A Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts, Processes, and Collateral Information (part 6)

Form, Manuf., &c. Bells of “the common and well-known shape, with a thick lip or sound-bow, are the most effective known instruments for producing a loud and musical sound, such as you want when you erect a large public clock, or put up a peal of church-bells.” “After trying a number of experiments, at Messrs Warner’s, I am quite satisfied that there is nothing to be gained by deviating materially from the established proportions of the best old bells.” This view is borne out by the researches of the Government commissioners who visited the Paris Exhibition, who report, that among the ‘founders’ of France and Belgium, there are no traditions of the art, nor any discoveries or appliances of modern science, tending to the improvement of bells, or to provide efficient substitutes for them; nor is there any known improvement on the established mode and usual material (BRONZE or BELL-METAL) for casting them. Sir C. Barry, indeed, according to Mr Dennison, “seemed rather impressed with the merits of cast-steel bells;” but both Prof. Wheatstone and Mr Dennison differ from him in opinion. Undoubtedly some cast-steel bells, of small size, have been produced, capable of yielding sounds of extraordinary clearness and richness, but, in most cases, owing to the difficulty in giving the peculiar molecular condition to the metal essential to a high degree of sonorousness, their tones are comparatively harsh and disagreeable. Well-annealed glass offers a cheaper and better material than steel for large bells up to a certain size, whilst its tones are exquisite. As the depth of the tone of a bell depends chiefly upon the dimensions and weight of the sound-bow, it appears likely that by directing our experiments to the increase of these, and the diminishing of the thickness of the metal in the other parts, the quantity of metal required to produce large bells might be very greatly reduced. The sound of an Indian gong that may be easily held suspended by the hand is always rich and usually as loud and deep as a bell of ordinary construction which it would take several men to lift. The Chinese often use bells made of porcelain. Small hand-bells for the toilet and boudoir are often made of silver, and then yield tones which are remarkably soft, clear, and pleasing. The tongue, clapper, or hammer, of bronze bells should be of iron; and steel bells, of bronze. Glass and porcelain bells require the striking part of the tongue to be of box-wood, the proper weight being given by a ball of iron cast on the rod immediately above it, and a similar one screwed on the end of the rod immediately below it. In all cases the hammer-head, preferably globular, should strike the bell near the verge, and should be free from projections or asperities.

The casting, &c., of bells is essentially similar to that of other articles in bronze, of corresponding size, and particularly of cannon. See Bell-metal, Bronze, &c.

BELL′-METAL. Syn. Æs CAMPANA′′RUM, L.; Métal de cloche, Fr.; Glockengut, Glockenspeise, Ger. The alloy, usually bronze, of which bells, &c., are made.

The composition of bell-metal varies considerably, as may be seen below:—

1. (Standard.) Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts; fused together and cast in the manner described under Bronze. The most sonorous of all the alloys of copper and tin. It is easily fusible, and has a fine compact grain, and a vitreous-conchoidal and yellowish-red fracture. According to Klaproth, the finest-toned Indian gongs have this composition.

2. (Founder’s Standard.) Copper, 77 parts; tin, 21 parts; antimony, 2 parts. Slightly paler and inferior to No. 1.

3. Copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts. Very deep-toned and sonorous. Used in China and India for the larger gongs, tam-tams, &c.

4. Copper, 78 to 80 parts; tin, 22 to 20 parts. Usual composition of Chinese cymbals, tam-tams, &c.

5. Copper 75 (= 3) parts; tin, 25 (= 1) parts. Somewhat brittle. In fracture, semi-vitreous and bluish-red. Used for church and other large bells.

6. Copper, 80 parts; tin, 10⁄4 parts; zinc, 5⁄2 parts; lead, 4⁄4 parts. English bell-metal, according to Thomson. Inferior to the last; the lead being apt to form isolated drops, to the injury of the uniformity of the alloy.

7. Copper, 68, parts; tin, 32 parts. Brittle; fracture conchoidal and ash-grey. Best proportions for house-bells, hand-bells, &c.; for which, however, 2 of copper, and 1 of tin, is commonly substituted by the founders.

8. Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26⁄2 parts; iron, 1⁄2 part. Used by the Paris houses for the bells of small clocks or pendules.

9. Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 parts; zinc, 2 parts. Used, like the last, for very small bells.

10. Copper, 70 parts; tin, 26 parts; zinc, 2 parts. Used for the bells of repeating watches.

11. Melt together copper, 100 parts; tin, 25 parts. After being cast into the required object, it should be made red hot, and then plunged immediately into cold water in order to impart to it the requisite degree of sonorousness. For cymbals and gongs.

12. Melt together copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts. When cold it has to be hammered out with frequent annealing.

13. Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts. This is superior to the former, as it can be rolled out. For tom-toms and gongs.

14. Melt together copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 to 56 parts; iron, 1·44 part. Used in making the bells of pendules or ornamental Parisian clocks. For clock-bells.

Concluding remarks. Castings in bell-metal are all more or less brittle; and, when recent, have a colour varying from a dark ash-grey to greyish-white, which is darkest in the more cupreous varieties, in which it turns somewhat on the yellowish-red or bluish-red. The larger the proportion of copper in the alloy, the deeper and graver the tone of the bells formed of it. The addition of tin, iron, or zinc, causes them to give out their tones sharper. Bismuth and lead are also often added to modify the tone, which each metal affects differently. The addition of antimony and bismuth is frequently made by the founder to give a more crystalline grain to the alloy. All these additions are, however, prejudicial to the sonorousness of bells, and of very doubtful utility. Rapid refrigeration increases the sonorousness of all these alloys. Hence M. D’Arcet recommends the ‘pieces’ to be heated to a cherry-red after they are cast, and after having been suddenly plunged into cold water, to be submitted to well-regulated pressure by skilful hammering, until they assume their proper form; after which they are to be again heated and allowed to cool slowly in the air. This is the method adopted by the Chinese with their gongs, &c., a casing of sheet-iron being employed by them to support and protect the pieces during the exposure to heat. In a general way, however, bells are formed and completed by simple casting. This is necessarily the case with all very large bells. Where the quality of their tones is the chief object sought after, the greatest care should be taken to use commercially pure copper. The presence of a very little lead or any similar metal greatly lessens the sonorousness of this alloy; whilst that of silver increases it. This last metal has been detected in many old church bells remarkable for the richness of their tones—articles of silver plate having been cast into the crucibles of the founders, as votive offerings, by the pious Christians of former ages.

The specific gravity of a large bell is seldom uniform throughout its whole substance; nor can the sp. gr. from any given proportion of its constituent metals be exactly calculated owing to the many interfering circumstances. The nearer this uniformity is approached, or in other words, chemical combination is complete, the more durable and finer toned will be the bell.

In general it is found necessary to take about 1-10th more metal than the weight of the intended bell, or bells, in order to allow for waste and scorification during the operations of fusing and casting. See Bell, Bronze, Copper, &c.

BELLADON′NA (-dŏn′ă), [It., Sp., Port.; Eng., L., Ger.; B. P.] Syn. Dead′ly night′shade, Dwale; Belledame, Belladonne, &c., Fr.; Tödtlicher Nachtschatten, Tollkersche, Tollkraut, Wolfskirsche, &c., Ger.; At′ropa letha′lis*, Sola′num furio′sum*, S. letha′le*, S. mania′cum*, S. melanocer′asus†, &c., L., Bot. var. Literally, fair lady; in materia medica, botany, &c., the usual name (adopted from the Ital.) of at′ropa belladonn′a (Linn.), an indigenous, poisonous, perennial, herbaceous plant, of the nat. ord. Solanæ (DC); Solanaceæ, Endl., (Lind.). It flowers in June and July, and its drooping, purple blossoms are common ornaments of our hedges and wastes where the soil is calcareous. It is supposed to be the ‘insane root’ of Shakespeare.

The parts of this plant used in medicine and pharmacy are the “fresh leaves and branches to which they are attached; also the leaves separate from the branches, carefully dried, of atropa belladonna; gathered, when the fruit has begun to form, from wild or cultivated plants in Britain” (B. P.).

Prop., Uses, &c. Every part of this plant contains ATRO′PIA, and is consequently highly poisonous. Every part, except the berries, is fœtid when bruised, and of “a dark and lurid aspect, indicative of its deadly narcotic quality.” Its berries, which are of a glossy violet-black, and of the size of a small cherry, are sweet-tasted, and not at all nauseous. Children and tired travellers and soldiers, allured by their beauty and the absence of disagreeable flavour, have frequently been induced to eat them; but in all cases poisoning, often fatal, has followed the indulgence. Belladonna is, however, in qualified hands a safe and most valuable medicine. Its chief use is as an anodyne, antispasmodic, sedative, and discutient, and particularly to diminish sensibility and allay pain and nervous irritation in a variety of diseases—neuralgia, arthritic and migratory rheumatic pains, painful ulcers, cancer, spasmodic rigidity, strictures, and contractions (especially of the bladder and uterus), angina pectoris, iritis, epilepsy, chorea, hooping-cough, hysteria, mania, fevers, phthisis, asthma, &c.; also as a prophylactic of scarlet-fever, hydrophobia, and salivation, as a resolvent in enlarged and indurated glands (particularly when painful), as an agent to produce dilation of the pupil during surgical examinations and operations, &c., &c. It is employed both internally and externally, and in various forms, as is noticed under its ‘preparations’ elsewhere. Dose. Of the powder, ⁄2 to 1 gr. twice a day, gradually and cautiously increased until dryness of the throat or dilation of the pupil occurs, or the head is affected.

Pois., &c. Belladonna and its preparations are poisonous to all animals, but very much more so to the carnivora than to the herbivora. It also acts as a poison on vegetables.

Treatm. Ant., &c. These may be the same as those employed in poisoning by aconite, atropia, and opium. The stomach must be cleared as soon as possible, followed by active purgation. Unfortunately emetics have scarcely any action, and, therefore, must be given in large doses, assisted by tickling the fauces, &c. If copious vomiting does not rapidly follow, the stomach-pump may be had recourse to. When the poison has been removed from the stomach, copious and continued draughts of astringent vegetable solutions (weak decoction of galls or oak-bark, or strong coffee or green-tea), should be persisted in for some time; followed by like draughts of water soured with any mild vegetable acid (as vinegar, lemon-juice, citric or tartaric acid, &c.) Detec. The contents of the stomach or vomited matter may be searched for the berries, leaves, seed, or portions of the root; all of which are easily recognisable. The usual physiological and chemical tests of atropia may also be applied to these and to the organic liquids supposed to contain the poison. See Alkaloid, Atropia, Extracts, Ointments, Tinctures, Vegetable Juices, &c.

BELLADONNINE. Syn. Atropia, which see.

BELL′Y (-e). The abdomen (which see).

BELTS. In their connection with health and disease, see Bandage, Dress, Stays, &c.

BENEDICTINE’S HEALING-PLASTER (Hauber). 35 grammes of a dark brown plaster, prepared by digesting together 1 part litharge with 2 parts olive oil until they become blackish-brown, then adding 4 parts yellow wax, containing the heat for a short time, and then pouring out. (Wittstein.)

BENGAL′ (-gawl′). A thin fabric of silk and hair interwoven, originally from Bengal.

Ben′gal Light. A firework used as signals. See Fires (coloured).

Ben′gal Stripes. Cotton cloth, woven with coloured stripes, orig. from Bengal; gingham.

BEN′JAMIN†*. Benzoin.

BEN′ZENE. See Benzol.

BEN′ZINE (-zĭn). Benzol.

BEN′ZOATE (-zo-āte). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Ben′zoäs, L. A salt in which one atom of benzoic acid is replaced by a metal or other basic radical. The benzoates may, in general, be easily prepared by either neutralising the acid with the base, or by double decomposition. Most of them are more or less soluble in water, and crystallisable. Those of the alkalies and ammonia are very soluble, and rather difficult to crystallise. See Benzoic Acid and the respective bases.

BEN′ZOENE*. See Tuluole.

BENZO′IC ACID (-zō′-ĭk). HC7H5O2 Syn. Flowers of benzoin′; Hy′drated ben′zoyl; Acidum benzo′icum (B. P.); Acide benzoïque, Fleurs de benjoin, &c., Fr.; Benzoesäure, &c., Ger. A substance which is commonly stated to be the characteristic constituent of the two balsams. Pure oil of bitter almonds suffers gradual conversion into this acid by exposure to the air.

Prep. The acid of commerce is principally obtained from gum-benzoin, either by sublimation (dry way), or by dissolving it out by means of an alkali, or an alkaline earth in the form of a salt (moist way); but chiefly by the first method.

1. By SUBLIMATION:—

a. Good benzoin, crushed small or in the state of coarse powder, is placed in a cylindrical iron pot with a flat bottom, and from 8 to 9 inches in diameter, so as to form a layer of from 1 to 2 inches deep. The open end of the pot is next covered with a sheet of soft and loose blotting-paper, which is attached to the rim with paste. A cone, cap, or cylinder formed of strong thick paper (cartridge paper), open at its lower end, is then placed over the top of the pot, including the blotting-paper; and this is also attached with paste and string. The apparatus, thus prepared, is then placed on a sand bath, and exposed for 4 to 6 hours to a gentle and uniform heat. It is next removed from the sand bath, and, when it has sufficiently cooled, inverted, and the string detached, when crystals of benzoic acid are found in the paper cone. If, owing to want of care in manipulating, the product is either coloured or empyreumatic, it must be enveloped in several folds of bibulous paper, then submitted to powerful pressure, and afterwards resublimed. The simple form of apparatus figured in the engraving answers well on the small scale, and is that recommended by Dr Mohr.

b. (Ph. D. 1850.) The subliming pot is ordered to be of sheet-iron. It is to be fitted into a circular hole in a sheet of pasteboard, and a collar of tow interposed between it and the flange, so as to produce a nearly air-tight junction. The paper receiver or cap is to be cylindrical, open at one end and about 18 inches high, with a diameter at least twice that of the pot; and it is to be secured in an inverted position on the pasteboard, and fastened to it by slips of paper and flour-paste. A couple of inches of the pot is to be passed through a corresponding hole in a plate of sheet-tin, which is to be kept from contact with the pasteboard by the interposition of a few corks; and a heat only just sufficient to melt the benzoin is to be applied for at least six hours.

c. (Process adopted at Apothecaries’ Hall, London.) The best gum-benzoin is put into an iron pot, set in brickwork over a suitable small fire-place (or flue), and communicating by a conical metal neck, with a wooden box (technically termed a ‘house’) lined with white blotting-paper, as a receiver for the flowers. A piece of fine muslin, or of bibulous paper, is interposed between the top of the subliming-pot and the receiver, to prevent the sublimate falling back into the former. The sublimation is conducted rather rapidly, and the acid condenses in beautiful white, soft, flexible crystals, which are at once ready for the market. When the process is conducted more slowly, the product is proportionately scaly.

Obs. Good samples of benzoin yield from 10 to 12%, or even 12⁄2%, of ‘flowers’ or ‘acid of the first sublimation.’ This, after being pressed in blotting-paper and again sublimed, gives 8⁄2 to 10% of nearly pure benzoic acid. The loss arising from a second sublimation is thus so great that the utmost care should be taken to avoid its necessity.

2. In the MOIST WAY:—

a. (Ph. D. 1826; Scheele’s Process.) Equal parts of benzoin and hydrate of lime, in fine powder, are intimately mixed together and boiled for about an hour, with 40 parts of water; the liquor, after filtration, is evaporated to ⁄5th, and the lime saturated with hydrochloric acid; the benzoic acid crystallised out as the liquor cools, and is then either washed with very cold water, and dried by a gentle heat, or it is dried and sublimed in the manner already explained. The product of the sublimation is extremely white and pure.

Obs. An economical and productive process; but, to ensure success, a perfect mixture of the dry ingredients must be first made; as otherwise the benzoin runs into a solid mass in the boiling water, and the operation fails. Prod. “1 lb. of (gum) benjamin yields 1 oz. 6 dr. 2 scr. of flowers.” (Gray.)

b. (Process of Stoltze.) The benzoin is dissolved in 3 times its weight of alcohol, the solution introduced into a retort, and a solution of carbonate of soda in weak spirit-and-water, is gradually added, until all the free acid present is neutralised; water, equal to about twice the weight of the benzoin employed, is next poured in, and the alcohol removed by distillation. The floating resin is now skimmed off the residual liquid and washed with a little water, and the washings added to the contents of the retort, which will deposit crystals of benzoate of soda on cooling, and more by subsequent evaporation. From this salt the benzoic acid is obtained by saturating the alkali with an acid (as the hydrochloric), and by subsequent sublimation of the crude precipitated crystals.

3. Other Methods:—

a. Ordinary hippuric acid is very gently boiled, for about 15 minutes, in nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·42); water is then added, and the solution allowed to cool and crystallise. The crystals are collected on a filter, washed with a little very cold water, dried by pressure in bibulous paper, and lastly, purified by sublimation, as before.

b. From the urine of horses, cows, and other graminivorous animals, in a similar way to that by which hippuric acid is obtained, only allowing the urine to acquire a slight degree of putridity before evaporation, which last should be effected by a heat slightly under that of ebullition. The crude acid thus obtained is purified as previously directed.

Obs. Large quantities of benzoic acid are said to be obtained in this way on the Continent; but, owing to the process being clumsily conducted, it is generally of inferior quality, and hence unsaleable. It may, however, by skilful purification, be rendered quite equal to that obtained from gum benzoin.

Prop. When obtained by sublimation benzoic acid forms soft, light, feathery, white, flexible crystals, which are transparent or semi-transparent, with more or less of a mother-of-pearl lustre; when by slowly cooling its aqueous solution, or by precipitation from a solution of a benzoate, it forms either thin plates or scales, or a dazzling white crystalline powder. It is inodorous when cold, but acquires a faint balsamic odour when gently warmed; fuses at about 212° Fahr., and begins to sublime freely at a temperature a little above it, but does not boil until heated to about 460°; burns with a bright yellow flame; is very soluble in alcohol, dissolves in about 200 parts of cold water, and about 25 parts of boiling water; resists the action of ordinary nitric acid even when boiling; and forms salts (BEN′ZOATES) with the bases. Sp. gr. 0·667. Its vapour, which is very suffocating and irritating, has a density of 4·27. Added to fat and fatty substances it either prevents, or greatly retards, the accession of rancidity.

Test, &c. It may be recognised—1. By its physical properties (appearance, fusibility, volatility, odour, &c.) already enumerated:—2. By its ready solubility in solutions of the alkalies; and by being precipitated from these solutions, on the addition of one of the stronger acids, under the form of a dazzling white powder, which is only sparingly soluble in cold water:—3. By its neutral salts with the alkalies, or its neutral solution in an alkali, giving a bulky, flesh-coloured precipitate with perchloride of iron, which is insoluble in water:—4. By its solution not being precipitated by acetate of lead until after neutralisation with a fixed alkali, when the acetate produces a white, flocculent precipitate:—5. By a mixture of alcohol, ammonia, and solution of chloride of barium, neither disturbing a solution of the free acid, nor that of one of its salts with the alkalies.

It is chemically distinguished from cinnamic acid by not yielding essential oil of almonds when it is distilled with oxidising agents, as chromic acid or a mixture of bichromate of potassium and sulphuric acid; and from succinic acid, by its different deportment with sesquichloride of iron (Test 3, antè), and with a mixture of alcohol, ammonia, and solution of chloride of barium (T. 5, antè).

Estim.—1. By weighing it as benzoic acid, obtained either by precipitation, or by very careful sublimation in a glass apparatus:—2. By neutralising its alcoholic or aqueous solution, by the usual method of acidimetry:—3. By precipitating its neutral solution with acetate of lead, or with sesquichloride of iron, and weighing the carefully washed and dried precipitate either as benzoate of lead, or as ferric benzoate.

Pur., &c. White crystalline silky plates and needles, have an aromatic odour. Solubility in cold water, 1 in 300; in boiling water, 1 in 12; in spirit, 1 in 4. Also soluble in caustic alkalies and lime. Borax considerably increases its solubility in water; 1 of benzoic acid and 1 of borax are soluble in 100 of water. It sublimes without residue when heated. It is sometimes met with adulterated with hippuric acid, which may be easily detected by its altered form, by its diminishing solubility in cold water, and by its exhaling an odour of tonquin-beans, and afterwards of hydrocyanic acid, when sublimed. The presence of succinic acid may be readily detected by its greatly increased solubility in cold water; that of sugar, not only by its increased solubility, and partial volatility, but also by the odour of caramel being evolved on the application of sufficient heat, and the residuum being black and carbonaceous; that of camphor, by its peculiar odour when gently heated. Spermaceti, specially prepared for the purpose, is also an occasional adulterant, easily detected by its insolubility and other well-known properties. All these substances either destroy or lack the proper crystalline form of benzoic acid, which is one of the best proofs of its purity. They also greatly increase its sp. gr.

Uses, &c. Its chief use in medicine is as a stimulant and expectorant. It is an ingredient in the compound tincture of camphor (paregoric elixir) of the pharmacopœia.—Dose, 10 to 30 gr., dissolved in water by the aid of a little ammonia or potassa; in old coughs, &c.

BENZOIC AL′COHOL. A peculiar oily fluid, discovered by M. Cannizzaro, and obtained by the action of an alcoholic solution of potassa on pure oil of bitter almonds.

BENZOIN′, B. P. (-zoyn′; zō′-ĭn). Syn. Gum-benzoin*‡, Ben′jamin†*, Gum-b.†*; Benzöi′num, L., B. P.; Benjoin, Fr.; Benzöe, Ger. The balsamic resin exuded from incisions made in the stem of the styrax benzoin, a native of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Laos, and Siam. Several varieties of benzoin are in the market; two only, however, are chiefly used in medicine, one in agglutinated masses, the other (from Siam), in tears, being the purer and having the stronger odour.

Prop., &c. Odour agreeable, and somewhat like that of vanilla, but more balsamic; fracture conchoidal; lustre greasy; sp. gr. 1·063 to 1·092. It fuses at a gentle heat and exhales white fumes, which, on condensation, are found to be benzoic acid contaminated with a little volatile oil. Alcohol dissolves the larger portion of it, ether much less, and the volatile and fixed oils only a little. It contains from 9% to 18, or (occasionally) nearly 20%, of benzoic acid, according to the quality. It burns with an agreeable odour. The resin and its alcoholic solution strike a bright red colour with oil of vitriol, and a green colour with chloride of iron.

Benzoin has occasionally been sold by fraudulent dealers after its benzoic acid has been removed by the wet method. When the gum has been thus treated it will not show the agglutinated tears, upon fracture, which commonly distinguishes it when intact.

Uses, &c. It is chiefly employed in perfumery, and as an ingredient in incense, fumigating pastilles, &c.; also in court-plaster, in certain cosmetics, and to scent the varnish used for snuff-boxes, walking-sticks, &c. As a medicine, its general effects resemble those of the other true balsams, and of benzoic acid.—Dose, 5 or 6 to 20, or even 30 gr., in powder, and usually in combination with some other remedy; chiefly in chronic pulmonary and bronchial affections, when occurring in torpid habits, and unaccompanied by inflammatory symptoms or gastric irritation. Also as a fumigation in the same diseases, hooping-cough, &c. Like benzoic acid, it is used to prevent rancidity in ointments, pomades, and other fatty preparations.

BENZOINUM. See Benzoin.

BEN′ZOL (-zōle). C6H6. [benz(oin)-oleum.] Syn. Ben′zene*, Ben′zĭne, Ben′zōle*, Hydrĭde of phe′ny̆̆l*, Phe′ne†, &c.; Benzo′leum, L.; Benzine, Fr.; Benzöl, Ger. A peculiar ethereal hydrocarbon discovered, by Faraday, among the products of the destructive distillation of whale oil and other organic substances (A.D. 1825); and subsequently shown, by Mitscherlich, to form the principal ingredient in the distillate procured by the action of heat on a mixture of benzoic acid and hydrate of lime. In 1849, Mr C. B. Mansfield discovered its presence in coal-tar naphtha, from which the benzol of commerce is now chiefly, if not wholly, obtained.

Prep. 1. Pure:—a. A mixture of benzoic acid, 1 part; fresh-slaked lime, 3 parts; is submitted, in a coated glass or earthenware retort, to a heat slowly raised to redness; the oily portion of the resulting distillate is then separated from the water, and carefully rectified, with the proper precautions, at a temperature not exceeding 190° Fahr. The product is usually stated to be pure benzol; but to ensure this it may be submitted to one refrigeration and rectification, in the manner and at the temperature noticed below.

b. From good commercial benzol, agitated with 1-4th or 1-5th of its weight of concentrated sulphuric acid, and, after repose and decantation, rectified at a temperature under 195° Fahr.; the resulting distillate is exposed to a temperature below 32° Fahr., and the mass of crystals that form are thrown on a funnel, kept at the same temperature, to drain, after which they are pressed between folds of bibulous paper, and then allowed to liquefy by simple exposure, in a close vessel, to the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. The product, after rectification at a temperature not exceeding 190,° is nearly pure benzol. It may be rendered absolutely pure by repeating the refrigeration a second and a third time, followed by a final rectification at 180-185° Fahr.

2. Commercial:—By submitting light coal-tar naphtha to distillation, either at once, or after it has been agitated with a little oil of vitriol, and decanted, care being taken that the temperature does not exceed 200° Fahr.

A drawing and description of the apparatus invented by Mansfield for the preparation of benzol from coal-tar naphtha is given below.

A is the still placed on a furnace R; C is filled with cold water. As soon as the oil in the still boils, the vapours are condensed in B, and flow back into A; this continues until the water in C has been heated to a certain temperature, when the vapours are condensed in the cooler D, the liquid flowing at n into the carboy S. As soon as the water in C begins to boil, all the substances contained in the coal-tar naphtha and volatile at 212° Fahr. are condensed and collected in S. A very pure benzol is obtained by this apparatus. By opening the tap m, the hydrocarbons which boil over 212° Fahr. can be rectified. The stopcock i is used for opening the still.

In the benzol works the apparatus shown below is employed.

A is the still, B the condenser, C a water-tank. At the commencement of the operation the water in C is heated by means of the steam-pipe D which communicates with the steam boiler. The tube G is attached to the still; i is a contrivance for filling, b for emptying it. The condensed water is carried off by means of H. By freezing benzol and pressing the solid substance obtained, it may be rendered quite pure.

Prop. Pure benzol is a clear, colourless, very mobile liquid, having a strong, characteristic, and rather agreeable ethereal odour. It is neutral to test-paper; exceedingly volatile at all temperatures; insoluble in water; miscible with alcohol and with ether; highly inflammable; burns with a brilliant flame, emitting clouds of smoke, which rapidly condense and fall as a shower of fine sooty, carbonaceous matter; boils at 176° Fahr.; solidifies, at 32°, to a snowy white camphor-like mass, or when very slowly refrigerated, to beautiful transparent cruciform leaflets, which aggregate together into forms resembling fern-fronds; remelts at 40-1° Fahr.; and when solidifies burns, like camphor, without previous fusion. Sp. gr. ·850; sp. gr. of vapour, 2·770. It is unaffected by the ordinary hydrated acids, and has no action on the alkaline metals. Highly concentrated nitric acid readily dissolves it, and from this solution nitrobenzol is precipitated on the addition of water. Its vapour is dangerously inflammable, and, when mixed with the air, is highly explosive. Its solvent power extends over a numerous list of substances. Commercial benzol has a less agreeable odour, and not unfrequently a slight colour, with other modifications of the properties just enumerated, depending on the relative amount of impurities contained in it.

Pur.—1. It should be colourless, without action on either litmus or turmeric paper, and have the boiling-point, sp. gr., &c. already indicated:—2. A few drops thrown on a slip of glass or a piece of white paper should rapidly and entirely evaporate by simple exposure to the air without leaving a stain behind, or evolving any disagreeable or foreign odour:—3. Agitation with a little sulphuric acid should not discolour it:—4. It should not perceptibly lose weight or volume by agitation with a little cold water.

Detec.—1. From the physical and other properties already enumerated:—2. By converting it into aniline and then testing it accordingly. For this purpose a little of it is dissolved in concentrated nitric acid, and the nitrobenzol thus formed is precipitated by the addition of water. The fluid is then agitated with ether, to dissolve out the nitrobenzol, and the resulting ethereal solution is mixed with an equal bulk of alcohol and hydrochloric acid and a little granulated zinc at once added. Hydrogen is evolved, and by its action the nitro-compound is converted into aniline. The liquid is next alkalised with potassa in excess, and the alkaline fluid agitated with ether. The ethereal solution, on evaporation, leaves a residue (aniline), which, after the addition of a little water, may be tested with a few drops of solution of chloride of lime, when a characteristic purple colour will be developed, provided the original liquor was benzole, or contained it. In this way very minute traces of benzol may be detected.

Uses, &c. In its impure or commercial form, chiefly as a solvent for gutta percha and india rubber; but it leaves the first in a spongy, friable state, and the latter glutinous or sticky, unless heat is applied to it for some time; also as a solvent in the manufacture of varnishes, as a diluent in lieu of oil of turpentine, for oil-paints, as a material for the production of artificial light, &c., &c. In the pure or nearly pure form it is largely employed in the laboratory and in chemical analysis as a solvent of many resins, mastic, wax, camphor, fat, the fixed and essential oils, sulphur, phosphorus, iodine, several of the alkaloids, &c., &c. Under the name of BENZINE and BENZINE-COLLAS it has been recently extensively vended for the removal of spots of grease, paint, &c., from woven fabrics, which it does most readily and completely, without detriment to the material. As a source of artificial light it has been the subject of innumerable applications and patents. It may be burned in a ‘wickless’ lamp, provided a proper cap-burner be employed. Alcohol or pyroxilic spirit containing 1-3rd, or even 1-4th of it, burns with a rich white flame. Air driven through it becomes sufficiently inflammable to serve as illuminating gas; whilst ordinary coal-gas by merely passing over it yields a flame of greatly increased brilliancy; but in all these applications the greatest possible care is necessary to prevent accidents. See Naphtha (Coal-tar).

Benzol, Nitrate of. See Nitro-Benzol.

BENZOLINE. A product of the fractional distillation of American rock oil. If used for burning purposes, care should always be taken to use a sponge lamp, so as to ensure the benzoline vapour (which is extremely inflammable) being well diluted with air when burnt.

BENZOYL. C7H5O. The radical of an extensive series of compounds, of which the hydride, C7H5OH (essential oil of bitter almonds), and benzoic acid, HC7H5O2 are the most important members.

Benzoyl, Hy′dride of. C7H5OH. Syn. Essence of bitter almonds, Essential oil of bitter almonds, Volatile oil of bitter almonds.

Prep. 1. The crude oil of bitter almonds is agitated with a moderately dilute solution of protochloride of iron which has been previously mixed with fresh hydrate of lime in excess, and the whole, after having been placed in a retort connected with a suitable receiver, is subjected to distillation. The oil passes over mixed with water, from which it is easily separated after repose. By subjecting it to a second agitation and distillation with a fresh mixture of the protochloride and hydrate, and, after careful separation from the water which distils over with it, allowing it to remain for some hours in contact with fragments of fused chloride of calcium, to free it from all traces of adhering water, the product will be nearly chemically pure, provided the whole process has been conducted with as little access of air as possible.

