paint.’