A Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts, Processes, and Collateral Information (part 5)

Hiller’s experiments tend to show that putrefaction is independent of the presence of bacteria, that bacteria can develop in liquids such as urine without producing its decomposition, and that the degree of their development and the rate of their multiplication depend upon the amount of assimilable material.

The following is the definition given to the word ‘microzyme’ (which occurs above) by its originator, Dr Sanderson: “I proposed the word ‘microzyme’ as a convenient general term for the first organic forms which present themselves in organic nitrogenous liquids when about to undergo spontaneous decomposition.”

From the experiments of Béchamp it appears that under some circumstances the mother of vinegar, a conglomeration of microzymes, can be transformed into bacteria, and under other circumstances into a cellular ferment which can excite normal alcoholic fermentation in cane sugar. Subsequent researches have shown that the converse of this is also true, and that the cellular ferment may be transformed into microzymes and bacteria.

A mixture of starch and yeast kept at a temperature of 24° to 35° soon liquefies, and the yeast undergoes remarkable changes. The cells swell, become transparent, and gradually disappear. Myriads of microzymes of great agility spring into existence, then vibrios appear, and as these increase the microzymes diminish. The vibrios in their turn are succeeded by myriads of bacteria, and finally the bacteria disappear, leaving nothing but microzymes, single or coupled together. During these changes a small quantity of gas is disengaged, no butyric acid is formed, and but little acetic or lactic acids.

As then the mother of vinegar when changed into bacteria becomes lactic or butyric ferment, and when transformed into cellular matter becomes alcoholic ferment, and as beer yeast becomes lactic or butyric ferment when reduced to microzymes, vibrios, or bacteria, it is evident that the property of being a ferment of any particular nature does not depend essentially upon the nature of the ferment, but upon its organisation or structure.

A contributor to the ‘Medical Times and Gazette’ of February 2nd, 1878, advances the opinion that many of the bacteria are only parts of a plant which has other forms and other modes of growth and propagation when not confined to the living organism or to fluids, and regards the bacterium as a transitional or provisional and not as a permanent form, but an abnormal phase of life thrust upon the plant by accident.

BACTERIA AS ORIGINATORS OF DISEASE.—The researches of many eminent microscopists and physiologists afford abundant evidence of the presence of bacteria in the blood of persons affected with various infectious diseases. For instance, Core and Feltz, of Strasbourg, found a linked bacterium in the blood of those attacked with septicæmia, typhoid, and puerperal fevers. The same investigators also discovered bacteria in the blood of patients suffering from scarlet fever; this blood when injected into the veins of rabbits set up a feverish disease that proved fatal.

Again, in the blood of man and the sheep attacked with smallpox, a bacterium of the globular or sphere-shaped variety was found by Keber, Hallier, and Zurn.

Bacteria have also been found in the blood during measles, and in the splenic apoplexy of sheep and cattle. They have likewise been identified in diphtheritical exudations both from the kidneys and womb, as well as in the blood during an attack of rheumatic fever, and they are undoubtedly present in the same fluid during many feverish disorders. Drs Lewis and Cunningham failed to discover them in the blood of cholera patients. Professors Cohn and Koch stand prominently forward as the advocates of the germ theory of disease by bacteria. Professor Cohn divides the bacteria into groups, genera, and species, and assigns to each species a different function.

For instance, he considers the ferment of contagion to be due to the presence of a variety of the sphere-shaped bacterium—one of his groups. He divides the whole group into three—the chromogen, zymogen, and pathogen, the bacteria of pigmentation, of fermentation, and of contagion, respectively. He says those organisms are exceedingly minute, darkish or coloured granules, so small as to be immeasurable. They frequently present the appearance of beaded chains or the form of aggregations. They are motionless and are occasionally found with the Bacterium termo in putrefying organic liquids.

Messrs Chauveau and Sanderson have discovered a bacterium in vaccine lymph which believers in the germ theory class among the pathogen bacteria, and which they have named the Micrococcus vaccinæ. Amongst the pathogen bacteria they also include the Micrococcus dipthericus and Micrococcus septicus, the former found in the epithelium of certain organs during certain forms of pyæmia, and the latter in the miliary eruption of typhus, pyæmia, and other diseases. The chromogen or pigmentary bacteria have occasionally been the means of working miracles. Several instances of bread exuding blood, under supernatural circumstances, are related by Rivola. Ehrenberg found this colour on some bread in the house of a patient who had died of cholera, and he ascertained the pigment to be due to the presence of the Monas prodigiosa, small round bodies which Professor Cohn classes with the micrococci, a variety of the sphere-shaped bacterium.

The recent investigations of Koch were directed to the cause of splenic fever, and Cohn on examining his specimens found that they were examples of Bacteria of the species called Bacillus anthracis, which seems to present little or no difference to the Bacillus subtilis of hay infusions. Koch found that bacilli increase with enormous rapidity in the blood, and in the fluid of tissues of living animals, by developing in length and dividing transversely. The animals employed were chiefly mice, and a small incision being made at the root of the tail, as minute a drop as possible of the fluid containing the bacilli was injected into the system. The spleen invariably became enormously swollen, and filled with a large number of crystalline-looking rods of varying size, never exhibiting movement or spore formation; they increased in numbers solely by division. The number of bacilli found in the blood varies in different animals; thus in the guinea-pig it was enormous, sometimes exceeding that of the blood-corpuscles; in the rabbit much smaller, so that sometimes several drops had to be examined before any were found, in the mouse often nil. In the blood of dead animals or other suitable fluids the bacilli grow to very long straight leptothorax-like filaments (within certain limits of temperature, and with the presence of air), while the formation of numerous spores goes on at the same time.

Kohl believes that it is to the presence of the spores that the occurrence of splenetic fever appears to be referable. When living, inoculation with them always produced the disease; but if killed, as by drying, or a high temperature, inoculation failed; it was necessary either that living spores should be present, or that the filaments should be capable of generating spores, in order that the disease should be propagated by inoculation.

Koch tried whether the poisonous bacilli spores could gain entrance through the digestive organs, but found that mice and rabbits could eat them with impunity. Koch draws attention to the similarity of splenic fever to typhus and cholera. He says it presents analogies to typhus in its dependence on soil-water, its preference for low grounds, its sporadic occurrence throughout the year, and its development into an epidemic in the late summer and autumn. Like cholera, again, he says, it is connected with soil-water, and it also agrees with cholera in the point which has been so well made out by Pettenkofer, that on board ship an interval of three or four weeks is sufficient to prevent its further development.

Hence Koch is disposed to hope that the contagium of typhus and cholera may still be discovered in the form of some Schizophyte or spheroidal bacterium, though practical observers have hitherto sought for them in vain.

Many pathologists, however, refuse to accept the accuracy of these deductions, and regard the presence of bacteria in the blood and tissues during disease as of no significance; whilst they deny that it is satisfactorily proved that they are the cause of disease.

Dr Lionel Beale says:—“Changes in the processes of digestion are soon followed by the multiplication of bacteria in every part of the alimentary canal, and within a few hours countless millions may be developed. They multiply in the secretions under certain circumstances, almost as soon as these are formed, and I have adduced evidence to show that bacteria germs exist even in healthy blood. In the very substance of some cells I have seen them, and in many cases in which little granules have been discerned in connection with bioplasts. There is reason to believe that some of them are really bacteria germs, passive as long as the higher life is maintained in its integrity, but ready to grow and multiply the instant a change favorable to them, and adverse to us, shall occur.”

And again he remarks:—“Bacteria prey upon morbid structure, and upon the substances resulting from the death of bioplasm (protoplasm). We ought not, therefore, to be surprised at their existence in disease. They are found in great numbers amongst pus-corpuscles which have ceased to live, and they grow and multiply with great rapidity in fluids which contain disease germs, as soon as these begin to lose their specific powers and to undergo decomposition.” See Germs.

BAD′′GER (băj′-ĕr). Syn. Me′les, L.; Blaireau, Fr.; Dachs, Ger. The ur′sus me′les (Linn.), one of the plantigrade carnivora, a burrowing nocturnal animal, common in Europe, Asia, and North America. Since the extirpation of the bear, the badger is the sole representative of the ursine family in our indigenous zoology. Its habits are “nocturnal, inoffensive, and slothful; its food consists of roots, earth-nuts, fruits, the eggs of birds, insects, reptiles, and the smaller quadrupeds; its noxious qualities are consequently few and of slight moment, and by no means justify the exterminating war unintermittently waged against it.” (Brande.) Its “muscular strength is great, its bite proverbially powerful; and a dog must be trained and encouraged to enter willingly into combat” with it. (Id.)

Uses, &c. The flesh of the badger is prized as food; the skin used for pistol furniture; the hair made into brushes. The American badger is commonly called the GROUND-HOG. The Cape badger produces HYRACEUM (which see).

BAD′IANE (-e-ăhn). [Fr.] Syn. Bad′ian, B.-seed. Star-anise seed.

BADI′′GEON (bă-dĭzh′ōne; băd′-e-zhŭn‡, or bă-dĭj′ŭn‡—Smart). Among operatives and artists, any cement used to fill up holes and to cover defects in their work. Among statuaries, a mixture of plaster and free-stone is commonly used for this purpose; among joiners and carpenters, a mixture of sawdust and glue, or of whiting and glue; and among coopers, one of tallow and chalk. The name is also given to a stone-coloured mixture used for the fronts of houses, and said to be composed of wood-dust and lime, slaked together, stone powder, and a little ochre, umber, or sienna; the whole being mixed up with weak alum water to the consistence of paint, and laid on in dry weather.

BAEL. [Nat.] Syn. Indian bael, Bel*; Bael, B. in′dicus, Be′la, B. in′dica, L. The œg′le marmelos (Correa; cratæva m., Linn.) one of the Aurantiaceæ (DC.). Dried half-ripe fruit imported from the E. Indies, under the name of Indian bael. Astringent and refrigerant; highly extolled in chronic dysentery, diarrhœa, English cholera, and relaxations generally. It is also used in bilious fevers, hypochondriasis, melancholia, &c. Root-bark, stem-bark, and expressed juice of the leaves, particularly the first, also used in the same cases in India. Ripe fruit fragrant and delicious; used, in the E. I., as a warm cathartic, and regarded as a certain cure for habitual costiveness. Mucus of the seeds used by painters as size; also as a cement. Unripe fruit used to dye yellow. It is generally administered under the form of DECOCTION or EXTRACT (which see).

BAGASSE′ (-găs′). [Fr.] The dry refuse stalks of the sugar cane as they leave the crushing-mill.—Used as fuel in the colonial sugar-houses.

BAGG′ING. The cloth or materials of which bags or sacks are made. In agriculture, applied to a method of reaping corn by a chopping, instead of a drawing cut. See Rats, &c.

BAHIA POWDER. See Araroba.

BAHR’S NON-POISONOUS MEDICAL SNUFF. A snuff largely advertised in the Berlin journals, composed chiefly of powdered galls. (Hager.)

BAIN-MARIE. [Fr.] In old chemistry, a water bath; also, sometimes, a sand bath. In cookery, a shallow vessel containing heated water, in which saucepans, &c., are placed, when it is necessary either to make them hot, or to keep them so, without allowing them to boil. It is extremely useful in making sauces, warming soups and small dishes, and when dinners are delayed after they are ready to be served.

BA′′KING (bāke′-). Syn. Action de cuire au four, Fr. The process of cooking, or of heating, drying, and hardening any substance in an oven or kiln, or by the rays of the sun; the art or trade of a baker‡; also technically, a batch or ovenful, or the quantity baked at once (= FOURNÉE, Fr.).

In cookery, baking is, perhaps, of all others, the cheapest, most convenient, and best way of dressing dinners for small families, where a good domestic oven is at hand. Though the flavour of baked meat is generally considered barely equal to that of the same parts roasted, there are some joints and dishes to which it appears particularly suitable. Among these may be mentioned legs and loins of pork, legs and shoulders of mutton, fillets of veal, &c. A baked pig, if it has been occasionally basted, and the heat has not been too great, eats equal to a roast one. Geese and ducks treated in the same way are also excellent. A baked hare which has been basted with raw milk and butter also eats well; and so do various pieces of beef, especially the buttock. Cooks tell us that this last should be sprinkled with a little salt for a day or two before dressing it, and after being washed is preferably baked, along with about a pint of water, in a glazed earthen pan tied over with writing paper, ‘three or four times thick.’ A baked ham is said to be preferable to a boiled one; to be tenderer, fuller of gravy, and finer flavoured. It should be soaked in water for about an hour, wiped dry, and covered with a coarse thin paste or batter. Ordinary dishes require similar treatment in baking to that given them when roasted.

For domestic use, where the kitchen-range does not include a really good oven, the portable articles known as a ‘Dutch-oven,’ and an ‘American oven,’ form an excellent substitute, admirably adapted for small joints, poultry, &c., all of which, when these utensils are skilfully employed, possess a delicacy and flavour fully equal to the same when roasted; whilst not more than one half the fire is required for the purpose. According to Miss Acton they also “answer excellently for delicate sweet puddings, and for cakes.” See Bread, Cakes, Roasting, &c.

Baking Pow′der. See Powders.

Baking Powder, American. For making light pastry. Tartaric acid and chalk. (Reichardt.)

Baking Powder, Borwick’s German, is an artificial fermentation powder, compounded with coarse maize-flour. (Gädike.)

Baking Powder, Goodall’s, is a compound of 2 parts of rice flour with 1 part of a mixture of tartaric acid and bicarbonate of soda. (K. Boschan.)

Baking Powder or Yeast Powder, Professor Horsford’s (Cambridge, U.S.). This is a powder supplied in two packets. The one contains an acid phosphate of lime and magnesia made up with a certain quantity of flour, and the other is bicarbonate of soda, with a little chloride of potassium.

BAL′ANCE. As in the process of what is termed gravimetric analysis the chemist has to determine the weights of the different substances employed as well as found, it will be self-evident that for his results to be trustworthy the balance he employs must be perfectly accurate and reliable.

The accompanying drawing, from Roscoe, represents a common form of chemical balance.

The apparatus consists of a perforated brass beam (AA), vibrating about its centre, at which is fixed a triangular knife-edge of agate (C); this rests upon a horizontal agate plane attached to the upright brass pillar. To each end of the beam light brass pans (BB) are hung, each pan being suspended by an agate plane, upon an agate knife-edge fixed on the end of the beam at DD. This arrangement is rendered necessary in order to reduce as much as possible the friction of the edges on their supports, which friction, if unchecked, would seriously impair the sensibility of the balance.

In order to prevent the agate edges being worn away by constantly rubbing on the agate planes, the beam and the ends (DD) are supported by the brass arm (EE), when the balance is not in use, so that the agate surfaces are not in contact. The beam and pans are released when required by turning the handle (F). The movement of the brass arm (EE) is accompanied by means of a rod descending through the upright brass pillar, and resting on a simple eccentric, by the turning of which by the handle (F) it may be gradually raised or lowered. The substance to be weighed (held by a tube, watch glass, &c.) is placed in one of the pans, and weights added one by one in the other, until the beam is in equilibrium: this is ascertained by the long pointer(G) oscillating to an equal distance on each side of the central mark or index, this latter being subdivided into equal spaces, so that the oscillations can be measured. A spirit level is also a necessary appendage to the instrument, since it enables the operator to place the beam on an exactly horizontal level.

The beam of the balance is generally graduated into decimals. This saves the trouble of placing a weight on the scale, since it enables the operator to weigh the milligramme and its fractions by suspending a centigramme rider or hook on or between the indicated points of a graduated line.

The balance is enclosed in a glass case, which serves not only to protect it from dust, but to allow of the weighing being carried on away from the outer air, in which the prevalence of draughts proves a source of considerable annoyance to the weigher. The front of the scale case generally consists of three parts, viz. a fixed centre piece and two lateral frames or doors, all of course of glass. It is of importance that the air inside the balance case should be perfectly dry, since a humid atmosphere would not only affect the weight of many hygroscopic substances when placed in the pans, but likewise be liable to attack the instrument itself. To guard against these casualties a small beaker containing oil of vitriol, or chloride of calcium, or freshly-burnt lime, should be kept in the case. A balance capable of weighing 70 or 80 grammes in each scale will be found to meet the needs of most chemists.

Fresenius says, “The ACCURACY of a balance depends upon the following conditions:

“a. The fulcrum must be placed above the centre of gravity of the beam.

“b. The suspension points of the scales must be on an exact level with the fulcrum.

“c. The beam must be sufficiently strong and inflexible to bear without bending the greatest weight that the construction of the balance admits of.

“d. The arms of the balance must be of equal length; i.e. the points of suspension must be equidistant from the fulcrum or point of support.

“The SENSIBILITY or DELICACY of a balance depends upon the following conditions:

“a. The friction of the edges upon their supports must be as slight as possible.

“b. The centre of gravity must be as near as possible to the fulcrum.

“c. The beam must be as light as possible.”

The following are the tests given by the same authority for the accuracy and sensibility of a balance:

“1. The balance is in the first place accurately adjusted, if necessary, either by the regulating screws, or by means of tinfoil, and a milligramme weight is then placed in one of the scales. A good and practically useful balance must turn distinctly with this weight; a delicate chemical balance should indicate the one tenth of a milligramme with perfect distinctness.