2. (Liebig.) Agitate the crude oil of bitter almonds with mercuric oxide in slight excess, and, after a few days’ contact, rectify the oil from a little fresh oxide. The product is quite pure when the process is properly managed. The bicyanide of mercury thus formed may be either employed as such, or reconverted into oxide of mercury and hydrocyanic acid.

Prop., &c. A rather thin, colourless liquid, of great refractive power and characteristic and agreeable odour; soluble in 35 parts of water; miscible in all proportions with alcohol and ether; it boils at 356° Fahr.; on exposure to the air it rapidly absorbs oxygen, and becomes converted into a mass of crystallised benzoic acid; heated with solid hydrate of potassa hydrogen is evolved, and benzoate of potassium formed; with the alkaline bisulphites it forms beautiful crystalline compounds. Its flame, and that of its vapour, is bright but very smoky. Sp. gr. 1·043. It differs from the crude or common oil of bitter almonds chiefly in the absence of hydrocyanic acid, and consequently in not being poisonous. It has hence been proposed as a substitute for the crude oil as a flavouring ingredient in cookery, confectionery, liqueurs, &c.; but is unfitted for the purpose, owing to the rapid deterioration it suffers unless it be kept absolutely excluded from the air.

Formiate of Hydride of Benzoyle. See Formobenzoic Acid.

BER′BERINE (-een). C20H17NO4. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Bar′berĭne*, Ber′berite* (of Thomson); Berberi′na, L. A substance discovered by Buchner and Herberger in the root of the common barberry shrub (ber′beris vulga′ris, Linn.); and subsequently, by Bödecker, in calumba-root; and more recently by Mr Perrins, in the calumba-wood (menispermum fenestratum) of Ceylon, which contains a considerable quantity of it.

Prep. 1. A soft watery extract of the root, or of the wood, is digested in rectified spirit, with trituration, as long as anything is taken up; the resulting tincture, after repose, is filtered, and the alcohol gradually distilled off until the residuum has the consistence of a thin syrup. The crystals which form as the liquid cools are drained in a funnel, washed with a few drops of ice-cold water, pressed dry in bibulous paper, and then purified by solution and crystallisation, first in rectified spirit, and next in distilled water.

2. By digesting the root, or the wood (coarsely powdered) in rectified spirit, and then proceeding as before.

Prop. Berberine may be classed with the azotised colouring substances; or, from its composition and its possessing feeble basic properties, with the alkaloids. It crystallises in fine needles, or in stellated prisms, which are yellow, odourless, very bitter-tasted, neutral to test-paper, and contain 12 equiv. of water. At 212° Fahr. it acquires a red colour; but recovers its normal yellow on cooling. A much higher temperature decomposes it, yellow vapours being evolved. It is freely soluble in boiling water and in alcohol, from either of which solutions it may be readily obtained in crystals. It requires 500 parts of water at 60° to dissolve it, and very much more at lower temperatures. Its solutions are yellow; that in alcohol appears green by reflected light. The concentrated mineral acids destroy it. Its salts are more or less soluble.

Uses, &c. Chiefly in medicine, in similar cases to those in which the use of calumba-root is indicated. It has been highly recommended in dyspepsia and heartburn, in disturbed action of the liver, and, combined with iron (lactate, phosphate, or hyposulphite), in chlorosis, anæmia, &c. According to M. Altin, it is an effectual remedy for the mucal, colourless diarrhœa, and the derangement of the urinary secretions which commonly follow cholera.—Dose, 3 to 10 gr.; in larger doses it proves laxative. See Calumba, &c.

BERENIZON (Dr Charles Wortley). A preparation for promoting the growth of the hair. Balsam of Peru 3 grammes, castor oil 3 grammes, tinct. cinchona 4 grammes, spirit 85 grammes, rosewater 40 grammes. (Schädler.)

BERG′AMOT. Syn. Bergamo′ta, L.; Bergamote, Fr.; Bergamotte, Fr., Ger. The bergamot-lemon, or fruit of cit′rus ber′ga′mia; also sometimes, colloquially, the fragrant oil obtained from its rind. See Oils (Volatile).

BERGBALSAM—MOUNTAIN BALSAM (of G. Schmidt, Berlin). Recommended for hemorrhoids, want of appetite, headache, constipation, &c. Rhubarb 2 parts, cortex frangulæ 10 parts, milfoil flowers (Achillea millefolium) 1 part, tansy 1 part, crystallised soda 1⁄2 parts; be digested for some hours in warm water, the fluid expressed made up to 26 parts, 30 parts of sugar dissolved in it, and lastly mixed with 17 parts of rectified spirit. (Hager.)

BER′RY (bĕr′-re). Syn. Bac′ca (pl. bac′cæ, -sē), L.; Baie, Fr.; Beere, Ger. Any small succulent or pulpy fruit containing several naked seeds or granules. In botany, an indehiscent pericarp or seed-vessel, pulpy, many-celled, and many-seeded, the seeds being naked, and for a time connected by a slender membrane, from which they become detached at maturity, and then remain dispersed through the pulp. It is distinguished by its figure, &c., into several varieties.

The leading berries employed in domestic economy and the arts are noticed in their alphabetical places (which see).

BER′YL (bĕr-rĭl). Syn. Aquamarine′ (rēne); A′qua-mari′na, Beryl′lus, L.; Aigue-marine, Béril, Fr.; Beryll, &c., Ger.; Smaragd, It. A beautiful mineral, which, in its richer forms, is classed with the gems. It is usually of a green colour of various shades, passing into honey-yellow and sky-blue. It is allied in composition to the emerald; but occurs in much larger crystals than that gem, and owes its colour to oxide of iron instead of oxide of chromium. According to Gmelin its composition is—Silica, 68·7%; alumina, 17·6%; glucina, 13·4%; red oxide of iron, ·24%. Other (previous) authorities state that it contains fully 14% of glucina, 2% of lime, and 1% of oxide of iron.

The finest beryls come from Dauria on the frontiers of China, from Siberia, and from Brazil. Some of gigantic size have been found in the U.S., at Ackworth and Grantham, New Hampshire, and at Royalston, Mass. One of these measured 32 × 22 × 15 inches, and weighed 2900 lbs.; another, 12 × 24 × 45 inches, and weighed 1076 lbs.

Apatite or Saxony beryl, chrysolite or pierre d’asperge, coloured fluor-spar, and even natural crystals of phosphate of iron, are often worked up by the lapidaries and passed off as beryls, or false beryls, emeralds, topazes, &c. See Gems, Pastes, &c.

BERYL′LA*. See Glucinum, Oxide of.

BERYL′LIUM*. See Glucinium.

BETAINE. C5H11NO21. An alkaloid occurring in the juice of the mangold-wurzel. Scheibler prepares it as follows:—The expressed juice of the mangold-wurzel, strongly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, is mixed with a solution of sodium phosphotungstate; the resulting precipitate containing albumen, colouring matter, woody fibre, and a small quantity of the base, is filtered as quickly as possible, and the filtrate, mixed with a fresh quantity of the precipitant, is left to itself for eight or ten days. It then gradually deposits on the bottom and sides of the vessel a crystalline precipitate, which is rinsed with a little water and treated with milk of lime, whereby insoluble calcium phosphotungstate is produced, while the betaine remains in solution. The filtered liquid freed from lime by carbonic acid, and evaporated, leaves impure betaine, which may be purified by recrystallisation from alcohol, with help of animal charcoal.

A hydrochlorate, a sulphate, an aurochloride, and a platinic chloride of betaine have been prepared.

BE′TEL (bē′tl). [Eng., Ger.] Syn. Be′tle, Be′tel-tree, B. pepper-tree; Bétel, Fr.; Wasserpfeffer, &c., Ger.; Pi′per be′tel (Linn.), Chavica betle (Miquel), L. A climbing plant of the nat. ord. Piperaceæ, common in India and the East. Its leaves, which somewhat resemble those of the citron, are bitter, stomachic, tonic, stimulant, and sialogogue.

Betel. A common masticatory in the East, where it is chewed in the same way as tobacco is by Europeans and Americans, but much more generally, being regarded by the Malays, Sumatrans, &c., as an absolute necessary of life. It is commonly formed by dividing areca-nuts into four or six equal parts or slices, one of which is rolled up, with a little chunam, in a sirih or leaf of the piper-betel, and then constitutes a ‘quid’ ready for use.

Prop., &c. Betel, in those accustomed to its use, produces a species of pleasing excitement or intoxication, stimulates the action of the salivary glands, stomach, and kidneys, corrects acidity, diminishes cutaneous perspiration, restrains excessive discharges, increases the power of physical exertion and endurance, moderates the effects of climate, and appears to act as a general tonic on the system. It darkens the teeth, and tinges the saliva as well as the mouth and lips of a bright red colour. In those unhabituated to its use it causes giddiness, astringes and excoriates the mouth and fauces, and temporarily deadens the sense of taste. The Indians conceive that it preserves and fastens the teeth, cleanses and strengthens the gums, sweetens the breath, cools the mouth, assists respiration, and acts as a general aphrodisiac on both sexes. Peron states that he preserved his health during a long and very trying voyage by the habitual use of betel, whilst his companions, who did not use it, died mostly of dysentery.

BE′TEL-NUT. Syn. Are′ca-nut; Nux are′cæ cat′echu, N.-be′tel, &c., L. The seed of the catechu-palm (are′ca, cat′echu, Linn.), divested of the husk or fibrous pericarp. The whole fruit (ARECA-NUT of commerce) is about the size of a small egg; the husked nut is of the size of a large nutmeg. The whole fruit is remarkable for its narcotic or intoxicating power. It has, however, been thought doubtful whether its intoxicating effect is not owing to the piper-leaf in which it is wrapped when eaten (chewed), rather than to any special property of its own. See Areca Catechu.

BETTNASSEN, Remedy for Incontinence of Urine (prepared by Dr Kirchhoffer, in Kappel by St. Galle). Thirty powders, each consisting of 2 grammes ferri carbonas, 4 grammes ergotæ pulv., ·03 grammes extract. sem. strychni. aquos. The prescription for the embrocation runs—Spirit serpylli 120 grammes, tinct. sem. strychni. 60 grammes, liq. ammon. 15 grammes. (Hager.)

BET′ULINE (-ū-lĭn; bē-tū). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Betuli′na, L. A crystalline substance obtained from the bark of the white birch (be′tŭla al′ba, Linn.).

BE′ZOAR (-zōre). [Eng., L. indecl.; prim. Pers.] Syn. Be′zoar-stone; Bezoär′dus, La′pis bezoär′dicus, &c., L.; Bézoar, Bézoard, Fr.; Bezoarstein, Ger. The name of preternatural concretions found in the stomach, intestines, &c., of certain animals, and formerly supposed to possess the most extraordinary antidotal power and medicinal virtues. So far, indeed, did this belief extend, that other substances regarded as antidotes were called BEZOAR′DICS†, or otherwise named after them; whilst the adj. BEZOAR′DIC† (bĕz-) and BEZOAR′TICAL† (bézoardique, Fr.; bezoar′dicus, L.), came to be synonymous with antidotal. Certain bezoars were once valued at even ten times their weight in gold. They were not only taken internally, but also worn as amulets. They have, however, long since fallen into disuse in this country.

Among the leading bezoars of old medicine are—

Bezoar, Ger′man. Syn. Be′zoär German′icum, B. capri′num, L. From the Alpine goat.

Bezoar, Hu′man. Syn. B. hom′inis, L. Falsely stated to be found occasionally in man.

Bezoar, Microcos′mic. Syn. B. microcos′micum, L. Human urinary calculi.

Bezoar, Mon′key. Syn. B. sim′æ, La′pis s., L. From certain species of ape or monkey, obtained by giving an emetic.

Bezoar Occiden′tal. Syn. West′ern b.; B. occidenta′le, L. Found in the fourth stomach of the chamois or wild goat of Peru, &c.; or, according to others, of a species of antelope.

Bezoar, Orien′tal. Syn. East′ern b.; B. orienta′le, Lapis b. orienta′lis, L. From the fourth stomach of ca′pra æga′grus, a species of goat inhabiting the mountains of Persia, &c.

Bezoar, Ox. Syn. B. bovi′num, L. From the ox, and other bovine animals.

Bezoar, Por′cupine. Syn. B. hys′tricis, B. hys′tricus, La′pis h., L. porci′nus, &c., L. Said to be found in the gall-bladder of the Indian porcupine. Chiefly from Malacca. Has an intensely bitter taste, which it imparts to water.

Bezoar, West′ern. See Occidental Bezoar (antè).

Of the preceding, those from the stomach of ruminants vary in size from that of a bean to that of a hen’s egg, and have a composition and appearance closely imitated by the following formula, the product of which is commonly sold for them:—

Bezoar, Facti′′tious. Prep. From pipe-clay, or clay and chalk, equal parts, made into a stiff paste with ox-gall; a little hair or wool being added, and the resulting mixture pressed by the hands into small masses of a flattened spheroidal or egg-like form. These give a yellow tint to paper rubbed with chalk, and a green one to quick-lime, which tests are used for genuine bezoars. Like the latter, they are antacid or absorbent, which is probably the only virtue they possess.

Amongst ‘chemical bezoars’ now obsolete even on the Continent were—

Bezoar, Ar′gentine†; B. luna′′re, L. Made by distilling butter of antimony with a solution of nitrate of silver. Once highly esteemed in epilepsy and head diseases.

Bezoar, Min′eral; B. minera′le, L. Powder of algaroth deflagrated with nitre in a red-hot crucible, and then well washed with water. Once used as a diaphoretic. Other similar preparations were B. JOVIA′LE (from tin), and B. MARTIALE (from iron).

Bezoar, Sat′urnine, B. of lead; B. satur′ni, L. Made by distilling a mixture of oxide of lead, butter of antimony, and nitric acid. Once highly esteemed in diseases of the spleen.

BHAURTA. In Indian cookery, a dish made of mashed potatoes and onions, strongly spiced with capsicum, and sometimes also with curry-powder, shaped in a mould, and then slightly baked.

BIBAS′IC. Syn. Bibas′icus, L.; Bibasique, Fr. In chemistry, having two bases, or two atoms of the base or basic radical in its composition. See Acid, Nomenclature, Salt, &c.

BIB′ERON (bĭb′-rōng). [Fr.] A sucking-bottle or ‘artificial mother.’ See Bottles.

BI′BIRINE (bē′-). See Bebeerine.

BIB′ULOUS (-ū-). Syn. Bib′ulus, L.; Spongieux, Fr. Absorptive; spongy.

BICAR′BONATE. A salt in which only half the hydrogen in (hypothetical) carbonic acid (H2CO3) is replaced by a metal, e.g. bicarbonate of sodium, NaHCO3.

BICE (bīse), Syn. Blue bice. See Blue Pigments.

Bice, Green. See Green Pigments.

BICKEL′SCHER THEE, for constipation, flatulence, hemorrhoids, loss of appetite, stomach complaints, and similar diseases. Cassia lignea and anise, of each 3 parts; cumin and fennel seed, each 4 parts; senna leaves, 20 parts; to be bruised together. (Selle and Hager.)

BI′DERY (bē′-). Syn. Vi′dry. An alloy of which the chief seat of the manufacture is the city of Bider′, near Hyderabad, India. It was first brought under the notice of the British public at the International Exhibition of 1851, where many articles made of it were greatly admired for the elegance of their forms, and the gracefulness of their engraved and enchased patterns.

Prep. 1. Zinc, 31 parts; copper and lead, of each 2 parts; melted together, with the usual precautions, under a mixture of resin and beeswax, to prevent oxidation.

2. (Dr Heyne.) Copper, 8 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 1 part; melted together, as before. For use, the resulting alloy is remelted, and to every 3 parts of it 16 parts of zinc are added.

Prop., &c. Colour between that of pewter and zinc; does not corrode by exposure to air or damp; yields little to the hammer, and can only be broken by extreme violence. It possesses a convenient degree of fusibility, above that of zinc and tin, but much lower than that of copper. For the turner it is usually cast in moulds of baked clay; but otherwise in moulds of iron or other hard metal. The beautiful black colour which the finished articles possess is imparted by dipping them into a solution of sal-ammoniac, saltpetre, sea-salt, and blue vitriol. See Brass, Bronze, Pewter, &c.

BIDET′ (bĭd-ĕt′; -ā′—Fr.). An article of bedroom furniture conveniently formed for laving the lower part of the body. Besides the value of its use as an instrument of personal cleanliness and health, it offers a ready means of medicating the parts, often highly serviceable in piles, prolapsus, affections of the scrotum and prostate gland, strangury, ischuria, suppressed or difficult menstruation, &c. See Ablution, Baths, &c.

BIELEFELDER TROPFEN—BIELEFIELDER DROPS (Bansi). A spirituous extract of wormwood, unripe oranges, rhubarb, cascarilla, cloves, and gentian. (Hager.)

BIEN′NIAL (bī-ĕn′-y′ăl). Syn. Bien′nis, L.; Biennal, Bisannuel, De deux ans, Fr.; Zweijährig, Ger. Occurring once in, or lasting, two years. In botany and gardening, applied to plants that do not produce flowers and seed until the second year or season of their growth, and which then die; subst., a biennial plant.

The existence of the biennials, like that of the annuals, may be prolonged by art; indeed, many of them, by carefully removing the flowers ere the seed-vessels begin to form, may be made to bloom a second season, and even for several seasons following, like perennials. See Annuals, Flowers, Plants, &c.

BIFF′IN. A baked apple, flattened by pressure.

Prep. The apples are placed in a cool oven 6 or 7 times in succession, and flattened each time by gentle pressure, gradually applied, as soon as they are soft enough to bear it; after which they are taken out, and as soon as cold put on clean dishes or glass plates. The sour or tart variety of apples is the best for baking. If the process be well managed, the appearance of the prepared fruit is very rich and the flavour delicious.

BIL′BERRY. The whortleberry.

Bilberry, Bear’s. Uva ursi.

BILE. Syn. Bi′lis, Cho′le, Fel, L.; Bile, Fiel, Galle, Fr.; Galle, &c., Ger. A bitter fluid secreted by the liver, from venous blood; in part flowing from the intestines, and in part regurgitating into the gall-bladder. Its composition is of a very complex character; and its uses in the animal economy appear to be—to separate the chyle from the chyme, to promote the digestion and assimilation of oleaginous substances, and to assist in exciting the peristaltic action of the intestines. The fæces appear to owe their colour chiefly to the presence of bile; as, without it, they possess a dirty pipe-clay colour. Several of the substances which enter into its composition, or which are formed from those which do so, are noticed elsewhere, under their respective names. Its analysis, detection, and uses in the arts are given under Gall.

Bile (of Animals). See Gall.

BILE, Bil′iousness. Under these terms are popularly included all those slight affections of the stomach usually accompanied with derangement of the head and bowels, apparently arising from excess of bile. Persons subject to attacks of this description should be particularly careful to avoid excess in both eating and drinking, and should more especially shun those articles of food and those liquors which, from experience, they find are apt to disagree with them. A mutton chop, slightly under-dressed, is an excellent article for the breakfast, or the lunch, of bilious patients; and good beef or mutton, either broiled or roasted, so that the gravy be retained, is better for dinner than many dishes apparently more delicate. These, with fresh game and venison, form a good variety from which to choose a bill of fare. New beer and porter should be particularly avoided, as well as boiled meat, stews, soups, greasy or rich puddings, much butter or fat, and most articles of pastry, as they are very indigestible, and, by overtasking the powers of the stomach, very apt to derange it. Strong cheese, salads (particularly cucumbers), over-ripe or unripe fruit, new bread and rolls, cabbages and green vegetables, and especially peas, beans, nuts, almonds, and the like, are also objectionable for parties with delicate stomachs or a bilious tendency. The bread eaten by such persons should be perfectly free from alum, and preferably prepared with meal retaining the whole of the bran in it; and should be two days, or at the least one day old. The quantity of animal food per day, except for the laborious, should be limited to from 6 or 8 to 12 oz.; and warm slops of all kinds, except moderately strong tea and coffee, should be taken as seldom as possible, and, in general, avoided altogether. Even cocoa and chocolate prove injurious to the delicate and bilious. Out-door exercise and plenty of fresh air are essential to the health of such persons. Those who indulge in them freely are never attacked with affections of this kind, unless it be after gluttonising or heavy drinking. Above all things heavy and late suppers should be abandoned; indeed, the better plan is to take nothing more than a hard biscuit, or dry crust, after tea.

In general, attacks of bile may be prevented by the exercise of moderate judgment and temperance in living; and in those hitherto subject to them by the occasional use of an aloetic, mercurial, or saline aperient; and they may be generally rapidly removed by an emetic, followed by a dose of castor oil, Epsom salts, or Seidlitz powder. A tumbler of pure cold water taken on retiring to rest, and another (or even two) on rising in the morning, will often remove both the tendency and the fit, when all the usual remedies have failed. See Abernethy Medicines, Antibilious, Dyspepsia, Stomach Affections, &c.

BILHARZIA HÆMATOBIA. A fluke-like parasite. It is bisexual. The body of the male is thread-shaped, round, white, and flattened anteriorly. The female is thin and delicate. This creature was discovered in the portal vein and bladder of man by Bilharz, of Cairo, after whom it was named. It is especially prevalent in those who dwell by the banks of the Nile, and is also very frequently met with amongst the inhabitants of the Cape of Good Hope. It is the cause of very serious disturbance in the human economy, and not infrequently of death.

The main symptoms of the disease this dangerous parasite sets up are those which point to derangement of the urinary organs; but its effects are not confined to these, since there seems little room to doubt that it is the chief cause of the dysentery so prevalent in Egypt, the eggs of the diatoma being found deposited within the intestinal vessels, or beneath the exudations of the swollen mucous membrane. Dr Harley has found the ova in the urine of persons affected with hæmaturia at the Cape of Good Hope. When death ensues from the presence of this parasite the post-mortem appearances are various. In the bowels, congestion, deposits upon the mucous membrane, and extensive ulcerations, degeneration and atrophy of the kidneys, dependent upon an infiltrated state of the ureters, and blocking of the portal vein, due to the presence of myriads of the parasites, are some of the most important pathological changes.

BIL′IARY AFFECTIONS (-yăr-e). See Bile (antè), Calculi, Jaundice, Liver, &c.

BI′LINE (-lĭn). Syn. Bili′na, L. This name has been loosely applied to two substances:—1. Bile, or pure bile, freed from the mucus of the gall-bladder, and gently evaporated to dryness. A gummy pale yellow mass, white when powdered:—2. Tauro-cholalic or choleic acid. See Gall, &c.

BIL′IOUS (-yŭs). Syn. Bilio′sus, L.; Bilieux, Fr.; Gallig, Gallicht, &c., Ger. Pertaining to, caused by, full of, or having excess of bile. See Bile, Biliousness.

BILIPH′EINE (-e-ĭn). Cholepyrrhine.

BILIV′ERDINE (-dĭn). A green colouring matter, identical with chlorophyll, found in bile, and in the green dejections of children.

BILL OF FARE. In cookery, domestic economy, &c., a list of things ready dressed or prepared for the table (CARTE, C. D’UN RESTAURANT, MENU, &c., Fr.); also a list of articles of food in season. For Tables of the latter, see Food.

BI′NARY. Syn. Bina′′rius, L.; Binaire, Fr. Consisting of two parts. In chemistry, compounded of two elements, or of two bodies performing the function of elements.

BINOC′ULAR (-ū-). Having two eyes. In optics, of or with two eyes, as binoc′ular vĭ′′sion; or formed with two eye-pieces or tubes, so as to be used with two eyes, as a b. mi′croscope, b. tel′escope, &c.

BIRCH. Syn. Be′tula, L.; Bouleau, Fr.; Birke, Ger. The common name of trees of the genus be′tula; appr., b. al′ba (Linn.), or white birch; also its wood. See Betuline, and below.

Birch, Black. Syn. Cher′ry b., Sweet b., Mount′ain mahog′any; Betulen′ta, L. A forest tree of N. America. Wood used for cabinet work; bark yields a volatile oil similar in odour and taste to that of gualtheria; juice obtained by tapping, saccharine, and yields BIRCH-SUGAR.

Birch, White. Syn. Birch, (or) Common b.; Be′tula, L. A tree found in the woods of England. Wood neither very hard nor durable; leaves formerly used in itch and dropsy; bark febrifuge, yields a pyroligneous oil by distillation. See Oils (and above).

BIRD [Eng., Sax.] Syn. A′vis, L.; Oiseau, Fr.; Vogel, Ger. Any fowl or animal of the feathered kind. In fashionable and gourmandic cant, appr. a partridge. See Birds (below).

BIRD′LIME. Syn. Vis′cus, L.; Glu, Fr.; Vogelleim, Ger. Prep. The middle bark of the holly (gathered in June or July) is boiled for 6 to 8 hours in water, or until it becomes quite soft and tender; the water is then drained off, and it is placed in a heap, in a pit underground (commonly on layers of fern), and covered with stones. Here it is left to ferment for 2 or 3 weeks, and watered, if necessary, until it assumes a mucilaginous state. It is next pounded in a mortar until reduced to a uniform mass, which is then well kneaded with the hands in running water, until all the refuse matter is worked out. It is, lastly, placed in an earthen vessel, and covered with a little water; in which state it may be preserved from season to season. In about a week it is fit for use.

Prop. Greenish coloured: very gluey, stringy, and tenacious; when air-dried, brittle and pulverisable, but capable of gradually assuming its previous viscosity when moistened.

Uses. To cover twigs to catch birds, and other small animals. It is said to be discutient, but is now never employed in medicine.

Obs. Birdlime may also be made from mistletoe berries, the young shoots of the elder, the bark of the wayfaring-tree, and some other vegetables, by a similar process to that above described. Should any of it stick to the hands it may be removed by means of a little oil of turpentine.

A kind of factitious birdlime is made by boiling linseed oil either with, or without, a little yellow resin, until it forms a viscid, stringy paste when cold. This is chiefly used, spread on paper or cloth, to catch insects. See Fly-papers, &c.

BIRDS. Syn. A′ves, L. Birds, besides their value as food, play an important part in the economy of organic nature, and particularly in that of the vegetable kingdom. They are the best friends of the agriculturist and the gardener; and their presence, in numbers, appears essential to keep down the innumerable races of insects that prey upon our cereals, fruits, and culinary vegetables. M. Florent Prevost, who has for fifty years presided over the Natural History Museum of Paris, and who has, like the ancient Roman augurs, examined the entrails and stomach of fowls with scientific curiosity, avers, as the result of his long experience, that birds, of whatever sort, are an unmitigated blessing to the farmer, and that the detritus and organic particles found by inspection of them in whole hecatombs, which, by the assistance of the Royal Forest Rangers, he has sacrificed on the altar of utility, show an immense preponderance of insect corpuscula in their digestive organs, whilst the traces of cereal or other valuable products are infinitesimal in comparison. It is found that even sparrows, rooks, and owls—three of the feathered tribe the most persecuted by the farmer—are, in reality, the faithful and vigilant conservators of his fruits and crops. In one of the smaller states of Germany, where, owing to public rewards being given to their destroyers, the whole race of sparrows were exterminated, the crops failed to such an alarming extent that it became necessary to offer large premiums for the reintroduction of these useful birds from other parts. In some of the agricultural districts of France, where the destruction of small birds has been carried on with relentless activity for years, insects have so prodigiously multiplied as to attack everything green around them. Even the forest trees are, in many cases, denuded of leaves by them, and are rapidly perishing. Venomous species of caterpillars, previously scarcely known except to entomologists, have now become common; and cases of children losing their lives from attacks of them whilst birdnesting have been published in newspapers. In our own country the extension of sparrow-clubs—associations disgraceful to the boasted intelligence of the nineteenth century—threatens similar results. Already the gardener finds his fruit-crops lessening year by year; and that many of them, particularly of the smaller and sweeter fruits, have become so precarious, that they now scarcely pay for cultivation. In our own neighbourhood, where small birds have for some years been destroyed by bushels at a time, it is almost impossible to raise a currant, gooseberry, cherry, or plum; whilst seedling flowers and culinary vegetables often entirely disappear on the first night after being planted, or are so completely deprived of the succulent portion of their leaves and stems, that the remaining skeleton of network in a few days withers and dies. But this is not all—the columns of our diurnals bring us continual reports of failing grain-crops in the neighbourhoods in which these bird-clubs have existed for any length of time, and that even on land previously remarkable for its fertility. Did this loss fall only on the benighted beings who so wilfully cast back the blessings of an all-wise protecting Providence, it would be a just retribution; but, unfortunately, it affects the whole nation, and threatens, ere long, unless arrested by legislation, to prove a national calamity. The only apparent remedy for the evil, at present, is the diffusion of information tending to show that the farmer and the gardener, in destroying small birds, destroy their best friends.

[For further information respecting birds, see Aves, Bird (antè), Game, German Paste, Nests (Edible), Poultry, Putrefaction, Taxidermy, Trussing, &c.]

BIRKENBALSAM—BIRCH BALSAM (Dr Friedreich Lengiel). A cosmetic against wrinkles, small-pock marks, freckles, mole spots, red noses, acne, &c. 5 grammes water glass, 2 grammes potash, 1 gramme soap, 5 grammes gum arabic, 10 grammes glycerin, 400 grammes water. (Schädler.)

BIS′COTIN. [Fr.] A small biscuit. In cookery, &c., a species of confection made of eggs, flour, marmalade, and sugar, variously compounded and flavoured according to the taste of the operator.

BIS′CUIT (-kĭt). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Buccella′tum, Pa′nis bis coc′tus, L.; Swieback, Ger.; Biscotto, It.; Bizcocho, Sp. Literally, ‘twice-baked,’ appr., a well-known variety of hard, dry, unleavened bread, made in thin flat pieces. Those prepared for seamen (SEA′-BISCUITS, CAP′TAIN’S B.) are composed of flour and water only. When made of fine flour and a few caraway seeds are added, they are commonly called Ab′erne′thy biscuits. Fancy biscuits generally contain a little sugar and butter, to which almonds, caraways, mace, ginger, lemon, and other articles, technically called ‘flavourings,’ are frequently added.

Prep. On the small scale, biscuits are made by forming the flour and water into a dough by the common process of hand-kneading, occasionally assisted with a lever, as in making ordinary bread. The dough is then rolled into a sheet, and cut into pieces of the desired size and form. These, after being stamped, are exposed to the heat of a moderately quick oven, when a few minutes (12 to 18, according to their size) are sufficient to bake them.

On the large scale, the whole manual process, from preparing the dough to the point at which the newly-made biscuits are ready for baking is now generally performed by machinery. The articles so prepared are commonly known in trade as ‘MACHINE-MADE BISCUITS,’ and are not only much cheaper, but of fully equal quality to those ‘made by hand.’ In the bakehouses of her Majesty’s Victualling Yards at Deptford, Gosport, and Plymouth, the ingenious machinery invented by Mr T. T. Grant is employed. These establishments are said to be capable of producing annually above 8000 tons of sea-biscuits, at a saving of upwards of 12,000l. a year, from the cost that would have been incurred for the purpose on the old system. Under the latter it is stated that wages, and wear and tear of utensils, cost about 1s. 6d. per cwt. of biscuit; whilst under the new system the cost is only 5d.

The allowance of biscuit to each seaman in the royal navy is 1 lb. per day; or, on the average, six biscuits.

Biscuits Depuratifs (Olivier) are made with meal, milk, and sugar. Each biscuit contains 1 centigramme corrosive sublimate. (Foy.)

Biscuits, Fancy. The varieties of these are almost innumerable. In a printed list now before us we observe the names of upwards of one hundred different kinds. These are produced by varying the number and proportions, of the ingredients used in their composition, and the form and size in which they are turned out of hand. They are further modified by the relative heat of the oven, as well as the length of time they are allowed to remain in it. It would, therefore, be waste of space to give particular directions for the preparation of each. The proportion of butter and sugar, or either of them, may be from 1 oz. and upwards, to flour, 1 lb.; according to the degree of richness desired. In a few cases milk, or eggs, or both, are introduced. The ‘flavourings’ embrace a wide range of substances—bitter almonds, caraways, cassia, cinnamon, ginger, mace, nutmeg, lemon, orange-peel, orange-flower water, essence of peach kernels, vanilla, &c., &c.; many of which give their name to the biscuit.—Ar′row-root biscuits are usually made of equal parts of arrow-root and flour; MEAT′-BISCUITS, from about 1 part of lean meat (minced small and pulped) beaten to a dough with about 2 parts of flour, and a little seasoning, no water being added; SODA BISCUITS, by adding 1 to 2 dr. of carbonate of soda to each lb. of flour. In most other cases, the mere inspection of the biscuit will convey to the experienced biscuit-baker and cook sufficient information to enable him to produce an exactly similar one, or at least a very close imitation. The richest kind of SPONGE-BISCUITS, as we are informed, are made as follows:—Add the whites and yelks of 12 eggs, previously well beaten, to 1⁄2 lb. of finely powdered sugar, and whisk it until it rises in bubbles, then add 1 lb. of the finest pastry-flour, and the grated rind of 2 lemons. Put it into ‘shapes,’ sift a little sugar over them, and bake them in buttered tin moulds, in a moderately quick oven, for nearly half an hour.

Biscuits Purgatifs (Caroz). Each biscuit contains 2 decigrammes scammony. (Reveil.)

Biscuits Purgatifs (Sulot). Each biscuit contains 6 decigrammes scammony.

Biscuits Purgatifs et Vermifuges (Ferd. Gräf, Aschbach) contain ⁄4 gramme resina scammonii in each.

Biscuits Purgatifs et Vermifuges au Calomel (Sulot). There are 3 decigrammes of calomel in each. (Reveil.)

Biscuits Vermifuges à la Santonine (Sulot.) Each biscuit contains 5 centigrammes of san tonin. (Reveil.)

Biscuits, dev′iled, in cookery, are captain’s biscuits (or any similar kind) buttered on both sides, peppered well, and then covered on one side with a slice of good cheese formed into a paste with made mustard; the whole being seasoned with a little cayenne pepper is, lastly, grilled. Chopped anchovies, or essence of anchovies, is a good addition.

BISMUTH. Bi. Bismuth, Etain de glace, Fr.; Bismuth, Wismuth, W.-metall, Ger. One of the metals.

Bismuth furnace in section.

a, Eliquation-tube.

b, End at which it is charged.

c, End from which the metal flows.

d, Receiving-pan.

e, Water-trough.

f, Grate, &c.

g, g, Draught-holes.

Sources. Bismuth occurs in the mineral kingdom in the metallic state (NA′TIVE BISMUTH), and in combination with sulphur (BIS′MŬTHĬNE), and with oxygen (B. O′CHRE, &c.). That of commerce is mostly imported from Saxony, where it is chiefly obtained from native bismuth by the simple process of eliquation. The ore, sorted by hand from the gangue, and broken into pieces of about the size of nuts, is introduced into the ignited iron pipes of the furnace (see engr.) until these latter are filled to about one half their diameter and to three fourths of their length. From these the liquefied metal is allowed to flow into iron pans containing some coal-dust, and from these into a trough of water, in which it is granulated and cooled. It is subsequently remelted and cast into moulds so as to form ‘bars’ varying in weight from 25 to 56 lbs. each. In this state it usually contains a small admixture of arsenic, iron, lead, and sulphur; from the first of which it may be freed by exposure for some time, under charcoal, at a dull red heat. It is best obtained in a pure condition by heating to redness, in a covered crucible, a mixture of oxide, or subnitrate of bismuth, with half its weight of charcoal.

Prop. Colour greyish-white with a reddish tint; crystalline; very brittle (may be powdered); melts at about 480° Fahr., and does not re-solidify until cooled to 6 or 7° below this point; it volatilises at a strong heat, and, in close vessels, the fumes condense unchanged in crystalline laminæ; little acted on by the air, but when exposed to it at a high temperature burns with a faint blue flame, emitting yellow fumes which condense into a yellow pulverulent oxide; when slowly cooled, in large masses, it forms large cubic crystals or octahedrons of great beauty; nitric acid, somewhat dilute, dissolves it freely. It is highly diamagnetic. Sp. gr. 9·8 to 9·83, which, by careful hammering, may be increased to 9·8827. A bar of bismuth, when heated from 32° to 212°, expands exactly ⁄710 in length.

Uses, &c. Bismuth enters into the composition of STEREOTYPE-METAL, SOLDER, PEWTER, FUSIBLE METALS, and several other alloys. Added to other metals it renders them more fusible. An alloy of tin, nickel, bismuth, and silver is said to hinder iron from rusting. A mixture of bismuth, lead, and tin is much employed for taking impressions from dies, forming moulds, and for other purposes.

Bismuth salts are usually insoluble, or decomposed by any quantity of water into free acid and a basic salt. They are nearly all colourless, and, except the chloride, more volatile. They are easily recognised by the following reactions:—

Their saturated or concentrated solutions giving a white precipitate on dilution with water:—Sulphuretted hydrogen blackens them, or gives a black precipitate:—The nitric solution is unaffected by the addition of sulphuric acid:—Chromate of potassium gives a yellow precipitate, which differs from that from lead, by being soluble in nitric acid, and insoluble in potassa.

Von Kobbell takes a mixture of potassium iodide and flowers of sulphur in equal proportions, and heats the whole on charcoal before the blowpipe; the production of bright scarlet, very volatile bismuth iodide ensues, even when only traces of bismuth are present.

For a method of volumetrically estimating bismuth, consult a paper by Mr Pattison Muir, in the ‘Journal of the Chemical Society,’ April, 1876.

Bismuth, Car′bonate. (Ph. B.) Mix nitric acid, four fluid ounces, with three fluid ounces of distilled water, and add in successive portions purified bismuth, in small pieces, two ounces. When effervescence has ceased apply for ten minutes a heat approaching ebullition; then decant the solution from any insoluble matter. Evaporate to two fluid ounces, and add this in small quantities at a time to a cold filtered solution of six ounces of carbonate of ammonia, in two pints of distilled water, constantly stirring. Collect precipitate on a calico filter; wash till washings pass tasteless. Remove water by slight pressure of the hands, and dry at a heat not exceeding 150°.—Dose, 5 to 20 grains.

Bismuth, Chlorides of:

Basic Chlo′′ride. Bi3Cl8. Syn. Subchlo′′ride of bismuth, Pearl′-powder; Bismu′thi subchlori′dum, L. Prep. A dilute solution of hydrochloric acid is dropped into another of bismuth (prepared by dissolving that metal in nitric acid); and the resulting precipitate, after being well washed in pure water, is dried in the shade.—Prop., Uses, &c. Similar to those of the subnitrate.

Chlo′′ride. BiCl3. Syn. Terchlo′′ride of bismuth. Prep. A mixture of corrosive sublimate, 2 parts; bismuth, 1 part; (both in powder) is exposed to heat until all the ‘mercury’ present is expelled, after which it is at once put into bottles. A greyish-white, granular substance.

Bismuth, Nitrates of:

Basic, Nitrate. BiONO3. Syn. Pearl-white, Bismuth subnitrate; Bismuthi subnitras, B. bismuthi nitras, L.; Blanc de Fard, B. d’Espagne*, &c., Fr.; Perlweiss, Schminkweiss, &c., Ger. Prep. Bismuth, 1 oz.; nitric acid, 1⁄2 fl. oz.; distilled water, 3 pints; mix 1 fl. oz. of the water with the acid, and dissolve the bismuth in the mixture; throw the solution into the remainder of the water, and, after repose, pour off the supernatant liquor, drain the powder that has subsided on a linen cloth, wash it with distilled water, and dry it with a gentle heat.

Prop. A pearly white, inodorous powder, insoluble in water, but freely soluble in nitric acid; long exposure to a strong light turns it greyish. When prepared from a neutral solution, it consists of very fine microscopic crystalline laminæ; but when prepared from acid solutions, with less water, the crystals are acicular, and more silky and lustrous. When moistened it exhibits an acid reaction with litmus paper.

Pois., &c. Like the other salts of bismuth, it causes vomiting, purging, giddiness, cramp, insensibility, &c. No certain antidote is known. The treatment may consist of an emetic, followed by the copious use of emollient drinks, as weak broth, barley water, milk and water, &c.; and subsequently, when necessary to prevent inflammation, by a low diet and aperients.

Uses, &c. In medicine, as a sedative, an astringent, or tonic, and an antispasmodic, in chronic affections of the stomach unaccompanied by organic disease of that organ, and apparently of a nervous character; particularly in gastrodynia, troublesome sickness and vomiting, pyrosis or waterbrash, and generally in gastro-intestinal affections attended with fluxes; also in intermittent fever, spasmodic asthma, &c.—Dose, 5 to 10, or even 20 gr.

Externally, made into an ointment with 4 parts of lard, it has long been employed in certain chronic skin diseases. Under the name of PEARL-WHITE it is commonly used by ladies as a cosmetic; but it is stated that it injures the skin, producing, after a time, paralysis of its minute vessels, rendering it yellow and leather-like—an effect which, unfortunately, it is usually attempted to conceal by its freer and more frequent application. In very large doses it is poisonous.

Both the basic nitrate and the basic chloride of bismuth pass under the names of PEARL-WHITE and PEARL-POWDER, owing to their extreme whiteness and beauty. That of the druggists, however, is usually the former; that of the perfumers usually the latter, but not unfrequently both.

Bismuth Powder, for beautifying the skin and removing freckles. (From North America.) Consists of calcium carbonate, with much clay, and is free from injurious metals. (Chandler.)

Bismuth, Purified. (Ph. Br.) Put bismuth, 10 ounces, and 1 ounce of powdered nitrate of potash, into a crucible, and heat them until both are fused. Continue the heat, constantly stirring, for fifteen minutes, or till the salt has solidified into a slag above the metal. Remove the salt, add nitrate of potash, 1 ounce, to bismuth in crucible, and repeat the process. Pour the fused bismuth into a suitable mould, and let it cool.

Nitrate. Bi(NO3)3. Syn. Neutral nitrate, Ternitrate. Purified bismuth (in small fragments), 2 oz.; nitric acid, 6 oz.; dissolve with heat, adding more acid, if necessary, to effect entire solution of the metal; to the resulting solution add half its volume of distilled water, filter through powdered glass, and evaporate until crystals form.

Use. Chiefly in chemistry, and as a source of the pure oxide and the subnitrate.

Bismuth Oxides:—

Bismuthous Oxide. Bi2O3. Syn. Teroxide of bismuth, Protoxide of bismuth. From either the neutral or the basic nitrate, by exposure, in a crucible, to gentle ignition. Pure. A straw-yellow powder, of rather difficult solubility.

Hy′drated:—By gradually dropping an acid solution of bismuthous nitrate into a concentrated solution of potassium hydrate perfectly free from carbonic acid, and washing and drying the resulting precipitate. Pure. A rich-looking white powder.

Prop., &c. Fuses at a high temperature, and then acts as a powerful flux on siliceous matter without itself imparting colour, a property of which the enameller and gilder has long availed himself. Like the basic nitrate, it has been used as an antispasmodic and as a cosmetic. Sp. gr. 8·211 to 8·355.

Bismuthic Oxide. Bi2O5. Syn. Bismuthic anhydride, Bismuthic acid. Suspend teroxide of bismuth in a strong solution of potassa, and pass chlorine through the mixture until decomposition is complete; treat the powder with dilute nitric acid (to remove any undecomposed teroxide), after which wash it in cold water, and dry it.

Prop., &c. A reddish powder, soluble in water. Its salts, of which little are known, are called BIS′MUTHATES. When heated it loses oxygen, and a bismuthate of bismuth is formed.

Bismuthous Sulphide. Bi2S3. This compound occurs native (BIS′MŬTHĬNE), and may be easily prepared artificially by either fusing its elements together, or by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through a solution of nitrate of bismuth.

Bismuthous Valerianate. Syn. Bismu′thi valeria′nas, L. Prep. An acid solution of nitrate of bismuth is decomposed with a solution of valerianate of soda in water containing a little free valerianic acid; the precipitate is carefully washed in distilled water, and dried in the shade. Recommended as superior to the subnitrate in some forms of gastrodynia, dyspepsia, intermittents, &c.—Dose, 2 to 6 gr., or more.

BIS′TRE (-ter). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Bister, Ger. Prep. 1. The most compact, best coloured, and well-burnt portions of the soot of beechwood, or of peat, are selected, reduced to powder and sifted through a very fine lawn sieve. It is then digested in clear warm water for several hours, with frequent stirring; after which it is allowed to settle, when the liquid portion is decanted from the sediment. This process is repeated a second, and even a third time. The paste is next poured into a tall narrow vessel, which is then filled with pure cold water, and well agitated. The grosser parts only are now allowed to subside, and the supernatant liquor, containing the finer portion of the BISTRE in suspension, is poured off into another vessel, where it is left to deposit its contents. The deposit is next collected, and carefully dried and powdered; or it is only partially dried, and at once made into cakes with gum-water or isinglass-size, and then allowed to dry and harden for sale.

2. (Dr MacCulloch.) The tar-like liquid obtained from the dry distillation of wood is again carefully distilled until all volatile matter has passed over, and a brittle, pitch-like residuum is obtained, which is either brown or black according to the time and temperature employed; after which the heat is still further prolonged, but with increased care, until the brittle substance becomes pulverulent and carbonaceous. It is then ground and elutriated with pure cold water, as before.

Uses, &c. As a water colour to tint drawings, in the same way as Indian ink, to which it is esteemed superior when the subjects are intended to be afterwards tinted with other colours. It occupies the same place among water colours that brown-pink does in oil.

According to Dr MacCulloch, bistre from wood-tar, when carefully prepared, has great depth and beauty of colour, with all the fine properties of sepia; but that if the whole of the oils and acids have not been removed by the process, it is apt to collect in little flocks which interfere with its use.

BITES and STINGS. Syn. Mor′sūs (-SŪS, sing.) et Ic′tūs (-TŬS, s.), L. The treatment of the bites of non-venomous and non-rabid animals is the same as that of ordinary lacerated or punctured wounds, as the case may be; that of the bites and stings of venomous and rabid animals, serpents, insects, &c., often require, in addition, the use of special antidotes to destroy the virus or to prevent its absorption, or to neutralise its effects when absorbed and to promote its elimination from the system.

The bites and stings of ANTS, BEES, WASPS, HORNETS, and similar insects common to this climate may be treated by washing the part with spirit of hartshorn or dilute liquor of ammonia or eau de luce, or a weak solution of chloride of lime. Should considerable inflammation ensue, and the part become much swollen, a thing that rarely occurs, leeches may be applied, and a cooling purgative given. The stings of venomous reptiles may be similarly treated, excepting that the strength of the solutions of ammonia, chloride of lime, &c., should be stronger than in the former case, so as to produce some pain and smarting. In cases where the venom is of a very poisonous description, the wound should be first well washed with water of ammonia, and afterwards seared with lunar caustic in every part, including the interior and deep-seated portions. In extreme cases the surface of the wound, both internal and external, may be removed with the knife; or, in the case of a small joint, as a finger, the injured portion may be amputated. Prior to the use of the washes or caustic, dry-cupping or suction with the mouth may be had recourse to with great advantage. A ligature placed on the limb, above the wound, as soon as possible after the accident, will impede the absorption of the poison whilst the other treatment is in progress. A similar plan may be followed after the bite of a dog supposed to be mad. It has, indeed, been lately asserted by one of our most celebrated veterinarians that he and his colleagues have been repeatedly bitten by dogs that have afterwards been proved to be mad, but from having fearlessly applied caustic to the parts they have escaped uninjured.

The poison inserted by the stings and bites of several venomous reptiles is so rapidly absorbed, and of so fatal a description, as frequently to occasion death within a very short space of time, and before any remedy or antidote, under ordinary circumstances, can be applied. But even in these extreme cases it is probable that absorption, and consequently the rapidity of the action of the poison, might be considerably impeded or lessened by the immediate application of a ligature above the part, as before described, the patient accompanying the treatment by swallowing a large quantity of liquid, by which partial plethora would be produced, and the functions of the absorbents for a time nearly-suspended. A few minutes thus gained would permit of the application of appropriate antidotes, by which the poison might be neutralised before it would become necessary to remove the ligature, whilst the kidneys would be in full action. Unfortunately, these wounds are generally inflicted in parts of the world where precautionary measures are seldom thought of, and generally at times when people are least prepared to meet them, as well as so suddenly and unexpectedly as to stagger even those observers who may be in no absolute danger themselves. Such is the bite of the East Indian CO′BRA DI CAPEL′LO, against which two Asiatic (arsenical) pills are often prescribed by the Hindoos; but which are generally scarcely swallowed before the poison of the serpent has rendered the patient a stiffened corpse. Eau de luce, a favorite remedy in India, when liberally employed both internally and externally, is said to prove sometimes more successful. The bite of the PUFF-ADDER is of a similar, or even a more fatal description than that of the cobra. When the venom of any of these animals or of a rabid dog is once fully absorbed into the system, there appears to be no treatment that can save the patient. A bottle of Madeira wine or ⁄2 a pint of brandy or rum diluted with twice its weight of water, drank in two doses about 3 or 4 minutes apart, is a popular remedy in India in such cases. Its effect is to impede absorption.

The secret antidote so long successfully employed by Mr Underwood, the ‘snake-king’ of Australia, for the bites of the WHIP-SNAKE and the DIAMOND-SNAKE, two of the most venomous of that region, is now positively asserted to be the common male fern (polypo′dium fi′lix mas, Linn.). Of the powdered root, or preferably, of the green leaves of this plant nearest the root, he prepares a sort of decoction, or broth, which he takes or administers liberally. A more convenient preparation would, perhaps, be a tincture prepared by digesting 1 oz. of the dried, or 3 oz. of the fresh leaves (bruised), in a pint of proof spirit or strong brandy or rum for a fortnight; as in this state it could be kept for any length of time, if well corked, without deterioration.

For Horses and Cattle. Mr Finlay Dun recommends ammonia solution; solution of caustic potash; carbolic acid; prussic acid and chloroform.

[See Hydrophobia, Poisons, Snake-bites, Stings, Venom, Wounds, &c.]

BITT′ER. [Eng., Ger.] Syn. Ama′′rus, L.; Amer, Fr. Tasting like wormwood, quassia, or other similar vegetables; subst., a bitter plant, bark, or root (= AMA′′RUM, L.; see below).

Bitter App′le‡. Colocynth.

Bitter Cup. A cup or tumbler formed by the turner out of quassia wood. Liquor, by standing in it a short time, becomes bitter and stomachic. They are now common in the shops.

Bitter Earth*. Magnesia.

Bitter Herbs. See Bitters (infrà) and Species (Bitter).

Bitter Salt†, Bitter Pur′′ging-salt. Sulphate of magnesia.

Bitt′er-sweet. Woody nightshade.

Bitt′er-wort‡ (-wŭrt). Gentian.

BITT′ERN. The ‘mother-water’ or ‘bitter liquor’ of salt-works from which the chloride of sodium (sea-salt) has been separated by crystallisation.

Bittern. An intoxicating poisonous mixture sold by the brewers’ druggists, composed of 1 part each of extract of quassia and powdered sulphate of iron, with 2 parts of extract of cocculus indicus, 4 parts of Spanish liquorice, and about 8 parts of treacle; the liquorice being first boiled with a little water until dissolved, and the solution evaporated to a proper consistence before adding the other ingredients. Used by fraudulent brewers and publicans to impart a false bitter and apparent strength to their liquors.

BITT′ERS (-ĕrz). Syn. Ama′′ra, &c., L. Vegetable bitters are commonly regarded as tonic and stomachic, and to improve the appetite when taken occasionally and in moderation. The best time is early in the morning, or half an hour or an hour before a meal. An excessive, or a too prolonged use of them, tends to weaken the stomach, and to induce nervousness. They should not be taken for a longer period than about 8 or 10 days at a time, allowing a similar period to elapse before again having recourse to them.

Among the most useful and generally employed bitters are—calumba, cascarilla, chamomiles, gentian, hops, orange peel, quassia, and wormwood.

Bitters. In the liquor-trade, a compound prepared by steeping vegetable bitters, and some aromatics as flavouring, in weak spirit, for some 8 or 10 days; a little sugar or syrup being subsequently added to the strained or decanted tincture. In that of the taverns and gin-shops the menstruum is usually gin, or plain spirit reduced to a corresponding strength. Bran′dy-bitters and WINE′-BITTERS are prepared in a similar way with common British brandy, or some cheap white wine (Cape or raisin), as the case may be. Each maker has usually his own formulæ, which he modifies to suit the price and the palate of his customer.—This class of liquors has been justly charged with being the fertile cause of habitual intemperance, of disease, and even of death! Their occasional use as tonics or stomachics is also objectionable, owing to the trash, and even deleterious substances, which so frequently enter into their composition. See Liqueurs.

BITU′MEN. [Eng., L.] Syn. Bitume, Fr.; Erdpech, Erdtheer, &c., Ger. A term of a very comprehensive character, and, in general, very loosely applied, including a variety of inflammable mineral substances, consisting of varying proportions of hydrocarbons, having a strong smell and differing in consistence, all the varieties being found in the earth, of which asphaltum, naphtha, and petroleum may be mentioned as examples.

Asphalt is very extensively disseminated throughout Europe, Asia, and America. Considerable quantities are exported from the West Indian Islands, and from the Dead Sea, in Judæa; hence its commercial name, ‘Jewish bitumen,’ or ‘Jew’s pitch.’ The different kinds vary greatly in quality, according to the amount of earthy matter and other impurities contained in them; they may all, however, be reduced to a state of equal purity by boiling or macerating them in hot water, by which means the earthy and siliceous matters are more or less completely removed. These latter fall to the bottom of the vessel, and the bitumen rises to the surface, or forms clots on the sides of the boiler, when it is skimmed off, and thrown into a large cooler, where more water separates. At the Seyssel and Bechelbronn bitumen works the bitumen so obtained is thrown into large cauldrons and boiled for some time, by which means the volatile products and water accompanying it are driven off, and the remaining sand and impurities fall to the bottom of the cauldron, leaving the purified asphalt in the form of a thick fatty pitch, in which state it comes into the market or is applied to various purposes. In the following table we give the composition of a few bitumens:

Carbon, per cent. Hydrogen, per cent. Oxygen, per cent. Nitrogen per cent.

Viscous bitumen of Bechelbronn 88·0 12·0 — —

Virgin bitumen of Bechelbronn 88·0 11·0 — 1·0

Liquid bitumen from Hatten, Lower Rhine 88·0 11·6 — 0·4

Solid bitumen of Coxatambo, near Cuença, in Peru 88·7 9·7 1·6

Annexed is a table of the analysis of several asphalts, centesimally represented:—

Bitumen of Bastennes. Bitumen of Pont de Chateau, Auvergne. Bitumen of Abruzzi. Bitumen of Monastier, Haute Loire.

Crude. Pure. Crude. Pure.

Oily matters, Bitumen 20·0 — — — — 7·0

Carbon, Bitumen 3·7 76·13 77·5 77·64 81·8 3·5

Hydrogen — 9·41 9·6 7·86 8·4 —

Nitrogen — 12·66 12·4 1·02 1·0 —

Oxygen — 0·5 8·35 8·8 —

Water — — — — — 4·5

Gas and vapour — — — — — 4·0

Quartz sand and mica 76·3 — — — — 60·0

Clay — — — — Ferrug. 21·0

Ashes — 1·80 — 5·13 — —

100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0

The solid bitumens are now extensively employed in the manufacture of bituminous mastic or cement and similar compositions, which are used for the lining of water-cisterns, and for various other hydraulic purposes; as also for roofs, floors, roads, pavements, &c. For the last purpose the native varieties of ‘asphaltic rock,’ consisting of a mixture of bitumen and calcareous earth, when tempered with a proper quantity of crushed granite, or calcareous sand or gravel, is found to be the most substantial and durable. The plan followed in laying down such pavements in Paris, where they have been the most extensively adopted, is—The ground having been made uniformly smooth, is edged, in the usual manner, with curb-stones rising about 4 inches above its level, and then covered, to the depth of 3 inches, with concrete (made with about 1-6th part of good hydraulic lime), which is well pressed upon its bed, the surface being subsequently smoothed over with a very thin coating of hydraulic mortar. On this, when perfectly dry, the ‘bituminous mastic,’ rendered semi-fluid by being cautiously heated in a suitable iron cauldron, is evenly spread over so as to form a layer three quarters of an inch, or for less solid work, half an inch thick. Some coarse sand is lastly sifted over and pressed down on the surface, when the work is complete; and in a few days the pavement becomes sufficiently compact and solid to be thrown open to foot passengers.

An important precaution to be observed in making asphalt pavements or roads is to boil the bitumen which is employed thoroughly, so as to expel the water and volatile oils, which if allowed to remain are found to render the mastic more liable to be affected by the extremes of heat and cold, as well as less able to stand the wear and tear of traffic.

Claridge’s Process. This consists in fusing the blocks of mastic in a suitable boiler, similar to that seen in fig. 1, and in adding a quantity of mineral tar, in the proportion of 1 lb. to every cwt. of the mastic. The tar is first fused in the boiler, 56 lbs. of the mastic are then introduced, and the whole repeatedly stirred so as to prevent the formation of a deposit. When the contents of the boiler are melted, the cauldron is covered over for a quarter of an hour, after which the remainder of the mastic is added, and its fusion proceeded with as before, the process being repeated until the boiler is full, allowing an interval of from ten to fifteen minutes between each operation.

When the mastic is sufficiently fluid it will drop freely from the stirrer, and jets of light smoke are observed to issue from it. If stiff mastic be required, the proportion of tar is lessened, and a quantity of coarse grit or river sand, to the amount of 20 or 30 lbs. to the cwt., is added.

In laying the asphalt the greatest attention and care must be paid to the preparation of a solid and dry foundation.

This is usually accomplished by removing or ramming the loose earth, and placing upon the bed a layer of coarse sand mixed with powdered limestone, in the proportion of seven parts of the former to one of the latter, and the whole is pressed or beaten solid; upon this a second layer of finer materials is laid compacted and levelled; the bed thus prepared is allowed to dry before coating it with mastic.

Fig. 2 shows the manner in which ordinary asphalting is laid down. In this figure C is the bed of coarse concrete, B the second and finer layer of the same material, and A the superior layer of asphalt.

The base or concrete must be perfectly dry when the mastic is poured on, or the work will be a failure, for the moisture will be converted into steam, which, issuing through the fluid mastic, will cause the formation of holes in the latter or blister it, and ultimately the surface will crack. To counteract in some measure the evil arising from the formation of steam, fine cinder dust is sifted over the bed of concrete previous to the application of the mastic.

When asphalting suspension bridges, a sheet of canvas is usually spread over the concrete.

In asphalting damp places, such as cellars and foundations, a brick invert is always laid in asphalt beneath the concrete. This is done by placing the bricks in rows, at the proper depth and slope, and pouring a coating of asphalt about a quarter of an inch thick upon them. Before the mastic solidifies, the bricks are separated a little by passing a knife between them, thus affording the mastic an opening by which to seal up more thoroughly the connection. The concrete is afterwards laid upon this bed, and the layer of mastic upon this in the usual way. The thickness of the layer of mastic varies according to the attrition to which it is to be subjected; but the usual depth is from a quarter to one and a quarter inch.

Artificial Asphalt. This is prepared from coal tar by distilling off the volatile oils which hold the tar in solution, the result being that a kind of fatty pitch is left, which must be boiled until a sample, when cooled, becomes nearly solid. The operation may be accomplished in the open air, but if this means of evaporation be adopted, the process is attended with a very unpleasant odour, and the volatile oils are dissipated. These volatile oils are used for the preparation of varnish, for lubricating machinery, and for the manufacture of a superior kind of lampblack. They have also been employed to increase the illuminating power of coal-gas, which purpose they accomplish by imparting their vapours to gas passed over them when they are placed in shallow vessels. Various forms of patent apparatus have been designed for this purpose.

When it is required to collect the oils, the coal tar is placed in a retort made of sheet iron, with a convex bottom, which is placed immediately over a fire. The products of the combustion after striking the bottom of the retort circulate round it, then proceed under a second boiler to heat the tar contained in it, and from which the retort is replenished when necessary. This vessel, when three quarters full, contains nearly 24 cwts. of tar; it should be perfectly embedded in masonry; the capital itself by which the volatile products escape should be surrounded with materials that are bad conductors of heat, such as ashes. But for this precaution the volatile oils would become condensed, and fall back into the evaporating vessel.

The volatile oils are collected by being made to pass through a tube cooled by a current of water, this tube running in a direction the reverse of that pursued by the vapours, and terminating in a closed vessel, which acts as the receptacle for the oils. A tube branching from the boiler conducts the uncondensed products outside the building in which the distillation is conducted.

When the tar has been boiled sufficiently long to give it the requisite consistence, it is removed by means of a pipe into a third hemispherical boiler of cast-iron. To prepare the bituminous mastic directly from this fatty pitch, the latter is kept in a state of fusion, and chalk in sufficient quantity is then added. If the chalk be previously heated, ground to a coarse powder, and sifted, the mixture is effected more rapidly and satisfactorily.

The asphalt becomes the more solid the greater the proportion of chalk added; on the other hand, it becomes less elastic and more brittle. The asphalt is moulded as follows:—A long table is covered with cast-iron plates, surrounded with a framework, which is subdivided into eight or ten equal compartments by means of rules of about six inches in height, introduced vertically into grooves formed at equal intervals in the long sides of the frame. The eight or ten moulds obtained by this means are coated internally with a paste composed of sixty parts of water and forty of chalk. This compound prevents the mastic adhering to the sides of the mould, and ensures its being easily detached.

Two barrels, or 9 cwts. of tar, lose by distillation one fourth of their weight, the loss consisting of 1 cwt. 3 qrs. 15 lbs. of volatile oils, and 1 qr. 13 lbs. of water.

Sometimes ground or fine sand enters into the composition of asphalt in proportions equal to the chalk; but in some cases only half as much sand as chalk is used.