“2. Both scales are loaded with the maximum weight the construction of the balance will admit of; the balance is then accurately adjusted, and a milligramme added to the weight in one scale. This ought to cause the balance to turn to the same extent as in 1. In most balances, however, it shows somewhat less on the index.

“3. The balance is accurately adjusted should it be necessary to establish a perfect equilibrium between the scales by loading the one with a minute portion of tinfoil (this tinfoil must be left remaining upon the scale during the experiment); both scales are then equally loaded, say with about fifty grammes each, and if necessary the balance is again adjusted (by the addition of small weights, &c.). The load of the two scales is then interchanged, so as to transfer that of the right scale to the left, and vice versâ. A balance with perfectly equal arms must maintain its absolute equilibrium upon the interchange of the weights of the two scales.

“4. The balance is accurately adjusted; it is then arrested, subsequently set in motion, and again allowed to recover its equilibrium; the same process should be repeated several times. A good balance must invariably reassume its original equilibrium.

“A balance of which the end edges afford too much play to the hook resting upon them, so as to allow the latter slightly to alter its position, will show perceptible differences in different trials. This fault, however, is possible only with balances of defective construction.

“A balance to be perfectly useful for the purposes of quantitative analysis must stand the first, second, and last of these tests. A slight inequality of the arms is of no great consequence, since this may be readily and completely remedied by the manner of weighing.” See Weights.

Balance, Hydrostat′ic. See Specific Gravity.

Balance, Tor′sion. A delicate instrument, invented by Coulomb, for measuring the intensities of the electrical and magnetic forces.

BALD′NESS (bawld′-). Syn. Cal′vitas, Calvi′′ties (vĭsh′-e-ēz), L.; Calvitie, Chauveté, Fr.; Kahlheit, Kahlkopf, Kahlköpfigheit, Ger. Primarily, absence or loss of any natural covering; appr., destitution or loss of hair, more especially of that of the top and fore-part of the head. In botany, absence of beard or awn.

Grey hair and baldness dependent on old age are natural consequences of man’s infirmity, and must be regarded as evidence of failing vigour, rather than in the light of a disease. Premature loss of hair may be induced by various causes. It is common after severe fevers, and is frequently caused by external pressure, friction, or violence, and by such other local actions and conditions which, when long continued, interrupt the normal functions of the skin. Persons with a consumptive, scorbutic, scrofulous, or syphilitic taint, or of a general bad habit of body, frequently lose their hair early. In these cases it probably arises from debility or paralysis of the cutaneous vessels, and the consequent insufficient nutrition of the hair-bulbs. When it occurs in persons under the middle age, and apparently enjoying good health, it may be often traced to the pernicious practice of constantly wearing a hard non-ventilating hat, or to disordered stomach, habitual smoking or hard drinking, irregular habits, or late hours. Excessive anxiety or grief, and intense study and thoughtfulness, also tend to promote the early decay of the hair. The natural baldness of the aged, and frequently the premature baldness of earlier years, arises from the gradual attenuation of the scalp, which ultimately becomes too thin to afford room for the performance of the functions of the hair-producing organs, and too scantily supplied with blood for their due nutrition and support.

Treatm. The baldness of senility and that arising from the permanent injury or destruction of the hair-bulbs, admit of no cure, notwithstanding the daily assurances of advertising impostors to the contrary. In other cases, when a disposition to baldness exists, shown by the hair falling off in large quantities, or ceasing to grow with its usual vigour and rapidity, the frequent but gentle use of the hair-brush, and of any bland stimulating oil, pomade, or wash, if adopted in time, will generally prove sufficient to arrest the progress of decay, and, very frequently, to restore the hair to its pristine condition. The head may be advantageously washed in cold water, at least once a day; or what is better, a shower bath may be taken on rising in the morning. Should this plan not succeed, the head, or the upper part of it, may be shaved, and a wig, or a scalp, adopted for a time. The effect of keeping the hair closely cropped or shaved is to make it grow thicker, stiffer, and stronger, and this often when all other means fail.

Among more active and less common remedies for baldness may be mentioned—mild streaming electricity, stimulant fomentations, cantharidised, ioduretted, phosphoretted, &c., oils and lotions, a night-cap that, without pressing injuriously on the head, lifts, as it were, the scalp into its natural position, &c., all of which are noticed elsewhere.

The celebrated John Wesley recommended rubbing the part morning and evening with a raw onion until it became red, and then applying a little honey. The vendors of Rowland’s ‘Macassar Oil’ recommend the head to be rubbed with a towel (or hair-brush), until somewhat red, each time before applying their nostrum; and the advice is certainly good, as independent of the stimulus thus given to the skin, and the increased flow of blood through the minute vessels of the scalp, it is rendered more absorbent and sensitive to the action of medicaments. At the same time the reader must be cautioned against placing any reliance on external applications, unless he assists their action by due attention to diet, exercise, ventilation, and such other matters as tend to promote the general health and vigour of the body.

The substances usually employed to medicate hair-cosmetics, the general management of the hair, and the formulæ for various applications to promote its growth, preservation, and beauty, are noticed in the articles Hair, Hair-cosmetics, Pomades, Oils, Washes, &c., to which the reader is referred.

BALEEN′ (-lēne′). [Fr. baleine.] The fisher’s name for whalebone.

BALL (bawl). [Eng., Ger., Swed.] Syn. Balle, Boule, Fr.; Bal, Bol, Dau.; Glob-u-lus, Pi′la, L. In commerce, veterinary medicine, perfumery, &c., applied to various substances made up into a globular, spheroidal, or even a cylindrical form, as ash-balls, horse-balls, soap-balls, &c.

BALLOON′ (-lōōn’). Syn. Ballon, Fr., Ger. Any hollow spherical body of which the sides are extremely thin or attenuated in comparison with its diameter or bulk. In aërostatics, a machine or apparatus for elevating and sustaining bodies in the air. In chemistry, a globular glass-receiver, with either one or two necks (= GROS RÉCIEIENT, Fr.; GROSSE R., Ger.). In pyrotechny, a hollow case or ball of pasteboard filled with fire-works or combustibles, which explodes in the air on being fired from a mortar.

Balloon. In aërostation, a bag or hollow pear-shaped vessel, made of varnished silk or other light material, and inflated with some gas or vapour lighter than the air, as hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen, heated air, &c., so as to rise and float in the atmosphere. When filled with gas it is called by way of distinction an AIR-BALLOON (aérostat, &c., Fr., lufball, luft-schiff, &c., Ger.); when with heated air, a FIRE-BALLOON or Montgolfier b. (ballon à feu, &c., Fr.).

In the early days of aërostation, and indeed for some years afterwards, balloons were inflated with hydrogen gas, obtained by the action of sulphuric acid and water on iron filings or small fragments of iron; but this method of filing them ultimately gave place to the cheaper and more convenient supply afforded by the gas-light companies. Of late years, the coal-gas furnished by the gas-works has been generally, if not solely, used for the inflation of balloons.

The principles of ballooning may be referred to the well-known difference in the specific gravity of bodies, and to the physical properties of the atmosphere. Pure hydrogen, weighed at the level of the sea, is about 16 times lighter than common air; but when prepared on the large scale, and containing water, and other impurities, it is only from 7 to 11 times lighter than the atmosphere. A globe of atmospheric air of 1 foot in diameter, under like circumstances, weighs ⁄25 lb.; a similar globe of hydrogen (reckoning it only as 6 times lighter than common air, will, therefore, have an ascensional force of ⁄30 lb.). Now, the weight of the body of air which a balloon displaces must exceed the gross weight of the balloon and all its appendages, in order for the latter to ascend in the atmosphere. The difference of the two weights expresses the ascensional force. The aërostatic power of balloons is proportional to their dimensions, in the ratio of the cubes of their diameters. Thus, it appears that a balloon of 60 feet diameter filled with common hydrogen will ascend with a weight of nearly 7000 lbs., besides the gas case; whilst one of only 1½ foot in diameter will barely float, owing to the less proportionate volume of gas to the weight of the case containing it. In round numbers the buoyancy of a balloon may be reckoned as equal to 1 oz. for every cubic foot of hydrogen it contains, less the weight of the case and appendages. The carburetted hydrogen supplied by the gas-works is much heavier than hydrogen gas, and consequently much less buoyant, for which due allowance must be made. That which possesses the least illuminating power is the lightest, and consequently the best adapted for aërostation.

The fabric of which the cases of air-balloons are made is strong thin silk, covered with an elastic varnish of drying oil or india rubber, or, what is better, a solution of india rubber in either chloroform or bisulphide of carbon; the netting is of strong light silk or flaxen cord; and the car of basket-work. Fire-balloons, on the small scale, are generally made of silver-paper, and are inflated with the fumes of burning spirit of wine, by means of a sponge dipped in that liquid, and suspended just within the mouth of the apparatus.

Owing to the increasing rarity of the atmosphere as we ascend from the earth’s surface, balloon cases are made very much larger than is required to contain the necessary quantity of gas, to allow for its expansion as it rises into a rarer medium. A cubical foot of gas measured at the level of the sea occupies a space of two feet at an elevation of 3⁄2 miles.

The following Table will prove useful to the amateur aëronaut or balloonist:—

Table showing the relations between the diameters, surfaces, and capacities of spheres.

Diameters. Surfaces. Cubical contents.

1 3·141 ·523

2 12·567 4·188

3 28·274 14·137

4 50·265 33·51

5 78·54 65·45

10 314·159 523·6

15 706·9 1767·1

20 1256·6 4189·

25 1963·5 8181·

30 2827· 14137·

40 5026· 33510·

See Atmosphere, Gas, Hydrogen, Parachute, Varnish, &c.

BALLOON′ING‡. Syn. Balloon′ry†*. The act, art, or practice of ascending or travelling in balloons; aërostation. A BALLOON′IST‡ is an aëronaut (particularly an amateur or enthusiastic one).

BALLS. The application of this term in commerce, perfumery, veterinary medicine, &c., has been already noticed. (See Ball.) The following may be inserted here:—

Balls, Al′mond (ah′-mŭnd). Syn. Boules d’amande, Fr. Prep. 1. Spermaceti, 4 oz.; white wax (pure) 8 oz.; oil of almonds, 1 pint; melt them together in a glazed earthenware-vessel, by the heat of a water bath, and when the mixture has cooled a little, add essential oil of almonds, and expressed oil of mace, of each 2 dr.; stir assiduously until it begins to cool, and then pour it into the moulds, which may be ounce-gallipots with smooth bottoms (very slightly warmed), when it will form beautiful hemispherical cakes. Very fine.

2. Hard clarified suet, 1⁄4 lb.; white wax, ⁄4 lb.; ess. oil of almonds, 1⁄2 dr.; oil of cloves (or of pimento), ⁄2 dr.; as before.

Uses, &c. To soften the skin, and in winter to prevent chaps and chilblains. Sometimes these balls are coloured, which is done whilst the mixture is in the liquid state. A rich pink or red may be given by a little alkanet-root or dragon’s blood; a yellow, by palm oil or annotta; a blue, by a little finely powdered indigo; and a green, with spinage (steeped in the oil before use), or a few grains of verdigris. The most appropriate tint for them is a pale yellow or amber.

Balls, Barèges (-rāzhe’). Syn. Boules de Barèges, Fr. Prep. 1. Extract of soap-wort, 3 oz.; good glue or gelatin, 1⁄2 oz.; water, 4 oz.; dissolve with heat, and add of sulphide of calcium, 6 oz.; common salt, 1 oz. (both in powder); mix thoroughly, and form the mass into balls weighing 2⁄2 oz. each, adding a little powdered gum, if required, to thicken it, and using powdered starch to roll them in.

2. Gelatin, 8 oz.; sulphide of calcium, 12 oz.; common salt, 2 oz.; water, q. s.; after solution and admixture, add carbonate of soda and Castile soap, of each (in powder), 2⁄2 oz. One ball is added to the water of a bath for an adult, to be used as a substitute for that of Barèges.

Balls, Bitter. Prep. 1. Powdered gentian, 2 lbs.; extract of gentian, 1 lb.; grains of paradise (ground), ⁄2 lb. syrup, q. s.; mix with heat, and divide into half-pound rolls. For ALE.

2. To the above add of Spanish-juice, 1⁄2 lb.; previously softened with a little boiling water For PORTER and STOUT. Both are used by fraudulent brewers; and by publicans in reducing their beer.

Balls, Black′ing. Prep. 1 (Bailey’s). Gum-tragacanth, 1 oz.; water, 4 oz.; dissolve, add of sugar candy, 4 oz.; and afterwards, ivory-black and Prussian blue (in very fine powder), of each 2 oz.; neat’s foot oil, 2 fl. oz.; thoroughly incorporate, and evaporate by a gentle heat, constantly stirring, until of a proper consistence, then pour it into oiled moulds.

2. Gum-arabic, moist sugar, and ivory-black, of each ⁄2 lb.; lamp-black, ⁄4 lb.; glue (melted with a little water), 2 oz.; water, 1 quart, or q. s.; neat’s foot oil, ⁄4 pint; as before.—Used by the shoemakers, harness-makers, &c., to blacken and polish leather. See Balls, Heel.

Balls, Breech′es. See Balls, Scouring.

Balls, Bronze. See Balls, Copying.

Balls, Cam′phor. Syn. Cam′phor-cakes, Chap′-balls‡, Chil′blain b.‡, &c.; Glob′uli camphora′ti, Placen′tæ camphora′tæ, &c., L. Prep. 1. Spermaceti and white wax, of each 2 oz.; almond or olive oil, ⁄4 pint; melt together by a gentle heat, add of camphor (in small pieces), 1 oz.; when dissolved, stir until partly cold, and then pour it into moulds, as directed under ALMOND-CAKES (above).

2. Clarified suet, 1 lb.; spermaceti and white wax, of each, 3 oz.; camphor, 2 oz.; as before.

3. Spermaceti cerate (Ph. L.), 1 lb.; spermaceti, 2 oz.; camphor, 1⁄2 oz.; as before.

4. To either of the above add of balsam of Peru, ⁄4 to ⁄2 oz.; and, after solution, either strain the mixture through muslin, or allow it to settle, and decant the clear portion from the dregs.

Use, &c. A popular preventive of chapping and chilblains. A little is well rubbed into the skin, previously washed clean and wiped dry. Some persons add colour and scent; but they are generally sold without either. The only suitable colours are amber, pink, or yellow. The best perfumes are allspice, ambergris, cassia, cloves, mush, nutmeg, rondoletia, vanilla, and violets. See Balls, Almond (antè).

Balls, Clothes. See Balls, Scouring.

Balls, Contrayer′va. Syn. La′pis contrayer′væ, Glob′uli c., L. Compound contrayerva-powder made into balls with gum-water. An obsolete preparation, once in great repute as a stimulant, tonic, diaphoretic, and absorbent.

Balls, Cop′ying. These have a similar composition to ‘heel-balls’ (see below). For BLACK, the best colouring matter is lamp-black or plumbago with about half its weight of indigo; for a BRONZE-COLOUR, bronze-powder is substituted; and for a mellow BROWN, burnt terra di Sienna. These should be all in very fine powder. The semi-fluid mass is poured into small flat cylindrical moulds—paper pill-boxes answer the purpose well.—Used by artists and amateurs to copy inscriptions, monumental brasses, and other slightly raised or sunken patterns; the ball being rubbed over the paper previously laid flat on the design, and held securely in its place. They are sometimes rendered more permanent by damping the wrong side with a sponge dipped in water, strong spirit, or oil of turpentine; or by passing the wrong side over a hot iron held with the face upwards.

Balls, Cosmet′ic. See Savonettes, &c. (also above).

Balls, Cream. See Savonettes, Soap Balls, &c.

Balls, Dog. See Dogs.

Balls, Gas′coign’s. Syn. Glob′uli Gascoig′nii, L. Gascoign’s powder made up into small balls with thin mucilage. See Powders.

Balls, Heel. Prep. 1. (Ullathorne’s.) Bees’ wax, 1 lb.; suet, 4 oz.; melt together, and stir in of ivory-black (very finely powdered), 4 oz.; lamp-black (sifted), 3 oz.; gum arabic and sugar-candy, of each (in very fine powder) 2 oz.; and, when thoroughly mixed and partly cold, pour the composition into tin or leaden moulds.

2. To the last add of resin, 3 oz.; oil of turpentine, 2 oz.

3. Hard suet and bees’ wax, of each 4 oz.; powdered gum, sugar candy, and Venice turpentine, of each 1 oz.; ivory-black and lamp-black, of each 2 oz.; as before.

4. Suet and bees’ wax, of each 4 oz.; lamp-black and brown sugar, of each 8 oz.; common size, 5 oz.; melt together and stir until incorporated.

Uses, &c. Employed to black leather, and more especially by shoemakers for the edges of the soles; the ball being first rubbed on, and the part afterwards smoothed over with a burnisher or polished iron tool gently heated. Also used by artists to copy inscriptions, basso relievos, &c. To produce a good article, the gum, colouring matter, and sugar, must be in the state of extremely fine powder, and the mixture very carefully made; no lumps being left. Some persons dissolve the gum in a little water, and then stir the mixture over the fire until it acquires the proper consistence for moulding (as in No. 4, above); but the first is accounted the best method.

Balls, Horse. See Veterinary Medicine, &c.

Balls, Martial. Syn. Glob′uli martia′les, L. Prep. 1. Those of the P. Cod. consist of tartarised iron mixed with aromatics, and made up into small globular masses.