In the manufacture of asphalt it is very important that the contents of the cauldron should be stirred during fusion, not only to prevent the tar adhering to the bottom, and so getting burnt, but to ensure the ingredients being brought into intimate combination, and a homogeneous and smooth compound being produced.

As soon as the whole is thoroughly incorporated, the proper consistence attained, and the vapours of the volatile oils and water come off in very minute quantities, the asphalt is run off into the moulds before described, and when sufficiently set may be removed, and is ready for use.

Dr G. H. Smith has patented a process for making artificial asphalt, waterproof concrete, &c., which promises to become of great value in the construction of sea walls, docks, and harbour works, &c. Dr Smith’s invention consists in filling up the interstices of any porous substance, such as brick, burned or unburned clay, soft stones, plaster of Paris, &c., with pitch or tar which has been boiled to such a consistence that the pores or cells of the material used are completely filled with solid matter when cold.

Other hydrocarbons, resins, or gums may be used instead of pitch or tar; but it is essential that the saturating substances, though naturally fluid or semifluid, can be so changed by boiling that they lose their fluidity when cold; or they must be, though hard under all ordinary temperatures of the atmosphere, capable of reduction by heat or otherwise to a fluid condition, so that they will penetrate the porous materials.

The asphalto-bitumen mine of the Val de Travers, in the Canton of Neufchâtel, is said to be the richest and most extensive in the world of its particular class. The calcareous bitumen which it yields contains 20% of nearly pure bitumen, and 80% of carbonate of lime; and it has a sp. gr. (2·115) approaching that of ordinary bricks.

The ‘Val de Travers Company,’ and the ‘Bastenne and Gaujac Company,’ are, it is said, those which have hitherto been the most successful in laying down asphalto-pavements. See Asphaltum, Petroleum, &c.

Bitumen, Elastic. Syn. Min′eral caou′tchouc (kōō′-chŏŏk), El′aterite. A rather rare species of bitumen, differing chiefly from the other solid varieties in being elastic.

Bitumen, Liq′uid. Petroleum.

BITU′MINOUS. Syn. Bitutmĭno′sus, L.; Bitumineux, Fr.; Erdpechig, Ger. Of bitumen, or resembling or containing it.

BIX′EINE (-e-ĭn). The red colouring-principle of annotta. It is obtained by treating bixine with liquid ammonia, with subsequent free contact of air.

Prop., &c. When pure, a rich deep-red powder, soluble in alcohol and in alkalies, and turned blue by sulphuric acid. It appears to be oxidised bixine.

BIXIN. The red resinous colouring matter of annatto. Bolley and Mylius prepare it by digesting the dried alcoholic extract of annatto with ether; repeatedly treating the least soluble portion (which contains the greater part of the colouring matter) with hot ether; dissolving the remainder in alcohol; precipitating the alcoholic solution with lead acetate; decomposing the washed precipitate with sulphuretted hydrogen; extracting the colouring matter therefrom by hot alcohol; and precipitating the alcoholic solution with water.

BIX′INE (-ĭn). The yellow colouring-principle of annotta.

Prep. A solution of annotta is precipitated with a solution of acetate of lead; the precipitate, after having been washed in cold water, is decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen; the decanted liquor or filtrate yields crystals by cautious evaporation.

Prop., &c. Yellowish white, turning full yellow by exposure to air; soluble in water, and freely so in alcohol and in alkaline solutions; by oxidation it is converted into bixeine. For a correct knowledge of both of these substances we are indebted to M. Preisser.

BLACK. Syn. A′ter, Ni′ger, L.; Noir, Fr.; Schwarz, Ger.; Blac, Blæc, Sax. In dyeing, &c., of the colour of lamp-soot, or of night; subst., a black colour.

Black Ash. The waste lye of the soapmakers is evaporated in large iron boilers, the salt separated as it falls down, and then heated in a reverberatory furnace, until it is partially decomposed and fused, when it is run into iron pots to cool. It is used in the manufacture of alum and common soap.

Black Col′ours (kŭl′-). See Black Pigments.

Black Draught. See Mixture, Senna (Compound).

Black Drop. See Drops, Patent Medicines, &c.

BLACK DYE. Syn. Teinte noire, Fr.; Schwarze farbe, Ger. The following are the processes and materials now commonly employed in dyeing black:—

a. For Cotton:—

1. The goods, previously dyed blue, are steeped for about 24 hours in a decoction of gall-nuts or sumach, then drained, rinsed in water, and passed through a bath of acetate of iron for a quarter of an hour; they are next again rinsed in water, and exposed for some time to the air; after which they are passed a second time through the bath, to which a little more iron-liquor is previously added. The whole process is repeated, if necessary, according to the intensity of the shade of black desired.

2. The goods are steeped in a mordant of acetate of iron, worked well, and then passed through a bath of madder and logwood for 2 hours. Less permanent than No. 1.

Obs. About 2 oz. of coarsely powdered galls, or 4 oz. of sumach, are required for every pound of cotton, in the process of galling. The first should be boiled in the water, in the proportion of about ⁄2 gal. of water to every lb. of cotton. The sumach-bath is better made by mere infusion of that dye-stuff in very hot water.

3. (For 10 lbs. of cloth.) The goods are put into a boiling bath made of 3 lbs. of sumach, and allowed to steep, with occasional ‘working,’ until the liquor is perfectly cold; they are next passed through lime water, and, after having drained for a few minutes, immediately transferred to and worked for an hour in a warm solution of 2 lbs. of copperas; after free exposure to the air for about an hour they are again passed through lime water, and, after draining, ‘worked’ for an hour in a bath made with 3 lbs. of logwood, and 1 lb. of fustic; they are then ‘lifted,’ and ⁄4 lb. of copperas being added, they are returned to the bath, ‘worked’ well for about 30 minutes, and finished. Good and deep.

Obs. Instead of copperas iron-liquor may be used, observing to take 1⁄2 pint of the latter (of the ordinary strength) for every lb. of the former ordered above.

b. For Flax and Linen:—

This, for the most part, closely resembles that employed for cotton; but, in some cases, a mordant of iron-liquor, or of copperas, followed by passing the goods through lime-water, and exposure to the air, precedes the dye-bath.

c. For Silk:—

Silk goods are dyed much in the same way as woollens, but the process is conducted with less heat:—

1. A bath of nut-galls is given for 12 to 36 hours, occasionally working the goods therein; they are next taken out, rinsed, and well aired, after which they are passed for a few minutes through a bath containing sulphate of iron, and are then again drained, rinsed, and aired. The steep in the nut-gall bath may be repeated, if necessary, followed, as before, by the iron-bath previously replenished with a little fresh copperas. The whole quantity of galls to be taken for 1 lb. of silk varies with their quantity from ⁄2 to ⁄4 lb., that of the copperas (for the first bath), from 3 to 4 oz.

2. (For 1 cwt. of silk.) Boil 22 lbs. of bruised Aleppo galls, for 2 hours, in 90 to 100 galls. of water, observing to add boiling water from time to time, to compensate for that lost by evaporation; to the clear bath add 32 lbs. of copperas, 7 lbs. of iron-filings, and 21 lbs. of gum; digest with agitation for 1 hour, and when the ingredients are dissolved, pass the silk (previously prepared [‘galled’] with ⁄3rd of its weight of gall-nuts) through the bath for about an hour; then rinse and air it well; next leave it in the dye-bath for 6 to 12 hours; and this immersion or steep may be repeated, if necessary, at will. This is said to be the process commonly adopted for velvet at Genoa and Tours.

3. (For 5 lbs. of silk.) Turn the goods for an hour through a mordant formed of 1 lb. of copperas and 2 oz. of nitrate of iron (dyer’s), with sufficient water; after rinsing in cold water and airing them, ‘work’ them for an hour in a decoction made of 5 lbs. of logwood and 1 lb. of fustic; then lift them from the bath, add 2 oz. of copperas, reimmerse, and ‘work’ them well for 10 or 15 minutes longer; lastly, rinse, air, and finish. A full deep black.

4. (For 5 lbs.) For the mordant use ⁄2 lb. of copperas; rinse, and air; for the ‘dye-bath,’ a decoction of 4 lbs. of logwood to which ⁄2 pint of stale urine has been added; after ‘lifting’ the goods add 2 oz. more of copperas to the bath, and work for 15 minutes, as before. A good black. By adding 2 oz. of dyer’s nitrate of iron to the mordant the same ingredients will give a deep black; and by substituting a little white soap for the urine, and omitting the addition of copperas to the logwood-bath, it will give a blue-black. The last may also be produced by first dyeing the goods deep blue as with ‘prussiate,’ and omitting the urine and soap, in which case one half only of the logwood will be required.

d. For Wool:—

To produce a good permanent black on wool or woollen goods, they must be first dyed of a deep blue in the indigo-vat, or, more cheaply, by the Prussian-blue process. When the goods are coarse or common, and price is an object, they are generally ‘rooted’ instead of being ‘blued.’ This consists in giving them a dun or brown colour with the husks of walnuts or the roots of the walnut-tree, or with other like cheap astringent substances.

1. (For 1 cwt. of wool.) Good logwood-chips, 20 lbs., and Aleppo-galls, 18 lbs.; are inclosed in a coarse bag, and boiled with water, q. s., for 5 or 6 hours; ⁄3rd of this decoction is then transferred into another copper, with verdigris, 2 lbs., and a sufficient quantity of water having been added, the goods (previously dyed dark blue) are passed through the liquor for two hours, at a heat slightly below the boiling-point. The goods are next lifted and drained, another ⁄3rd of the decoction of logwood and galls, with copperas, 9 lbs., added to the boiler, after which the fire is lowered, and as soon as the copperas is dissolved, the cloth is returned to the bath, and again well ‘worked’ for at least an hour. It is then taken out, thoroughly aired, and the remaining ⁄3rd of the decoction added, with sumach, 20 lbs. The whole is then brought to a boil, and sulphate of iron, 2 lbs., together with a pailful of cold water, thrown in; after which the goods are put in a third time, and ‘worked’ for one hour; they are then taken out, rinsed, aired, and again passed through the bath for another hour. After being thoroughly rinsed, the goods are at once either ‘fulled,’ dried, and folded, or are further softened and beautified by passing them for 15 minutes through a hot weld-bath (not boiling), when they are rinsed, &c. (but not ‘fulled’), as before. A beautiful though expensive dye. With management the above quantities of the ingredients will dye 1⁄4 or even 1⁄2 cwt. of wool.

2. (For 1 cwt.) The cloth (previously dyed blue) is ‘galled’ with 5 lbs. of nut-galls, and then dyed in a bath made with 30 lbs. of logwood, to which about 5 lbs. of copperas has been added; after which it is rinsed, aired, and ‘fulled,’ as before. This is said, by Lewis, to be the usual proportions and plan adopted by the English dyers.

3. (For 1 cwt.) Make a bath, as before, with fustic, 2 lbs.; logwood, 5 lbs.; and sumach, 10 lbs.; work the (blued) cloth for 3 hours at the boiling heat, or near it; lift it out, add sulphate of iron, 10⁄2 lbs., and when dissolved, pass the cloth through it for 2 hours; rinse, air well, and again pass the goods through the bath for an hour; lastly, rinse until the water runs clear. Inferior to the last, but less expensive.

4. (For 1 cwt., without previous blueing or ‘rooting,’)—a. Work the goods at about 200° Fahr. for 1 hour, in a bath made with 6 to 7 lbs. of cam-wood; lift, add 6⁄2 lbs. of copperas, and again work the goods for an hour, after which withdraw the fire, and allow them to steep for 10 or 12 hours; next drain and rinse them, and work them in a second bath made with 60 lbs. of logwood for 1⁄2 hour; lift, add 3 lbs. of copperas, and again work for an hour; lastly, rinse, air, and finish:—b. The goods are first worked, for about two hours, in a bath of 3 lbs. of fustic, in which 5 lbs. of bichromate of potash and 4 lbs. of alum have been dissolved; after exposure to the air for about an hour and thorough rinsing they are worked for a second two hours in a bath made with 45 lbs. of logwood, 3⁄2 lbs. of barwood or cam-wood, and 3 lbs. of fustic; they are then lifted, and 3 lbs. of copperas having been added to the bath, are again immersed and worked for half an hour to an hour.

5. (For 10 lbs. of wool or w. cloth.) Work the goods for ⁄2 an hour in a bath of ⁄2 lb. of cam-wood; lift, add 7 or 8 oz. of copperas, and after working them for 20 minutes, withdraw the fire, and leave them in the liquor for 10 or 12 hours; next rinse them in cold water, drain, and then work them for an hour in a bath made with 5 lbs. of logwood, to which 1 pint of urine has been added; lift, add 4 oz. of copperas, work them for half an hour longer, and, lastly, wash and dry them.

6. (For 7 lbs.) Take of galls (bruised), ⁄4 lb.; logwood chips, 1⁄2 lb.; for the bath; boil or work the goods for 2 hours, take them out, add of copperas, ⁄4 lb.; and when it is dissolved, work the goods through the liquor for at least 2 hours, keeping the bath nearly boiling; again take them out, wash, and air; then add 1 oz. more of copperas to the bath, and pass the cloth through it for another hour; lastly, air, rinse, and finish.

7. (For 5 lbs.) For the first bath—bichromate of potash, 8 oz.; alum, 6 oz.; fustic, 4 oz.; for the second bath—logwood, 4 lbs.; barwood and fustic, of each 4 oz.; to which add, after the lift, copperas, 4 oz.; the process being conducted as in 4, b. This, as well as the two formulæ immediately preceding it, is particularly suited to articles of dress dyed in the small way, at home. When the articles are only re-dipped, as it is called, a proportionately smaller quantity of the ingredients may be taken.

Concluding Remarks. In dyeing black, particularly on wool, it is absolutely necessary to take the goods out of the dye-bath several times, and to expose them to the air. This is called “airing” them, and is done to allow the oxygen of the atmosphere to act upon the ingredients of the dye, and especially on the iron; as without this action of the air a good colour cannot be produced. The usual proportions employed by the dyers of England are 5 lbs. each of galls and copperas and 30 lbs. of logwood for every cwt. of cloth; but these weights are frequently increased for choice goods, just as they are always lessened for common ones. The other astringent substances used as substitutes for galls in dyeing black are taken in quantities proportionate to their respective strengths, that of good Aleppo gall-nuts being referred to as a standard.

The German wool-dyers usually commence their process with a mordant of Salzburg vitriol (3 parts) and argol (1 part); and after exposure of the goods in a cool place for 24 hours, work them in a bath of logwood (5 to 6 p.) and fustic (2 p.); after which the bath is restored by the addition of verdigris (⁄4 p.) dissolved in vinegar and the goods again worked through it for about ⁄2 an hour. This is for 20 parts weight of wool or cloth.

Black marinos are usually mordanted (hot) with about ⁄10th of their weight of copperas, and then aired for 24 hours; after which they are dyed in a boiling bath made with about ⁄2 their weight of logwood with the addition of about 2% of argol or tartar.

As black is the shade most commonly attempted by amateur dyers, it may be here necessary to call their attention to what is said on mixed fabrics in our article on DYEING; since an inattention to this point will inevitably cause the failure of their efforts.

According to Muspratt, a mixed fabric of silk and woollen may be dyed black by one process, as follows:—Work the goods an hour in a solution of 8 oz. each of tartar and copperas, and wash out; work for 15 minutes in a decoction of 4 lbs. of logwood; lift, add 1 oz. of bichromate of potash, work for ⁄2 an hour, and dry. And a mixed fabric of cotton, silk, and woollen:—Steep for six hours in a bath made of 2 lbs. of sumach; then work for an hour in a solution of 6 oz. each of tartar, sulphate of copper, and copperas; wash, and work ⁄2 an hour in a decoction of 4 lbs. of logwood; lift, add to the bath 1 oz. of copperas; work ten minutes, wash, and dry. If a very deep black be required, 1 lb. of bark is to be added with the logwood. See Dyeing, Mordants, &c.

BLACK JACK. This term is applied to burnt sugar, which is used to colour beverages, and more particularly for the adulteration of coffee. It is also known under the name of “coffee refined,” and as such is vended in tin canisters. It is moreover employed to give colour to vinegar, brandy, and rum. Butter, with which water has been largely incorporated, is also known as “Black Jack.” See Caramel.

BLACK LEAD (lĕd). See Plumbago.

BLACK PIG′MENTS. Syn. Pigmen′ta ni′gra, L. The principal black pigments of commerce are obtained by carbonising organic substances (particularly bones), by exposure to a dull red heat, in covered vessels out of contact with the air; or by collecting the soot formed during the combustion of unctuous, resinous, and bituminous matters. Artists and amateurs also prepare, on the small scale, a variety of blacks, many of which are not procurable at the colour-shops. This they effect either by the carbonisation of substances not usually employed for the purpose, or by simply reducing to powder certain mineral productions selected on account of the peculiar shades of colour which they respectively possess. Some of the last might, however, be more appropriately classed with browns. The following list embraces most of these articles:—

Black, An′imal. Bone-black.

Black, Aniline. See Tar Colours.

Black, Beech′. Carbonised beech-wood.

Black, Blue′. Vine-twigs dried and then carefully carbonised, in covered vessels, until of the proper shade. That of the ancients was made of wine-lees. Pit-coal, carefully burnt at a white heat, then quenched in water, dried and well-ground, forms a cheap, good, and durable blue-black, fit for most ordinary purposes. See Frankfort-black.

Black, Bone′. Syn. I′vory-black (of commerce); Car′bo os′sis, Os us′tum ni′grum, E′bur u. n. (vena′le), &c., L.; Noir d’os, &c., Fr.; Knochenschwartz, &c., Ger. Carbonised bones reduced to powder. That of commerce is usually the residuum of the distillation of bone-spirit. Inferior to true ivory-black; having a slight, but peculiar reddish tinge, from which the latter is quite free. Besides its use as a pigment, it is extensively employed in making blacking, as a material for the moulds of founders, as a clarifier and bleacher of liquids, &c. See Ivory-black and Charcoal, Animal.

Black, Cas′sel, Cologne′-Black. Ivory-black.

Black, Coal′. See Blue-black and Newcastle-black.

Black, Composi′′tion (zĭsh′-ŭn-). The selected portion of the residuum of the process of making prussiate of potash from blood and hoofs. Used both as a pigment and to decolour organic solutions, which it does better than bone-black.

Black, Cork′. Spanish-black.

Black, Flo′′rey, Florée d’Inde. The dried scum of the dyer’s wood-bath. A superior blue-black.

Black, Frank′fort, Noir de Francfort. From vine-twigs dried, carbonised to a full black, and then ground very fine. An excellent black pigment; also used by the copper-plate printers to make their ink. See Blue-black.

Black, Harts′horn. Resembles ivory-black, which is now usually sold for it. It was formerly prepared by carbonising the residuum of the distillation of spirit of hartshorn.

Black, I′vory. Syn. Car′bo eb′oris, E′bur us′tum ni′grum, L.; Noir d′ivoire, &c., Fr.; Elfenbeinschwartz, Kohle von elfenbein, Ger. From waste fragments and turnings of ivory, by careful exposure in covered crucibles, avoiding excess of heat or over-burning. The whole having been allowed to become quite cold, the crucibles are opened and their contents reduced to fine powder. For the first quality only the richest coloured portion of the charcoal is selected, and this, after being powdered, is ground with water on porphyry, washed on a filter with warm water, and then dried. A very rich and beautiful black. It is brighter than even peach-stone black, and is quite free from the reddish tinge of bone-black. With white-lead it forms a rich pearl-grey. See Bone-black.

Black, Jamai′ca (-mā′-). Sugar-black.

Black, Lamp′. Syn. Fuli′go lucer′næ, F. pi′nea, &c., L.; Noir de fumée, &c., Fr.; Kienruss, &c., Ger. Prep. 1. (On the small scale.) A conical funnel of tin-plate furnished with a small pipe to convey the fumes from the apartment, is suspended over a lamp fed with oil, tallow, coal-tar, or crude naphtha, the wick being large and so arranged as to burn with a full smoky flame. Large spongy, mushroom-like concretions of an exceedingly light, very black, carbonaceous matter, gradually form at the summit of the cone, and must be collected from time to time. The funnel should be united to the smoke-pipe by means of wire, and no solder should be used for the joints of either.

2. (Commercial.) On the large scale, lamp-black is now generally made by burning bone-oil (previously freed from its ammonia), or common coal-tar, and receiving the smoke in a suitable chamber. In the patented process of Messrs Martin and Grafton the coal-tar is violently agitated with lime-water until the two are well mixed, after which it is allowed to subside, and the lime-water having been drawn off, the tar is washed several times with hot water. After subsidence and decantation it is put into stills, and rectified. The crude naphtha in the receiver is then put into a long cast-iron tube furnished with numerous large burners, underneath which is a furnace to heat the pipe to nearly the boiling point. Over each burner is a sort of funnel which goes into a cast-iron pipe or main, which thus receives the smoke from all the burners. From this main the smoke is conveyed by large pipes to a succession of boxes or chambers, and thence into a series of large canvas bags arranged side by side, and connected together at top and bottom alternately. Fifty to eighty of these ‘bags’ are employed; the last one being left open to admit of the escape of the smoke, which has thus been made to traverse a space of about 400 yards. As soon as the bags contain any considerable quantity of black they are removed and emptied. The black deposited in the last bag is the finest and best, and it becomes progressively coarse as it approaches the furnace.

Obs. The state of minute division in which the carbon exists in good lamp-black is such as cannot be given to any other matter, not even by grinding it on porphyry, or by ‘elutriation’ or ‘washing over’ with water. On this account it goes a great way in every kind of painting. It may be rendered drier and less oily by gentle calcination in close vessels, when it is called burnt lamp-black, and may then be used as a water-colour; or its greasiness may be removed by the alkali-treatment noticed under Indian ink. It is the basis of Indian ink, printer’s ink, and most black paints.

Russian lamp-black is the soot produced by burning the chips of resinous deal. It is objectionable chiefly from being liable to take fire spontaneously when left for some time moistened with oil.

Black, Manganese′ (-nēze′-). Native binoxide of manganese. Durable and dries well.

Black, New′castle. From the richer-looking varieties of pit-coal by grinding, and elutriation. Brown black or, in thin layers, deep brown. It is, perhaps, “the most useful brown the artist can place on his palette; being remarkably clear, not so warm as Vandyke-brown, and serving as a shadow for blues, reds, and yellows, when glazed over them. It seems almost certain that Titian made large use of this material.” See Blue-black (antè).

Black, Opor′to. Carbonised wine-lees.

Black, Pa′ris, Noir de Paris. From turner’s bone-dust, treated as for ivory-black. Works well both in oil and water. It is commonly sold for real ivory-black, and for burnt lamp-black.

Black, Peach-stone. From the stones or kernels of peaches, cherries, and other similar fruits, treated as for ivory-black. A bright, rich black; works well with oil; with white-lead and oil it makes old grey.

Black, Pit′coal. Newcastle-black.

Black, Prus′′sian (prŭsh′-ăn). Composition-black.

Black, Rice′. Rice-charcoal. Inferior.

Black, Rus′′sian. See Lamp-black.

Black, Soot′ (sŏŏt′-). The soot of coal-fires, ground and sifted. Used in common paint, and to colour whitewash; with Venetian-red and oil, it makes chocolate-colour; also used to make grey mortar.

Black, Span′ish. From cork-cuttings carbonised, as bone-black. Resembles Frankfort-black, but works softer.

Black, Sug′ar (shŏŏg′-). Carbonised moist sugar. Has little body, but for washing drawings is equal in mellowness to Indian ink and bistre.

Black, Sun′derland. Newcastle-black.

Black, Tur′ner’s. Paris-black.

Black, Vine′-twig. Frankfort-black.

Black Wheat′ (hwēte′-) Carbonised wheat. It has a good colour, a full body, and dries hard and quickly with oil.

BLACK′BERRY. The popular name of ru′bus frutico′sus (Linn.) or the common ‘bramble.’ Fruit (BLACK′BERRIES; MÛRES DE RONCE, Fr.), antiscorbutic and wholesome, but in excess apt to sicken; twigs used in dyeing black; root astringent, formerly used in hooping-cough.

Blackberry, Amer′ican. The ru′bus villo′sus (Ait.). Root astringent and tonic; officinal in the Ph. U. S.

BLACK PUDDING. A pudding made of the blood of the pig, mixed with groats and fat. It contains about 11 per cent. of nitrogenous matter.

BLACK′ING. Syn. Cirage (des bottes), Noir (pour les souliers), Fr.; Schwärze, Schuhschwärze, Ger. An article too well known to require description.

Hist., &c. Blacking, and other polishes for leather, were undoubtedly in common use among the ancients; but the compound to which we now more particularly apply the name is of comparatively modern invention. The latter appears to have been first introduced into England from Paris, during the reign of Chas. II, but was not in common use among the masses of our population much before the middle of the 18th century.

The general and still increasing use of blacking as a polish for boots and shoes by all classes of the inhabitants of civilised countries, has given an extent and importance to its manufacture which a stranger to the subject would scarcely be led to suspect. The princely establishments of some of the firms who compound this sable article cannot fail to have arrested the attention of the passenger through the streets of this great metropolis; whilst the enormous fortune acquired by one of their late members, and, for the most part, bequeathed by him for purposes of charity and philanthropy, has invested both the donor and his craft with an interest and notoriety which they did not previously possess. At the present time the consumption of blacking is greater than at any former period; and of this, as of many other articles, England is the principal manufactory for the world, alike distinguished for the extent of her trade and the excellent quality of this product of her industry. In truth, England excels all other nations in the manufacture of common shoe-blacking; and perhaps in no other country is an equal attention paid to the cleanliness and appearance of the external clothing of the feet.

Prep. I. Liquid Blacking:—

1. Take of bone-black, 16 parts; treacle, 12 parts; oil of vitriol, 3 parts; sperm oil, 2 parts; gum-arabic, 1 part; strong vinegar, or sour beer, 48 to 50 parts (all by weight); place the bone-black in a capacious wooden, stone-ware, or enamelled iron vessel, add the oil, and rub them well together; next gradually add the treacle, and actively and patiently grind or rub the mass, after each addition, until the oil is perfectly killed, and finally for some time afterwards, to ensure complete admixture; then cautiously dilute the vitriol with about three times its bulk of water, and add it, in separate portions, to the former mixture, observing to stir the whole together, as rapidly as possible, on each addition of the acid, and for some minutes after the whole is added, so as to render the mass thoroughly smooth and homogeneous; let it stand, covered over, for two or three days, or longer, stirring it, in the mean time, for 15 or 20 minutes daily; lastly, having dissolved the gum in the vinegar, add the solution gradually to the rest, and stir the whole together briskly for some time, and again daily for 3 or 4 days. It may be further diluted, at will, with a little more vinegar or beer, or with water; but unnecessary or excessive dilution should be avoided, as the richness and quality of the blacking become proportionately reduced. If all the ingredients (except the vitriol) be made hot before admixture, the shining quality of the product will be greatly improved, and the process may be shortened.

2. Ivory-black, 16 parts; treacle, 8 parts; oil of vitriol, 4 parts; (diluted with) water, 2 parts; oil, 2 parts; gum-arabic, 1 part; soft water (for the final dilution, instead of vinegar), 64 parts; mixed, &c., as before. Excellent.

3. As the last; but taking only 6 parts of treacle, 1 part of oil, and omitting the gum-arabic. Good. A commoner article of liquid blacking does not sell.

4. (Bryant and James’s India-rubber Liquid Blacking. Patent dated 1836.) Take of india rubber (in small pieces), 18 oz.; hot rape oil, 9 lbs. (say 1 gall.); dissolve; to the solution add of ivory-black (in very fine powder), 60 lbs.; treacle, 45 lbs.; mix thoroughly; further add of gum-arabic, 1 lb., dissolved in vinegar (No. 24), 20 galls.; reduce the whole to a perfect state of smoothness and admixture by trituration in a paint-mill; throw the compound into a wooden vessel, and add, very gradually, of sulphuric acid, 12 lbs.; continue the stirring for ⁄2 an hour, repeating it daily for 14 days; then add of gum-arabic (in fine powder), 3 lbs.; again mix well, and repeat the stirring for ⁄2 an hour daily for 14 days longer, when the liquid blacking will be ready for use or for bottling. The quality is very excellent; but this, probably, does not depend on the presence of the india rubber, but on the general correctness of the proportions, and the care and completeness with which they are mixed.

5. (Without Vitriol.) Take of ivory-black (in very fine powder), 2 lbs.; treacle, 1⁄2 lb.; sperm oil, ⁄4 pint; mix, as before; then add of gum-arabic, 1 oz.; (dissolved in) strong vinegar, ⁄2 pint; mix well; the next day further add of good vinegar, or strong sour beer, 3 to 4 pints (or q. s.); stir briskly for a ⁄4 of an hour, and again once a day for a week. Excellent. A cheaper, but inferior article, may be made by the reductions and omissions noticed above.

6. From paste-blacking (see below), by reducing it with sufficient vinegar, sour beer, or water, to give it the liquid form.

II. Paste Blacking:—

1. Qualities from good to super-excellent may be made from any of the preceding formulæ, by simply omitting the final dilution with the vinegar, sour beer, or water, therein ordered at the end of the process.

2. (Bryant and James’s India-rubber Paste Blacking.—Patent dated 1836.) Of india-rubber oil, ivory black, treacle, and gum-arabic, the same as for their liquid blacking (see I, 4, above), but dissolving the last in only 12 lbs. (say 5 quarts), instead of 20 galls. of vinegar; grinding to a smooth paste in a colour-mill, and then adding of oil of vitriol, 12 lbs. as before. The mass is to be stirred daily for a week, when it will be fit for use, or potting. Excellent.

3. Ivory-black, 1 cwt.; treacle, 28 lbs.; rape oil (or other cheap oil), 1 gall.; mix, as before; then add of oil of vitriol, 21 lbs.; (diluted with) water, 2 galls.; mix them quickly and thoroughly by forcible stirring with a strong wooden spatula, and as soon as admixture is complete, but whilst still fuming, put the cover on the tub, and leave it till the next day, when (without further stirring) it will be fit for use or sale. Good ordinary. Used for packets and tins.

4. As the last; but adding with the ivory-black, &c., 14 to 28 lbs. of coal-soot (sifted), omitting one half of the oil, and diluting the vitriol with an extra gall. of water. Inferior. Chiefly used for 1d. and ⁄2d. packets.

5. (German Blacking). Ivory-black, 1 part; treacle, ⁄2 part; sweet oil, ⁄8 part; mix, as before; then stir in a mixture of hydrochloric acid, ⁄8 part; oil of vitriol, ⁄4 part (each separately diluted with twice its weight of water before mixing them). This forms the ordinary paste-blacking of Germany, according to Liebig.

6. (Without Vitriol.) As I, 5 (antè); but with the omission of the last ⁄2 gall. of ‘vinegar.’

Concluding Remarks.—To produce a first-rate article of blacking it is absolutely necessary that the ingredients be of the best quality, and used in the proper proportions; and that the order of their admixture, and the general manipulations, be conducted under ordinary circumstances, in the manner described in the first of the above formulæ. The proportions of the treacle and the oil (the most expensive of the ingredients) should not be stinted; and, indeed, that of the latter may be safely increased in quantity, without materially affecting the polish, and with manifest advantage as far as the softness and durability of the leather to which it is applied is concerned. The manipulations required in the manufacture of both paste-blacking and liquid blacking are essentially the same; the difference between the two articles, when the same materials are used, depending entirely on the quantity of liquid added. Thus, as noticed before, by diluting paste-blacking with water, vinegar, or beer-bottoms, it may be converted into liquid blacking of a nearly similar quality; and, by using less fluid matter, the ingredients of liquid blacking will produce paste blacking. One thing must, however, be observed, and that is, that the ivory-black used for liquid blacking should be reduced to a much finer powder than for paste blacking; as, if this is not attended to, it is apt to settle at the bottom, and to be with difficulty again diffused through the liquid. Persons who object to the use of blacking containing oil of vitriol may employ formula I, 5, or II, 6 (above). The vitriol, however, greatly contributes to promote the shining properties of the blacking; and, in small quantities, or in the proper proportion, is not so injurious to the leather as some persons have represented; as it wholly unites itself to the lime of the bone-phosphate contained in the ivory-black, and is thus neutralised, insoluble sulphate of lime, and an acid phosphate or superphosphate, being formed. It is the latter that gives the acidity to a well-made sample of blacking, and not the sulphuric acid originally added to it. In this way the larger portion of the ivory-black is reduced to a state of extremely minute division, and with the other ingredients forms a strongly adhesive paste, which clings to the surface of the leather, and is susceptible of receiving a high polish by friction when in a scarcely dry state. This is the reason why lamp-black should never be employed for blacking to the exclusion of the necessary proportion of bone-black, as it has no earthy base to absorb or neutralise the acid, which, if left in a free state, would prove very hurtful to the leather. Oil of vitriol is now employed in the manufacture of all the more celebrated and expensive blackings; and that simply because no other substance is known so efficient, and so little injurious to the leather. In the common blackings of Germany, hydrochloric acid is often used to the entire exclusion of oil of vitriol; but blacking so prepared possesses several disadvantages from which that of England is free. In the best German blackings only a small portion of this acid is used, as may be seen by reference to formula II, 5 (above). The addition of white-of-egg, isinglass, and similar articles to blacking, always proves injurious, as they tend to stiffen the leather and to make it crack, without at all improving its polishing properties. Even gum-arabic, in quantity, is on this account objectionable. Oil has an opposite tendency, and, as already stated, the quantity commonly used may be increased with advantage. Resin oil should be particularly avoided.

Dr Ure has recommended the use of a little copperas in blacking; with the object, we presume, of striking a black with the tan in the leather; but except with new, or nearly new leather, this effect would not occur, whilst its presence, if not objectionable, would otherwise be useless.

The only improvement that has been introduced in the manufacture of blacking since the early days of the celebrated Day & Martin is, a few hours after the conclusion of the mixture of the ingredients (but before adding the vinegar, if any), to simmer the whole very gently, for about 8 or 10 minutes, observing to stir it assiduously all the time. The fire must then be withdrawn, and the pan covered over until it is quite cold, when half an hour’s lusty stirring will finish the process. In this way a degree of maturity and brilliancy will be imparted to the product, which, without the application of heat, it would take months to acquire, if, indeed, it ever reached it.

As it is generally more convenient to measure than to weigh liquids, it may be useful to remind the reader that, in round numbers,

1 gal. of oil weighs 9⁄4 lbs.

1 ” sour beer ” 10⁄4 ”

1 ” vinegar ” 10 ”

1 ” water

We may here further remark that the blackings of different houses vary considerably in some of their properties; as also do those of even the same maker by age. Some blackings dry off rapidly and give a very brilliant polish with very little labour; whilst others take a little longer to ‘dry off,’ and somewhat more labour to polish them. The former are best adapted to hasty use, and when a very brilliant surface is desired; the latter when depth of polish, without extreme brilliancy, satisfies the wearer. The first best meets the requirements of fashionable life; the last those of the middle classes and pedestrians exposed to dirt, mud, and the various vicissitudes of travelling and weather. To the one belong the ‘blackings’ of Everett, Day & Martin, &c.; to the other, those of Warren, Bryant & James, and most of the smaller manufacturers, with nearly all the paste-blacking of the more respectable shops. Time, however, equalises the qualities of these two classes. Blackings which are crude, moist, and oily lose these properties, and become drier and more brilliant by age. The practice of several of the first-class West-end boot and shoe makers is never to use a blacking which they have not had in their stock at least a twelvemonth.

Blacking, both liquid and paste, should be stored in a cool and moderately dry cellar; and when in use should be kept corked or otherwise excluded from the air. Exposure or desiccation destroys most of its best qualities.

The present annual value of the blacking consumed in the United Kingdom is estimated at 562,500l., or about 4⁄2d. per head for the whole population; while the collective yearly value of that exported is about 35,000l.

[See Balls, Blacking, Bone-black, Boots and Shoes, Leather, Sulphuric Acid, &c.; also below.]

Blacking, Automat′ic. Syn. Self-shi′′ning blacking, Span′ish Japan, &c. Prep. 1. Gum-arabic, 4 oz.; treacle or coarse moist sugar, 1⁄2oz.; good black ink, ⁄4 pint; strong vinegar, 2 oz.; rectified spirit of wine and sweet oil, of each 1 oz.; dissolve the gum in the ink, add the oil, and rub them in a mortar or shake them together for some time, until they are thoroughly united; then add the vinegar, and lastly the spirit.

2. Lamp-black, ⁄4 oz.; indigo (in fine powder), 1 dr.; put them in a mortar, or basin, and rub them with sufficient mucilage (made by dissolving 4 oz. of gum in ⁄4 pint of strong vinegar) to form a thin paste; add very gradually of sweet oil, 1 oz.; and triturate until their union is complete, adding toward the end the rest of the mucilage; then further add of treacle, 1⁄2 oz.; and afterwards, successively, of strong vinegar, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 oz.; lastly, bottle for use.

3. Mix the whites of 2 eggs with a table-spoonful of spirit of wine, 2 large lumps of sugar (crushed), and sufficient finely powdered ivory-black to give the required colour and thickness, avoiding excess.

Obs. The above are chiefly used for dress boots and shoes. The first two are applied to the leather with the tip of the finger, or a sponge, and then allowed to dry out of the dust. The third is commonly laid on with a sponge or soft brush, and when almost dry or hard may have its polish heightened with a brush or soft rubber, after which it is left for a few hours to harden. It may also be used to revive the faded black leather seats and backs of old chairs. They all possess great brilliancy for a time; but are only adapted to clean, dry weather, or indoor use. They should all be applied to the leather as thinly as possible, as otherwise they soon crack off.

Blacking, Har′ness. Good glue or gelatine, 4 oz.; gum-arabic, 3 oz.; water, ⁄4 pint; dissolve by heat; add of treacle, 6 oz.; ivory-black (in very fine powder), 5 oz.; and gently evaporate, with constant trituration, until of a proper consistence when cold; when nearly cold put it into bottles, and cork them down. For use, the bottle may be warmed a little to thin it, if necessary. Does not resist the wet.

2. Mutton suet, 2 oz.; bees-wax (pure), 6 oz.; melt, add of sugar candy (in fine powder), 6 oz.; soft soap, 2 oz.; lamp-black, 2⁄2 oz.; indigo (in fine powder), ⁄2 oz.; when thoroughly incorporated, further add of oil of turpentine, ⁄4 pint; and pour it into pots or tins.

3. Bees′-wax, 1 lb.; soft soap, 6 oz.; ivory-black, ⁄4 lb.; Prussian blue, 1 oz.; (ground in) linseed oil, 2 oz.; oil of turpentine, ⁄2 pint; to be mixed, &c., as before.

Obs. The above are used by laying a very little of them on the leather, evenly spreading it over the surface, and then polishing it by gentle friction with a brush, or a soft-rubber. The last two are waterproof. Numerous compositions of the class are vended by the saddlers and oilmen, but the mass of them are unchemical mixtures, badly prepared, and cause disappointment to those who use them. Such is not the case with the products of the above formulæ, if we may rely on the statements of those who have employed them for years. The last two are suitable for both harness and carriage leather. See Balls, Heel, &c.

BLADD′ER. Syn. Ves′ica, L.; Vessie, Fr.; Blase, Blatter, Ger. In anatomy, &c., a thin membranous sac or bag, in an animal, serving as a receptacle for some secreted fluid; appr., the urinary bladder. See Calculus, Inflammation, Rupture, &c.

Bladd′ers. (In commerce.) The better qualities of these articles are prepared by cutting off the fat and loose membranes attached to them, and washing them first in a weak solution of chloride of lime, and afterwards in clear water; they are then blown out and submitted to strong pressure by rolling them under the arm, by which they become considerably larger; they are next blown quite tight, dried, and tied up in dozens. Commoner qualities are merely emptied, the loose fat removed, and then blown out, and strung up to dry. Used chiefly by druggists and oilmen to tie over pots, bottles, and jars, and to contain pill-masses, hard extracts, and other similar substances; also in surgery, to cover wounds, sore heads, &c.—Obs. Bladders should never be purchased unless perfectly dry and air-tight; as, if the reverse be the case, they will neither keep nor prove useful, but will rapidly become rotten and evolve a most offensive odour. If purchased whilst damp, they should be at once hung up in a current of air, so as to dry as soon as possible.

BLAIN* (blāne). A boil; a sore; a pustule.

BLANC (blŏng). [Fr.] In cookery, a dish which, according to Mrs Rundell, is formed of grated bacon and suet, of each 1 lb.; butter, ⁄2 lb.; 2 lemons; 3 or 4 carrots (cut into dice); 3 or 4 onions; and a little water; the whole being simmered for a short time, with or without the addition of a glass of sherry or marsala, before serving.

BLANCH′ING. Syn. Candica′tio, Dealba′tio, &c., L.; Blanchiment, &c., Fr.; Bleichen, &c., Ger. A whitening, or making white; a growing white. In some cases it means decortication. See Almonds, Bleaching, Decoloration, &c.

Blanching. In cookery, an operation intended to impart whiteness, plumpness, and softness, to joints of meats, poultry, tongues, palates, &c. It is usually performed by putting the articles into cold water, which is then gradually raised to the boiling point, when they are at once taken out, plunged into cold water, and left there until quite cold. They are subsequently removed and wiped dry, ready for being dressed.

Obs. The operation of blanching meat, although it renders it more sightly according to the notions of fashionable life, at the same time lessens its nutritive qualities, by abstracting a portion of the soluble saline matter which it contains, especially the phosphates, and thus deprives it of one of the principal features which distinguish fresh meat from salted meat. Animal food, before being dressed, may be washed or rinsed in cold water without injury, provided it be quickly done; but it cannot be soaked in water at any temperature much below the boiling-point without the surface, and the parts near it, being rendered less nutritious. Washing meat when first received from the butcher is, indeed, a necessary act of cleanliness; but soaking it for some time in water is unnecessary, and for the reasons stated should be avoided.

Strong acetic acid (concentrated vinegar) poured on or rubbed over hard lean meat gradually renders it soft and gelatinous. Ordinary household vinegar has the same effect, but in a less degree. Tough meat thus treated for a short time before dressing it becomes more tender and digestible, though somewhat less nutritious; whilst the taste and flavour of the vinegar is removed by the heat subsequently employed in dressing it.

BLANCMANGE′. (blo-mŏngzh′‡.) Syn. Blancmanger (blŏng-mŏng-zhā), Fr. Literally, white food; in cookery, a confected white jelly. It is commonly prepared by simmering 1 oz. of isinglass, 2 or 3 oz. of lump sugar, and a little flavouring, in about a pint of milk, until the first is dissolved, when the whole is thrown into a jelly-bag, and the strained liquor is allowed to cool and solidify; it is next remelted by a gentle heat, and, when nearly cold, poured into moulds, which have been previously rubbed with a little salad oil and then wiped out again.

Obs. Good gelatine, or strong calves’ feet jelly, is often substituted for the isinglass. At other times the jelly is made with about ⁄2 pint of water (instead of milk), when ⁄2 pint of almond-milk, or of cream, is added to the remelted jelly. Sometimes ground rice or arrow-root is employed in lieu of isinglass, when the product is called RICE-BLANCMANGE, or West-Indian b., as the case may be. Transpa′′rent blancmange is merely clarified isinglass-jelly, flavoured. See Cream (Stone), Isinglass, and Jelly.

BLANQUETTE′ (blang-ket’). [Fr.] In cookery, a species of white fricasee. It is also the name of a delicate species of white wine, and of a particular sort of pear.

BLAST′ING. In civil and military engineering, the disruption of rocks, &c., by the explosion of gunpowder, or other like material.

BLAST′ING POWDERS (Melville and Callow’s). Prep. 1. (Powder No. 1.) Chlorate of potassa, 2 parts; red sulphuret of arsenic, 1 part; to be separately carefully reduced to powder, and lightly mixed together, scrupulously avoiding the use of iron instruments, percussion, much friction, the slightest contact with acids, or exposure to heat.

2. (Powder No. 2.) Chlorate of potassa, 5 parts; red sulphuret of arsenic, 2 parts; ferrocyanide of potassium (prussiate of potash), 1 part; as No. 1.

3. (Powder No. 3.) Chlorate of potassa and ferrocyanide of potassium, equal parts.

Obs. These compounds are not permanently injured by either salt or fresh water, merely requiring to be dried to regain their explosive character. They possess fully eight times the force of ordinary powder. One of their advantages, especially to the underground miner, is the very trifling amount of smoke produced by their explosion. On the other hand, the extreme facility with which they explode by attrition, contact with a strong acid, and a slight elevation of temperature, render them unsuited to most of the purposes of ordinary gunpowder. On this account they should only be prepared in small quantities at a time, and with the utmost caution. Mr Callow, the inventor of them, lost several of his fingers, and was rendered a cripple for life, by an explosion of the kind referred to, which occurred only a few weeks after the sealing of his patent. A straw, or small strip of wood, only slightly wetted with oil of vitriol, and applied to a small heap of the powder, produces instantaneous explosion. Captain Wynand’s ‘Saxifragine’ is composed of nitrate of baryta, 76 parts; charcoal, 22 parts; and nitre, 2 parts. Schultze’s wood-gunpowder is composed of granulated wood treated with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acid, afterwards impregnated with a solution of nitre. M. Bäudish has invented a method by which this wood-gunpowder may be compressed into a solid substance, exerting great power and free from danger by transport. Lithofracteur, a white blasting powder used in Belgium, is a substance similar to gun-cotton.

Messrs Nenmayer and Fehleisen’s haloxylin is composed of charcoal, nitre, and yellow prussiate of potash. See Gun-cotton, Gunpowder, Mining, &c.

BLATTA ORIENTALIS. The common cockroach, originally imported from the East, belongs to the family of orthopterous insects; and may be classed amongst the most offensive and objectionable of domestic pests. It is extremely voracious, not only devouring all kinds of provisions, but attacking and consequently destroying silk, flannel, and even cotton fabrics, in the absence of anything more eatable. The cockroach is nocturnal in its habits, and exceedingly active and swift of movement. Its flattened form enables it to insinuate itself easily into crevices, and so to escape detection. The American cockroach (Blatta Americana) is larger than the above. A still larger species (Blatta gigantea) is found in the West Indies where it is known by the name of the drummer. It is so called from the tapping noise it makes on wood, the sound so produced, when joined in by several of the creatures (as it usually is) being sufficient to destroy the slumbers of a household.

Cockroaches may be poisoned by means of wafers made of red lead, or caught by smearing a piece of wood with treacle, and floating it on a broad basin of water. When the fires and lights are extinguished they issue from their holes, and fall into the basin in their efforts to reach the bait. The chinks and holes from which they come should also be filled up with unslaked lime, and some lime should also be sprinkled about the ground.

Old Gerrard says they avoid any place in which the leaves of the mullein are strewn about.

The Blatta Orientalis, which was formerly supposed to possess remedial powers, and was hence employed in medicine by the more ancient therapeutists, has lately found advocates for his readmission into the animal materia medica. He is reported, when made into a tincture, to act as a diuretic, and to yield a crystalline body possessed of similar properties, but in a more concentrated form. Some of the American journals report that he may be given in the form of powder or infusion (from 15 to 30 gr.) 3 or 4 times a day, in dropsy, and to increase the secretion of urine as well as of perspiration.

BLEACH′ING, (blēche′-). Syn. Deälba′tio (-sh′o), Insola′tio, &c., L.; Blanchiment, Blanchissage, Fr.; Bleichen, Ger. The process by which the colour of bodies, natural or acquired, is removed, and by which they are rendered white or colourless. It is more particularly applied to the decolorisation of textile filaments, and of cloths made of them.

Hist. Bleaching is a very ancient art, as passages referring to it in the earlier sacred and profane writers fully testify. It had probably reached a high degree of excellence among the inhabitants of the first Assyrian empire, and was certainly practised in Egypt long before the commencement of written history. We may fairly assume that fine white linen formed part of the “raiment,” which, together with “jewels of gold, and jewels of silver,” and “precious things,” Abraham sent as presents to the beautiful Rebekah and her family, fully three centuries and a half before the Exodus. Subsequently, in Scripture, we have special mention of “fine linen, white and clean.” Herodotus, the earliest Greek historian, tells us, that the Babylonians wore “white cloaks;” and in Athenæus we read of “shining fine linen,” as opposed to that which was “raw” or unbleached. At this early period, and for many centuries afterwards, the operations of washing, fulling, and bleaching were not distinctly separated. The common system of washing followed by drying in the sun, adopted by the ancients, is a process which of itself, by frequent repetition, decolorises the raw materials of textile fabrics, and thus must inevitably have taught them the art of ‘natural bleaching’ of a character similar to that practised in Europe up to a comparatively very recent period. And this appears, according to the authority of ancient authors, to have been the case. Washing or steeping in alkaline and ammoniacal lyes, or in milk of lime, followed by exposure in the sun, formed the chief basis of their system; whilst woollens, then as now, were treated with soap and fuller’s earth, or with potter’s clay, marl, Cimolian earth, or other like mineral. Urine was highly esteemed among them; and we are told that in the time of the emperor Vespasian, and undoubtedly long before it, cloths were sulphured. Indeed, according to Pliny, sulphuring was often had recourse to in ordinary washing, as well as in the bleaching process.

Bleaching continued to be practised with no essential change of its principles until the discovery of chlorine, to which we shall presently refer. In the last century Holland obtained the best name for bleaching. The process passed then to Ireland and Scotland, and thence into England. It was even customary to send goods from this country to be bleached in Holland. The first attempt to vie with Holland was made, in Scotland, in 1749.

The first steps towards the modern or chemical system of bleaching were the investigations of Berthollet on chlorine, in 1784, but which were not communicated to the French Academy until the year 1787. The knowledge of the use of chlorine as a bleacher was soon afterwards brought to this country by the Duke of Gordon, and by Prof. Copeland of Aberdeen, and through them was practically applied by Messrs Milnes of that place. About the same time James Watt, a correspondent of Berthollet, successfully introduced its use in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, and then generously laid a statement of the results before the Manchester manufacturers. In enforcing the importance of the new substance and process on these gentlemen, he was ably followed and seconded by Dr Henry. In 1798, Mr Charles Tennant, of Glasgow, obtained a patent for a new bleaching liquor prepared by saturating lime water with chlorine; and another, in 1799, for dry chloride of lime, a substance which is still preferred as a bleacher to all other preparations of chlorine. The new or continuous process of bleaching, as it is called, and that which is at present in general use in all the chief bleach-works of Lancashire, was introduced by Mr David Bentley, of Pendleton, and patented by him in 1828.

Proc. Bleaching is commonly said to be natural when exposure to light, air, and moisture forms the leading part of the process; and to be chemical when chlorine, chloride of lime, sulphurous acid, or other like substances are employed. In some cases, as with linen, the two processes are combined. The subject requires to be noticed under separate heads, depending on the material operated on:—

I. Bleaching of Cotton:—Cotton is more easily bleached, and appears to suffer less from the process than most other textile substances. On the old plan it was first (1) thoroughly washed in warm water, to remove the weaver’s paste or dressing; then (2) ‘bucked’ or ‘bowked’ (boiled) in a weak alkaline lye, or in milk of lime, to remove colouring, fatty, and resinous matters, insoluble in simple water; and after being (3) again well washed, was (4) spread out upon the grass, or bleaching ground, and freely exposed to the joint action of light, air, and moisture (technically called ‘crofting’). The operation of ‘bucking’ in an alkaline lye, washing, and exposure was repeated as often as necessary, when the goods were (5) ‘soured’ or immersed in water acidulated with sulphuric acid, after which they (6) received a final thorough washing in clean water, and were (7) dried, finished, and folded for the market. From the length of the exposure upon the bleaching ground this method is apt to injure the texture of the cloth; and from the number of operations required is necessarily expensive and tedious. It is therefore now very generally superseded by the system of chemical bleaching briefly described below.

In the CHEMICAL SYSTEM of bleaching the goods are ‘washed’ and ‘bucked’ as on the old plan, then submitted to the action of a weak solution of chloride of lime, and afterwards passed through water soured with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, when they have only to be thoroughly washed, and to be dried and finished, for the entire completion of the process.

The new or continuous process, before referred to, is the method of chemical bleaching at present in the most general use; and, indeed, it has nearly superseded all other methods. In this system the pieces, previously tacked together endwise so as to form a chain, are drawn, by the motion of rollers, in any direction, and any number of times, through every solution to the action of which it is desired to expose them, and this entirely and completely under the control of the operator.

The following Table exhibits an outline of the several operations in the improved form of the continuous process as practised by Messrs McNaughten, Barton, and Thom, at Chorley, and in most other large bleach-works:—

1. Preliminary operations:—a. The ‘pieces’ are separately stamped with the printer’s name, a solution of silver, or sometimes coal-tar, being employed for the purpose.

b. They are tacked together endwise either by hand or a machine, so as to form one continuous piece of 300 to 350 yards in length, according to the weight of the cloth.

c. They are singed.

d. They are crushed into a rope-like form by drawing them through a smooth aperture, the surface of which is generally of glass or porcelain—the rope-form being given them to enable the water and other liquids to penetrate the goods more easily, and to allow them to be laid in loose coils in the kiers.

2. The pieces are bucked or boiled in milk of lime for 12 to 14 hours, followed by rinsing or cleansing in the washing-machine.

3. They are soured in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and again washed; similar machines being employed for each.

4. They are bucked or boiled for 15 or 16 hours in a solution of resinate of soda, and then washed as before.

5. They are chemicked by being laid in a wooden, stone, or slate cistern, when a solution of chloride of lime is pumped over them, so as to run through the ‘goods’ into a vessel below, from which it is returned on them by continued pumping, so that the cloth lies in it for 1 or 2 hours; it is then washed.

6. They are bucked or boiled, for 4 or 5 hours, in a solution of 1 lb. of crystallised carbonate of soda, dissolved in 5 galls. of water, to every 35 lbs. of cloth; and washed.

7. They are again ‘chemicked,’ as before; and washed.

8. They are soured in very dilute hydrochloric acid; and then left on ‘stillages’ for 5 or 6 hours.

9. They are, finally, thoroughly washed, well squeezed between rollers, dried over steam-heated tin-cylinders, starched or dressed, and finished.

This is the usual process for good calicos, Muslins, and other light goods, are handled rather more carefully; whilst for commoner ones the sixth and seventh operations are generally omitted. The whole usually occupies 5 days; but by using Mr Barlow’s high-pressure steam kiers, it may be performed in two days. Yarns, &c., may be bleached in a similar manner by first looping the skeins together.

Obs. According to the most reliable authorities, the strength of cotton-fibre is not impaired by its being boiled for two hours in milk of lime, under ordinary pressure, out of contact with the air; nor, according to the bleachers, even by sixteen hours boiling at the strength of 40 lbs. per 100 galls. It is said that lime is less injurious than ‘soda.’

Solution of caustic soda, sp. gr. 1·030, does not injure it, even by boiling under high pressure; but, in practice, soda-ash, or carbonate of soda, is used, and this only in the second bucking, and in the third, if there be one. The strength now never exceeds 25 lbs. of the crystals to the 100 galls., and is usually less.

Experiments have shown that immersion for 8 hours in a solution of chloride of lime containing 3 lbs. to the 100 galls., followed by souring in sulphuric acid of the sp. gr. 1·067, or for 18 hours in acid of 1·035, does not injure it.

By the improved method of previously treating the goods with lime or alkalies, little chloride of lime is required. Indeed, it is said that where 300 lbs. were formerly employed, 30 to 40 lbs. only are now used. At the same time it is right to mention, that though a solution at ⁄2° Twaddle is usually regarded as the best and safest strength, yet in some bleach works, particularly for inferior and less tender goods, this is greatly increased, even up to 5°, the period of immersion being proportionately reduced, as it is not safe to expose the goods long to the action of such powerful solutions. With the higher strengths they are passed rapidly through the liquid with the calender, sufficient time only being allowed to soak them thoroughly; then immediately through the acid or souring, followed by washing as before.

In Scotland and Ireland the washing is generally performed by wash-stocks; whilst in Lancashire, dash-wheels, or washing machines with squeezers, are almost always used for the purpose.

Cotton loses about 1-20th of its weight by bleaching.

II. Bleaching of Linen:—Linen may be bleached in a similar way to ‘cotton,’ but the process is much more troublesome and tedious, owing to its greater affinity for the colouring matter existing in it in the raw state. Under the old system, several alternate buckings with pearlash or potash and lengthened exposure on the field, with one or two sourings, and a final scrubbing with a strong lather of soft soap, constituted the chief details of the process. In this way a high degree of whiteness, though not an absolutely pure or snow white, was ultimately produced. Grass-bleaching or crofting is still extensively used for linen; but it is more generally employed only for a limited time, and in combination with a modification of the system at present almost universally adopted for cotton goods; whilst, in some cases, crofting is omitted altogether, and the bleaching conducted wholly by the latter process. The following Tables exhibit the outlines of the new system as at present practised in Ireland and Scotland:—

a. For plain sheetings:—

1. They are bucked for 12 or 15 hours in a lye made with about 1 lb. of pearlash (or soda-ash) to every 56 lbs. of cloth, and washed.

2. Crofted for about 2 days.

3. Bucked in milk of lime.

4. Turned, and the bucking continued, some fresh lime and water being added; and washed.

5. Soured in dilute sulphuric acid at 2° Twaddle.

6. Bucked with soda-ash for about 10 hours, and washed.

7. Crofted, as before.

8. Bucked again with soda-ash, as before.

9. Crofted for about 3 days.

10. Examined, the white ones taken out, and the others again bucked and crofted.

11. Scalded or simmered in a lye of soda-ash of about only 2-3rds the former strength, and washed.

12. Chemicked, for 2 hours, at ⁄2° Twaddle, washed, and scalded.

13. Again chemicked, as before.

14. Soured for 4 hours, as in No. 5; washed, and finished.

This occupies 13 to 15 days, according to the weather.

b. For shirtings, &c.:—As the preceding, but with somewhat weaker solutions.

c. For goods to be subsequently printed:—

1. Bucked in milk of lime for 10 or 12 hours.

2. Soured in dilute hydrochloric acid of 2° Tw., for 3 to 5 hours, and washed.

3. Bucked with resinate of soda for about 12 hours.

4. Goods turned, reboiled as before, and washed.

5. Chemicked at ⁄2° Tw., for 4 hours.

6. Soured at 2° Tw., for 2 hours, and washed.

7. Bucked with soda-ash for about 10 hours, and washed.

8. Chemicked as in No. 5.

9. Soured, as at No. 6, for 3 hours; washed, and dried.

Obs. The chief difficulty in bleaching linen arises from the fact that its colouring matter is insoluble in acid or alkaline solutions until it has been long acted upon by light, air, and moisture, as in the common process of grass-bleaching. Chlorine hastens the operation; but, unfortunately, it can only be employed towards the end of the process; as when earlier used, the colour of the raw cloth becomes set, and irremovable. To obviate this difficulty Mr F. M. Jennings, of Cork, has lately introduced the joint use of an alkali and an alkaline hypochlorite (chloride) in the place of the ordinary chloride of lime. He prepares a bath of solution of soda at 5° Twaddle, which he raises by the addition of chloride of soda (or of potash) to 6 or 7°, and in this he steeps the cloth (after the first bucking and souring) for some hours, heat, or constant squeezing between rollers, being had recourse to, to facilitate the action. Souring and washing follow, when the goods are again put into the alkaline and chloride bath, as before; after which they are soured, and bucked again with soda. These last three operations are repeated until the cloth is almost white, when crofting for one half to one fourth the time required by the usual method renders it fit for the final bucking, and finishing. Indeed, it is said that if the process be very carefully managed it renders crofting unnecessary.

Raw linen loses about 1-3rd of its weight in bleaching.

III. Silk:—Silk is usually bleached by first steeping it, and then boiling it in solutions of white soap in water, after which it is subjected to repeated rinsings, a little indigo-blue, or archil, being added to the last water to give it a pearly appearance. When required to be very white (as for gloves, stockings, &c.), the goods are cautiously submitted, for 2 or 3 hours, to the action of the fumes of burning sulphur, and then finished by rinsing, as before.

Obs. Boiling or sulphuring is not required for the white silk of China. Raw silk loses from 4 to 5 oz. per lb. by bleaching.

IV. Wool:—In bleaching raw wool it is first deprived of the yolk or peculiar natural varnish with which it is covered. For this purpose it is steeped and stirred for about 20 minutes in rather warm water (135°—140° Fahr.), either with or without the addition of 1-4th part of stale urine; after which it is placed in baskets to drain, and soon afterwards thoroughly rinsed in a stream of water, when it is again allowed to drain, and it is hung up to dry. The further operations depend on circumstances, wool being sometimes whitened in the fleece, or in the yarn, but still more frequently and extensively not till woven. When it is intended to send it in the first two forms white to market, it is hung up or spread out, whilst still wet, and sulphured (see below); after which it is either at once rinsed for some time in cold water, or is previously treated with a very weak bath of soft soap.

In the case of woollen fabrics the operations of purifying or whitening the wool, beyond the removal of the yolk, are, for the most part, mixed up with the weaving and working of it. The pieces leave the hands of the weaver of a dingy grey colour, loaded with oil, dirt, and dressing. They then pass to the fulling-mill, where they are treated with fuller’s earth and soap, often preceded with ammonia or stale urine, after each of which they are well washed out or scoured with cold water, and are then ready for the dyer. When it is intended to obtain them very white, or to dye them of a very delicate shade, they are commonly sulphured; after which they are washed or milled in cold water for some hours, a little finely ground indigo being added towards the end, to increase their whiteness; an addition also made when the cloth is sufficiently white without the sulphuring process.

The usual mode of SULPHURING woollen goods is to hang them up on pegs or rails, or, in the case of fleece-wool, to spread it about, at the upper part of a close, lofty room or chamber, called a sulphur-stove. In each corner of this room is set a cast-iron pot containing sulphur, which, after the introduction of the goods, is set on fire, when the door at the lower part of the chamber is shut tight and clayed. This is commonly done over-night; and by the morning, the bleaching being finished, the goods are removed, washed, and azured.