2. (Boules de Nancy.) Equal parts of iron filings and red tartar, in fine powder, made into balls with proof spirit or brandy. Both are used as chalybeate tonics, either in the form of pills or dissolved in hot water. Seldom employed in England.

Balls, Physic. (Vet. Med.) See Masses.

Balls, Poultry. See Poultry.

Balls, Scent. See Pastils (Toilet), Perfumery, Pomambra, Scents, &c.

Balls, Scouring. Syn. Breech′es balls, Clothes b., Carpet b., &c. Prep. 1. Curd soap (sliced), 1 lb.; water, 2 oz.; melt in a water bath, or a glue-pot, and when cooled a little, add ox-gall and oil of turpentine, of each, 5⁄2 oz.; mix well and roll or mould the mass into balls or cakes.

2. Fuller’s earth, 2 lbs.; curd-soap, 1 lb.; beat to a stiff paste with ox-gall, q. s.

3. Soft soap and fuller’s earth, equal parts, beat up with a little oil of turpentine, and either with or without a little essence of lemons.—Obs. The above are used to remove paint, grease, and dirt from cloth, carpets, &c. The spot, first moistened with hot water, is rubbed with the cake, and allowed to soak a few minutes, or to become nearly dry, when it is well rubbed with a little warm water and a brush or piece of woollen cloth, and afterwards rinsed in clean water, and finally rubbed dry and smoothed off with a piece of dry cloth or a dry brush. The last formula produces the composition so commonly vended about the streets of London in penny cakes.

4. Whiting and pipe-clay, equal parts; water, q. s. Used for soldiers’ belts, trousers, &c.

5. Pipe-clay, 2 lbs.; fuller’s earth, 1 lb.; whiting, ⁄2 lb.; water, q. s.

6. Bath brick, 1 lb.; pipe-clay, 2 lbs.; soft soap, ⁄4 lb.; ox-gall, ⁄2 pint.

7. To the last add of pumice-stone, in very fine powder, 6 oz.—Obs. The last four are used for cloth and leather, especially for drab and light-coloured coats, trousers, leather breeches, belts, and gloves. Rose pink, yellow ochre, umber, Irish slate, or other like colouring matter, may be added to produce any desired tint. White pepper, cloves, &c., are also occasionally added to drive away moths and insects; and orris root, or essence of bergamot or of lemon-grass, as perfume.

Balls, Sweet. See Balls, Scent (antè).

Balls, Tan. The muddy sediment of tan-pits made into balls or lumps.—Used by the poor for summer fuel.

Balls, Wash. See Savonettes, Soap, &c.

BALM (bahm). Syn. Bal′samum, L.; Baume, Fr.; Balsam, Ger. Primarily, balsam (of which it is a contraction); formerly and still popularly applied to anything assumed to be soothing, healing, or genial in its action, particularly if also aromatic or fragrant; but chiefly to medicines and liqueurs, supposed to possess these properties. See Balsams, Liqueurs, Quack Medicines, &c.

Balm. Syn. Com′mon balm, Gar′den b.; Melis′sa, L.; Baume, Mélisse, Fr. The melis′sa officina′lis (Linn.), an aromatic perennial herb, a native of the south of Europe, but commonly cultivated in our gardens. It is reputed to be diaphoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue, exhilarating, nervine, and stomachic; and under the form of infusion (BALM-TEA) has long been a popular remedy in hypochondriacal, hysterical, and nervous affections, and in amenorrhœa and chlorosis. It is still sometimes ordered as a drink in fevers and in hypochondriasis.

Balm of a Thousand Flowers. Chandler says this is a thick yellow emulsion, free from injurious metallic ingredients.

Balm of White Lilies, for preserving and beautifying the skin (H. A. Hoadley, New York). This, also according to Chandler, is a red-coloured water containing a large quantity of chalk in suspension, but with no injurious metallic ingredient.

BAL′SAM (bawl′-săm; -sŭm‡§—Knowles, Walker). [Eng., Ger.] Syn. Bal′samum (băl′-), L.; Baume, Fr. Originally, any strong-scented oleo-resinous vegetable juice or exudation, of about the fluidity of treacle, and supposed to possess medicinal virtues. In modern chemistry and pharmacy, any vegetable production which is either semi-liquid, or which naturally becomes concrete, and which contains either benzoic acid, or cinnamic acid, combined with resin and aromatic essential oil. Several of the substances popularly termed balsams contain no benzoic acid, and are consequently now classed with the turpentines. This distinction, however, is far from being universally adopted, and a late high authority defines balsams to be “Exudations from plants, which are liquid or soft solid, and consist of a substance resembling a resin, either combined with benzoic acid, or with an essential oil, or both.” (Brande.)

The leading properties of the true natural balsams are—Insolubility in water, almost entire solubility in alcohol, and partial solubility in ether and in the volatile and fixed oils; the possession of a powerful, and generally, an agreeable odour, a hot, resinous or terebinthinate taste, and the usual stimulant and tonic properties of the milder turpentines. Distilled with water, ethereal oil and some acid pass over, and the residuum consists chiefly or entirely of acid-resin.

The TRUE BALSAMS, as those of benzoin Peru, styrax, and tolu, and the celebrated Chinese varnish-balsam, contain either benzoic or cinnamic acid. Among those falsely termed balsams, are copaiba, opobalsam, Japan lac-varnish, and some of the turpentines.

The following list includes most of the substances, natural and artificial, which pass, or have passed, under the name of balsams:—

Balsam, Acous′tic. See Drops.

Balsam, Amer′ican†. Balsam of Peru.

Balsam, An′odyne. Syn. Sooth′ing balsam; Bal′samum ano′dynum (-dĭn-), B. tranquil′lans, L.; Baume anodin, B. tranquille, B. tranquillisant, &c., Fr. Prep. 1. (Bate’s.) See Patent Medicines.

2. (Guy’s.) A vulnerary balsam invented by Guy, of Caliac, once in great repute, but now obsolete. It consisted of aloes, amber, ammoniacum, balsam of Peru, bdellium, caranna, castor, galbanum, labdanum, myrrh, olibanum, storax, tacamahaca, and Venice turpentine, digested in alcohol.

3. (B. TRANQUILLANS, P. Cod.) Fresh leaves of belladonna, henbane, night-shade, tobacco, poppy, stramonium, of each two ounces; dried leaves of costermary, rosemary, rue, and sage, of each half an ounce; dried tops of wormwood, hyssop, sweet marjoram, peppermint, buckbean, and thyme, of each half an ounce; flowers of lavender and elder, of each half an ounce; olive oil, fifty ounces. Heat the green plants in the oil gently until all their water is dissipated; keep on the fire until the oil becomes of a green colour, and whilst still hot, mix in the other plants, carefully dried, and cut up. Digest for twelve hours on a water bath, strain, and filter.

4. (Baume tranquille de Chomel.) Henbane, hound’s tongue, and tobacco, of each 1 lb.; white wine, 3 pints; boil down to a quart; press, strain, and add to the hot ‘strained liquor’ of olive oil, 1 quart, and again boil.

Balsam, Ap′oplexy. Syn. Bal′samum apoplec′ticum, B. ad apoplec′ticos (Ph. E. 1744), L. Prep. 1. Amber, civet, musk, Peruvian balsam, and some volatile oils, made into a balsam.

2. (Ph. E. 1744) Expressed oil of nutmeg, 1 oz.; liquefy by a gentle heat, and stir in of the oils of cloves, lavender, and rosemary, of each, ⁄2 dr.; oil of amber, 10 drops; balsam of Peru, 1 dr. Both were formerly used to anoint the head and nostrils of apoplectic patients, and were believed to be of great efficacy.

Balsam, Asiat′ic†. Balm of Gilead.

Balsam, Bate’s. See Balsam, Anodyne.

Balsam, Berlin, for burns, cuts, bruises, and wounds of every kind, sores and ulcers, frost-bites, &c. Chloride of lime with impure glycerine.

Balsam Bilfinger, for rheumatism and gout. Black soap, 25 grms.; water, 40 grms.; spirit of wine, 10 grms.; camphorated spirit, 10 grms.; liquor ammoniæ caustic, 20 grms.; tinct. capsici, 5 grms. (Schädler.)

Balsam, Brazilian. Balsam of copaiba.

Balsam, Calaba′. Syn. Tacamaha′ca. A fragrant resinous substance produced by calophyl′lum cal′aba, or Santa Maria tree.

Balsam, Cam′phor. Syn. Cam′phorated balsam; Bal′samum camphora′tum, &c., L. Prep. 1. As camphor-liniment, Ph. L.

2. (B. Ace′ticum c., Sanchez’s Gout-b.:—Pelletier.) Curd-soap and camphor, of each 5 drs.; oil of thyme, 2 scru.; acetic ether, 5 oz.; digest together in a stoppered bottle until the solids are dissolved. Recommended as an efficacious anodyne liniment in certain forms of rheumatism and gout.

Balsam, Can′ada. See Turpentines.

Balsam, Cana′ry. A volatile oleaginous substance obtained by distillation from draco-ceph′alum Moldavi′cum.

Balsam, Carpa′thian. Riga Balsam.

Balsam, Cephal′ic. (Saxon.) Syn. Bal′samum cephali′cum Saxon′icum, L. A liquid preparation obtained from the essential oils of amber, lavender, marjoram, nutmeg, pennyroyal, rue, sage, &c., distilled together. Once in high repute; but long disused in England.

Balsam, Chil′blain. See Liniments.

Balsam, Chi′na Varnish. The aromatic varnish-like exudation of au′gia sinen′sis, used by the Chinese as a varnish or lacquer, for which purpose it is, perhaps, unequalled. It is highly fragrant, and abounds in benzoic acid.

Balsam, Command′er’s†. Compound tincture of benzoin.

Balsam, Copalm′. Liquid-ambar.

Balsam Egyp′tian. Balm of Mecca.

Balsam, Eye, Augsburg. Red oxide of mercury, ·75 grm.; extract of belladonna, ·5 grm.; tincture of opium, ·5 grm.; fatty substance, 7 grms. (Hager.)

Balsam, Eye (Müller, Berlin). Red oxide of mercury, 5 parts; opium, 3 parts; unsalted butter, 100 parts.

Balsam, Eye, (Müller’s Widow, Berlin). Red oxide of mercury, ·2 grm.; unsalted, unusually rancid, butter, 10 grms.

Balsam, Fe′male. Syn. Bal′samum embryo′num, A′qua e., L. An obsolete preparation made by digesting misletoe, civet, musk, and several other aromatics, in a mixture of wine and various medicated waters, and submitting the whole to distillation. Formerly taken both internally and externally, as a tonic for both fœtus and mother; and particularly to prevent abortion, &c.

Balsam, Fri′ar’s. Compound tincture of benzoin.

Balsam, Gen′oa. Locatelle’s balsam.

Balsam, Glyc′erin (glĭs′-). Syn. Bal′samum gly̆̆ceri′næ, L. Prep. To white wax and spermaceti, of each, 1 oz.; almond oil, ⁄2 lb.; melted together, add of glycerin, 2 oz.; balsam of Peru, ⁄2 oz.; and stir or agitate until nearly cold. 12 or 15 drops of otto of roses may be substituted for the balsam.—Used to soften and whiten the skin, and to prevent chaps and chilblains.

Balsam, God′bold’s Vegetable. See Patent Medicines.

Balsam, Goulard’s′. Syn. Bal′samum Goular′dii, B. satur′ni, L.; Baume de Goulard, Fr. Prep. (Van Mons.) Acetate of lead (in fine powder, and quite dry) is triturated, for some time, with hot oil of turpentine, in a heated mortar, or until no more will dissolve; after repose, and whilst still hot, the clear portion is decanted. Recommended as a useful application to foul and painful ulcers, and to scalds and burns.

Balsam, Green. Syn. Bal′samum vir′ide, &c., L.; Baume vert, Fr. Prep. 1. Linseed-oil, 6 lbs.; gum-elemi, 1 lb.; heat them together; add of powdered verdigris, 3 oz., or q. s. to impart a rich green colour, and, after repose, decant the clear portion.

2. Linseed oil strongly coloured with verdigris. Both were formerly much used by surgeons as detergents. ‘Green-oil’ or ‘oil of elder-leaves’ is now commonly sold for it.

A natural balsam, brought from Peru, and produced by chlorox′ylon verticilla′tum, is also popularly called GREEN BALSAM (of Peru).

Balsam, Guaiacum. (Ph. Lond. 1745.) Guaiac, 1 lb.; balsam of Peru, 3 dr.; rect. spirit, 2 pints.

Balsam, Gurgun′ (-gōōn’) Syn. Gurgi′na balsam, Wood-oil (of India). From dipterocar′pus tri′nervis, and other species, by applying a slow fire to a notch or wound made in the trunk. Has a mixed smell of copaiba and naphtha. Properties and dose similar to those of balsam of copaiba. Sp. gr. ·962 to ·964. See Copaiba and Wood-oil.

Balsam, Hill’s, of Honey. See Patent Medicines.

Balsam, Hungarian. Syn. Bal′samum Hungar′icum, L. A terebinthinate exudation from the extremities of the branches of pi′nus pumil′io (Willd.) or mountain-pine. It is also obtained by pressure from the ‘cones’ of the same tree.

Balsam, Ioduretted. See Liniments.

Balsam, Japan Varnish. Syn. Japan lacq′uer. Exudes from incisions made in the trunk of melanorrhœ′a usitatis′sima, according to Wallich; or stagma′′ria, avernicif′lua according to Lindley. It constitutes the celebrated lac-varnish of the Japanese. It differs from that of China, and from the true balsams, in not containing benzoic acid. It is extremely acrid and irritant; and even its fumes affect the eyes and respiration.

Balsam†, Jews′. Balm of Gilead.

Balsam of Life, Professor Cook’s. Recommended especially for toothache and skin diseases. Borax, 20 parts; boiling water, 250 parts; camphor, 1⁄2 part. (Hager.)

Balsam, Locatelle’s′. Syn. Locatel′li’s balsam; Bal′samum Locatel′li, B. Lucatel′li, B. Ital′icum, B. Genofe′væ, &c., L. var. Prep. 1. (Original Formula.) Olive oil, 6 oz.; yellow wax, 4 oz.; sherry wine, 5 fl. oz.; red sanders (in very fine powder), 4 dr.; simmer them together until the moisture is nearly evaporated, then add of Strasburgh turpentine, 6 oz.; balsam of Peru, 2 dr.; strain through linen, and stir until nearly cold.

2. (Ph. E. 1744.) Olive oil, 24 fl. oz.; yellow wax, 1 lb.; melt, and add of Venice turpentine, 1⁄2 lb.; and, when cooled a little, further add, powdered dragon’s blood, 1 oz.; balsam of Peru, 2 oz.; and stir until cold.

3. (Ph. L. 1746.) Olive oil, 16 fl. oz.; Venice turpentine and yellow wax, of each ⁄2 lb.; red sanders, 6 dr.

Uses, &c. A once highly esteemed pectoral, and still occasionally used, by the lower classes, in phthisis and chronic coughs (mixed with an equal weight of conserve of roses), and as a mild stimulating ointment.—Dose, ⁄2 dr. or more.

Balsam, Mercu′′rial†. Ointment of nitrate of mercury.

Balsam, Metz’s. Syn. Bal′samum vir′ide Meten′sium, L.; Baume vert de Metz, Fr. Prep. (Guibourt.) Linseed oil and olive oil, of each 6 oz.; oil of laurel-berries, 1 oz.; common turpentine, 2 oz.; melt by a gentle heat, and add of verdigris 3 dr.; aloes, 2 dr.; sulphate of zinc, 1⁄2 dr. (all in powder); mix well, strain or pour the liquid into a bottle, and add oil of juniper, 4 dr.; oil of cloves, 1 dr. Used on the Continent as a common detergent dressing to wounds and ulcers.

Balsam, Mex′ican†. Balsam of Peru.

Balsam, Nat′ural†. That which exudes from plants, as opposed to those formed by art.

Balsam, Ner′vine. See Ointments.

Balsam, Odontal′gic. See Drops.

Balsam, Opodel′doc. See Opodeldoc (French).

Balsam, Pec′toral. Syn. Bal′samum pectora′le, L.; Baume pectoral, Fr. Prep. 1. Tincture of tolu and compound tincture of benzoin, of each, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 4 oz.; mix. Dose, ⁄2 to 1 teaspoonful, night and morning; in chronic coughs, hoarseness, &c.

2, 3. See Balsam of Honey, B. of Horehound, &c.

Balsam, Persian†. Friar’s Balsam.

Balsam, Peru′′vian. See Balsam of Peru.

Balsam, Poly′chrest. Syn. Elixir Polychreston. (E. 1745.) Guaiacum, 6 oz.; balsam of Peru, ⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, 32 oz. Digest in a sand bath for 4 days, and add oil of sassafras, 2 dr.

Balsam, Poser’s (E. Gross, Breslau), for chronic and local rheumatism. A yellow liquid, composed of:—Oil of rosemary, 4 grms.; camphor, 10 grms.; tincture of ants, 15 grms.; tincture of cantharides, 5 grms.; spirit of wine, 90 grms.; tincture of saffron, 10 drops. (Hager.)

Balsam, Potsdam (aromatic balsamic perfume). Liquid storax, 4 grms.; cloves, 2 grms.; oil of cloves, 3 grms.; oil of cassia, 1 grm.; oils of bergamot, lemon, and lavender, āā, 2 grms.; oil of curled mint, ⁄4 grm.; rectified spirit, 200 grms.; macerate and filter. (Hager.)

Balsam, Riga. (rē′-). Syn. Carpa′thina balsam; Bal′samum carpath′icum, B. lib′ani, &c., L.; Baume de Carpathes, Fr. A pellucid white fluid obtained by careful distillation from the young shoots of pi′nus cem′bra (Linn.) or Siberian stone-pine. It much resembles oil of juniper; and, like that article, is powerfully diuretic. It is regarded as vulnerary, and is highly esteemed by some in sprains and bruises. The bottoms of oil of juniper are commonly sold for it in the shops. The spirit distilled from pine-tops (spiritus turionum pini) is also frequently, although incorrectly, called BIGA BALSAM.

Balsam, Sanchez’s Gout. See Balsam, Camphorated.

Balsam, Sooth′ing. See Balsam, Anodyne.

Balsam, St. Genevieve. Thick turpentine, 5 parts; olive oil, 30 parts; bees’ wax, 25 parts; spermaceti, 5 parts; camphor, 1 part; red sanders, 4 parts.

Balsam, St. John Long’s (liniment), used for application to the chest in cases of phthisis, is a thick emulsion composed of:—Turpentine, 25 parts; yolk of eggs, 50 parts; concentrated vinegar, 5 parts; rose water, 15 parts; and a few drops of essence of lemon.

Balsam, Stomach′ic (-măk′-). Syn. Bal′samum stomach′icum, L.; Baume stomachique, Fr. Prep. (Ph. Slesv.-Hols. 1831.) Oils of cloves, mace, wormwood, and peppermint, of each 1 dr.; balsam of Peru, 2 dr.; oil of nutmeg, 2 oz.; mix. 1 to 5 or 6 drops, on sugar, or dissolved in spirit.

Balsam, Syr′ian. Balsam of Mecca.

Balsam, Thibaut’s. See Patent Medicines.

Balsam, Tooth′ache. See Drops, &c.

Balsam, Traumat′ic. Compound tincture of benzoin.

Balsam, Tur′key. Syn. Tur′key balm. The distilled oil of the dracocephalum moldavicum.

Balsam, Tur′lington’s. See Patent Medicines.

Balsam, Univer′sal. Syn. Bal′samum universa′le, L. Prep. (Ph. Slesv.-Hols. 1831.) Rape oil (recent), 1⁄2 lb.; yellow wax, ⁄2 lb.; acetate of lead (in fine powder), 3 oz.; powdered camphor, ⁄2 oz.; melted together; observing to triturate the acetate with a small portion of the oil before adding it to the mixture, and not to add the camphor until the heat is reduced a little.—Obs. This name has also been given to ‘compound cerate of lead,’ and even to ‘cerate of acetate of lead.’

Balsam, Vervain’s†. Compound tincture of benzoin.

Balsam, Wound. Several vulnerary preparations have been so called; but FRIAR’S BALSAM (comp. tinct. of benzoin) is that usually intended.

Balsam of Acou′chi. A yellowish aromatic liquid, of a terebinthinous nature and consistence, obtained from the wounded branches and shoots of the icica heterophylla (DC.). It is highly esteemed as vulnerary by the Caribs of Guiana. (Lindley.)

Balsam of Alpi′nus. Balm of Gilead; because Prosper Alpinus wrote a learned (?) treatise on it.

Balsam of Am′ber. Syn. Bal′samum succini, L.; Baume d’ambre, Fr. The article to which this term is usually applied has been already noticed. Oil of amber was also formerly so called; and the same name has been given to the following and other like preparations by their inventors:—

1. (Radius.) Oil of amber, 4 fl. oz.; oil of myrrh, 2 fl. oz; oil of turpentine, 1 fl. oz.; mix with a gentle heat.

2. (Bate.) See Balsam Anodyne. They are all stimulant and antispasmodic, and are used either internally or as a friction, like oil of amber.

Balsam of Arcæ′us. Syn. Bal′samum Arcæ′i, L.; Baume d’Arcæus, Fr. A digestive ointment formerly in great repute, and still much employed on the Continent. It is now superseded in England by the comp. elemi ointment of the Pharmacopœias. In the original formula, boiling water, 4 parts, were ordered to be stirred in.

Balsam of Can′ada. See Turpentines.

Balsam of Cloves. Syn. Aromat′ic balsam of cloves; Bal′samum caryophyl′li, L. Prep. (Bories.) Oil of cloves and oil of nutmeg, of each ⁄2 dr.; spirit of juniper berries, 3 oz.; mix. Rubefacient and diuretic.—Used chiefly as a stimulating friction. Internally, ⁄2 to 1 teaspoonful.

Balsam of Copai′ba. See Copaiba.

Balsam of Fern. Oil of male fern.

Balsam of Fiovaren′ti. Syn. Bal′samum Fiovaren′ti, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Venice turpentine, 16 oz.; amber, elemi, galbanum, myrrh, styrax, and tacamahaca, of each 3 oz.; aloes, 1 oz.; bay-berries, 4 oz.; cinnamon, cloves, galangal, ginger, nutmegs, and zedoary, of each 1⁄2 oz.; dittany of Crete, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 8 lbs.; macerate a week and distil off 7 lbs. The distilled spirit constitutes this notable preparation of, professedly, many virtues. It is reputed aromatic, diuretic, antispasmodic, and stimulant. One of its applications is as a collyrium—a drop or two being rubbed on the palm of the hands, which are then held to the eyes, so as to cover, without touching them—in chronic ophthalmia, conjunctivitis, &c.

Balsam of Gil′ead. See Balsam of Mecca.

Balsam of Gua′iacum (gwā-yă-). Syn. Bal′samum guai′aci, B. guaiaci′num, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1745.) Gum-guaiacum, 1 lb.; balsam of Peru, 3 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; digest 10 days and filter. Diaphoretic, arthrodynic, and anodyne.—Dose, 30 to 60 drops, in milk or water; in agues, rheumatism, &c. Externally, reputed also anti-suppurative.

Balsam of Honey. Syn. Pec′toral balsam, P. b. of honey; Bal′samum mel′lis, B. pectora′le, B. p. mellis, L.; Baume de miel, &c., Fr. Prep. 1. Balsam of tolu, 1 lb.; honey (finest), 2⁄2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; turmeric, 1 oz.; make a tincture.

2. To the last, before maceration, add of powdered opium, 2 oz.

3. (Hill’s.) See Patent Medicines. Uses, &c. A good pectoral in colds, tickling chronic coughs, hoarseness, &c., when unaccompanied with fever.—Dose. For an adult, ⁄2 to 1 teaspoonful, twice or thrice a day; an occasional dose of some mild aperient being also taken. Tincture of balsam of tolu, or a mixture of the tinctures of tolu and benzoin, is frequently sold in the shops under the name of ‘balsam of honey.’ See Pectoral Balsam, &c.

Balsam of Hore′hound. Syn. Bal′samum marru′bii, L. Prep. 1. Extracts of horehound and liquorice, of each 2 oz.; hot water, ⁄2 pint; dissolve, and when cold, add of paregoric, ⁄4 pint; oxymel of squills, 6 oz.; tincture of benzoin, 2 oz.; honey, 10 oz.; and, after thorough admixture, strain through flannel.

2. (Ford’s.) See Patent Medicines.

Uses, &c. A popular pectoral.—Dose, &c., same as of BALSAM OF HONEY (above).

Balsam of Houmi′′ri. [Nat.] From humir′ia balsamif′era, or the houmiri-tree of Guiana. It resembles ‘balsam of umiri’ produced by another tree of the same genus. (See below.)

Balsam of Lead. See Balsam, Goulard’s.

Balsam of Life. Syn. Balm of life; Bal′samum vi′tæ, L.; Baume de vie, Elix′ir de vie, &c., Fr. Several compound medicines have been called by this name. Those of Gabius, Hoffman, and Turlington, are noticed under Patent Medicines (which see). The following are distinct preparations:—

1. Baume de vie externe:—Soap liniment, 2 parts; oil of turpentine, 1 part; mix. Stimulant and rubefacient. Used with friction.

2. Baume de vie purgatif; Elixir de vie:—a. (Briett.) Socotrine aloes and saffron, of each, 2 drs.; rhubarb, 6 drs.; liquorice-root, 1 oz.; proof spirit or brandy, ⁄2 pint; digest a week, and filter.

b. (Original Swedish formula.) Aloes, 9 drs.; agaric, gentian, rhubarb, saffron, theriaca, and zedoary, of each 1 dr.; proof spirit or brandy, 1 quart. A mild stomachic purge.—Dose. 1 to 6 drs. Tincture of rhubarb-and-aloes (Ph. E.) is commonly substituted for it. See Elixirs.

Balsam of Liq′uorice. See Patent Medicines.

Balsam of Mec′ca. Syn. Balm of Gil′ead, B. of Mec′ca, Opobal′sam (-bawl′-), Jews’ balsam†, Oil of b.†, &c., Eng.; Bal′samum (băl′-) Gileaden′se, B. è Mec′ca, Opobal′samum (-băl′-) &c., L.; Baume de la Mecque, B. de Mecca*, B. de Judée, Opobalsamum, &c., Fr. Bal′samum Ægypti′acum†, B. Alpi′ni†, B. Antiquo′′rum Genui′num†, B. Asiat′icum†, B. Syri′acum†, O′leum Bal′sami†, &c., L. A fragrant oleo-resinous substance, obtained from balsamoden′dron gileaden′se (Kunth.; amy′ris gileaden′sis, Linn.; a. opobal′samum, Forsk), a middle-sized tree of the nat. ord. Terebinthacæ (DC.), growing in Arabia Felix, Asia Minor, and Egypt. It is the BALM of the Old Testament, and the βἁλσαμον of Theophrastus and Dioscorides. It is chemically classed with the turpentines.

Prop., &c. When fresh it is turbid and whitish, but becomes by degrees transparent, of a rich golden colour, and slightly thicker; and by exposure, eventually solid. It possesses a penetrating and delicate fragrance; tastes sharp, bitter, spicy, and somewhat astringent; is not entirely soluble in rectified spirit, but dissolves more or less completely in both the fixed and volatile oils, which then assume the fragrance of the balsam. A drop let fall on hot water spreads itself over the whole surface, like a film of oil, and again contracts on the water cooling. This, with its fragrance, is the common test of its genuineness in Turkey. The inferior qualities, or those of commerce, are generally opaque and thick, rapidly resinifying and turning of a dull yellow by age. When applied to the skin it causes redness and swelling. It was formerly regarded as possessing the most varied and exalted virtues, particularly as an antiseptic, stimulant, vulnerary, and nervine; and its fumes were supposed to prevent barrenness. It is still highly prized in the East as a cosmetic and perfume; and is said to be unequalled for giving a healthy glow to the complexion and promoting the growth of the hair. Its medicinal qualities are intermediate to those of the aromatic turpentines and balsam of tolu.—Dose. From 3 to 6, or even 10 or 12 drops.

Obs. According to Bruce, and others, the best balm of Gilead is a spontaneous exudation from the tree; a second quality is obtained by cutting the bark with an axe, and receiving the juice which exudes in a small earthen bottle. A large branch is said to produce not more than 3 or 4 drops a day; and even the most resinous trees seldom yield more than 60 drops daily. Hence its scarcity and costliness. Both varieties are held in such high estimation by the Turks and Egyptians, that none of them are exported as an article of commerce. That which is sent to England is obtained by boiling the leaves and young twigs of the balsam tree in water, and is rejected by the Orientals as worthless. Most of that sold in the shops of England is entirely spurious (see below).

The cosmetics recently so much advertised as ‘balm of Mecca’ do not contain even a trace of this article; nor do we believe that there is a single drop of the genuine balm to be purchased in London.

The following formulæ are current in the trade for Fac′′titious Balm of Mecca:—

1. Gum-benzoin (bright, coarsely powdered), 4 oz.; liquid styrax (finest), 3 oz.; balsam of tolu, 2 oz.; Canadian balsam, 1⁄2 pint; are mixed together in a flask, and exposed (closed) to the heat of a water bath, with frequent agitation, until the liquid is saturated; when cold, the clear portion is decanted, and a sufficient quantity of the oils of lemon, cassia, rosemary, nutmeg, and vanilla, added to give it a strong aromatic odour.

2. From gum-benzoin and balsam of Peru, of each 1 oz.; vanilla and nutmeg, of each (cut small) 1 dr.; Canadian balsam, ⁄2 pint; digested as before, and some essential oils added to the decanted liquid.

Balsam of Nut′meg. Syn. Bal′samum myris′ticæ, B. nucis′tæ. L. Prep. (Ph. Bor. 1847.) Expressed oil of nutmeg (—? mace), 3 oz.; olive oil, 1 oz.; yellow wax, ⁄2 oz.; melt them together by a gentle heat, pour the mixture into paper moulds, and, when cold, cut the mass up into cakes.

Balsam of Peru’ (rōō′). Syn. Peru′vian balsam; Bal′samum Peruvia′num (Ph. L., E., and D.), L.; Baume du Pérou, B. Peruvien, Fr.; Peruvianischer balsam, Ger. A balsam obtained from Myroxylon Pereiræ (Myrospermum of Sonsonate). It exudes from the trunk of the tree after it has been scorched and removed. From Salvador, in Central America. B. P.

Prop., &c. A chocolate-coloured or a reddish-brown liquid, of the consistence of treacle, possessing a bitterish, rather pungent taste, and an agreeable aromatic odour somewhat similar to that of a mixture of vanilla and benzoin. It is reputed stimulant, tonic, and expectorant, and has long been a popular remedy in chronic asthma, catarrh, and other pulmonary affections, debility, &c. It is now, however, principally used as an ingredient in pomades, hair-oils, lip-salves, and other cosmetics, in which it is only inferior to ‘balm of Mecca,’ and in compound perfumery. It is also used to scent lozenges, pastils, and chocolate and liqueurs; for these last, chiefly as a substitute for ‘vanilla’ when it is scarce and dear.—Dose, 10 or 12 to 30 gr. (even 1 dr. is sometimes given), either on sugar, or made into a bolus with liquorice powder, or into an emulsion with honey, mucilage, or yolk of egg.

Pur., Tests, &c.—1. The sp. gr. should not be lower than 1·15; nor higher than 1·16:—2. Ether dissolves it readily and completely:—3. Soluble in 5 parts of rectified spirit:—4. It should undergo no diminution in volume when agitated with water:—5. 100 gr., by its benzoic or cinnamic acid, should saturate not less than 7⁄2 gr. of pure crystallised carbonate of soda:—6. Sulphuric acid converts it into resin, artificial tannin, or charcoal, according to the quantity employed; if, on adding water, a brittle resin is not formed, some fixed oil (probably castor oil) is present:—7. Treated with nitric acid, some hydrocyanic acid is formed, benzoic acid sublimes, and the residual matter is artificial tannin:—8. The alkalies and their carbonates form with it a thickish semi-crystalline mass, which, on being treated with sulphuric acid, deposits a peculiar resinous matter, with crystals of benzoic and cinnamic acid:—9. If a few drops are distilled, and, when iodine is added to the distillate, an explosion results, it has been adulterated with ‘copaiba’:—10. The genuine balsam contains about 6⁄2% of benzoic (cinnamic) acid:—11. (Hager). If two or three cubic centimètres of balsam of Peru be shaken with five or six cubic centimètres of petroleum spirit, the mixture separates upon being allowed to stand into a black-brown layer, and a limpid and colourless or slightly yellowish layer, and is easily decanted. If the balsam be adulterated, this latter layer is turbid and coloured, while the viscous residue which separates is more fluid, which renders decantation more difficult. Sometimes the brown residue is pulverulent.

Obs. Balsam of Peru was formerly very generally adulterated, and often entirely factitious; but, owing to its present reduced price, this is now only confined to a few of the most unprincipled venders. The following formulæ for this purpose are still extant in the trade:—

Balsam of Peru, Facti′′tious:—From gum-benzoin (in coarse powder), 3 lbs.; dissolved in the least possible quantity of rectified spirit, and then mixed with balsam of tolu, 1 lb.; and liquid styrax, 2 oz.; subsequently adding of rectified spirit, q. s.

Balsam, Reduced Peruvian:—1. Balsam of Peru, 3 lbs.; balsam of tolu, 2 lbs.; rectified spirit, q. s. to reduce it to a proper consistence:—2. Balsam of Peru, 3 lbs.; gum-benzoin (dissolved in a little rectified spirit), 1 lb.; as before. It is occasionally met with largely adulterated with liquid styrax.

Balsam of Rackasi′ri. Syn. Balsam of Rakasi′ra; Bal′samum Rackasiri, B. Racazzi′ræ, B. Rhadasi′ri. A species of balsamic turpentine, said to be obtained from the bursera balsamifera (Pers.), an Indian tree of the natural order Terebinthaceæ. It has a slightly bitter taste, adheres to the teeth when chewed, and, when heated, smells like balsam of tolu. It has been extolled as possessing the virtues of copaiba in an exalted degree. The nostrum vended under the name of BALM OF RACKASIRI by certain quacks, simply consists of English gin, coloured, sweetened, and aromatised.

Balsam, Saturnine. (Bate.) Acetate of lead 40 oz.; oil of turpentine 12 oz. Digest for some days.