Sulphuring, unless very skilfully managed, imparts a harsh feel to woollen goods, which is best removed by a very weak bath of soap-and-water (lukewarm); but the action of soap in part reproduces the previous yellowish-white tinge. Milling with cold, or lukewarm water, tinged with indigo, is the best substitute.

Obs. Raw wool loses from 35 to 45% of its weight by scouring, and 1 to 2% more in the subsequent operations of the bleacher; the loss being in direct proportion to the fineness of the staple.

⁂The above are the four principal applications of the art of bleaching; but, in technical language, the words bleaching, bleacher, bleachery, bleach-works, &c., when employed alone, are understood to have reference only to cotton and linen. This has arisen from the enormous extent of these manufactures, and from the process of bleaching them forming a business entirely distinct from that of weaving, dyeing, or printing them. The following, with the exception of the first, are of comparatively minor importance and interest:—

V. Materials for Paper:—Old rags for the manufacture of paper, and paper-pulp, are now almost universally bleached with chlorine or chloride of lime; the former being generally used in France, and the latter in England. The process usually consists in (1) boiling in an alkaline lye to remove grease and dirt, (2) washing, (3) pressing, (4) deviling or tearing up the pressed cake into fine shreds or pulp, (5) chemicking, with agitation, for about an hour, in a clear solution of chloride of lime, followed by (6) washing, (7) souring with dilute hydrochloric acid at 1 or 2° Tw., or treatment with a solution of some antichlor, or both, and (8) a final washing and pressing. For the common kinds of paper, the operations included in No. 7 are omitted; but unless the whole of the lime-salt be removed from the pulp, the paper made of it is liable to turn brown and become rotten by age. In some cases rags are bleached before being divided and pulped. Cotton-waste is bleached in a similar way to rags.

In France, the chlorine, in a gaseous form, is passed from the generators into the bleach-cisterns containing the pulp, which in this case must be fitted with close covers.

VI. Printed Paper, as Books, Engravings, Maps, &c.—These when stained or discoloured may be whitened by (1) wetting them with pure clean water, (2) plunging them into a dilute solution of chloride of lime, (3) passing them through water soured with hydrochloric acid, and then (4) through pure water until every trace of acid be removed. This process may be further improved by further dipping them into a weak solution of some antichlor, and again washing them, before finally drying them. It is only rare and valuable original works or specimens of art that are worth this treatment, which, owing to the very nature of paper, requires considerable address to manage. In many cases a sufficient degree of renovation may be effected by simply exposing the articles, previously slightly moistened, to the fumes of burning sulphur, followed by passing them through a vessel of pure water.

VII. Straw, Straw-plait, and articles made of them, are, on the large scale, usually bleached by (1) a hot steep or boil in a weak solution of caustic soda, or a stronger one of soda-ash, followed (2) by washing and (3) by exposure to the fumes of burning sulphur. To effect the last, the goods are suspended in a close chamber connected with a small stove, in which brimstone is kept burning. On the small scale, a large chest or box is commonly employed. A piece of brick, or an old box-iron heater, heated to dull redness, is placed at the bottom of an iron crock or earthen pan, a few fragments of roll sulphur thrown on, the lid instantly closed, and the whole left for some hours. Care should be taken to avoid inhaling the fumes, which are very deleterious as well as disagreeable and annoying. Straw goods are now also frequently bleached by the use of a weak solution of chloride of lime, or of water strongly soured with oxalic acid or even oil of vitriol, followed by very careful rinsing in clean water; but here, as in the former case, the natural varnish, dirt, grease, &c., must be first removed by alkalies or soap, to enable the chlorine or acid to act on the fibres.

VIII. Wax. Wax is bleached by first melting it at a low temperature in a cauldron, from whence it is allowed to run out by a pipe at the bottom into a capacious vessel filled with cold water.

This vessel is fitted with a large wooden cylinder, which turns upon its axis; and the melted wax falls upon this cylinder. The surface of the cylinder being always wet, the wax does not adhere to it, but becomes solid, assuming the form of ribbons as it does so, and in this shape becoming distributed through water in the tub. The wax is then removed and placed upon large frames stretched upon linen cloth, which are supported about 18 inches above the ground, and erected in a situation exposed to the air, dew, and sun. The several ribbons thus placed on the frame should not exceed an inch and a half, and they ought to be so moved about from time to time as that each part may be equally exposed. If the weather be favorable the wax will become white in a few days. It is again remelted, formed into ribbons, and exposed as before. These operations are continued in until the wax is completely bleached, after which it is melted and run into moulds.

Concluding Remarks. The theory of bleaching, notwithstanding the giant strides of chemistry during the last 20 years, remains still unsettled; and hence the processes employed are still, for the most part, empirical. It appears probable that chlorine acts by uniting with the hydrogen of the water, or of other compounds present, or probably with that of both, and that it is the oxygen thus liberated, and whilst in the nascent state, that is the true operative agent. Hence bleaching by chlorine, or by the hypochlorites, may be regarded as an oxidation of the colouring matter; but whether the chlorine or the oxygen effects this oxidation is of little practical importance—the result being the same—the destruction of the compound, and the removal of the colour that depends on its existence. It is doubtful whether the bleaching power of sulphurous acid is due to it as an oxidising or a deoxidising agent; but the last is probably the case, with a like destruction of the compound constituting the colouring matter. It may, however, be supposed that sulphurous acid acts as an oxidiser, as it appears to do when it decomposes sulphuretted hydrogen; or it may act by simply altering the compound by inserting itself, a view receiving some support from the fact that wool whitened by sulphuring may be restored to nearly its previous colour by merely treating it with soap or alkalies.

The bleaching power of light depends on its actinic or chemical rays, which, like chlorine, appear to act as an oxidising agent.

Chlorates, chromates, chromic acid, manganates, &c., have been proposed as bleaching agents for textile filaments and fabrics, but without success or practical advantage. Immersion in water more or less strongly impregnated with sulphurous acid has, however, been successfully substituted for the common sulphuring process, particularly for silk.

To avoid the injury of the goods by sparks, and by drops of water highly saturated with sulphurous acid falling from the roof, Mr Thom has invented a method of passing them rapidly through, or keeping them in constant motion in the sulphuring chamber. His apparatus is constructed on the principle of the washing-machine, the fumes of burning sulphur being used instead of water.

M. Tessie du Motay has proposed a new method for bleaching. He takes about equal parts of permanganate of soda and sulphate of magnesia, and dissolves them in lukewarm water. The tissues, previously freed from grease, are to be plunged into this bath until they are covered with a brown coating. They are then to be placed in a bath of sulphuric acid at 4 per cent., and rinsed after the brown matter is removed. They may be finally passed through sulphurous acid. Mr Ramsay’s method consists in sprinkling with water equal parts of chloride of lime and sulphate of magnesia, when hydrochlorate of magnesia is formed. It may be remarked that none of the more modern methods of bleaching have been found, when reduced to practice, to be cheaper, better, or more advantageous to work than those sanctioned by long experience and use.

[Further information in connection with bleaching will be found under the heads Actinism, Blanching, Calico-printing, Charcoal, Chlorides (Bleaching), Chromates, Chromic Acid, Hypochlorites, Hypochlorous Acid, Light, Rinsing, Spots and Stains, Sulphuration, Washing, &c.; also under Bones, Engravings, Fat, Feathers, Horn, Ivory, Oil, Paper, Printed Books, Rags, Sponge, Straw-plait, Tallow, Wax, &c.]

Bleaching Liq′uid. Solution of chloride of lime.

Bleaching Pow′der. Chloride of lime.

Bleaching Salts. The commercial hypochlorites.

BLEAR′-EYE (blēre′-ī). Syn. Lippitu′do, L.; Chassie, Lippitude, Fr. An exudation of a puriform matter from the margins of the eyelids, which are red, tumid, and painful; and frequently, during the night, glued together by the discharge.

Treatm. Mild astringent collyria, as those of sulphate of zinc or alum (6 or 8 gr. to 1 oz. of water). An ointment formed of 1 part of the ointment of nitrate of mercury (Ph. L.), diluted with 11 parts of sweet washed lard, may be advantageously applied nightly, by means of a camel-hair pencil, the smallest quantity possible only being used. Excess in eating and drinking should be avoided, and some aperient medicine taken.

BLEAK (blēke). Syn. Blay‡, Bley‡, (blā). The cypri′nus albur′nus (Linn.), a small river-fish, the scales of which are used in making artificial pearls (which see).

BLEB. A vesicle or blister. In some states of general derangement of health this arises spontaneously. It should be treated in the same way as scalds.

BLEED′ING (blēde′-). In the sense of a flow or loss of blood, see Hæmorrhage; in that of bloodletting, see Cupping, Leeching, Venesection, &c.

Bleeding Piles. Take every morning aperient doses of milk of sulphur, then a small teaspoonful of confection of black pepper every day. Wash externally with a sponge and cold water. Apply compound gall. ointment to the piles if external.

Bleeding from the Air Passages and Lungs. Let the patient at once go to bed, and keep perfectly quiet, avoiding movement of any kind as much as possible. Administer dilute acids in frequently repeated doses, with five drops of tincture of digitalis. The bowels should be kept open by means of Epsom salts in infusion of roses. Give iced drinks and let solid ice be sucked. Mustard plasters may be applied to the chest. A morphia lozenge may now and then be sucked gradually away, as well as a small piece of sal prunella. The cough must be allayed by the administration of small doses of morphia in gum water or barley water. All food should be taken cold.

The treatment that we have indicated in the last two forms of hæmorrhage is intended for the exclusive guidance of emigrants or of others so placed as to be unable to summon prompt medical aid. Wherever this can be obtained no time should be lost in at once seeking it.

Bleeding from the Nose. Apply cold water containing ice, if obtainable. It should be so applied to the nose as to cause a shock. A cold piece of metal, such as a key, placed on the naked back sometimes stops the hæmorrhage. If neither of the above means succeed inject with a syringe a solution of alum or sulphate of zinc (ten grains to the ounce), or snuff up the nostrils some gallic acid, powder of pomegranate, kino, or catechu, mixed with starch. A plug of lint may also be dipped in either of the above solutions, or rolled in the powders, and pushed up the nostrils, or some tincture of perchloride of iron, properly diluted and applied on a piece of lint, may be tried.

Bleeding from the Stomach. Syn. Hematemesis. In this case the blood is vomited usually in clots of a dark colour. It should be noticed whether it comes from the back of the nose or throat. The treatment consists in perfect repose in bed, and in the administration of dilute sulphuric acid in infusion of roses, with saline aperients. If these fail to give relief, tannin and krameria may be tried, and small doses of laudanum or five grains of alum may be given every four hours. If in pain, add to it ⁄4 grain of acetate of morphia. All food and drinks should be taken cold, the latter iced. Pernitrate of iron in from 10 to 30 minim doses is a valuable remedy.

BLENDE (blĕnd). A name applied to several minerals; appr., zinc-blend, or native sulphuret of zinc—the black jack of miners.

BLIGHT (blīte). See Mildew, and Plants (Diseases of).

BLIND′NESS (blīnd′-). Syn. Ablep′sia, Cæ′citas, &c., L.; Aveuglement, Cécité, Fr.; Blindheit, Ger. Deprivation or want of sight.

Blindness may be congenital, or born with a person; or it may arise from accident, external violence, or disease. In the latter it may frequently be relieved by medical and surgical treatment. See Amaurosis, Cataract, Eyes, Ophthalmia, Vision, &c.

Blindness, Day. Syn. Night′-sight; Ny̆̆ctalo′pia, L. A disease of the eye in which vision is painfully acute or more or less extinct in a strong light, as that of day; but clear and pleasant in the dusk of evening and at night. Its chief causes are excessive exposure of the eyes to the direct influence of very strong or glaring light, or to heat, or both of them together; and is often one of the sequelæ of ophthalmia (which see).

Blindness, Night. Syn. Day′-sight; Hemeralo′pia, L. An affection of the eye, the reverse of the preceding, in which objects are clearly seen only in broad daylight. In the beginning of the complaint the patient continues to be able to see, though less clearly, for a short time after sunset, and even by moonlight, and perhaps distinctly by bright candle light; but after a short time this power is lost. It most frequently occurs in hot climates, and low latitudes at sea. Its chief causes are fatigue and exposure of the eyes to the glare of the tropical sun, probably coupled with gastric derangement. In some cases it is congenital, and is then generally incurable. The treatment consists in avoiding exciting causes, and endeavouring to restore the tone of the stomach, and the general health, by the usual methods. The eyes at the same time should be topically medicated by the frequent use of cold water, or mild astringent collyria. See Ophthalmia (Chronic).

BLIS′TER. Syn. Pap′ula, Pus′tula, L.; Pustule, Vessie, &c., Fr.; Blase, Blatter, Ger. A bladder or vesicle caused by the deposition of serous fluid between the cuticle and the derma or true skin, occasioned by the application of a vesicant, or by a burn, scald, or friction.

Blister. Syn. Vesicato′′rium, L.; Epispastique, Vesicatoire, Fr.; Blasen-pflaster, B.-stoff, Ger. A substance which vesicates or raises blisters; in pop. lang., a vesicating plaster or similar application.

The use of blisters is very ancient, and appears to date back long prior to the time of Hippocrates. Indeed, their value as cutaneous stimulants and counter-irritants appears to have been recognised by the medical faculty of all nations down to the present time. It is a principle sufficiently established with regard to the living system, that where a morbid action exists, it may often be removed by inducing an action of a different kind, as a state of excitement or irritation, in the same or a neighbouring part. In this way is explained the utility of blisters in local inflammation and spasmodic action, and it is this principle which regulates their application in pneumonia, gastritis, hepatitis, phrenitis, angina, rheumatism, colic, spasmodic affections of the stomach, &c.—diseases in which they are employed with the most marked advantage. A similar principle exists with respect to pain; exciting one pain often relieves another. Hence blisters frequently give relief in neuralgia, toothache, and other like painful affections. Lastly, blisters, by their operation, communicate a stimulus to the whole system, and raise the vigour of the circulation. Hence, in part, their utility in fevers of the typhoid kind, though in such cases they are used with still more advantage to obviate or remove local inflammation.

Blisters are commonly prepared with cantharides plaster, or with some other preparation of cantharides; and, in the former case, usually have their surface sprinkled over with powdered Spanish fly; whilst the blistering surface is surrounded with a margin spread with common adhesive plaster, for the purpose of causing them to adhere to the part to which they are applied. In order to prevent the action of the cantharides upon the mucous membrane of the bladder, or urinary organs, they are also often sprinkled with a little powdered camphor, or better still, are moistened with camphorated ether, which, on its evaporation, leaves a thin layer of camphor on the surface; but care must be taken that the layer be not too thick, as in that case the plaster would not take effect. With a like object, a piece of thin book-muslin or tissue-paper (silver-paper) is frequently placed between the blistering surface of the plaster and the skin; the efficacy of which may be still further heightened by first soaking the muslin or paper in olive or almond oil.

The usual time an ordinary blister of cantharides plaster is allowed to remain in contact with the skin is from 10 to 12 hours. It is then gently removed. The subsequent treatment depends on the object in view. When it is not wished to maintain a discharge from the blistered surface, the vesicle is cut with the point of a pair of scissors at its most depending part, to let out the fluid which it contains, followed by a dressing of spermaceti or other simple ointment; but when the case requires the blister to be kept open, or to be converted into a perpetual blister, as it is sometimes called, the whole of the detached cuticle is carefully removed with the scissors, and the part is dressed with either the ointment of cantharides or of savine, at first more or less diluted with lard or simple ointment, with an occasional dressing of resin cerate. According to Mr Crowther, the blistered surface is best kept clean by daily fomentation with warm water.

Of late years, to obviate the unpleasant effects occasionally arising from the common blister, various compounds having cantharides for their base, as well as fabrics spread with them, have been brought before the public. These are noticed hereafter. See Plaster, Vesicants, &c.

Blisters, Extempora′′neous. Among the best of these may be mentioned the following:—

1. A piece of lint dipped in the strongest vinegar of cantharides, and immediately after its application to the skin, covered over with a piece of strapping, or preferably a piece of sheet gutta percha or oiled silk, to prevent evaporation. Raises a blister in from 5 to 8 minutes.

2. Concentrated acetic acid, applied in the same way, has a similar effect.

3. (Dr Darcq.) Into a flat watch glass pour from 8 to 10 drops of highly concentrated liquor of ammonia; cover the liquid with a small piece of linen of rather less diameter than that of the glass, and at once apply this little apparatus to the previously shaved skin. The whole must be kept in its place by means of moderate pressure with the fingers, until a red ring, about 2 centimètres in breadth, is observed round the glass, when it is certain that vesication is effected. Sometimes scarcely 30 seconds are necessary for obtaining the result. The apparatus may then be removed, and the blistered part treated in the usual manner; the dressing being according to the object in view.

4. (Trousseau.) Bibulous paper slightly wetted with a little of the ethereal extract of cancharides, and instantly applied to the skin, the whole being covered with a piece of common adhesive plaster to prevent evaporation.

5. Boiling water applied by means of a suitably shaped tube, the adjacent parts being at the same time protected from injury. Instantaneous.

Blister, Horse. See Veterinary Medicines.

Blister*, Perpet′ual. See Blister (antè).

BLIS′TERING. Syn. Ves′icans, Vesicato′′rius, L.; Epispastique, Vésicant, Vésicatoire, Fr.; Blasenziehend, &c., Ger. In medicine, &c., that vesicates or raises blisters when applied to the skin.

Blistering Pa′per, Plas′ter, Tis′′sue (tĭsh-ū), &c. See Plasters, Vesicants, &c.

BLOAT′ER. See Blote.

BLONDE. [Fr.] Syn. Blond′-lace. Silk-lace. The name is now also applied to cotton-lace edged with silk. For the mode of cleaning it and getting it up, see Lace and Muslin.

BLOOD (blŭd). Syn. San′′guis, L.; Sang, Fr.; Blut, Ger. The general circulating fluid of animals, and that on which the nourishment and growth of their bodies depend, and from which all the secretions are formed. It is warm and red in vertebrated animals; and, for the most part, cold and white in the invertebrata. In man and all other mammals, and in birds—the two highest classes of the animal kingdom—the blood, though collectively forming but one circulating stream, varies considerably in appearance according to the part or vessels in which it is found. That contained in the left side of the heart, and in the arteries, possesses a very brilliant scarlet colour, and is called arte′′rial blood; whilst that found in the right side of the heart, and in the veins, has a darkish purple colour, and is called ve′nous blood. The two, however, differ little from each other in their chemical properties and composition; the most marked point of difference being that venous blood holds carbonic acid in solution, whilst oxygen predominates in the blood of the arteries. The fibrine of venous blood is also soluble in a solution of nitrate of potassa; whilst that of arterial blood is insoluble in that menstruum.

Comp. Blood consists of a transparent and nearly colourless fluid (plas′ma, se′′rum, sĕralbu′men), in which float about a countless multitude of microscopic round red bodies (blood-discs, blood-corpuscles), to which its colour is due, accompanied by a few colourless globules (white blood-corpuscles) of a somewhat larger size. The red corpuscles are found, on more minute examination, to consist of an envelope containing a solution of hæmatosin.

Prop. These are, for the most part, well known. It has an alkaline reaction, a saline and rather disagreeable sweetish taste, and when newly drawn evolves a peculiar odour or halitus, which almost immediately disappears. As it cools and on repose it coagulates, owing, according to some, to the spontaneous solidification of the fibrine.

The following table, based upon the observations of Schmidt and the analysis of Lehmann, is given by the latter, as representing the average quantitative relation of the principal constituents of normal blood. It will be noticed that the blood is here regarded as composed of two portions, one consisting solely of the red particles, and the other of the liquid, in which these red corpuscles are suspended, termed the liquor sanguinis, which consists of the serum holding fibre in solution:—

Sp. gr. of Blood-corpuscles, 1·0885.

1000 parts blood-corpuscles contain—

Water 688·00

Solid constituents 312·00

consisting of—

Hæmatin (with iron) 16·75

Globulin and cell membrane 282·22

Fat 2·31

Extractive matters 2·60

Mineral substances (without iron) 8·12

Chlorine 1·686

Sulphuric anhydride (SO3) 0·066

Phosphoric anhydride (P2O5) 1·134

Potassium 3·328

Sodium 1·052

Oxygen 0·667

Calcium phosphate 0·114

Magnesium phosphate 0·073

Sp. gr. of Liquor Sanguinis, 1·028.

1000 parts of liquor sanguinis contain—

Water 902·90

Solid constituents 97·10

consisting of—

Fibrin 4·05

Albumen 78·84

Fat 1·72

Extractive matters 3·94

Mineral substances 8·55

Chlorine 3·644

Sulphuric anhydride (SO3) 0·115

Phosphoric anhydride (P2O5) 0·191

Potassium 0·323

Sodium 3·341

Oxygen 0·403

Calcium phosphate 0·311

Magnesium phosphate 0·222

The ash of blood contains about 6·84 per cent. of ferric oxide. (Lehmann.)

The following table gives the results of the average composition of human blood in man and woman, according to the analyses of Becquerel and Rodie:

Male. Female.

Specific gravity of defibrinated blood 1·0600 1·0575

Specific gravity of serum 1·0280 1·0274

Water 779·00 791·00

Fibrin 2·20 2·20

Fatty Matters Serolin 1·60: 0·02 1·62: 0·02

Phosphorised fat 0·49 0·46

Cholesterin 0·09 0·09

Saponified fat 1·00 1·05

Albumen 69·40 70·50

Blood-corpuscles 141·10 127·20

Extractive matters 6·80 7·40

1000·10 1000·02

Salts Sodium chloride 3·10 3·90

Other soluble salts 2·50 2·90

Earthy phosphates 0·33 0·35

Metallic iron 0·57 0·54

6·50 7·69

The blood also contains, in solution, oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, as well as a free alkaline carbonate, urea, and small traces of alcohol have also been detected in normal blood.

The following report of a commission composed of MM. Mialhe, Mayel, Lefort, and Cornil, appointed to devise the best method for the examination of blood stains, was published in 1873. The following translation of the report appeared in the ‘Chemical News’ of December 5th, 1873.

1st. When the stain is of recent date, or supposed to be so, the red corpuscles should be particularly examined, and every care taken to preserve them without change. The stains must not be washed with water, so that the hæmatin may not be altered. After insisting on the microscopic characters of the blood stains, isolated or compared with those of various animals, the commission enumerates with care the fluids which are destructive or preservative of blood-corpuscles. Among the first, water, and particularly hot water, acetic, gallic, hydrochloric, and sulphuric acids; and of alkalies, potash and soda, even in weak solution, and ether and chloroform, also many other reagents, so alter the blood-corpuscles as to cause them to entirely disappear. Alcohol, chromic and picric acids, and bichromate of potash, preserve the corpuscles, though they alter their form. The preservative fluids are those whose composition approaches nearest to serum, such as the iodised serum of Schultze, an excellent preparation made with amniotic fluid, to which are added a few drops of the tincture of iodine, so as to give it the colour of white wine; or, better, a fluid composed thus; white of egg, 30 grams; distilled water, 270 grams; and chloride of sodium, 40 grams; or even a fluid containing 0·5 per cent. of chloride of sodium, or 5 or 6 per cent. of sulphate of sodium. If the stains be wetted and softened by these fluids, and then examined, white and red corpuscles and fibroid particles will be observed.

2nd. In more difficult cases, when the microscope, owing to the alterations which time has effected in the hæmatin, can give but vague information, examination by the spectroscope and chemical analysis enables us to arrive at precise results. The use of these means being less known, and also more delicate, requires special study.

1. Spectrum analysis. Colouring matters have the power of absorbing certain coloured rays of white light—the same always for the same substance. This is the principle upon which spectroscopic examination is based. If into any analysing tube filled with water a few drops of solution of hæmoglobin be introduced, till it has the colour of peach-blossoms, the luminous rays of the spectrum passing through this fluid present two bands of absorption, in the lines D and E of Frauenhofer, in the yellow and the green. The same fact would be observed if a few drops of blood were substituted for hæmoglobin in the analysis.

In a case of doubt the hæmoglobin of the blood could be reduced by adding to this latter a reducing body. Destroyed hæmoglobin has a different spectrum from oxygenated hæmoglobin, a single absorption band as large as the two former bands united, and a little to the left of Frauenhofer’s line D.

2. In blood in a state of decomposition, or which has been treated with acids or caustic alkalies, hæmoglobin is changed into a new substance; hæmatin is formed, which, combined with hydrochloric acid, gives definite crystals.

In order to obtain them we must proceed thus:—A small fragment of dried blood is placed on a glass slide; it is dissolved in a drop of water, and a minute portion of sea-salt added. It is covered with a thin slide, and pure acetic acid is made to pass between the two slides, and it is heated over a spirit-lamp to boiling-point; acetic acid is again added, and it is heated afresh; and this is repeated till the crystals are obtained.

They are rhomboidal, of a dirty brown colour, quite characteristic, and require to be seen with a magnifying power of three hundred or four hundred diameters. With the smallest quantity of blood these two reactions can always be produced—the spectrum examination and the crystals of hydrochlorate of hæmatin; and they are so certain that the existence of one alone enables one to affirm the presence of blood.

3. The third process, though not so exact as the preceding, ought, nevertheless, never to be neglected. If to a very small quantity of blood dissolved in a little water be added a few drops of tincture of guaiacum and of binoxide of hydrogen, a persistent blue colour is immediately produced; but this very sensitive reaction can be obtained with other organic matter, such as nasal mucus, saliva, &c.; it therefore only gives a probability. We must proceed in the following manner:—A tincture of guaiacum is prepared with alcohol at 83 degrees, and guaiacum resin; a mixture of sulphuric ether and binoxide of hydrogen is also made, and enclosed in a stoppered bottle, and kept under water in the dark. This preparation is less liable to change than pure oxygenated waters. The object stained with blood, if it be white, is put into a little cup, then moistened with water to dissolve out the blood stain, and washed in distilled water; this water is then submitted to the action of these reagents.

If the thing stained be coloured, and the stain little or not at all visible, it must be moistened, and then pressed between two or three sheets of white blotting-paper, and tried first with the guaiacum. If the stain be of blood a reddish or brown spot will form on the paper.

One of the sheets should be treated with ammonia, and the stain will become crimson or green. A second sheet treated with tincture of guaiacum and ozonised ether will give a blue colour more or less intense, according to the quantity of the blood.

To recapitulate:—1. If the stains or scales of blood appear recent, the corpuscles may, after the necessary precautions, be examined under the microscope, and their presence, diameter, &c. observed, which will enable one to diagnose the origin of the blood, whether human or animal. 2. If the stains be old and the blood changed, the reaction with the tincture of guaiacum would make the presence of blood probable; but its actual presence cannot be affirmed without spectrum examination or the production of crystals of hydrochlorate of hæmatin; one of the two is sufficient. It is unnecessary to add that these reactions do not show whether the blood is human or animal.

Bullocks’ blood has of late years, more especially in France, come into use as a remedy for anæmia and pulmonary phthisis. A correspondent, writing from Paris to the ‘Medical Times and Gazette’ in 1872, says: “It is a curious sight to see the number of patients of both sexes and of all ranks and ages, who flock to the slaughter-house every morning to drink of the still fuming blood of the oxen slaughtered for the table. I was struck with the facility with which young ladies take to it, and I have heard many say that they prefer it to cod-liver oil.”

In a paper read in 1872 before the Academy of Sciences in Paris by M. Boussingault, detailing his researches into the composition of blood, the author expressed his surprise that bullock’s blood was not more generally used as a food, as it contains all the constituents of a perfect aliment. According to the above chemist, of all nutritive substances the blood of animals contains the largest amount of iron. In man, Boussingault found in 100 grammes of blood 51 milligrammes of iron; in that of the ox, 55 milligrammes; of the pig, 59 milligrammes; and in that of the frog, 42 milligrammes. But it was not only in red blood that iron was found, Boussingault detected it in white blood also; and he found the blood of snails to contain as much iron as that of the ox or calf.

A simple and ingenious method for the therapeutic administration of the serum of the blood of sheep and oxen has been lately devised by Dr Francis Vacher, the medical officer of Birkenhead. Dr Vacher takes the blood of these animals, allows it to stand until it clots, removes the clot, and dries it at a gentle heat in a hot-air chamber. By this means he obtains a nearly odourless and comparatively tasteless powder, which is ten times the strength of fresh serum. To this preparation he gives the name “serum sanguinis exsiccatum.” He believes that his dried serum will prove a valuable nutrient in consumption, scrofula, diabetes, and loss of flesh.

Uses, &c. That of bullocks is employed for the clarification of wines and syrups; also in the preparation of adhesive cements, as the vehicle in coarse paint for outdoor work, as a manure, as a bleaching powder, to make pure animal charcoal, and for several other purposes. The blood of sheep, pigs, and bullocks, mixed with flour or oatmeal, and seasoned, is eaten by the common people, but it is rather indigestible, and apt to induce disease. Gut-skins stuffed with this mixture form “black puddings.”

Bullock’s blood, dried by exposure in thin layers to a current of air, at a heat under 125°, and then reduced to powder, is exported in large quantities to the colonies, where it is used, as a ‘clarifier,’ in the sugar-works. Dried at a temperature ranging between 212° to 220°, then coarsely powdered, and the dusty portion sifted off, it is much used by fraudulent dealers to adulterate grain-musk. See Charcoal (Animal), Globulin, Hæmatosin, Plasma, Serum, Stains, Vision, &c.

Blood-purifying Tea, Gout and Rheumatic (Franz Wilhelm, Neunkirchen). Equal parts of senna leaves, sarsaparilla root, liquorice, rad. tritici, red sandalwood, bittersweet stalks, cut small and mixed. (Hager.)

Blood-purifying Tea (F. Köller, Graz). Senna leaves, 32 parts; guaiacum wood, 10 parts; juniper wood, restharrow root, rad. tritici, dandelion root, chicory root, of each 8 parts; alder bark, 3 parts; sassafras, 2 parts; star-anise, 5 parts, dirty and worm-eaten, roughly chopped, and mixed. (Hager.)

Blood, Spit′ting of. See Hæmoptysis.

Blood, Vom′iting of. See Stomach Diseases.

BLOOD′-ROOT. Syn. Red′-root, Puccoon′; Sanguina′′ria, L. The sanguinār′ia Canaden′sis (Linn.), a papaveraceous plant of North America; also its root (SANGUINA′′RIA, Ph. U. S.), which is the part used in medicine. Juice, blood-red, used in dyeing. In small doses (3 to 5 gr.) it is stimulant, diaphoretic, and expectorant; in large ones (10 to 20 gr.), narcotic, emetic, and purgative. The powder is sometimes used as an escharotic. See Sanguinarine.

BLOOD′STONE. A hard compact variety of hæmatite used to form burnishers. The name is also applied by lapidaries to the heliotrope.

BLOOM. In perfumery, &c., a name given to several calorific skin-cosmetics, of which the following are examples:—

Bloom of Almonds (ah′-mŭndz). Syn. Al′mond-bloom. Prop. Boil 1 oz. of ground Brazil-wood in 2⁄2 pints of soft water for 30 minutes, adding the juice of two lemons towards the end; strain, and add ⁄4 oz. of isinglass, ⁄4 oz. of powdered cochineal, 1 oz. of alum, and ⁄2 oz. of borax; boil again for 4 or 5 minutes, and strain through muslin. Glass or earthenware vessels must be used, as metals injure its colour.