Balsam of Soap. Soap-liniment.

Balsam of Soap (Ethe′′real). Syn. Bal′samum sapo′nis æthe′′reum, L. Prep. (Cottereau.) Castile soap (powdered) and camphor, of each 1 dr.; oil of thyme, 10 drops; acetic ether, 1 oz.; dissolve in a close vessel with the aid of a gentle heat, and decant the clear portion. Used as an embrocation or liniment in gout, rheumatism, &c.

Balsam of St. John’s Wort. See Oils.

Balsam of Sto′′rax. Liquid-ambar or styrax.

Balsam of Sul′phur. See Oils.

Balsam of Sul′phur, Anisated. (Ph. Edin. 1722). Originally made by digesting one part of sulphur; three of turpentine; and four of oil of aniseed. A mixture of one part of oil of aniseed with three or four of balsam of sulphur is usually sold for it.

Balsam of Sul′phur with Turpentine. Digest one part of sulphur with three of oil of turpentine till dissolved. Similar compounds were formerly made with sulphur and Barbadoes tar, and with the empyreumatic oils of amber, benzoin, &c.

Balsam of Syri′acum. See Balsam of Mecca.

Balsam of Tolu′ (-l′ōō). Syn. Tolu’ bal′sam*; Bal′samum toluta′num (Ph. L., E., & D.), B. de To′lû, L.; Baume de Tolu, Fr.; Tolutanischer balsam, B. von Tolu, &c., Ger. Balsam flowing from the incised trunk of “myrosper′mum toluif′erum.” (B. P.) The tree which produces it is a native of the mountains of Tolu, Turbaco, &c., in South America.

Prop., Uses, &c. When first brought over it is soft and tenacious, but by age and careless keeping becomes hard, and even brittle, somewhat similar to resin. It is perfectly soluble in alcohol and in ether, and gives out its acid (benzoic or cinnamic) to water. Its odour is fragrant, though less powerful than that of either styrax or balsam of Peru; and it has a pleasant sweetish taste. It softens under the teeth, melts readily, and burns with an agreeable odour. As a medicine it is a stimulating expectorant, and, as such, is employed in chronic bronchial affections unaccompanied with inflammatory action. It has long been a popular pectoral. Syrup of Tolu is an agreeable and common adjunct to pectoral mixtures, and, with Tolu lozenges, is often serviceable in tickling coughs. It is also used by confectioners, perfumers, &c., and in fumigating pastils.—Dose, 5 to 20, or even 30 gr., dissolved in spirit, or made into an emulsion.

Pur. This is shown by its perfect solubility in rectified spirit, forming a transparent tincture, and by its odour. When adulterated it has a weaker smell, is only partially soluble in alcohol, and the tincture formed with that fluid is opaque. The presence of colophony (or lac), according to Ulex, may be detected by the balsam, instead of dissolving in sulphuric acid, swelling up, blackening, and disengaging sulphurous fumes. Castor oil may be detected in the way noticed under Balsam of Peru.

Balsam of Tolu, a Factitious, was formerly met with in trade, made of equal parts of orange-lac and white sugar, reduced to a proper consistence with rectified spirit, and ‘brought up’ with some tincture of benzoin, and a few drops of the oils of cassia and nutmeg dissolved in a little essence of vanilla.

Balsam of Tur′pentine (-tīne). Syn. Bal′samum terebin′thinæ, L. A name formerly given to Strasburgh, Venice, and other like turpentines.

Balsam of Tur′pentine (Emollient). Syn. B. terebinthina′tum, L. Prep. Olive oil, 6 oz.; oil of turpentine, 2 oz.; yellow wax, 1 oz.; balsam of Peru, oil of nutmeg, and camphor, of each 2 dr. A stimulant emollient; in contusions, ulcerations, engorgements, nephritic pains, &c.

Balsam of Umi′′ri. [Nat.] By incision, from the humir′ia floribun′dum (Mart.), or the umiri-plant of Para. It is fragrant, limpid, of a palish-yellow colour, and in its medicinal properties is said to combine those of the balsams of copaiba and Peru.

BALSAM′IC (băl-). Syn. Balsam′icus, Balsa′meus, Balsam′inus, L.; Balsamique, Fr.; Balsamisch, Ger. Of the nature of balsam, or containing or resembling it; bland, soothing, healing; balmy.

BAMBOO′ (-bōō′). [Nat.] Syn. Bambu′sa, L.; Bambon, Fr.; Bambus, Bambusrohr, Indianischer rohr, Ger. The name of several species of the genus ‘bambusa,’ but appr. of b. arundina′cea or ‘common bamboo.’ See Bambusa.

Bamboo′-habit (-hăb-). A species of ‘life-preserver,’ or ‘float,’ used in China and the Indian Archipelago, consisting of four pieces of bamboo tied together so as to form a square.

BAMBU′SA. [Endl.] The bamboo. In botany, a genus of magnificent arborescent grasses, of the nat. order Gramineæ (DC.), having hollow jointed stems, of a hard woody texture, externally coated with siliceous matter, and sometimes secreting a similar siliceous substance (TABASHEER′) in their internal cavities. They are all of rapid growth, and vary in height from 6 to 150 feet.

There, is, perhaps, scarcely any other plant besides the palm which serves for so many purposes useful to man, as the various species of bamboo. Its grain is used for bread; the young shoots are eaten like asparagus, and are also pickled; the smaller stalks are made into walking canes, umbrella and parasol sticks, flutes, &c.; whilst its fibres are manufactured into cloth, and even paper. It is employed extensively in the construction of houses, bridges, masts for boats, domestic furniture, boxes, mats, baskets, utensils of various kinds, fences, water pipes and vessels, quicksilver bottles, &c., and for numerous other purposes connected with everyday life. In localities where ordinary surgical appliances are not at hand, splints, of any required length or size, can be made with very little delay, from the stems of the bamboo. The older and drier stems are to be preferred for this purpose. The genus is confined to the East and West Indies and tropical America. See Cane, Pickles, Tabasheer, &c.

BANA′NA (nā′- or -nah′-). [Nat.] The mu′sa sapien′tum (Linn.), a species of plantain; also its fruit. The Banana contains about 27 per cent. of solid matter, and has nearly the same nutritive value as rice. It is largely consumed in the tropics, where the common allowance for a labourer is 6⁄2 lbs. of the fresh fruit or 2 lbs. of the dry meal, with a quarter of a pound of salt meat or fish. It is sometimes fried in slices and often made into preserves.

Composition of the Pulp of Ripe Bananas (Corenwinder).

Nitrogenous matter 4·820

Sugar, pectose, organic acid,
and traces of starch 19·657

Fatty matter 0·632

Cellulose 0·200

Saline matter 0·791

Water 73·900

100·000

See Plantain.

BANCOUL, NUTS OF. This nut is the seed of a tree belonging to the Euphorbiaciæ, of which two or three species occur in Ceylon, Cochin-China, New Caledonia, Bourbon, &c. It is composed of a hard and woody endocarp, and of an oily kernel, containing:—

Water 5·000

Oil 62·175

Nitrogenous matter 22·653

Non-nitrogenous matter 6·827

Mineral matter 3·345

100·000

Nitrogen 3·625%

This cake, after expression of the oil, contains 9 per cent. of nitrogen, and 4 per cent. of phosphoric acid, and is consequently of high value as a manure. The expressed oil is purgative, but as a lamp-oil it is superior to colza. Unfortunately the kernel forms only 33 per cent. of the entire weight of the nut. Hence, before it can become an article of commerce, it must be decorticated at the place of its birth. (Corenwinder.)

BAND′AGE (āje). Syn. Deliga′tio, Fas′′cia, Liga′men, Ligatu′′ra, Vinctu′′ra, L.; Bandage, Bande, Fr.; Binde, Verband, Ger. In surgery, the fillet, roller, or cloths, used to support parts, to exert pressure on them, or to retain dressings in their proper places.

Bandages are usually formed of long narrow slips of calico or linen, and, occasionally, of flannel, which are generally made into a roll (ROLLER) of moderate size, so as to be the more conveniently handled and applied. They are either SIMPLE, as the cir′cular, the spīral, or the unīt′ing bandage; or COMPOUND, as the T-bandage, suspen′sory b., &c.

The application of bandages, as in the dressing of wounds, ulcers, &c., though of such frequent occurrence, is often very carelessly and badly done. The form and nature of the part, and the object in view, should always receive consideration; as should also the condition of the patient after their application—whether of repose, exercise, or labour. Ordinary ingenuity will supply the rest. The safest, simplest, and most effective means of fastening them is, in most cases, furnished by a common needle and thread or cotton.

Bandage, Mus′tard. A woollen roller soaked in a mixture of the best flour of mustard and warm water, of the consistence of fresh cream, the excess of moisture being expelled by gentle pressure.—Used to envelope the body, or a limb, by repeatedly folding it round the part; in the cold stages of cholera, and in other cases requiring an energetic stimulant. Other medicaments, particularly those of a stimulating and anodyne character, are sometimes applied in the same manner. See Embrocations, Lotions, Poultices, &c.

BANDAN′A. [Ind.] Syn. Bandan′na. A handkerchief, originally from the East Indies, having white spots on a red, blue, or other dark ground. In calico-printing, a ‘discharge style’ in imitation of the Indian bandanas. The fabric, many folds thick, is placed between leaden plates having the pattern cut out of them; hydraulic pressure is then applied, and a clear solution of chloride of lime forced through, followed by a stream of pure water.

BAND′OLINE (-lĭn; -lēne‡). See Fixature.

BANE. Poison; anything deleterious or destructive; a word often found joined to another, in the popular and vulgar names of plants and disease, to denote their character; as BANE′-BERRY, the herb Christopher; BANE′-WORT, deadly-nightshade; SHEEP’S BANE, the rot; &c.

BANG, Bangue (băng′). [Nat.] See Hemp, Indian.

BAN′IAN (băn′-yăn). The fi′cus In′dicus (Linn.), or Indian fig. The fruit and young branches yield one species of gum-lac; and both the juice and bark are used medicinally.

Among sailors, BANIAN′ DAYS are those on which butcher’s meat is not served up at dinner.

BANN′OCK (-ŭk). In Scotland and the northern counties of England, a flat round cake made of oat, rye, or barley meal, baked on an iron plate over the fire, or on the hot hearth.

BARBS. Syn. Lampas, Skew. This occurs in horses from two to four years old, and arises from a little inflammation of the ridges that pass along the palate, above and behind the incisor teeth, occasionally preventing the animal from eating and setting up slight fever. The best treatment is to scarify the enlarged ridges freely with a lancet or penknife, and to give for a time bran mashes, soaked grain, and other soft food.

BAR′BERRY. Syn. Pep′peridge-bush‡, Thorny box′-tree*; Ber′beris, B. vulga′′ris (Linn.), L.; Epine-vinette, Vinettier, Fr.; Berberitze, Ger. A perennial bush or shrub common in woods and hedges. Berries (BAR′BERRIES, PEP′PERIDGES), gratefully acid, cooling, and astringent; used in pastry, but require, according to their degree of ripeness, from one half their weight to an equal weight of sugar. Both bark and berries were formerly esteemed in jaundice, biliary flukes, &c. The crushed berries with water form a refreshing fever-drink. The root dyes a fugitive yellow. See Berberine, Jams, Preserves, &c.

BAREGE (barège, băr-rāzhe’). [Fr.] A light woollen fabric so named from having been first made in the valley of Barèges. Of late years Paris has become celebrated for its barèges; but these are generally woven with the ‘warp’ of silk, and the ‘woof’ of wool. In the common imitations of the shops, the ‘warp’ is generally of cotton.

BAREGINE (barégine). See Glairine.

BARIL′LA. [Eng., Ger., L., Sp.] Syn. So′dæ car′bonas vena′le, L.; Barig′′lia, Baril′lor, Sp., Lev.; Barille, Soude, Fr. The alkaline residuum of the combustion of salsola, salicornia, chenopodium, and other species of the order Chenopodiaceæ. These plants, which are cultivated on the sea-coast for the purpose, are cut down when ripe, dried, and burned in heaps, on iron bars laid across pits dug in the earth. The alkali and saline matter contained in them is thus fused, and flows into the cavity below, forming, when cold, a hard grey or bluish porous mass which is BARILLA.

Comp. Carbonate, sulphate, chloride, and sulphide of sodium, carbonate and sulphate of calcium, alumina, silica, oxide of iron, and imperfectly consumed carbonaceous matter, with a little iodine and bromine. The proportion of soda varies in different varieties:—

Alicant’ barilla; obtained chiefly from several species of salso′la and from chenopo′dium setig′erum (-tĭj′-), &c.; contains from 25% to 40% of carbonate of soda. (Guibourt.)

Cana′′ry b.; from salso′la ka′li. (Loudon.) French barillas:—

a. Narbonne’ b., salicor; from salicor′nia ann′ua or herba′cea; contains 14% to 15% of carbonate of soda.

b. B. of aiguemortes, blanquette; from mixed plants; contains 3% to 8% of carbonate of soda. (Guibourt.)

c. Nor′mandy b., N. soda; from fuci.

Sic′ily barilla (sĭs′-). Principally from salso′la sati′va; furnishes 55% of carbonate of soda. (Fée.)

Good barilla, on the average, contains about 20% of real or available alkali, chiefly under the form of carbonate, besides sulphates, muriates, &c.

Assay. See Alkalimetry.

Uses, &c. Barilla is chiefly used in the manufacture of soap and glass; but the gross quantity imported, though annually increasing, only reached 54,608 cwt. in 1856; whilst the exports of soda in the same year reached to about 1,500,000 cwt., and in 1859 to above 2,000,000 cwt. This enormous quantity was chiefly furnished by our home manufactories.

Barilla is chiefly imported from Spain, Sicily, Teneriffe, and the Levant; but since the introduction of Le Blanc’s process for obtaining soda from common salt, its importance and value has considerably lessened. See Kelp, Soda, &c.

BARIUM. Ba. A metallic radical or element, of which baryta is the chief oxide, and somewhat extensively distributed. First obtained in 1808 by Sir H. Davy. Prepared from baryta by strongly heating it in an iron tube, through which the vapour of potassium is conveyed; the reduced barium being subsequently extracted from the mixed residuum by quicksilver, which is afterwards driven off in a small green-glass retort, in a vapour of mineral naphtha.

Prop., &c. Greyish-white, approaching silver in colour and lustre; decomposes water, and gradually oxidises in the air, with the formation of the ordinary oxide (BARYTA). It is malleable, fusible under a red heat; burns in contact with air with a deep red light, and has the sp. gr. 4·70.

Salts. Barium forms numerous salts, which are all either colourless or white, except a few, whose acids are coloured, as the chromate, manganate, &c. Some of them are soluble in water; one or two only are soluble in alcohol, and that very sparingly; and (with the exception of the sulphate) they are all extremely poisonous. They may be prepared by saturating solutions of the acids with either baryta-water, or carbonate of barium; and some of them may be prepared by double decomposition.

The various soluble barium salts are known by the following reactions, and they are all (except the sulphate) soluble either in water or in dilute hydrochloric acid, except the nitrate and chloride, which are not soluble in aqueous solutions of their respective acids. Their solutions give an immediate heavy white precipitate with dilute sulphuric acid, and with solutions of the sulphates, which is insoluble in dilute acids and solutions of the alkalies and of the salts of ammonia, that with a solution of sulphate of lime being very sensitive, and characteristic:—Hydrofluosilicic acid gives a very characteristic colourless crystalline and quickly subsiding precipitate, only slightly soluble in hydrochloric acid and nitric acid; alcohol, in equal volume, being added, so hastens and completes the reaction, that the filtrate is unaffected by sulphuric acid:—Chromate of potassium gives a bright yellow precipitate in neutral solutions, soluble in hydrochloric acid and in nitric acid, but insoluble in acetic acid:—Caustic potassa or soda (when quite free from carbonate), and caustic ammonia, cause no precipitate, except in highly concentrated solutions:—Alkaline carbonates give a heavy white precipitate with baryta-water or a solution of baryta, and which is all but insoluble in water, and freely soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid:—Heated with proof spirit, or pyroxilic spirit, the barium salts give a greenish-yellow tinge to the flame:—The barium salts, and particularly the chloride, when exposed on a platinum wire to the inner flame of the blowpipe, colour the outer flame yellowish-green:—Insoluble sulphate of barium may be mixed with powdered charcoal, and exposed for a short time to a full red heat, when sulphide of barium will be formed, which is freely soluble in water, and which, after being neutralised with hydrochloric acid, or acetic acid, will yield a solution suitable to the application of the usual tests. The carbonate, and the salts of barium with the organic acids, are all convertible into pure baryta by exposure to a bright red heat.

Baryta is distinguished from lime and from magnesia by its great solubility in hot water, and by the entire insolubility of its sulphate; from strontia, by being precipitated by hydrofluosilicic acid, and by not giving a red colour to the flame of alcohol; from alumina, by its causticity and alkaline reaction, and by not being precipitated from its solution in water by ammonium sulphydrate.

Pois., &c. The sulphate, owing to its insolubility, is the only salt of barium which is not poisonous.—Symp. Nausea, vomiting, pains in the head, ringing in the ears, vertigo, and intermitting cramps and convulsions; the respiration is frequently suspended for several moments, and the pupil is generally dilated. The symptoms, however, often vary, and are not very distinctive.—Treatm., Ant., &c. Vomiting, followed by copious draughts of water soured with sulphuric acid, or sulphate of soda (Glauber-salt) or sulphate of magnesia (Epsom-salt), dissolved in a large quantity of water. When carbonate of barium has been swallowed, a mixture of one of the above sulphates and weak vinegar should be taken after the vomiting, in order that a soluble barium salt may be first formed, on which the alkaline sulphate will act more readily. Subsequent irritation may be soothed by opium or morphia, and antiphlogistics.

Barium, Ac′etate of. Ba(C2H3O2). Syn. Bary′tæ ace′tas, L. Prep. From dilute sulphuric acid, neutralised with carbonate of barium, and the solution evaporated and crystallised. Very soluble in water; insoluble, or nearly so, in rectified spirit.—Uses, Dose, &c. Same as the chloride. It is seldom employed.

Barium, Arse′′niate of. Ba3(PO4)2. Syn. Bary′tæ arse′′nias, L. Prep. A solution of chloride of barium is added to another of arseniate of potassium or sodium, and the precipitate collected, washed, and dried. By dissolving this salt in a solution of arsenic acid, and crystallising, BINARSE′′NIATE OF BARIUM is obtained. Has been recommended in certain skin diseases, and in phthisis complicated with scrofula.—Dose, ⁄16 to ⁄4 gr.

Barium, Ar′senite of. Ba(AsO2)2. Syn. Bary′tæ ar′senis, L. Very slightly soluble.—Use, &c. As the last.

Barium, Bromide of. BaBr2. Syn. Ba′′rii bromi′dum, L.; Bromure de baryum, &c., Fr. Prep. Boil a solution of protobromide of iron with moist carbonate of barium, in slight excess; filter, evaporate to dryness, and heat the residuum to redness. By careful evaporation of its aqueous solution it may be obtained in crystals. It is soluble in both alcohol and water, and its physiological properties resemble those of iodide of barium.

Barium, Carbonate of. BaCO3. Syn. Carbonate of Bary′ta; Bary′tæ car′bonas, L.; Carbonate de baryte, &c., Fr.; Kohlensaures, baryt, &c., Ger. A heavy white mass or powder, very nearly insoluble in water, and decomposed by nearly all the acids. It is found in the crude state abundantly in nature, but can only be obtained absolutely pure by adding an alkaline carbonate to a solution of chloride of barium, or by saturating the hydrate with carbonic anhydride, and in either case washing and drying the precipitate. Native carbonate of barium (witherite) is ordered in the pharmacopœias, and is sufficiently pure for making the barium salts, the only purpose to which it is therein applied.

Uses. In pharmacy, &c., chiefly to prepare barium salts. In chemistry, to separate certain metallic oxides when occurring together in solutions. In the arts, as a base for certain delicate colours, as an ingredient in plate-glass, in the manufacture of beet sugar, &c. It is not used in medicine. It is extremely poisonous.

Barium, Bisulphide. This substance may be obtained as a fine yellow-coloured product by shaking a solution of barium chloride with a mixture of ammonium sulphide and carbon disulphide. It is insoluble in alcohol, soluble in water, and rapidly dissolved by slightly acidulated water.

Barium, Chloride of. BaCl2.2Aq. Syn. Chloride of barium; Barii chloridum, L.; Chlorure de baryum, Chlorhydrate de baryte, &c., Fr.; Salzsäure schwererde, Chlorbarium, Ger. Neutralise a hot dilute solution of hydrochloric acid with carbonate of barium, evaporate down, and crystallise. Sulphide of barium can be substituted for the carbonate. If required chemically pure, gaseous hydrochloric acid is transmitted through a concentrated solution of common or impure chloride of barium, as long as a precipitate forms; the resulting crystalline powder, which is nearly the whole of the chloride of barium present, is collected on a filter, and, after draining, is washed repeatedly with small quantities of pure hydrochloric acid, until the washings, diluted with water, and precipitated with sulphuric acid, give a filtrate which, upon evaporation in a platinum capsule or a watch-glass, leaves no residue; the last traces of acid having been removed by a little alcohol applied in a like manner, the powder is at once dried, and then carefully preserved from the air.—Used in analysis.

Prop., &c. Crystals, flat, four-sided tables, colourless and transparent; sometimes double eight-sided pyramids; slightly efflorescent in dry warm air, but otherwise permanent; decrepitate when heated, and lose their water of crystallisation; fuse at a red heat; volatilise at a white heat; insoluble in hydrochloric acid and in alcohol, slightly soluble in rectified spirit, and very soluble in water; water at 60° dissolves 43⁄2% of the crystals, and nearly 37% of the dry salt; and when boiling 75% of the former, and about 66% of the latter; a saturated boiling solution (223° Fahr.) contains 100 parts of water, and 78 parts of the crystallised salt.

The crystals contain 2 atoms of water; and a formula of BaCl2 + 2Aq.

Uses, Phys. eff., &c. In chemistry, it is employed as a test for sulphuric acid and the soluble sulphates. In medicine, it has been employed, both internally and externally, as an alterative, resolvent, and deobstruent, in scrofula, glandular swellings, and enlargements, scirrhous cancer, skin diseases, &c.; and more particularly in the first with marked benefit. In large doses it is poisonous. According to Sir B. Brodie, its action on animals is analogous to that of arsenic. Locally, it acts as an irritant. A very weak solution, used as a lotion, often proves serviceable in herpetic eruptions, and as a collyrium in scrofulous ophthalmia. Dose, ⁄2 gr. thrice a day, in water, gradually increased to 2 or 3 gr.

Barium, Chlorate of. Ba(ClO3)2. Syn. Chlorate of bary′ta; Bary′tæ chlo′′ras, L. Prep. From a solution of chloric acid neutralised with freshly precipitated carbonate of barium; the resulting solution, after filtration, being crystallised by evaporation.

By passing chlorine through strong milk of hydrate or of carbonate of barium, in the same way as in making chlorate of potassium.

Prop., &c. Soluble in 4 parts of cold water. Used in pyrotechny, and to make chloric acid.

Barium, Ferrocy′anide of. Ba2FeC6N6. Syn. Ba′′rii ferrocyani′dum, L. From pure ferrocyanide of iron digested in baryta water. By careful evaporation, efflorescent prismatic crystals may be obtained, soluble in 4⁄2 parts of water.

Barium, Fluoride of. BaF2. Syn. Ba′′rii fluori′dum, &c., L. A white powder, formed by digesting freshly precipitated carbonate of barium in hydrofluoric acid, in excess.

Barium, Hydrate of. Ba(HO)2. Syn. Hydrate of baryta; Barytæ hydras, L. Prep. By digesting caustic baryta, or barium oxide, with a little water, or igniting gently the crystallised hydrate. It can be obtained crystallised as follows:

1. From a concentrated solution of either nitrate or chloride of barium, precipitated with a rather strong solution of pure potassa, or of pure soda, perfectly free from carbonic acid.

2. A strong solution of sulphide of barium is boiled with successive portions of black oxide of copper, until it ceases to give a black precipitate with a salt of lead; the liquid, after filtration, yields crystals of the hydrate on cooling.

Prop., Uses, &c. Forms a bulky white powder, containing 10⁄2% of water of hydration, which it retains even after ignition. In this state it is soluble in 20 parts of cold water, and in 2 parts of boiling water. The hot saturated solution, as it cools, deposits abundantly columnar crystals (CRYS′TALLISED HYDRATE OF B.), which contain 51⁄2% of water, of which they lose, by drying and ignition, 88⁄4% (= 4⁄4% of their weight), being reduced to the state of the common or amorphous hydrate. Of all the bases it has the strongest affinity for both sulphuric and carbonic acid, and hence its solution (BARY′TA-WATER) and those of its neutral salts (nitrate or chloride) form our most sensitive tests for these substances. Sp. gr. 4·3 to 4·7. The crystallised hydrate is converted into the ordinary hydrate at a gentle heat, and this last fuses at a low red heat without losing its water of hydration, which it only slowly and with difficulty begins to part with at higher temperatures. In chemistry, its uses are, for the most part, similar to those of Barium, Oxide of.

Barium, Iodide of. Ba2I. Syn. Ba′′rii iodi′dum, L.; Iodure de baryum, &c., Fr.

Prep. 1. Dissolve sulphide of barium in water, and add iodine (gradually) in excess; after the reaction is complete, filter, and either evaporate to dryness, or crystallise.

2. Digest freshly precipitated carbonate of barium, in excess, in a hot solution of protiodide of iron; filter and evaporate to dryness; then re-dissolve and crystallise.

3. By saturating hydriodic acid with oxide or carbonate of barium.

Prop., &c. A white or greyish-white mass, or acicular crystals (according to the mode of its preparation); very soluble in water and in alcohol; and decomposed by exposure to the air. It has been highly recommended as an alterative, resolvent, and liquefacient, particularly in scrofula, glandular swellings, chronic inflammations, and the other affections in which chloride of barium and iodine are given.—Dose, ⁄12th to ⁄8th gr. (gradually and cautiously increased to 1 gr.), in distilled water, 2 or 3 times a day. Externally, as an ointment (3 or 4 gr., to lard, 1 oz.), as an application to scrofulous swellings. (Biett.) It possesses all the irritant, corrosive, and poisonous properties of the chloride, but in a much more violent degree.

Barium, Nitrate of. Ba(NO3)2. Syn. Nitrate of baryta; Bary′tæ ni′tras, L. Prep. As the acetate or chloride of barium, substituting pure nitric acid for acetic or hydrochloric acid.

Prop., &c. Transparent, colourless octahedrons, which are anhydrous, insoluble in alcohol, and require about 8 parts of cold water, and about 3 parts of boiling water, for solution.

Uses. In chemistry, to prepare baryta, and as a test for sulphuric acid and the soluble sulphates; and in pyrotechny, to give a green tinge to flame.

Barium, Oxalate of. BaC2O4. Syn. Ox′alate of baryta; Bary′tæ ox′alas, L. Prep. By precipitating a barium salt with oxalate of ammonium. Very nearly insoluble.

Barium, Oxide of. BaO. Syn. Baryta, Bary′tes, Cau′stic baryta*, Ox′ide of ba′′rium, Protox′ide of b., Heav′y earth; Baryte, Oxide de barium, Terre pesante†, &c., Fr.; Baryt, Baryterde, Schwererde, &c., Ger. One of the earths discovered by Scheele in 1774.

Sources. Sulphate and carbonate of barium are abundant minerals, forming the ‘vein-stone’ of many lead mines. It is from the latter that baryta and the barium salts are almost exclusively obtained.

Prep. 1. A mixture of carbonate of barium and charcoal (both in fine powder and moistened) is strongly ignited, for some time, in a porcelain, Hessian, or black-lead crucible, and then allowed to cool out of contact with the air, from which it must also be subsequently carefully preserved.

2. (Pure.) Crystallised nitrate of barium is calcined in a capacious covered porcelain or Hessian crucible, at a bright red heat, until red (nitrous) vapours are no longer disengaged, even on raising the temperature; and the residuum, as soon as the temperature has fallen sufficiently, but whilst still warm, is at once transferred to a bottle, as before.

3. M. Rosenthiel’s process is founded upon the decomposition of sulphide of barium dissolved in boiling water by oxide of zinc. Caustic baryta and sulphate of zinc are formed.

Prop. A greyish-white, spongy, earthy-looking mass, fusible only before the oxyhydrogen blowpipe; highly caustic, corrosive, and alkaline, and slaking, like quick-lime, on the addition of water, but with the evolution of more heat.

Barium, Peroxide of. BaO2. Syn. Deutox′ide of barium; Ba′′rii binox′ydum, &c. L.; Binoxide de baryum, &c., Fr. Prep. Pure baryta is heated to full redness in a porcelain tube, and a stream of pure dry oxygen passed over it as long as the gas is absorbed.

Baryta, 4 parts, is heated as above in a platinum crucible, and chlorate of potassium, 1 part, gradually added to it; the chloride of potassium formed along with the binoxide being afterwards washed away with cold water.

Prop., &c. Grey or greyish-white; with water it forms a hydrate, which is slightly soluble in water, and undecomposed by it in the cold. It is interesting chiefly in its relations with peroxide of hydrogen and the oxygenised acids of M. Thénard.

Barium, Phosphate of. Ba(PO4)2. Prep. In a similar manner to the oxalate, which it resembles in being an almost insoluble white powder.

Barium, Sulphate of. BaSO4. Syn. Sulphate of baryta, Heav′y spar, Bolo′′gnian s., Cawk (mi); Bary′tæ sul′phas (Ph. E. & D.), Spa′thium pondero′sum, &c., L.; Sulfate de baryte, Spath pesant, &c., Fr.; Schwefelsaures baryt, Schwerspath, &c., Ger. This salt is found native, often in beautiful tabular crystals, but more frequently in white or reddish-white masses. It is also occasionally prepared artificially, as a pigment and chemical, by decomposing a solution of chloride of barium with dilute sulphuric acid, or with a solution of sulphate of sodium; the resulting precipitate being collected, well washed, and dried.

Prop., &c. When pure, or free from iron, its powder is white. It is insoluble in water, and nearly insoluble in all other menstrua; before the blowpipe it decrepitates, fuses with great difficulty (by which it is distinguished from the sulphates of strontium and calcium), and ultimately melts into a hard, white enamel. Mixed with charcoal, and heated to redness in a covered crucible, it is reduced to sulphide of barium. It is readily decomposed by fusion with alkaline carbonates; also very slightly so by their cold solutions; but ultimately completely, though slowly, by their boiling solutions. Sp. gr. 4·3 to 4·75.

Uses. Chiefly as a pigment (PER′MANENT WHITE), and to adulterate white-lead; for which purposes the native sulphate is commonly well washed, first in very dilute sulphuric acid, and afterwards in pure water, to remove any iron which may contaminate it, and impair its whiteness. It is also used to form sulphide of barium; and, in pyrotechny, instead of the more expensive nitrate.

Barium, Sulphide of. BaS. Syn. Sul′phide of barium, Sul′phuret of baryta; Ba′′rii sulphure′tum, &c., L.; Sulfure de baryum, &c., Fr. Prep. Sulphate of barium, well dried and in fine powder, 3 parts; powdered charcoal or powdered coal, 1 part; the mixture is pressed tightly into an earthen crucible, and the cover being fitted on, it is exposed for 1⁄2 to 2 hours, to a bright red heat; after it has cooled, the black mass thus obtained is powdered, and boiled in water, and the resulting solution allowed to crystallise. Some authorities recommend forming the mixed powders into a stiff paste with oil, or oil of turpentine, before calcination; but this is not at all necessary.

Prop., Uses, &c. Crystals, thin and nearly colourless plates, containing combined water; very soluble in hot water, less so in cold water; and rapidly decomposed by exposure to the air. It is principally used to form the BARIUM SALTS, and in organic analysis. Care should be taken in its preparation to expose the solution to the air as little as possible. Sulphides of a higher grade may be formed by boiling this compound with sulphur; but they possess little practical interest.

Barium, Sulphite of. BaSO3. Syn. Sul′phite of baryta. Prep. By testing a soluble barium salt with sodium sulphite, and washing the precipitate. Insoluble.

Barium, Tartrate of. BaC4H4O6. Syn. Tar′trate of baryta. Prep. Like that of oxalate of barium. White powder. Slightly soluble.

BARK. [Eng., Dan.] Syn. Cor′tex, L.; Écorce, Fr.; Baumrinde, Rinde, Ger. The rind or exterior covering of vegetables, corresponding to the skin of animals. It consists of the—cu′ticle or epiderm′is—cellular substance, containing colouring matter, &c., and—li′ber, the inner or true bark. The last is formed of woody fibre in great quantity, intermixed with cellular tissue. At the commencement of the annual growth of a tree, the bark separates spontaneously from the wood, in order to make room for the new matter forming beneath. It thus increases by yearly layers, and gradually perishes on the outside, owing to distension, from the growth of the interior portion. Its physiological uses are numerous and important. It is the depository of many of the secretions of plants, and it acts as a living filter, separating secretions from each other, and allowing a part of them to pass off horizontally through the medullary processes on their way to the centre of the tree. But its principal offices appear to be to act as a protection to the tender wood, and as a channel for the sap in its descent from the leaves. “True bark only exists in exogens and gymnosperms; in endogens its place is supplied by cortical integuments, which cannot be separated from the adjacent wood, without violence.” (Lindley.)

According to Liebig, the characteristic ingredients found in bark are excrementitious—“substances evidently expelled by the living organism.” True wood yields only ·25% to 2% of ash; whilst the bark of some trees give 6, 10, to 15 times more; and these, like the organic constituents, differ materially in their composition and characters.

The uses of different species of bark in medicine and the arts are well known. Cinchona-bark is invaluable in fevers; OAK-BARK furnishes the tanner with one of the most important materials of his trade; and the tenacious fibres of other varieties are manufactured into cordage and textile fabrics.

Barks should be collected at that season in which they can be most easily separated from the wood, which, with a few exceptions, is late in the spring; because at this time the active principles deposited in their cells are most abundant. Oak-bark, collected in spring, contains four times as much astringent matter as that collected in winter.

Bark. (In medicine.) See Cinchona.

Bark. (In tanning.) See Oak.

Bark, Jes′uit’s. Cinchona-bark.

Bark, Salt of (Essential). See Extracts and Salts.