Bloom of Roses. Prep. 1. Dried red rose leaves, 1⁄2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse in glass or earthenware for 2 hours, press out the liquor, and add the juice of 3 large lemons; the next day filter, or decant the clear portion. Both the above should be kept in a cool place, otherwise they soon spoil. A little spirit of wine (3 or 4 fl. oz. to the pint) is sometimes added to them to remove this objection. They are greatly inferior to the following:—

2. Carmine, ⁄4 oz.; strong liquor of ammonia (not weaker than ·900), 1 oz.; put them into a stoppered bottle, set it in a cool place, and occasionally agitate it for two or three days, to effect a solution; then add of rose-water, 1 pint; and, after admixture, further add of esprit de rose, ⁄2 fl. oz.; pure rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz.; again well agitate, and set the whole aside for a week; lastly, decant the clear portion from the dregs (if any), for use or sale. Very fine. A cheaper article is made by omitting a portion of the carmine, and the whole of the esprit and spirit; and a still inferior one by substituting 1⁄2 oz. of silver-grain cochineal (in powder) for the carmine, with digestion for a week in the ammonia previously diluted with one half of the water.

Bloom of Youth, or Liquid Pearl (G. W. Laird, New York). A colourless liquid holding in suspension 34 per cent. of zinc oxide entirely free from lead. (Chandler.)

BLOTE. To prepare or cure by drying and smoking; now only applied to fish.

BLO′TER. Syn. Bloat′er. A bloted fish; appr., a herring slightly salted, and only very slightly dried and smoked.

BLOW′PIPE (blō′-). Syn. Chalumeau, Fr.; Löthrohr, Ger. An instrument by means of which the flame of a candle or lamp, or a gas-jet, is directed upon any substance placed to receive it, which is thus subjected to an intense heat. The blowpipe is to the artist and the experimentalist what the wind-furnace is to the artisan; but it is proportionately more powerful, convenient, and economical.

Beginners are usually unable to maintain a continued stream of air from the jet of this instrument, although the doing so is really a very simple affair. The operation merely depends on a little artifice in using it, which is more difficult to describe than to acquire. The effect intended to be produced is a continual stream of air for many minutes, if necessary, without interruption, even for an instant. This is done by simply applying the tongue to the roof of the mouth, so as to interrupt the communication between the mouth and the passage of the nostrils; by which means the operator is at liberty to breathe through the nose, at the same time that by the muscles of the lips he forces a continued stream of air from the anterior part of the mouth through the blowpipe. When the mouth begins to be empty it is replenished by the lungs in an instant, while the tongue is withdrawn from the roof of the mouth, and replaced again in the same manner as in pronouncing the monosyllable tut. In this way the stream of air may be continued for a long time without fatigue, provided the flame be not urged too impetuously; and even should it be so urged no other inconvenience will be felt than that of slight fatigue of the muscles of the lips.

The hottest portion of the flame produced by the action of the blowpipe is at the tip of the outer white flame, which has also the property of rapidly burning or oxidising substances placed in it which are susceptible of such a change; and it is hence commonly called the OXIDISING FLAME. The interior blue flame is, for a like reason, called the DEOXIDISING or REDUCING FLAME, as it possesses the property of extracting oxygen from most bodies capable of being so affected.

Substances to be submitted to the action of the blowpipe-flame are placed on a support, which is either a piece of charcoal, or a wire or small spoon of platinum, gold, or silver, as the case may require. Sometimes a plate of cyanite is used. Pine-wood charcoal is preferred for this purpose; and the sides, not the ends of the fibres, are presented to the flame. When a very intense heat is required, the substance operated on should not exceed the size of half a peppercorn.

Several characteristic colour reactions may often be obtained in the examination of a substance for analysis, by fusing a small portion of it, with a bead of microcosmic salt, and exposing it for some time to the outer flame of the blowpipe. If the substance dissolve readily in the salt and rather copiously to a clear bead whilst hot, and is of a blue colour by candle light inclining to violet, it denotes COBALT. If it be green, upon cooling blue; in the reducing flame after cooling, red—COPPER. If green, particularly fine on cooling, unaltered in the reducing flame, CHROMIUM. If brownish red, on cooling light yellow or colourless; in this reducing flame, red whilst hot, yellow whilst cooling, then greenish—IRON. If reddish to brownish red, on cooling yellow to reddish yellow or colourless; in the reducing flame unaltered—NICKEL. If yellowish-brown, on cooling light yellow or colourless; in the reducing flame almost colourless, and blackish-grey on cooling—BISMUTH. If light yellowish to opal, when cold, rather dull; in the reducing flame whitish-grey—SILVER. If amethyst-red, especially on cooling; colourless in the reducing flame, not quite clear—MANGANESE. If the bead remains clear on cooling, ANTIMONY, ALUMINA, ZINC, CADMIUM, LEAD, LIME, and MAGNESIA are indicated, the latter five when added in somewhat large proportion to the microcosmic salt, give enamel white beads. The bead of oxide of LEAD saturated is yellowish. If the bead becomes enamel-white on cooling, even where only a small portion of the powder has been added to the microcosmic salt—BARYTA and STRONTIA are indicated.

If the substance dissolves in the microcosmic salt slowly and only in small quantity, the bead being colourless and remaining so after cooling, the undissolved portion looking semi-transparent, and if upon the addition of a little sesquioxide of iron it acquires the characteristic colour of an iron bead—this denotes SILICIC ACID.

For producing extreme degrees of heat the flame is blown with a jet of oxygen gas, the instrument being then called an OXYGEN BLOWPIPE; or a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen is burned, when it is called an OXY-HYDROGEN BLOWPIPE. The heat produced by the last is so great that no substance can stand exposure to it, even the most refractory native compounds being immediately fused. Gold is volatilised, and iron is rapidly consumed the instant it is placed in the flame.

The principal varieties of the blowpipe in general use are figured in the engravings above.

Beside the above there are several other varieties of the blowpipe occasionally employed; one in which the air is expelled by the pressure of a column of water, and hence called the HYDROSTATIC BLOWPIPE; another, in which the flame is blown with the vapour of boiling alcohol, is named the SPIRIT-BLOWPIPE.

Blowpipe, Herapath. For sealing and bending glass tubes and constructing glass apparatus of various forms, it is convenient to have the blowpipe mounted on a fixed support, and when a flame of considerable power is required, the blast must be supplied by bellows worked with the foot. A very convenient form of blowpipe for these purposes is that invented by Herapath, and represented in the following figure, a is a flexible tube attached to a stop-cock (b), which communicates with a tube (c d), bent at right angles at d, where a T-shaped tube (e f g) slips on by means of the piece f. The blow-pipe jet (h i) passes into the longer arm of the T-piece, and fits somewhat tightly; k l is a second piece of flexible tube, terminating in a mouthpiece, or connected with a blowing apparatus. On turning on the gas, it passes in the direction marked by the arrows, and is to be inflamed at e. On blowing with the mouth, or by means of a pair of bellows, into the tube k l, the ignited gas takes the form of a blow-pipe flame of great power, the nature of which is entirely under control by means of the stop-cock b, and also by regulating the quantity of air supplied through the tube (k l). The T-shaped piece is movable at f, so that the jet may be directed to any position. The apparatus may be mounted on a heavy foot, and connected with the gas-supply, by means of the flexible tube, so that it can be placed in any required position on the laboratory table; or it may be permanently fixed on a table specially devoted to the purpose, and having beneath it a pair of bellows worked by a treadle.

A simple and inexpensive apparatus for supplying a continuous blast of air for blowpipe or other purpose is figured below.

It consists essentially of a tin tube (to which is fixed a branch tube open to the air), through which water may be driven from a supply tap into a properly fitted bottle. Air becomes thus entangled with the water in its course through the tube, and carried with it into the bottle. The water is then got rid of by means of a syphon, and the air is conducted by an elastic tube to the blow-pipe.

A, B, Tin tube, eighteen inches long, half-inch diameter.

C, D, Tin tube, three inches long, one third-inch diameter, inserted at right angles.

E, F, Tin tube, long enough to reach the level of A, one third-inch diameter, inserted at an angle of 45°.

G, H, I, Siphon, half-inch diameter.

K, L, Air tube, one third-inch diameter.

M, India-rubber tube to convey away the air.

To set the apparatus in action, connect the tube

C D

with a water tap by means of a piece of elastic tubing, and turn on the water; pinch the tube

M

for a few moments between the thumb and finger until the syphon has begun to act. A blast of air will at once be felt at the extremity of

M

BLUB′BER. Syn. Ad′eps balæna′′rum, L.; Graisse de baleine, Fr. The soft fat of whales, and of other large sea-animals, from which the oil (TRAIN′ OIL, WHALE′ OIL) is obtained by heat.

Blubber, Sea. The popular name of several species of marine animals of the genus medusa, having a body resembling a large mass of jelly. They are very plentiful in some parts of the coast of England, and are said to form a rich and cheap manure for pasture and arable land. They are used at the rate of about 1 ton to every 20 or 30 loads of mould, together with a chaldron of lime, per acre. In 3 or 4 months the land is usually found in prime condition. Pilchards, and other fish that swarm upon our coasts, and for which there is not a ready market, may be used in the same way, and are much richer, being, when properly managed, but little inferior to guano.

BLUE (bl′ōō). Syn. Cæru′leus, L.; Bleu, Fr.; Blau, Ger. Of the colour of the clear sky, or of any shade of it, whether lighter or darker; subst., a blue colour, blueness (COL′OR CÆRU′LEUS, L.); or a blue, colouring material or pigment (CÆRU′LEUM, L.).

Blue Dye. Syn. Teinte bleue, Fr.; Blau farbe, Ger. The most permanent blue is that given by indigo, and particularly by what is called the ‘indigo-vat.’ A variety of shades, of great beauty, and considerable permanence, may also be given by the ‘Prussian-blue process.’ Cheaper blues are commonly dyed with logwood. Each of these is noticed at length under their respective heads. The following are also employed, and are well adapted for common goods, on the small scale and for domestic use.

1. Give the goods a mordant of alum, or of acetate of alumina (‘red liquor’), then rinse them well, and boil them in a bath of logwood, to which a small quantity of blue vitriol has been added; lastly, rinse and dry.

2. Boil the goods for a short time in a bath of logwood; then add to the liquor tartar and verdigris, in the proportion of 1 oz. of each to every lb. of logwood employed; and again boil for a short time.

3. Give the goods a mordant of tartar; lift, add a little chromate of potash; again work for 15 or 20 minutes, and rinse; next boil in a bath of logwood, adding towards the last a few grains more of the chromate; again boil, and finish. The whole quantity of chromate used should not exceed ⁄4 oz. to each lb. of logwood taken for the bath. Very dark.

4. Bilberries, elder-berries, mulberries, privet-berries, and several other like vegetable substances, may be used to dye blue, as above, instead of logwood.

Obs. By increasing the proportion of alum or red-liquor the colour verges on purple; and by employing a little acetate of iron or green copperas, the darker shades of blue are produced. Verdigris, blue vitriol, and alkalies, turn it more on the blue; whilst a mordant of tin imparts a violet cast. If much more chromate be used than that ordered the result is a blue-black. See Dyeing, Indigo, Logwood, Mordants, Prussian blue, &c.

Blue Pig′ments. Syn. Cæru′lea, &c., L. The preparation of the principal blue pigments of commerce is described under their respective names. In the following list those for which directions are given are of a miscellaneous and less usual character.

Az′ure. Syn. Azure Blue. A name frequently given to smalts. That of the oil-painter is ultramarine; that of the ancients is noticed below. See Ultramarine, &c.

Blue, Barth’s. See Indigo, Sulphate of.

Blue, Berlin. Prussian blue.

Blue, Bice. Native blue carbonate of copper, prepared by grinding and elutriation. That of the shops is generally a factitious compound made from smalts.

Blue, Carmine. See Carmine and Indigo, Sulphate of.

Blue, Char′coal. Carbonised vine-stalks are triturated with an equal weight of salt of tartar or pearlash, the mixture put into a crucible, and heated over the fire until it ceases to swell, the mass being kept well stirred all the time; when cold, it is dissolved in water, and the excess of alkali saturated with dilute sulphuric acid. The liquid becomes blue, and a dark precipitate falls down, which turns of a brilliant blue colour when dried and cautiously heated.

Blue, Chi′na. Syn. Roy′al Smalts. The crude oxide of cobalt, or zaffre, is ground with an equal weight of potash, and about eight times its weight of felspar, the mixture submitted to fusion in a crucible, and when cold reduced to an impalpable powder. Used to paint pottery, and as a blue pigment.

Blue, Co′balt. Syn. Cobalt′ic Az′ure. This is commonly prepared by one or other of the following formulæ:—

1. Zaffre, 1 lb., is dissolved in nitric acid (diluted with an equal weight of water), ⁄4 lb., by digestion for some hours; the solution is evaporated nearly to dryness, and the residuum redissolved in warm water; to this solution, after filtration, a solution of phosphate of soda is added as long as a precipitate forms; this last is collected on a filter, washed with cold water, and mixed, whilst still moist, with 8 times its weight of fresh-precipitated hydrate of alumina; the paste is then dried, and exposed to a cherry-red heat in a crucible, after which the mass is cooled and reduced to a very fine powder.

2. A solution of nitrate of cobalt is precipitated with ammonia-alum, and the precipitate washed, dried, and exposed to a cherry-red heat, as before. The products of the above formulæ are very beautiful and permanent. See Cobalto-ultramarine.

Egyp′tian Az′ure. Alexan′drian Frit, Azure of the Ancients. A mixture of carbonate of soda, 1 lb.; calcined flints, 1⁄2 lb.; copper filings, ⁄4 lb. (all in fine powder); fused together in a crucible for 2 or 3 hours, and when cold, reduced to an impalpable powder. A beautiful and unchangeable sky-blue colour. Used in both oil and fresco painting; and as a substitute for smalts, of which, indeed, it is a variety.

In′digo (which see).

Blue, I′ron. Fer′ric blue. Ordinary phosphate of iron prepared by precipitating a solution of protosulphate of iron with another of phosphate of soda, the resulting powder being washed, and dried at a gentle heat. A lively sky-blue colour, but without much depth or body.

Blue, Lake. See Lakes and Indigo, Sulphate of.

Blue, Molybde′num. From sulphuret of molybdenum, dissolved in nitric acid, and some tin filings and a little muriatic acid added. After digestion for some time the clear liquid is poured off, and evaporated to dryness. The resulting powder is then mixed with moist hydrate of alumina (as in making cobalt blue), heated to a very dull red, and when it has again become cold, reduced to powder. Used both as a paint and an enamel-colour.

Blue, Moun′tain. Native carbonate of copper, mixed with more or less earthy matter, reduced to fine powder. That of the shops is often factitious.

Blue, Par′is. Prussian blue.

Blue, Pow′der. Smalts.

Blue, Prus′′sian (which see).

Blue, Queen’s. See Thumb-blue (below).

Blue, San′der’s. Ultramarine-ashes.

Blue, Sax′on. Saxon Az′ure. A compound of hydrate of alumina and Prussian blue, prepared as follows:—

1. To sulphate of iron, 1 oz.; and alum, 8 oz.; dissolved in water, 1 gall.; add, simultaneously, separate solutions of prussiate of potash and common pearlash, until they cease to produce a precipitate; after repose collect the deposit, wash it well with water, and dry it.

2. A solution of sulphate of iron is precipitated with another of prussiate of potash, and instantly mixed with the precipitate which has just been obtained by treating a solution of alum with a solution of pearlash; the mixed precipitates being finally treated as before.

Smalts (which see; also China-blue and Egyptian Azure, above).

Blue, Thénard’s. See Ultramarine (Cobaltic).

Blue, Thumb′. Cake′-blue, Crown′-blue, Fig′-blue, Knob′-blue, Mech′lenburg-blue, (mēk′-), Queen’s-blue, Stone-blue, &c. Names given to the lump-blue used in laundries, which vary according to the quality and the particular form given to it.

Prep. 1. A mixture of powdered starch with sufficient indigo (in impalpable powder) to give the necessary colour, made into a stiff dough with starch-paste, and then formed into lumps or cakes of the desired size and shape, and dried. This forms the ordinary ‘washerwoman’s blue’ of the shops.

2. As the last, but substituting cæruleo-sulphate of potassa or blue carmine for the ‘powdered indigo’ ordered in the last formula. Very fine.

3. As No. 1, but substituting whiting for the powdered starch and weak size, or a decoction of Irish moss for the starch-paste. Inferior.

Uses, &c. Employed by laundresses to impart a faint blue tinge to linen, in order to increase its apparent whiteness. The common forms given to it are that of small balls of about ⁄4 to 1 inch in diameter; the same, but rather larger, and pinched with the thumb and finger in three directions, so as to leave corresponding depressions (THUMB-BLUE); and cakes, which are cut out of the mass, previously rolled into a sheet, by a suitably shaped cutter.

Blue, Turnbull’s. Ferridcyanide of iron (which see; also Turnbull’s Blue).

Blue Verditer. See Verditer.

Ultramarine′ (-rēne′), U.-blue. See Ultramarine.

BLUSH′ING. Syn. Ru′bor, Rube′do, L. In physiology, &c., the red glow on the cheeks or face occasioned by confusion, bashfulness, surprise, or shame.

Blushing is caused by a sudden increase in the quantity and velocity of the blood in the capillaries, occasioning their turgescence; and, consequently, a heightening of the natural pale-reddish hue of the skin. It is referable to sudden mental emotions of an exciting character, such as surprise, confusion, consciousness of slight, injury, or indignity, and the like. Emotions of a depressing character frequently produce an opposite effect. This is termed pallor, and depends on the rush of blood from the skin and surface of the body upon the internal organs. The first, though often unpleasant, is never dangerous; the last always so. The cure of the habit of blushing consists in persisting efforts to maintain a sufficient degree of presence of mind and self-confidence to permit of reflection, or a calm view of the exciting circumstance, instead of sinking into a state of temporary mental imbecility and helpless confusion.

‘BLUTANDRANG UND LUFTROHREN-VERSCHLEIMUNG’ (remedy for congestion and obstruction of the air-vessels), manufactured and sold by the inventor, C. Tänzer, 18, Kesselstrasse, Berlin,’ is the title of a twelve-page pamphlet. For cold in the head, the apparatus, which consists of a small linen cushion to bind over the mouth, is moistened with 10 to 15 drops of the fluid. The fluid (150 grammes) is a mixture of spirit of wine and acetic ether, in which some arnica, milfoil, &c., have been macerated. (Hager.)

BLUTHENHARZ—FLOWER RESIN (Kwizda, Kornenburg). Against barrenness in domestic animals. A mixture of 9 parts powdered Bergundy pitch with 1 part pine pollen, ⁄4 oz. (Hager.)

BOARDS, to make White. Boards may be rendered white and clean by scrubbing them, instead of with soap, with a mixture composed of one part of freshly slaked lime and three parts of white sand.

BOCKBIERESSENZ, for the artificial imitation of bockbier. A tincture of 1 part lupulin, 2 parts pyroligneous acid, and 8 parts spirit of wine. (Hager.)

BOG SPAVIN. In horses, a distension of the bursa or sheath of the true hock joint. Mr Finlay Dun prescribes rest; high-heeled shoe, fomentation, cold water, spring truss, counter-irritation, firing-iron; seton.

BOIL (boyl). Syn. Furun′culus, L.; Furoncle, Fr.; Beule, Eiterstock, Ger. In surgery, a well-known inflammatory tumour, of a superficial and more or less temporary character, which generally terminates by suppuration.

Boils (furun′culi) generally attack the healthy and robust during the period of youth and early manhood, and seldom trouble persons who have arrived at the middle age of life.

Treatm., &c. When boils begin to appear, and exhibit persistency by daily enlargement and increasing pain, suppuration should be promoted by warm poultices of bread and linseed-meal, to which a little fat or oil may be added, to prevent their getting hard. If poultices are inconvenient, warm and stimulating embrocations, or exposure to the vapour of hot water, or the application of stimulating plasters, may be adopted instead. When the tumour is sufficiently ‘ripe,’ the matter should be evacuated by gentle pressure, and the wound dressed with a little simple ointment spread on a piece of clean lint or linen. The diet may be full and liberal until the maturation of the tumour and the discharge of the matter, when it should be lessened, and the bowels kept gently open by saline purgatives, as Epsom-salt or cream of tartar. When there is a disposition in the constitution to the formation of boils, the bowels should be kept at all times regular, and tonics, as bark or steel, had recourse to, with the frequent use of sea-bathing when possible. An occasional dose of the Abernethy medicines (which see) also often prevents their recurrence. A course of sarsaparilla may be likewise taken with advantage. See Abscess, Tumours, &c.

Dr Sydney Ringer prescribes a ⁄16th grain of sulphide of sodium, mixed with sugar of milk, three or four times a day on the tongue; but this should only be administered under medical supervision.

Treatment for Horses and Cattle.—Fomentations; poultices containing belladonna, cold water, carbolic acid dressing, counter-irritants, laxatives, sulphites, and chlorates.

BOIL′ERS. See Incrustation and Steam.

BOIL′ING. In cookery, the operation of dressing food in water at the point of ebullition, or one very closely approaching it. The practice of cooking animal food by boiling, although exceedingly simple, and often most convenient, is neither judicious nor economical when the broth or liquid in which it has been dressed is to be rejected as waste; as in this way the most nutritious portion of the flesh of animals, consisting of soluble saline and other matter required for the formation of bone, and the nutrition of the muscular tissues, &c., is to a great extent lost. This particularly applies to small pieces so dressed, and to those presenting a large surface to the action of the water in proportion to their weight. Large pieces of meat suffer less in proportion than smaller ones, for the same reason; but even with them the outside should be rejected, as it is both insipid and innutritious compared with the interior portion. To reduce the solvent and deteriorating action of the water to the lowest possible point, the articles to be boiled should not be put into the water until it is in a state of full ebullition, which should be maintained for 5 or 6 minutes afterwards, by which time the surface and the parts lying immediately beneath it will have become, to a certain degree, hardened, and will then act as a protective shield to the inner portion of the mass. The boiling being continued for 5 or 6 minutes cold water is added, until the temperature becomes about 150° F., and the cooking of the joint is carried on at this heat until the meat is done: meat loses nearly a fourth of its weight in boiling, salt meat, which is intended to be eaten cold, should be allowed to cool in the water in which it has been boiled. The practice of dressing meat by putting it into cold water, which is then gradually raised to the boiling-point, cannot be too much censured. A ⁄4 of an hour per lb. for dressing young meat, poultry, and small pieces, and 20 minutes per lb. for old, tough, and larger ones are the usual times allowed by cooks for the purpose. See Bouilli, Food, &c.

BOIL′ING-POINT. See Ebullition.

BOIS DURCE (bwah dŭr-sā). [Fr.] The substance invented in France, and to which this name is given, is made from sawdust, which, under the influence of a high temperature and the enormous pressure of 600 tons, acquires a degree of hardness very much exceeding that of ordinary wood. It has a very fine grain, and is unaffected by atmospherical variations; but its principal merit is its adaptation to moulding, so that by the most economical processes forms and impressions are given to it which it would require, in any other way, considerable labour and workmanship.

BOLAS. Sweet light cakes which, according to Mrs Rundell, are prepared as follows:—Into flour, 2 lbs., pour of warm milk, ⁄4 pint, a small teacupful of yeast, and 6 eggs; make a dough, add of butter 1 lb. (by degrees), and set it in a warm place to rise for an hour; then mix in of powdered sugar 1 lb.; and make the mass into cakes; put these into cups or tins previously well buttered, and ornament the top with candied orange or lemon peel; lastly bake them. See Cakes.

BOLDO (nat. ord. Monimiaceæ). A shrub growing in the Chilian Andes. The bark is used in tanning, and the wood makes a good charcoal. It is reported to be useful in affections of the liver and digestive organs. It has been employed as a tonic in cases where quinine is inadmissible. In large doses it provokes vomiting. The powder of the dried leaves is a sternutatory. See a paper by M. Claude Verne, translated into the ‘Pharm. Journ.,’ 3rd series, v, 405.

BOLE. Syn. Bo′lus, L.; Terre bolaire, &c., Fr. The name of several argillaceous minerals, varying in colour from white to yellow, red, and brown, which they owe chiefly to iron. See Ochres and Red and Brown Pigments.

BOLOG′′NA PHI′AL (-lawn′-yă). See Phials.

BO′LUS, [L., Eng.] Syn. Bol, Fr. Boluses, in pharmacy and medicine, are small, roundish masses of medicinal substances, which are taken in the same manner as pills, which they resemble, except in their larger size. Those persons who object to swallowing them in their common state may wrap them in soft paper, or introduce them into the emptied husks of raisins or grapes.

Boluses (bo′lī, L.) are prepared with the same ingredients, and in a similar manner to pills (which see).

Bolus, Guaiacum (Horne). Guaiacum resin ⁄2 drachm, elder rob, enough to make into a bolus. Formerly given in quinsy.

Bolus for Ague. (The bolus ad quartanum of the French Hospital). Peruvian bark 1 ounce; carbonate of potash 1 drachm; tartarised antimony 15 grains; syrup, a sufficient quantity, one to be taken every four hours during the intermission.

Bolus, Vermifuge (Dr Campbell). Basilie powder one scruple, conserve of wormwood, a sufficient quantity to make into one bolus for an adult. (Foy.) Powdered pomegranate root 1 drachm, assafœtida half a drachm, croton oil 3 or 4 drops, syrup sufficient. Divide into 15 boluses; 5 daily for tapeworm. (French Hospital.) Wormseed 1 scruple, calomel 5 grains, camphor 15 grains, syrup sufficient. Make into 3 doses; one, two, or three in the day.

BON′-BON (bōng′-bōng). [Fr.] A sugarplum. See Confectionery and Sugarplums.

BONBONS VERMIFUGES OF GAROZ. A bonbon containing 15 centigrammes of scammony, and 2 centigrammes of santonin. (Reveil.)

BONE. Syn. Os, L., Fr.; Bein, Knochen, Ger.; Bán, Sax. The hard substance forming the interior skeleton of animals, or any single part of it.

Comp. According to Berzelius:—

Human bones. Ox bones.

Animal matter soluble in boiling water 32·17 33·30

Vascular substance 1·13

Phosphate of calcium, with a little fluoride of calcium 53·04 57·35

Carbonate of calcium 11·30 3·85

Phosphate of magnesium 1·16 2·05

Chloride of sodium and other salts 1·20 3·45

100· 100·

The soluble animal matter is chiefly fat and gelatin.

Uses, &c. The bones of animals are employed for various purposes in the arts, manufactures, and domestic economy. Those of good meat form most excellent materials for making soups and gravies, as is well known to every cook. In France, soup is extensively made by subjecting bruised bones to a steam heat of 2 or 3 days’ continuance. In England the same is commonly effected in an iron Papin’s digester. When the earthy matter of a bone is dissolved out by digesting it in a large quantity of very dilute hydrochloric acid, a lump of gelatine is obtained, which, after being well washed with water, is equal to isinglass for all the purposes of making soups and jellies. The following is the process recommended by Proust for making the best of bones, in hospitals, gaols, and similar establishments:—

The bones, crushed small, are to be boiled for 15 minutes in a kettle of water, and the fat (which is fit for all common purposes) skimmed off as soon as cold. The bones are then to be ground, and boiled in 8 to 10 times their weight of water (of which that already used must form a part), until half of it is wasted, when a very nutritious jelly will be obtained. Iron vessels should alone be used in this process, as the jelly and soup act upon copper, brass, and the other common metals. The bones of fresh meat are the most productive; those of boiled meat come next, whilst those of roasted meat scarcely afford any jelly. As ‘boning’ meat before cooking is now a very general practice, a quantity of fresh bones may always be obtained.

Bones are, for the most part, WROUGHT, TURNED, BLEACHED, and DYED in a similar manner to ivory, but with less care, owing to their inexpensive and coarser character. Before being submitted to any of these operations they are, however, first submitted to long boiling, to deprive them of grease.

The bones of living animals may be dyed by mixing madder with their food. The bones of young pigeons may thus be tinged of a rose colour in 24 hours, and of a deep scarlet in 3 days; but the bones of adult animals take a fortnight to acquire even a rose colour. The bones nearest the heart become tinged the soonest. In the same way extract of logwood tinges the bones of young pigeons purple. See Bleaching, Dyeing, Ivory, &c.

In all manufacturing processes in which bones are operated upon, foul vapours, unless special precautions are observed, will be thrown off, to the great annoyance and discomfort of those living near the building where the operations are performed.

To avoid this the offensive vapours should always be carried by a flue made for the purpose into the furnace-fire, and there consumed. But this will not remedy another source of annoyance which arises from the disgusting stench caused by the putrefaction of the flesh adhering to the bones, which lie in heaps about the premises.

The trade of a bone-boiler comes under the head of offensive trades (see ‘Public Health Acts,’ s. 112-114), and is under the control and regulation of an urban sanitary authority, which has also the power of preventing the bone-boiling being carried on within its district if it thinks proper.

BONE′-ASH. Impure triphosphate of calcium, obtained by calcining bones to whiteness, and reducing the ash to fine powder. Used to make pure phosphate of calcium, to form cupels, &c.; also sold for burnt hartshorn.

BONE′-DUST. Syn. Bone-manure. Bones (previously boiled for their grease) ground to different degrees of coarseness, in a mill. It is sown along with the seed in a drill. Wheat thus treated is said to yield 30 to 50 per cent, more weight in straw and grain than by the common methods. Turnip and other light soils it renders more than ordinarily productive. Bone manure is much used in the west of Yorkshire, Holderness, and Lincolnshire. The usual quantity per acre is 70 bushels, when used alone; but when mixed with ashes or other common manure, 30 bushels per acre is said to be enough. When coarse, and applied in the same manner as other manures, it has been found to remain upwards of seven years in the ground, the productiveness of which it has increased during the whole time.

BONE′-GLUE. See Gelatin.

BONE′-GREASE. From refuse bones, bruised, boiled in water, and the broth skimmed when cold. Prod. ⁄8th to ⁄4th of the weight of the dry bones. (Proust.) Used for making soap and candles. See Charcoal, Animal.

BONE′-PHOSPHATE. See Tribasic Phosphate of Lime.

BONE′-SHAVINGS. Syn. Bone′-dust (Turners’), Bone-turnings. This, by boiling with water, yields a beautiful jelly, which is nearly equal to that produced from hartshorn and ivory shavings, for which it is very frequently sold. Used to make jellies and blancmanges, to stiffen straw bonnets, &c.

BONE-SPAVIN. A bony enlargement on the antero-internal parts of the hock in horses. In recent cases it is best to apply cold applications, but in protracted and chronic cases, hot fomentations will be found best. In case of these failing, recourse should be had to blistering or firing, or if need be to a seton.

BOOK′BINDING (-bīnd-). Although a full description of the various operations of this well-known art, or handicraft, does not properly fall within the province of this work, a brief notice of them will probably, in many cases, prove useful to the amateur and the emigrant:—

The process of binding books is divided into several distinct operations, which, in large establishments, are usually performed by different persons; such a method being found to produce greater expedition, and better work, than when the whole is done by one person.