BAR′LEY. Syn. Hor′deum, L.; Orge, Fr.; Gerste, Ger., Anglo-S. A well-known grain, the produce of several species of the genus hordeum.

Var., Cult., &c. Those principally cultivated in England are—TWO′-ROWED, LONG′-EARED, or COMM′ON BARLEY (hor′deum dis′tichon, Linn.); SPRING′-BARLEY, SQUARE′-B., or BERE (h. vulga′′re, Linn.); and SIX′-ROWED BARLEY, WINTER B., Scotch BERE or BIGG (h. hexas′tichon, Linn.). Put′ney, SPRAT, or BATT′LEDORE B. (h. zeocriton, Linn.), is another species less frequently met with. Of each of the above there are several varieties. In Spain and Sicily, two crops of barley are obtained in a year; but, in countries so far north as Britain, it produces only one, and is a delicate species of grain. In England it is generally adopted as a succession crop on light lands, following turnips or green crops. (Loudon.) The ‘yield’ per acre varies from 28 to 64 bushels, and is usually from 28 to 40 bushels. The average weight per bushel is 50 to 51 lbs.; but the best Norfolk and Essex samples weigh 53 to 54 lbs. per bushel.

Comp. The leading constituents of barley are nearly similar to those of wheat, but it is scarcely so rich in nitrogenised matter. According to Einhof, the ripe SEEDS or GRAINS are composed of—

Meal 70·05

Husk 18·75

Moisture 11·20

100·

According to Johnston, average fine BARLEY-MEAL contains—

Starch 68·

Albumen, gluten, &c. 14·

Fatty matter 2·

Ash or saline matter 2·

Water 14·

100·

According to Payen, dried barley possesses the following composition—

Nitrogenous matter 12·96

Starch 66·43

Dextrin 10·00

Fatty matter 2·76

Cellulose 4·75

Mineral matter 3·10

100·00

According to Dr Ure, the sp. gr. of English barley is 1·25 to 1·33 (average, 1·235), and the weight of the husk is about 1-6th; that of BIGG, 1·227 to 1·265, and weight of husk, 2-9ths.

The analyses of the following varieties of barley, gave as the composition of the ashes of the grains:—

Unknown Chevalier Barley From Moldavia Chevalier Barley

Potash 21·14 20·77 37·55 7·70

Soda 4·56 1·06 0·36

Lime 1·65 1·48 1·21 10·36

Magnesia 7·26 7·45 10·17 1·26

Sesquioxide of iron 2·13 0·51 1·02 1·46

Sulphuric acid 1·91 0·79 0·27 2·99

Silica 30·68 32·73 24·56 70·77

Phosphoric acid 28·53 31·69 38·64 1·99

Chloride of Sodium 1·10 1·47 1·10

In the ‘Journal of the Agricultural Society’ for 1873 is a report by Messrs Lawes and Gilbert of twenty years’ experiments with barley. The soil of a field at Rothampstead, in which the barley had been grown for twenty years, consisted of heavy loam, with a subsoil of clay resting on chalk, and was previous to the barley being planted almost exhausted by cropping. The produce was found to be greatest during the absence of drought and sudden alterations of temperature, the rather cool but uniform season of 1854 giving the heaviest crops. The yield from farm-yard manure and nitrate of soda was found in dry seasons to be rather larger than that from ammonia salts. Barley manured with phosphates was found to ripen one to two weeks earlier than when the phosphate was omitted.

The average produce per acre of a few of the principal plots is given below. The “ammonium salts” are stated to be a mixture of equal parts of sulphate and chloride; the “alkali salts” consist of the sulphates of potassium, sodium, and magnesium; the “cinerials” consist of alkali salts, plus superphosphate:

KEY: A: Dressed Corn, bushels. B: Straw and Chaff, cwts. C: Total Produce, lbs. D: Corn to 100 Straw. E: Weight per Bushel of Dressed Corn, lbs. F: Produce of second 10 yrs. over or under first 10 yrs, per cwt.

Manures per Acre. A B C D E F

Unmanured. 20 11⁄4 2454 86·6 52·3 -23·6

Mixed cinerials. 27⁄2 14⁄8 3162 96·4 53·4 -20·2

Ammonium salts, 200 lbs. 32⁄2 18⁄2 3919 89·2 52·1 -9·7

Ammonium salts, 200 lbs., and alkali salts. 35 20⁄4 4317 86·3 52·8 -5·3

Ammonium salts, 200 lbs., and superphosphate. 47 27⁄8 5760 86·8 53·5 +2·7

Ammonium salts, 200 lbs., and cinerials. 46⁄4 28⁄2 5817 83·2 54·0 -·3

Rape cake (mean 1300 lbs.) 45⁄4 26⁄8 5571 87·3 53·8

Farmyard manure, 14 tons. 48⁄4 28⁄4 5933 88·5 54·3 +14·8

The authors direct attention to the results obtained by using the cinerial manure alone, as illustrating the unsoundness of the old “mineral theory,” according to which plants were supposed to possess a sufficient source of nitrogen in the atmosphere. They found a greater crop yielded by barley than wheat, when no manures were employed, as well as when cinerials were employed, a fact which they attribute to barley being better able than wheat to supply itself with nitrogen, notwithstanding the deeper roots of the latter. They state that with both wheat and barley the produce is slowly falling off under these circumstances. With ammonium salts alone, and with nitrate of sodium alone, there is much less falling off than when no nitrogenous manure is used. The falling off was least with the nitrate. The nitrate gives a rather larger crop for the same amount of nitrogen supplied, and they found this to hold when both nitrate and ammonia are applied with cinerials. The addition of superphosphate to ammonium salts or sodium nitrate greatly increases the produce; the further addition of potassium, sodium, and magnesium salts they found almost without effect.

The inference was that the barley had obtained an ample supply of potash from the natural soil, but an insufficient supply of phosphoric acid.

When ammonium salts are used alone, and the quantity of ammonia does not exceed 50 lbs. per acre, 3·68 lbs. of ammonia will yield an average increase of 1 bushel of corn and 63 lbs. of straw—total, 115 lbs.; the extremes in 20 years were 2·25-18·05 lbs. When ammonium salts are applied with superphosphate, 2·21 lbs. of ammonia will produce the same result; the extremes were 1·47-5·36 lbs.

Silicate of sodium had been applied for eight years and a half to half the barley plots receiving ammonia; no increase has resulted where ammonia and superphosphate are employed; but on the other three plots an increase had taken place, which, in the case of the plot receiving only ammonia and alkali salts, is very considerable.

The authors think this irregular reaction seems to show that the silicate has not produced its effect by furnishing silica to the crop, but by some reaction upon the plant-food of the soil. The rape cake supplied much more nitrogen than the ammonium salts, and also some phosphates and potash. Rape cake alone gives a better return than either ammonium salts or sodium nitrate applied alone; but when the three manures are mixed with superphosphate, the results for equal amounts of nitrogen show the rape cake to be decidedly inferior. From the above experiments it is inferred that a supply of carbonaceous matter does not increase the crop of barley.

A farm-yard manure containing about 0·64 per cent. of nitrogen supplied far more plant food than any of the other manures. On an average of twenty years it was found that about 8 lbs. of ammonia in the form of dung would produce a bushel of barley, with its equivalent of straw.

In all cases which were comparable it was found that barley appropriates more of the nitrogenous manure than wheat, save with farmyard manure. A large amount of nitrogen applied by manure is not taken up by the crop. Experiments in the barley field proved that large residues from ammonium salts and sodium nitrate show a small but distinct effect upon succeeding crops, the influence extending over many years. From an examination of the drainage waters from lands dressed with the nitrates of ammonium and sodium, the authors conclude that ammonium salts, as well as sodium nitrate, will be more economically applied in the spring than in the winter. Manures containing organic nitrogen are clearly not so liable to loss from drainage.

Experiments were made on the growth of barley after turnips, and also in an ordinary four-course rotation. After growing turnips ten years consecutively with purely cinerial manures, and carting off the produce, the yield of barley was much smaller than in the experimental field, where barley was grown after barley. The turnips, though very small crops, had exhausted the soil of nitrogen to a greater extent than corn crops would have done. On one plot where rape cake had been applied to the turnips, the produce of barley was 8⁄4 bushels more than when none had been used. In the rotation experiments barley was grown after turnips (carted off), and was followed by beans and wheat. In one series all the crops were unmanured; in another the turnips received superphosphate; in a third the turnips received an abundant cinerial and nitrogenous manure.

The mean produce of the six crops of barley obtained in twenty-four years of rotation was as follows:

Character of Rotation. Dressed Corn. Straw and Chaff.

bushels. cwt.

Unmanured continuously 38⁄8 21⁄4

Superphosphate for turnips only 29⁄8 16⁄2

Mixed manure for turnips only 44⁄8 25⁄4

Mean produce of unmanured barley
in barley field during the same season 21⁄2 12⁄8

The unmanured turnips were so very small in quantity, that the barley in the first series was practically grown after a fallow; this barley, however, was a much larger crop than that grown after turnips manured with superphosphate only, the available nitrogen of the soil in this case being exhausted by the turnips.

In the last series the residue of the abundant manure applied to the turnip crop suffices to produce a good crop of barley.

Qual., Uses, &c. Its employment and value as food, and in the manufacture of malt, are well known. It forms good wholesome bread well adapted for persons who live luxuriously; but which, for the abstemious and the delicate, is inferior to that made of wheat, as it is rather less nutritious, and less easy of digestion, and commonly proves laxative to those unaccustomed to its use. Barley-flour and barley-meal are also more perishable than wheat-flour; being very apt to acquire a hot nauseous taste, which even the heat of the oven does not remove. In a medical point of view, barley is regarded as the mildest and least irritating of the cereals. It has always been in high estimation as a demulcent and emollient. The decoction (BAR′LEY-WATER), made with pearl barley, is a common and useful drink in inflammatory diseases, particularly in those of the chest and urinary organs. Among the Ancients, decoctions of barley (κραθη) were the principal aliments and medicines employed in acute diseases.

Barley was extensively cultivated by the Romans and many other nations of antiquity, as well as by the ancient inhabitants of Gaul. The Greeks are said to have trained their athletes on it.

The best tests of the genuineness of barley are its colour, freedom from dust, grit, and insects. The microscope will lead to the detection of any cheaper grains if mixed with it. It is rarely adulterated, although it is said to be extensively used for the purpose of sophisticating wheat, annatto, and roll liquorice.

Barley, Cau′stic. Sabadilla.

Barley, Pat′ent. Syn. Fari′na hor′dei, L. Pearl barley reduced to fine powder by grinding in a mill.

Barley, Pearl. Syn. Pearl′ed barley*; Hor′deum decorticatum (B. P.), L.; Orge perlé, Fr.; Perlengraupen, Ger. The seeds of hordeum distichon deprived of the husks. That of commerce is usually made by steaming spring-barley, to soften the skin, then drying it, and grinding it in a mill with the stones set wide apart, so as to round and polish the grains, and to separate the whole of the husk except that left in the furrow of the seed. Scotch pearl-barley and French barley resemble the last, but are smaller, being generally made from winter-barley or bigg. Faro de Orzo is another variety made from sprat-barley. See Barley (above).

Barley, Scotch. Syn. Hulled barley‡, Pot-b.‡; Hor′deum munda′tum, L.; Orge mondé, Fr.; Gerstengraupen, Graupen, Ger. The grains deprived of the husk by a mill, as noticed above, but less completely, and without rounding them.

BAR′LEY SUGAR. See Confectionery, and Sugar.

BARM. See Yeast.

BAROM′ETER (baros, weight; metron, measure). Syn. Weather-glass‡; Barom′etrum, L.; Baromètre, Fr.; Barometer, Wetterglas, Ger. An instrument for measuring the weight or pressure of the atmosphere. It was invented by Torricelli, of Florence, A.D. 1643.

The barometer is made of several forms, but the principle of its construction, with the exception of the aneroid barometer, is the same in each, and essentially consists of a column of fluid (usually mercury) supported in vacuo, in a glass tube, by the pressure of the atmosphere on its surface. The annexed figures exhibit the principal varieties at present known; several of which have been proposed with the view of improving the original instrument, either by increasing its range, or its portability. None, however, equal in simplicity, cheapness, and usefulness, the old forms proposed by Torricelli, and represented by the figs. 1 & 2. To avoid confusion, the graduated scales and cases of the instruments are not shown.

1. Torricelli’s cistern barometer.

2. Torricelli’s syphon barometer.

3. Huygen’s barometer.

4. Huygen’s modified.

5. Wheel barometer.

6. Bernoulli’s syphon barometer.

7. Aminton’s conical barometer.

8. Gay Lussac’s barometer.

9. Gay Lussac’s barometer modified by M. Bunten.

a, Tube containing a column of mercury.

b, Mercurial cistern.

c, A column of mercury supporting another of water, d.

e, e, Weights, one of which floats on the surface of the mercury, and by means of the cord f moves the index g.

h, Graduated dial.

k, Capillary hole drilled laterally to admit air.

The construction of a barometer requires the utmost skill and care of a practised artist, and will therefore be seldom undertaken by the amateur or experimentalist—a fact which renders it unnecessary for us to enter into the details here. In the choice of his instrument the purchaser must greatly depend on the known experience and integrity of the manufacturer; as nothing but lengthened use, and frequent comparisons with other instruments, can possibly prove its excellence. An ordinary barometer, however carefully made, is found to suffer gradual deterioration, from the external air insinuating itself between the mercury and the glass tube, by which the perfection of the vacuum is destroyed. Various plans have been proposed to remedy this inconvenience and source of error. Prof. Daniell forms the bottom part of the tube, to the extent of about

3

rd of an inch, of solid platinum, welded to the glass. This plan has proved completely satisfactory. Dr Ure proposes the use of platinum-foil for the same purpose. Before purchasing an instrument it is as well to ascertain that this has been done. In those called ‘

STANDARD BAROMETERS

’ the scale is movable and adjustable by a delicate screw, so as to enable the observer to bring the lower point or zero (0) of the scale coincident with the surface of the mercury in the cistern. Exact contact is readily effected by making the point, and its image as seen by reflection from the surface of the mercury, to coincide. In this case the cistern is made of glass. Provided the ivory scale be connected with the zero-point with a strip of brass, correction as to temperature is very nearly effected by this simple adjustment. The

WHEEL-BAROMETER

is chiefly serviceable as a domestic or land weather-glass.

Of the many forms of mercurial barometer, that perhaps known as Fortin’s is the best. In this instrument the cistern and the lower portion of the tubes is shown in the annexed figure.

“The cistern is made of boxwood, with a movable leather bottom b b, and a glass cylinder, b, is inserted into it above, all except the glass being encased in brass. In the bottom of the brass box a screw, C, works on the upper end of which the leather rests, so that by elevating or depressing this screw, the bottom of the cistern, and with it the cistern level of the mercury, can also be raised or depressed at pleasure. A small ivory pin, p, ending in a point is fixed to the upper frame of the cistern, and when an observation is made, the surface of the mercury is made to coincide with the point of the pin as the standard level from which the barometric column is to be measured. The tube of the barometer, the upper part of which is shown in the lower figure, is enclosed in one of brass, which has two directly opposite slits in it for showing the height of the column, and on the sides of these the graduation is marked. A brass collar, d, d, slides upon the tube with a vernier, v, v, marked on it for reading the height with the greatest exactness and in which two oblong holes are cut, a little wider than the slits in the brass tube. When a reading is taken the collar is so placed that the last streak of light is cut off by the two upper edges of the holes or until they form a tangent to the convex mercurial curve. By this means the observer is sure that his eye is on a level with the top of the column and that the reading is taken exactly for this point. Fortin’s barometer is generally arranged so as to be portable, in which case the screw, c, is sent in until the mercury fills the whole cistern, by which the air is kept from entering the tube during transport, the leather yielding sufficiently at the same time to allow for expansion for increase of temperature. It packs in a case which serves as a tripod when the instrument is mounted for use. On this tripod it is suspended about the middle, swinging upon two axles at right angles to each other, so that the cistern may act the part of a plummet, in keeping the tube vertical—the position essential to all measurements.”

How to Manage a Barometer.—It is of the first importance to have the instrument hung perfectly perpendicular. This is best effected by means of a plummet line. It should be placed in a good light, but protected from direct sunlight and also from rain. If air should accidentally find its way into a common cistern barometer, it may be got rid of by first fixing the ivory piston, so as to prevent the escape of the mercury, then by means of the screw raising the mercurial column nearly to the top of the tube, then by slowly inverting the instrument and tapping the cistern gently, the air may then perhaps ascend to the cistern and thus escape. In transporting a barometer from place to place it is best to carry it by hand; and if packed it is almost needless to say that the float must be firmly fixed and the mercurial column raised by means of the screw, so as to prevent any escape of the metal.

Reading the Barometer.—The mercury in the cistern must first be brought by means of the screw to the ‘zero,’ and then the vernier must be screwed up so that its horizontal edge forms a tangent to the mercurial curve. The vernier is an instrument for reading off the graduated scale of the barometer correctly to ⁄100th or ⁄500th of an inch.