The sheets received from the hands of the printer are—

1. Folded, which is done correctly by observing the ‘marks’ or ‘signatures’ at the bottom of the pages. As the sheets are folded they are laid upon each other in proper order, and are ready to undergo—

2. The operation of beating. This is performed by either laying them upon a large stone and striking them with a heavy smoothed-faced hammer, or by passing them through a rolling-press. The former method is usually adopted in the small way, and the latter on the large scale.

3. The sheets are next fastened to bands, which is done by taking them up one by one, and sewing them to pieces of cord, stretched in a little frame screwed or fastened to the counter or table, called the sewing press. (See engr.) The number of bands used is generally 6 for a folio, 5 for a quarto, and so on proportionally, less than 4 being seldom employed even for small sizes. The ends of the cords being cut off to within about 2 inches of the back, the sheets are ready for—

4. Glueing. The back being knocked into shape with a hammer, and the sheets placed in the cutting-press, which is then slightly screwed up, melted glue is thinly and evenly applied. After a short time, to permit it to become sufficiently set and hard, the book is removed from the press, and the back properly adjusted with a hammer, when it is again put into the cutting-press, where it is screwed up very tight, and is then ready for—

5. Cutting. The instrument employed for this purpose is of a peculiar shape, and called a plough or plough-knife, which consists of a stout flat knife, double-edged at the ‘cutting point,’ firmly set in a kind of frame, in which it may be adjusted by screws.

6. Affixing the boards. The bands are now scraped out fine at the ends, and fastened to the pasteboard intended to form the covers, which is then properly adjusted, and further shaped, if necessary, with a large pair of shears. The edges now undergo the operation of—

7. Sprinkling, gilding, or other adornment. The first is performed with a stiff brush made of hog’s bristles, dipped in the colour; the brush being held in the one hand, and the hairs moved with the other, so as to scatter the colour in minute drops equally over the surface.

8. The external covering of leather, fancy cloth, or paper, is now applied, having been previously soaked in paste, to make it properly adhere. One or more of the blank leaves of the book are next pasted against the inside of the cover, to screen the ends that are turned over when the book is finished; or for choice work, is handed to a ‘finisher’ for—

9. Lettering, gilding, &c. Ordinary gold-leaf is applied by means of white of egg, the pattern being given by pressure with heated brass tools, having the design or letters on their surfaces. The whole is then glazed over with white of egg and polished.

10. Burnishing book edges. This is performed with a wolf’s or dog’s tooth, or a steel burnisher. Place the books in a screw press, with boards on each side of them, and other boards distributed between each volume. First rub the edges well with the tooth to give them a lustre. After sprinkling, or staining, or when the edges have become dry, burnish the front; then turning the press, burnish the edges at the top and bottom of the volume. Burnish the gilt edges in the same manner, after having applied the gold; but observe in gilding to put the gold first upon the front, and allow it to dry; and on no account commence the burnishing until the gold is quite dry.

The succession of the above operations sometimes slightly varies with the workmen, and with the nature of the binding. The examination of a bound book during their perusal will, however, render the whole quite familiar to the reader.

There are several varieties of binding, of which only the following deserve notice here:—

Boards. A book rather loosely done up, without cutting the edges, and covered with coloured paper or cloth, is said to be in ‘boards.’

Cloth, Cloth-binding. This is the style of binding in which the majority of works are now issued. It admits of great neatness and even beauty, is cheap, and when well executed is very durable.—The prepared cloth (hard-glazed or varnished calico), cut by a pattern to the proper size, is passed rapidly between the engraved cylinders of a rolling-press, by which the design is given to it. Paste is now applied to each piece of cloth, which is then placed over the volume previously prepared to receive it. In many cases the covers are prepared separately before being embossed, and are afterwards fastened in the finished state to the book by means of a piece of canvas or calico previously affixed to its back for the purpose, when all that is required is to paste the ends of it to the inside of the boards, with the last blank leaf over it. Books in cloth are seldom cut at the edges, unless they are otherwise highly finished.

Half-binding. Books forwarded in boards, and finished with leather backs and corners, are said to be ‘half-bound.’

Leather-binding. A book is only said to be ‘bound,’ or ‘fully-bound,’ when both its backs and sides are wholly covered with one piece of leather.—The leather is wetted by immersion in water, wrung or squeezed, stretched on a smooth board, cut to the proper size, pared thin on the edges, and covered with paste. It is then applied to the book (previously forwarded in boards, and cut), drawn tightly over it, turned down on the inside, rubbed smooth with a folding-stick, and otherwise adjusted; after which it is placed in some suitable situation, at a distance from a fire, to dry.

Rough calf requires to be damped on the grain side with a sponge and water before pasting and covering.

Russia-leather is well soaked in water for an hour, taken out, beaten, and rubbed; after which the paste is well worked into the flesh side before covering.

Morocco is first ‘grained’ by rubbing it on a board, with the grain side inside, and, after being pasted, left to soak for about a quarter of an hour; after which it is drawn on with a piece of woollen cloth, to preserve the grain.

Roan is either soaked in water, or left to soak when pasted.

School-binding. Originally applied to school-books strongly sewn and ‘done up’ in sheep-skin, which was either left of a plain brown, or sprinkled or marbled with copperas water. Similar works of a cheaper class are now often ‘done up’ in canvas, brown-holland, and even coarse and strong coloured glazed calico.

Concluding Remarks. Numerous patents for improvements in binding books, several of which possess very great merit and usefulness, have been obtained during the last 30 years. Among these, one known as ‘Hancock’s Patent Binding,’ from its extreme novelty, simplicity, durability, and inexpensiveness, deserves a passing notice here. By Mr Wm. Hancock’s method the sheets are folded in double leaves, and by being properly placed together and adjusted (by setting them vertically, with the edges forming the back of the book downwards, in a concave mould so formed that whilst giving shape it may leave the whole breadth, and nearly the whole length exposed), and firmly secured by a few turns of packthread, the book is subjected to the action of a press, and a strong and quick-drying solution of india rubber is smeared over the back with the finger, when the whole is left for 3 or 4 hours, or longer, to dry. The operation is repeated as often as necessary, after which fillets of cloth are cemented on with the same varnish, and the book is ready to have the boards attached. The sheets of books that cannot be folded in ‘double leaves’ may be strongly stitched through, separately, before adjusting them in the mould. In this way several of the usual operations of binding are dispensed with. We most willingly bear testimony to the strength and durability of this method, as well as to the great convenience it affords in allowing the books to open perfectly flat upon a table, or to be distorted in any possible manner, without injury to their backs. It is, undoubtedly, the best way of binding books for travellers. The Editor of the last edition of this work once had a large trunk of books, among which was a massive volume bound on Hancock’s plan. All the rest were nearly torn to pieces by a few months’ journey, but this one remained uninjured even after five years, during which time it accompanied him in his travels, extending, collectively, to upwards of 23,000 miles. See Gilding, Marbling, Sprinkles, Stains, &c.

BOONEKAMP OF MAAGBITTER. Dried orange berries, 100 grammes; bitter orange peel, 30 grammes; gentian root, 60 grammes; cascarilla bark, 30 grammes; turmeric, 15 grammes; cinnamon, 25 grammes; cloves, 15 grammes; rhubarb, 7⁄2 grammes; 90 per cent. spirit, 750 grammes: water, 1650 grammes; star-anise oil, 40 drops; sugar, 250 grammes; digested, expressed, and filtered. (Hager.)

BOOTS and SHOES. The cleaning of boots and shoes forms no unimportant part of the domestic duties of a large establishment; as on it being properly performed depend both their appearance and durability. A votary of St Crispin, in whom we place considerable reliance, assures us that to effect this object in the best style, all that is necessary is to employ very little blacking (merely enough to moisten the surface of the leather), and to brush it off whilst still damp. Never make the surface wet, nor allow the blacking to dry before applying the polishing brush. For this purpose a portion only of the boot or shoe should be attended to at a time. The dirt is, of course, to be carefully brushed off before applying the blacking. When it is desired to restore the shape of a boot or shoe, as well as to clean it, boot trees may be used. Of the brushes, we are told that there should be at least three—one (dirt brush) with bristles stiff, but not wiry nor scratchy, to remove mud and dirt; another (blacking-brush), with fine, flexible hair, and plenty of it, for applying the blacking; and a third (polishing-brush), covered with long, fine, springy, and slightly stiff hair, for giving the polish. The employment of inferior or worn-out brushes is said to be false economy, and proves particularly destructive to the lighter classes of leather.

The occasional use of a little oil or grease to the uppers of boots and shoes increases their softness and durability, as well as the ‘depth,’ but not the brilliancy of the polish, from common blacking. For this purpose some good tallow or ‘dubbing’ may be used; the absorption being aided by a very gentle heat. The soles or bottoms of new boots and shoes may be thoroughly saturated with similar substances, by which means their durability will be fully doubled. The common practice among the shoemakers is to moisten the surface of the leather with a wet sponge before applying the oil or grease; by which (they say) its pores are opened and its absorbent powers increased.

Varnish for Boots and Shoes.—1. Boil together in a pipkin one pint of linseed oil; ⁄2 lb. of mutton suet, the same quantity of beeswax, and a small piece of resin; and when the mixture becomes milk-warm, apply it with a hair brush. After two applications the articles will become waterproof. Great caution must be exercised in melting the above ingredients, lest the mixture boils over, and so give rise to a conflagration.

2. Common tar may be made warm and brushed over the soles of boots or shoes. These latter are then put near the fire so that the tar may be absorbed. When the absorption has taken place, a second or third application may be given with advantage. This application is not suitable for the upper leathers.

3. India-rubber varnish will be found very useful for anointing the upper leather of boots and shoes; but the lower parts, which are exposed to the wear and tear caused by friction with the ground, are but little benefited by its application.

Patent-leather boots and shoes are best cleaned with a little sweet oil or milk (preferably the first), the dirt having been previously removed in the usual way.

India-rubber goloshes and overshoes may be cleaned with a sponge or brush, and water, care being taken not to wet the linings. The same applies to gutta percha. See Blacking, Leather, Waterproofing, &c.

The reasons why boots and shoes so commonly cause corns, and fatigue, and give pain in wear, are explained in our article on the Feet (which see).

Paramount in importance to the appearance of boots or shoes on the wearer is the desideratum, not only of having them so made as to ensure personal comfort in walking, but additionally to have them so constructed as to protect the feet from wet during damp and rainy weather. The evils arising from getting the feet damp cannot be overstated; amongst them are to be included—cold, cough, bronchitis, inflammation of the lungs, and rheumatism. In those inheriting a constitutional consumptive taint, a cold caught from wearing damp or leaky boots has very frequently been known to have precipitated the disease, that has ended in more or less speedy death. Hence arises not only the duty of changing damp boots or shoes as soon as ever the opportunity offers, but the wisdom of adopting the preventive precaution of wearing them of such stout construction as to be impervious to water during rainy weather. If the dangers arising from a neglect of this advice are visited with such serious consequences upon adults and grown persons, they affect infants and children with even far greater intensity, because of the much more tender and sensitive organisation of the latter. It therefore behoves every mother not only to see that her children are shod with good thick boots or shoes, but to take especial care that whenever these are damp they are removed at once.

Mr Chavasse, in his excellent work, ‘Counsel to a Mother,’ recommends “boots for walking out of doors and shoes for the house.” He adds, “that the constant wearing of boots in the house is weakening to the ankles, as weakening as tight lacing is to the waist; indeed it acts much in the same way, namely, by wasting away, by pressure, the ligaments of the ankles, as stays waste away the muscles of the waist.” In support of his argument he quotes Dr Humphrey, who says, “The notion is in both instances fortified by the fact that those persons who have been accustomed to the pressure either upon the ankle or upon the waist, feel a want of it when it is removed, and are uncomfortable without it. They forget, or are unconscious, that the feeling of the want has been engendered by the appliance, and that had they never resorted to the latter, they would never have experienced the former. The deduction to be drawn from Dr Hutchinson’s opinion is that no more fertile source of weak ankles exists than that of wearing laced boots during childhood. Boots with elastic sides, as exerting much more equal pressure, and allowing full scope for the ankles to play, are far preferable to tightly laced-up boots.

BOOT-POW′DER. French chalk reduced to powder by scraping or grating. Used to facilitate the ‘getting on’ of new or tight boots, a little of it being rubbed on the insides of the backs, heels, and insteps.

BOOT-TOP LIQ′UID. Syn. Boot′-top composi′′tion. There are numerous articles of this class extant, but, with few exceptions, they are most unchemical mixtures, not infrequently containing ingredients which are either unnecessary, or opposed to the action of the rest. The following are examples:—

Prep. a. White-top:—1. Oxalic acid and white vitriol, of each 1 oz.; water, 1⁄2 pint; dissolve. It is applied with a sponge, the leather having been previously washed with water; after a short time it is washed off with water, when the boot-tops are either dried in a current of air or by a gentle heat; they are lastly either polished with a brush, so as to appear like new leather, or they are left rough, as the case may require.

2. Sour milk, 1 quart; butter of antimony, cream of tartar, tartaric acid, and burnt alum, of each 2 oz.; mix.

3. Sour milk (skimmed), 3 pints; cream of tartar, 2 oz.; alum and oxalic acid, of each 1 oz.

4. Alum, cream of tartar, magnesia, and oxalic acid, of each 1 oz.; salt of sorrel and sugar lead, of each ⁄4 oz.; water, 1 quart. The preceding are for white tops.

b. Brown-top:—Alum, annatto, and oxalic acid, of each 1 oz.; isinglass and sugar of lead, of each ⁄2 oz.; salt of sorrel, ⁄4 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil for 10 minutes.

c. Saffron, 15 grains; boiling water, 2 oz.; infuse and strain. Add tincture of rhubarb 1⁄2 oz.; concentrated infusion of rhubarb, to make up to 4 oz.

BORACIC ACID (-răs′-). H3BO3. Syn. Boric acid, Sedative salt†, S. s. of vit′riol†; Acidum boracicum (-răs′-), L.; Acide boracique, A. borique, Fr.; Boraxsäure, &c., Ger. The pure acid is obtained from common borax. That of commerce is extracted from the boracic acid lagoons of Tuscany.

Prep. 1. Borax, 1 part; boiling water, 4 parts; dissolve, and add sulphuric acid until the solution acquires a distinctly acid reaction, for which purpose about ⁄2 the weight of the borax will be required. As the solution cools, crystals of BORACIC ACID will be deposited. These may be purified by placing them on a filter, and washing them with a little very cold water, followed by re-solution, in boiling water, and recrystallisation. Nearly pure.

2. As the last, but substituting hydrochloric acid for the sulphuric acid, there ordered. Very nearly pure.

3. By exposing the product of the first crystallisation of either of the preceding formulæ to heat in a platinum crucible, and redissolving and recrystallising the residuum. Chemically pure. Used in analysis.

Prop., &c. Odourless; bitter-tasted; dissolves in 25 times its weight of cold water, and in 3 times its weight of boiling water; very soluble in alcohol, which then burns with a bright green flame; reddens litmus; browns turmeric-paper (properties characteristic of this substance); when strongly heated it forms a brittle glass (VITRIFIED BORACIC ACID) on cooling. The crystallised acid contains 3 atoms, or 43·5% of water. Its salts are called BO′′RATES.

Uses. Boracic acid was once administered internally, in large doses, as an anodyne, antispasmodic, and sedative, but is now scarcely ever employed as a medicine. The crude acid is used in the manufacture of borax; the pure acid in the manufacture of certain chemicals.

Boracic acid is extensively used in Sweden and other countries for the preservation of milk. Meat which has been soaked in a solution of the acid for a few seconds, and milk to which a small quantity has been added, will keep much longer than they would otherwise do. In Sweden alone boracic acid to the amount of 75,000l. was consumed in one year. It is said to be a perfectly harmless antiseptic.

BORACIC ANHYDRIDE. See Boric Anhydride.

BORATE. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Bo′′ras, L.; Boraxsäure salze, Ger. A salt in which the hydrogen of boracic acid is replaced by a basic radical. The borates may be formed by either digesting the hydrate of the base in a solution of the acid, with the assistance of heat, or from a solution of borax and a soluble salt of the base, by double decomposition. They are all decomposed by the stronger acids.

Tests. The borates may be tested by digesting them in a slight excess of oil of vitriol, evaporating the resulting solution to dryness, powdering the residuum, and dissolving it in alcohol; the resulting solution possesses the property of burning with a green flame if the sample examined was a borate, or contained a notable quantity of one. See Boracic Acid.

BORAX. [Eng., Fr.; Ger., L., B. P.] 2NaBO2.B2O3. Syn. Bibo′′rate of so′da, Bo′′rate of s*, Subbo′′rate of s.†, Gold solder†*, Refined′ tinc′al†*; So′dæ bibo′′ras, S. bo′′ras, L.; Chrysocolle, &c., Fr.; Boraxsaures natron, &c., Ger. Commercial biborate of soda. Borax is obtained either by purifying native borate of soda (TINC′AL, TINC′AR), or by saturating crude boracic acid with the alkali. It is never prepared on the small scale unless for chemical analysis.

Prop. Crystals, six-sided prisms, which contain 10 equiv. of water, and effloresce in dry air; soluble in 20 parts of cold, and in 6 parts of boiling water; solution has an alkaline reaction on test-paper; by heat it loses its water of crystallisation, and at a higher temperature fuses to a glass-like substance (see below).

Pur. This may be ascertained by determining the quantity of sulphuric acid required to neutralise a given weight of the sample under examination, as indicated by litmus paper. Common salt and alum are frequently mixed with borax to lower the value. The first may be detected by a solution in hot water giving a curdy-white precipitate with nitrate of silver, soluble in ammonia; the last, by water of ammonia, giving a bulky-white pulverulent precipitate. The former must be distinguished from the white pulverulent precipitate of borate of silver, which is thrown down from pure borax.

Uses, &c. Borax is extensively employed as a flux for metals, for soldering, and in medicine. Internally it is diuretic, sedative, emmenagogue, and refrigerant, in doses of 15 to 40 gr.; externally, made into a gargle for sore throat, and in powder as a detergent in aphthæ, and ulcerations of the month. Dissolved in rose-water, it is used as a cosmetic; and mixed with about 8 times its weight of lard, forms a useful ointment in piles and sore nipples.

The ‘Comptes Rendus’ (lxxx, 473) contains the results of some experiments made by M. Schnetzler, with the view of testing the antifermentative and anti-putrefactive properties of borax.

When the leaves of the Elodea Canadensis were plunged into a concentrated solution of borax, the living matter of the cell was killed, and the same result followed with the fresh leaves and spores of the Vaucheria clavata, the spores of the grape fungus (Oidium sacchari), and of yeast moulds, &c. Infusoria, rotifera, and entomostraca, placed in water containing borax, quickly ceased to move and then died. The larvæ of frogs placed in a solution of borax were killed in less than an hour after immersion. M. Schnetzler thinks the deduction to be drawn from these facts is that borax ought to act antagonistically to fermentation, if this latter be a chemical phenomenon accomplished under the influence of the life of the yeast. To test the correctness of this hypothesis experiments were undertaken with a view of determining the action of borax upon fermentable matters.

Ripe grapes and currants after being kept two years in a concentrated solution of borax, in a closed vessel, presented no trace of fermentation, although, however well preserved, they were not eatable. As a counter test grapes were placed in a well-closed vessel filled with ordinary water, when after a time, according to the temperature, fermentation took place, with evolution of carbonic acid. Thirty cubic centimètres of fresh milk were placed in a test tube with one gram of borax. The cream quickly formed a rather thick layer on the upper portion. Although the test tube was closed by a cork a mould was formed upon the cream, but the remainder of the liquid underwent no acid fermentation, and retained during several months the appearance of very clear creamed milk, and although afterwards under the influence of summer heat the liquid became perfectly limpid, and deposited the casein as a soft white matter, neither the deposit nor the liquid had an acid taste, and after three months they still had the odour of fresh milk. Fresh milk put into a well-closed tube without borax underwent fermentation in two or three days. A piece of sheep’s brain treated with powdered borax, after eight days, although it evolved sulphuretted hydrogen, gave no indications of putrefaction, and after retaining a soft consistence during some months, became hard and almost horny without any disagreeable smell.

A pound of beef was placed in a concentrated solution of borax, in a tin case not hermetically sealed.

The liquid into which the colouring matter of the blood, and some of the soluble nitrogenous substances of the meat had diffused, was three times removed during a year and a half, and the meat washed with cold water; but at the end of the above time it had not the least odour of putrefaction. It was of a yellowish colour, but soft and tender as fresh meat. Removed from the borax solution the meat remained in the same state in the air. Beef, veal and portions of sheeps’ brains were placed in a vessel which was filled with solution of borax and hermetically sealed. The liquid soon became clear red, and this colour remained during several months without alteration. The meat presented not the least disagreeable smell as long as excess of air was prevented. Meat placed in water in a flask hermetically sealed became rotten in a few days.

The peculiar odour of the meat preserved in borax in contact with air the author considers to be due to the decomposition of matters which result from the metamorphosis of substances that constitute the muscular and intermuscular fibre. Although probably the use of borax will not be applicable to the preservation of meat for culinary purposes, the author considers that it may be economically substituted for alcohol in the preservation of anatomical specimens. Moreover, its power of suspending life in the lower organisms would seem to indicate its probable utilisation in the treatment of wounds, &c.

In support of the above views as to the antiseptic properties of borax, M. Schnetzler refers to a letter from an English traveller in California, who there observed that in a soil containing borax the carcass of a horse had, for four months, remained without decomposition, the flesh continuing perfectly fresh, and the eye retaining its clearness and brightness. For most of the proposed applications of salicylic acid to the preservation of milk, and the products derived from it, it is affirmed that borax is equally efficacious, and has the advantage of being cheaper and more convenient.

Borax, Glass of. Borax dried at a gentle heat, and then melted by increasing the heat until it forms a vitreous mass on being cooled. Used in soldering, and as a flux, particularly in blowpipe experiments.

BO′′RIC ACID. See Boracic Acid.

BORIC ANHYDRIDE. B2O3. Syn. Anhydrous boracic acid, Boracic anhydride, Boric oxide. The only known oxide of boron. It can be produced by burning boron in oxygen, in the air, or in nitrous oxide, but is most easily and economically prepared by strongly heating boracic acid so as to deprive it of water. It is a brittle vitreous solid, not volatilised by heat except in the presence of water. Dissolves in water, forming boracic acid. Its alcoholic solution burns with a green flame, like that of boracic acid.

BO′RON. B. The base of boracic acid. It was discovered by Homberg in 1702; but, from attracting little notice, was soon forgotten. It was rediscovered, almost simultaneously, by Sir H. Davy and by Gay-Lussac and Thénard, in 1807-8.

Prep. Boron is prepared by a process similar to that employed to obtain silicium:—Potassium and perfectly dry boracic acid, or, preferably, boro-fluoride of potassium, intimately mixed together, are placed in a glass adopter-tube, and submitted to a low red heat. When cold, the loose cork that fastened its mouth is removed, and hot water poured in, in successive portions, until the whole matter is detached and all its soluble portion dissolved; the liquid is next allowed to settle, and the precipitate washed first with a solution of sal-ammoniac, and afterwards with alcohol; the residuum (boron) is lastly dried in a capsule, and put into a well-stoppered phial.

Prop., &c. A solid, tasteless, and inodorous powder, of a dark greyish-brown colour. With sulphur it unites at high temperatures, forming sulphurets (sulphides of boron); and when placed in chlorine gas it spontaneously inflames, and a gaseous chloride of boron is formed. The compounds of boron with basic radicals are termed BORIDES.

Obs. Among the most remarkable of the recent discoveries in chemistry are those of MM. Wohler and Deville, relative to silica and boron. Each of these substances is now proved to exist in three very different states, analogous to the three known states of carbon, namely, charcoal, graphite, and diamond. The last of these states is, of course, the most interesting. Crystallised boron possesses a hardness, brightness, and refractive power comparable to those of the diamond; it burns in chlorine, without residue, and with circumstances resembling those of the combustion of diamond in oxygen; it is not acted on by any of the acids, and appears to be the least alterable of all the simple bodies. Its powder is already used in the arts, instead of diamond-dust; and it seems not improbable that, when obtained by the chemist in crystals of a larger size, it may rival even the diamond as a gem.

Some late experiments by Wohler and Deville seem to have established the fact, that the so-called “graphitoidal” boron is really a boride of aluminium. Its formation on fusing aluminium with amorphous boron or boric oxide appears to take place more particularly when the heat applied is neither very strong nor long continued.

Boron, Terflu′oride of. See Fluoboric Acid.

BOTHRIOCEPHALUS CORDATUS. Leuckart was the first to describe this creature, which is a parasitic worm infesting the human intestines. It is, however, much more commonly met with in dogs than in man. The annexed engraving depicts—b, the head (back view), magnified five diameters; b′, upper part of body and head, magnified two diameters; a is a portion of the worm, natural size. See Bothriocephalus Latus.

BOTHRIOCEPHALUS LATUS. A parasitic worm infesting the human intestines. Although classed with the tapeworms, it differs essentially from tænia. The head is of an elongated form, compressed with an anterior obtuse prominence into which the mouth opens.

The animal has the power of elongating and contracting the neck, so that it appears sometimes short, sometimes long. The joints or segments commence about three inches from the head; the anterior ones are nearly square, but the remainder are much elongated transversely. Each segment contains on its flat surface two orifices, the anterior connected with a male, the posterior with a female organ of generation. The parasite is of a brown colour, and from six to twenty feet in length.

Those who are affected by this worm never pass the single segments from the bowels, but void them in chains of many links. The ova are also frequently to be met with in the fæces; they are of an ovoid shape; the capsule is perfectly translucent, and the yolk is distinguishable. The yolk undergoes segmentation, and ultimately develops an embryo with six hooks at the anterior extremity, cased in a mantle studded with vibratory cilia, and the lid of the capsule then opens up; and the embryo escapes. If they do not obtain access to the intestines of an animal within a week, they lose their ciliated mantle and perish. Drinking-water is supposed to be the chief if not the only medium through which the parasite gains admissions to the intestines in man. It seems to be unknown in England, except when imported; but is common in Russia, Sweden, Norway, Lapland, Finland, Poland, and Switzerland.

BOTS. The larvæ of the gad-fly. The eggs are deposited by the female fly on the horse’s shoulder and on parts of the body within reach of the tongue, by which they are carried to the mouth and find their way to the stomach. They usually resist all attempts to expel them. The most promising treatment consists in rubbing down in hot water about 2 or 3 drms. each of aloes and assafœtida; and when the solution has cooled, adding to it 1 oz. each of turpentine and ether. Repeat this dose two or three times a week, omitting the aloes if necessary.

BOT′TLES (bŏt′lz). See Glass, Infancy, Lactation, Phials, &c.

BOTT′LING (bŏt′l-ĭng.) See Corks, Malt Liquors, Wine, &c.

BOUGIE (bōō′-zhē). [Fr.] Syn. Ce′reus, Cere′olus, Cande′la probato′′ria*, L. In surgery, a long slender instrument, originally of wax, introduced into the urethra, œsophagus, or rectum, in stricture and other diseases of those organs.

Prep. 1. (Prof. Pickel’s.) Amber (melted), 1 part; boiled oil, 3 parts; mix, cool a little, and further add of oil of turpentine, 1 part; spread the mixture, at 3 successive intervals, upon loose spun-silk cord or web; dry in a heat of 150° Fahr., and repeat the process until the instrument has acquired the proper size; lastly, polish it, first with pumice-stone, and afterwards with tripoli and oil. This is the original receipt of the once celebrated French professor Pickel, and is still generally used, slightly modified, on the Continent. At the present time, in Paris, a little caoutchouc, equal to about ⁄20th of the weight of the oil employed, is generally added. For the best ELAS′TIC BOUGIES the process usually occupies from 6 to 8 weeks, to allow full time for the drying and hardening of the composition. When the bougie is required to be hollow, a piece of polished metallic wire is introduced into the axis of the silk; or tin-foil is rolled round the wire and the composition applied as before. When dry and hard the wire is withdrawn.

2. (Hunter’s.) Yellow wax, 2 parts; red lead, 3 parts; olive oil, 6 parts; slowly boiled together until combination takes place; strips of soft linen (rather wider at the one end than the other) are then dipped into the composition, rolled up firmly, and finished off on a polished slab.

3. (Piderit’s.) Olive oil, 1 part; wax, 6 parts; as before.

4. (Bell’s.) Lead-plaster, 11 parts; yellow wax, 4 parts; olive oil, 1 part.

5. (St. B. Hosp.) Wax, 12 parts; Chio turpentine, 4 parts; red sulphide of mercury, 1 part.

6. Caou′tchouc bougies:—In France, where ether is comparatively inexpensive, these are made by applying an ethereal solution of india rubber to the silk or foil prepared as before. In England, naphtha was, until recently, employed instead of ‘ether,’ but it furnishes a very inferior product. Now bisulphuret of carbon is generally used as the solvent. Sometimes strips of india rubber, previously boiled in water, or that have had their edges softened by moistening them with a little ether, or bisulphuret of carbon, are wound round the ‘wire or foil,’ and kept in their place by a piece of tape applied over them. They are afterwards carefully smoothed off and polished.

7. Gutta-per′cha bougies:—These are formed of gutta percha (previously softened by immersion in boiling water), by rolling it between plates of polished glass or marble. When skilfully prepared from the best (uncoloured) gutta percha, they are admirable instruments. A bougie of this description, of moderate size, and slightly oiled, or wetted with glycerin or gum-water, may be passed through the whole length of the urethra of a healthy person without causing the slightest pain. Gutta-percha catheters (hollow bougies) are still more flexible and easily introduced, and may remain in the urethra for a long time without causing irritation; an important advantage in such matters. The reader cannot, however, be too careful to avoid those made of coloured gutta percha, which, unfortunately, rapidly become very brittle by age. Those originally manufactured in this material were coloured black, and were constantly breaking whilst in use—a disaster from which several serious and even fatal cases ensued. There is no such danger to be dreaded from those made of the uncoloured material when of good quality.

BOULES DE NANCY. See Balls (Martial).

BOUILLI. [Fr.] A name frequently applied by cooks to dishes of boiled or stewed meat, as a refinement on its plain English synonymes. Thus, beef bouilli, beef in bouilli, &c., mean stewed or boiled beef, &c. As, however, the name is à la français, so must be the ‘accompaniments,’ which generally consist of herbs and vegetable seasoning in greater quantity and variety than is usually deemed essential for an humble dish of English boiled or stewed meat.

BOUILLON (bōōl′-yong). [Fr.] In cookery, broth, soup.

BOUQUET′ (bōō-kā′). [Fr.] A nosegay. In perfumery, highly scented spirits (esprits) adapted for the handkerchief are commonly called bouquets. The following are examples:—

Bouquet d’Amour. Prep. From esprits de rose, jasmin, violette, and cassie (flowers of acacia farnesiana), of each 2 parts; essences of musk and ambergris, of each 1 part; mix, and filter.