Buchan gives the following description of the vernier and of the method of using it: “It consists (see figures a and b) of a piece similar to the scale of the barometer along which it slides. It will be observed from figure a that ten divisions of the vernier are exactly equal to eleven divisions of the scale, that is, to eleven tenths of an inch. Hence each division of the vernier is equal to a tenth of an inch, together with a tenth of a tenth, or a hundredth, or to ten hundredths, and one hundredth, that is, to eleven hundredths of an inch. Similarly two divisions of the vernier are equal to twenty-two hundredths of an inch, which expressed as a decimal fraction is 0·22 inch, three divisions of the vernier is 0·33 inch, &c. Suppose the vernier set as previously described—that is, having the zero line of the vernier a tangent to the convex curve of the mercury in the column. If the vernier and scale occupy the relative positions as in figure a, then the height of the barometer is 30·00 inches, but if they stand as in figure b, we set about reading it in this way: (1) The zero of the vernier being between 29 and 30, the reading is more than 29 inches, but less than 30 inches, and we obtain the first figure 29 inches. (2) Counting the tenths of an inch from 29 upwards we find that the vernier indicates more than seven tenths and less than eight tenths, giving the second figure seven tenths or 0·7 inch. (3) Casting the eye down the scale to see the point at which a division of the scale and a division of the vernier lie in one and the same straight line, we observe this to take place at line 9 of the vernier; this gives this last figure nine hundredths or 0·09 inch, and placing all these figures in one line we find that the height of the barometer is 29·79 inches. This sort of vernier gives readings true to the hundredth of an inch. If the inch be divided into half tenths or twentieths, and twenty-five divisions of the vernier equal twenty-four divisions of the scale, it follows that the difference of these divisions is two thousandths of an inch.”

A still more divided vernier is always used with the best barometers, and though a little troublesome to read at first, yet if the method of reading the simpler one just described be understood, the difficulty will be easily overcome.

Uses, &c. The barometer is employed for ascertaining the amount of atmospherical refraction in astronomical calculations, for measuring altitudes, and in prognosticating the weather. For the last purpose, on land, it sometimes proves a false prophet; but at sea, its monitions are highly trustworthy. As a mere weather-glass, the indications, as read off from the scale of the instrument, are generally sufficiently accurate; but in all observations connected with meteorology, altitudes, astronomy, &c., certain corrections must be made; the height of the mercury being influenced both by the size of the tube and by the temperature of the air by which it is surrounded, as well as by variations in the weight or pressure of the atmosphere. (See below.)

Barometrical Corrections:—

1. As to CAPILLARITY:—This applies to all cistern-barometers formed of tubes of very small diameters, owing to the mercury assuming a convex surface in the tube. As the tube increases in diameter, so the depression of the mercury lessens. Hence, the “interior diameter” of a barometer “should, in every case, exceed one-fourth of an inch.” (Brande.) Syphon barometers that have each of their legs of equal size, require no correction, as the depression is equal at both ends.

Table of Barometrical Corrections for Capillarity, from the ‘Encycl. Brit.’

Diam. of Tube. Depression.

·10 inch. ·1403 inch. +

·15 ” ·0863 ”

·20 ” ·0581 ”

·25 ” ·0407 ”

·30 ” ·0292 ”

·35 ” ·0211 ”

·40 ” ·0153 ”

·45 ” ·0112 ”

·50 ” ·0083 ”

·60 ” ·0044 ”

·70 ” ·0023 ”

·80 ” ·0012 ”

2. As to TEMPERATURE:—These depend on the expansion of the mercury, and of the scale on which the divisions are marked. The rule for reducing an observed height to the corresponding height at the freezing-point, or 32° Fahr., the usual standard temperature, is—Subtract 1·10000th part of the observed height of the barometer for every degree of Fahr. above 32° at the time of the observation. Or—

(obs. t. - 32) × obs. h. × ·0001 = corr. req.

Measurement of Heights by the Barometer.—When a barometer is at the foot of a mountain, the pressure it sustains is greater than that to which it is subjected at the top, by the weight of the column of air intervening between the top and the bottom.

The height can be obtained from the following table by calculating the number of feet which must have been ascended to cause the observed fall; and then making a correction for temperature by multiplying the number obtained from the table, which may be called A, by the following formula: t is the temperature of the lower and t′ of the upper station:—

1 × ((t + t′ - 64) / ·900) × A.

To lower the barometer from 31 in. to 30 = 857 feet must be ascended.

” ” ” 30 ” 29 = 886 ” ”

” ” ” 29 ” 28 = 918 ” ”

” ” ” 28 ” 27 = 951 ” ”

” ” ” 27 ” 26 = 986 ” ”

” ” ” 26 ” 25 = 1025 ” ”

” ” ” 25 ” 24 = 1068 ” ”

” ” ” 24 ” 23 = 1113 ” ”

” ” ” 23 ” 22 = 1161 ” ”

” ” ” 22 ” 21 = 1216 ” ”

” ” ” 21 ” 20 = 1276 ” ”

” ” ” 20 ” 19 = 1341 ” ”

” ” ” 19 ” 18 = 1413 ” ”

A very complex formula is given by mathematicians for finding very nearly the true height of a mountain from barometrical and thermometrical observations made at its base and summit. The following rule by Mr Ellis will be found to give very nearly the same results:—Multiply the difference of the barometric readings by 52,400, and divide by the sum of the barometric readings. If the result be 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, or 5000, add 0, 0·2, 6, 14, respectively. Subtract 2⁄3rd times the difference of the temperature of the mercury. Multiply the remainder by a number obtained by adding 836 to the sum of the temperatures of the air and dividing by 900. A correction must also be given for latitude, which can be done by the annexed table.

Latitude. Factor. Latitude. Factor.

80 0·99751 35 1·00090

75 0·99770 30 1·00265

70 0·99797 25 1·00170

65 0·99830 20 1·00203

60 0·99868 15 1·00230

55 0·99910 10 1·00249

50 0·99954 5 1·00261

45 1·00000 0 1·00265

40 1·00046

Fortin’s and Gay-Lussac’s barometers are employed for measuring heights. The aneroid can be used for altitudes reaching to 5000 feet. A delicate instrument will register for as small an ascent as 4 feet.

The Barometer as a Weather-glass.—Generally speaking when the mercurial column in the barometer falls, ‘rain’ is indicated, and ‘fair weather’ when it rises. When it continues steady, a continuance of the weather at the time is regarded as the forecast; when low, the weather is generally broken or bad; and when high, it is fair and settled. A storm is usually preceded by a sudden fall in the mercurial column, the violence of the storm being in proportion to the suddenness of the fall. An unsteady barometer indicates an unsettled condition of weather, whilst a gradual change in it indicates the approach of some permanent condition of it. The state and direction of the wind has also to be taken into consideration when studying the changes of the barometer, and forms an important element in the calculations of the meteorologist, each different wind indicating variations of weather. The connection between changes of weather and the pressure of the atmosphere does not seem to have been satisfactorily established.

One of the reasons assigned for the mercurial column in the barometer being lower in wet than in fine weather is that so long as aqueous matter remains in the air in the form of elastic vapour, its tension assists in supporting the barometric column, but that when this aqueous vapour is precipitated in the form of rain, this tension is lost or removed, and the column therefore falls.

The correspondence between wet and fine weather and an elevation and depression of the barometer seems, however, equally, if not more, dependent on the nature of the winds than on the preceding cause. “In western Europe, the south and south-western winds, which are the rain-bringing winds, are warm winds. Now, a column of warm air to be of the same weight as one of cold air must necessarily be higher, but this cannot well be the case in the atmosphere, for no sooner does the warm column rise by its lightness above the surrounding level of the upper surface of the aërial ocean, than it flows over and becomes nearly of the same height as the cold air around it. The interchange taking place less interruptedly, and consequently less slowly, in the higher strata than in those near the ground, it is some time before the equilibrium, thus disturbed, is restored; and meanwhile the barometer keeps low under the pressure of a rarer atmospheric column. On the other hand, the northerly and easterly winds, being comparatively cold and dry, are accompanied by fair weather and a high barometer. It is thus to the warmth, and not to the moisture of these winds, that the pressure is to be ascribed.”

Barometer, An′eroid. An instrument invented, or at least perfected, by M. Vidi, of Paris, in which the pressure of the atmosphere is measured without the employment of a fluid, as in the ordinary barometer. Externally, it somewhat resembles in appearance a carriage clock or a ship’s chronometer; internally, it consists of a small air-tight cylindrical box, formed of thin corrugated copper plates, and partially exhausted of air, the sides of which yield to the pressure of the atmosphere; the effect being regulated by a spring, multiplied by a system of levers, and ultimately recorded by the index on a graduated dial. Compensation for changes of temperature are self-effected, with almost perfect accuracy, by the elastic force of the spring being so adjusted to that of the air in the cylinder, that the loss of force in the one and the increased expansive force of the other shall, independently of changes of atmospheric pressure, preserve the lever in equilibrio.

The indications of the aneroid barometer closely correspond to those of the mercurial barometer at ordinary ranges; the differences never exceeding ·01 of an inch. It is so extremely sensitive that an ascent or descent of only a few feet is distinctly indicated by it; whilst its portability adapts it for service in situations for which an ordinary barometer is unfitted. On the other hand, it is liable to move by jerks, and the elasticity of the spring, and consequently the zero-point of the scale, has been found to be sometimes affected by time and a rough journey. On this account it is necessary to compare it occasionally with some standard mercurial barometer, to determine its amount or rate of variation, if any.

Barometer, Phi′al. This amusing philosophic toy is made by cutting off the rim and part of the neck of a common glass-phial with a file. The phial is then nearly filled with water, either pure or tinged blue or red; and the finger being placed on its mouth, it is inverted, and suspended in a vertical position by means of a piece of twine or wire, when the finger is withdrawn. (See engr.) In dry weather the under surface of the water remains level with the neck of the bottle, or even concave; in damp weather, on the contrary, a drop appears at the mouth and continues enlarging until it falls, and is then followed by another in the same way.

Barometer, Fitzroy. This, which is a very cheap instrument, is made on the syphon principle, but the cistern is formed by the lower limit, which is blown into a bulb.

Barometer, Port′able. The most accurate are those of Gay-Lussac and Bunten, and after them the aneroid. They should be set on universal joints, and well balanced. The common instrument made with a box and leather cistern seldom continues long correct.

Barometer, Wheel. The common form of the instrument having a dial-face and hands.

[For further information in connection with the above subject the reader is referred to the ‘articles’ Aneroid, Atmosphere, Gas, Heights, Steam, Storm-glass, Vapour, Weather, &c.]

BAR′OSCOPE† (-skōpe). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Barosco′pium, L. A barometer; sometimes applied to the wheel-barometer of Hooke.

BAR′RAS. The concrete resinous exudation from the bark of fir-trees. That from pi′nus marit′ima is called GALIPOT.

BARSE. [Provincial.] The common perch.

BAR′WOOD. A red dye-wood imported from Angola and other parts of Africa. It closely resembles cam-wood and sanders-wood in its colouring matter being of a resinous nature, and scarcely soluble in water. In dyeing this difficulty is obviated by taking advantage of the strong affinity existing between it and the proto-salts of tin and iron. Thus, by strongly impregnating the goods with protochloride of tin, either with or without the addition of sumach, according to the shade of red desired, and then putting them into a boiling bath containing the rasped wood, the colour is rapidly given out and taken up, until the whole of the tin in the fibres of the cloth is saturated, and the goods become of a rich bright hue. In like manner the dark red of bandana handkerchiefs is commonly given by a mordant of acetate of iron followed by a boiling bath of this dye-stuff. See Dyeing, Mordants, &c.

BASALT′ (bă-sŏlt′). [Eng., Ger.] Syn. Basal′tes (-săl′-tēz), L.; Basalte, Fr. In geology, &c., a species of trap-rock, essentially composed of the minerals felspar and augite. It is of a fine compact texture, of a dark-green, grey, or black colour, and usually occurs in regular columns, of which the Giants’ Causeway and the Island of Staffa furnish magnificent examples. It is fusible; and when rapidly cooled forms a dark brittle glass; but when slowly cooled retains its original beauty and hardness almost unimpaired. Messrs Chance, Brothers, of Birmingham, have availed themselves of this property to apply it to decorative and ornamental purposes. Their process is to melt the material in a reverberatory furnace, and, when sufficiently fluid, to pour it into red-hot moulds of sand encased in iron boxes. The corresponding adj. is BASALT′IC (-sōlt′-; BASAL′TICUS, -săl′-, L.; BASALTIQUE, Fr.).

BASE. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Ba′sis (pl., ba′ses), L., Gr.; Grund, Grundfläche, Ger. In chemistry it was formerly, and is now occasionally, applied to metallic oxides which possess the property of forming salts with acids. The alkaloids are also designated organic bases. In pharmacy, the characteristic or principal ingredient in any medicine or compound preparation; or that on which its qualities or efficacy depends.

BAS′IL (-băz′-). Syn. Sweet bas′il, Cit′ron b.; Basil′icum, L.; Basilic, Fr.; Basilikum, Ger. The oc′ymum (ŏs′-) basil′icum (Linn.), an annual aromatic herbaceous plant, of the nat. ord. Labiatæ (DC.). It is a native of India, but is largely cultivated in every part of Europe as a pot-herb. Leaves strong-scented; popularly reputed emmenagogue; much used to flavour salads, soups, &c., especially in French cookery. Mock-turtle soup derives its peculiar flavour from this herb; as also did the original Fetter-lane sausages, once so highly esteemed by cockney gourmands. In India it is commonly employed as an anodyne in childbirth.

Bas′il (băz′-). Syn. Bas′an; Basane, Fr. A sheep-skin, tanned; particularly one dressed on the grain side, for book-binding.

BASIL′ICON. See Cerates and Ointments.

BAS′KET (băs′-). Syn. Coph′inus (kŏf′-), L.; Panier, Corbeille, &c., Fr.; Korb, Ger. Baskets are generally STAINED or COLOURED with the simple liquid dyes used for straw or wood; and that, for variegated work, the twigs, after being carefully peeled, washed, and wiped dry or slightly air-dried, are stained before being woven. See Osiers, &c.

BASS‡. [Provin.] The linden-tree; also a hassock or mat made of its inner bark. See Bast.

Bassia butyracea. A tree growing in the sub-tropical Himalayas. The seeds yield by expression a concrete oil, known by the name of Fulwa Butter, which does not become rancid by keeping. It is held in high esteem in India as an external application in rheumatic and other painful maladies.

BAS′SORIN (-rĭn). Syn. Bassori′na, L. A substance first noticed, by Vauquelin, in Bas′sora-gum. See Gum, Insoluble, Tragacanthine, &c.

BAST (băst). Syn. Bass (which see). The inner bark of the linden tree or tiel tree; also matting, &c., made of it.

BAS′TARDS (-tărdz). Syn. Bas′tard Sug′ar (shŏŏg′-), Pieces, &c. In sugar-refining, impure or damaged sugar resulting from the heat and chemicals used in the process of manufacture, and which will not pay for purifying.

BA′′SYL (bāse′ĭl). In chemistry, any simple or compound body, acting as a basic radical.

BATATA [Convolvulus batatas, or Sweet Potato]. This is a native of the East Indies, but is now cultivated in all tropical and sub-tropical countries for the sake of its tubers, which are highly esteemed as an article of food. They are eaten either roasted or boiled, and are sweet, wholesome, and nutritious, although somewhat laxative.

In some parts of America the Batata, next to maize, forms the principal diet of the poorer classes. The plant was introduced into England by Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Hawkins; but they do not bear the cold of our winters, and if grown here are raised in hot-houses, where they may be obtained without difficulty varying from 1 lb. to 2 lbs. in weight. They thrive better in the south of Europe. The tubers contain about 32 per cent. of solid matter, 16 of which is starch, 10 sugar, 1·5 albumen, 1·1 gum, 0·3 fat, 2·9 mineral matter. The leaves are used as a boiled vegetable.

BATH (bahth). Syn. Bal′neum, L.; Bain, Fr.; Bad, Ger., Sax. A place for bathing; a vessel or receptacle, natural or artificial, containing or adapted to contain water, and used to bathe in. In architecture and hygiene, a building fitted up for and appropriated to bathing.

Constr., &c. Here one of the first subjects which must engage our attention is the selection of the material of which the bath is to be formed. For FIXED BATHS polished white marble has always been in favour, owing to its cleanliness and beauty. For this purpose, slabs of sufficient thickness and free from flaws or cracks should be chosen; and they should be securely and properly bedded in good water-tight cement, in a well-seasoned wooden case. The objections to marble, independent of its costliness, are, that it is apt to get yellow or discoloured, and to lose its polish, by frequent and careless use; and that the restoration of its surface to its original purity, is a matter of considerable expense and difficulty. It is also only fitted to contain water with, at the most, soap, weak alkalies or alkaline carbonates, aromatics, or neutral organic principles; and cannot be employed with water medicated, however slightly, with acids, sulphurets, iodine, chlorine, salines (others than those just named), or calorific substances. As a cheaper material thick slabs of Welsh slate are often substituted for marble; but even this substance is attacked by chemicals, though much more slowly. A lining of large Dutch tiles is sometimes used: but here the joints are very apt to leak. For baths adapted to all the requirements of health and disease, and which are at the same time durable and comparatively inexpensive, we must, therefore, seek further. Porcelain, glass, and hard glazed stone-ware have been proposed, and are even sometimes used for baths; but they possess the disadvantages of being fragile, and very liable to crack when filled with hot water in cold weather. Wedgewood-ware is very beautiful and durable; but is expensive, and baths formed of it can only be obtained on special order. Stourbridge-ware, as produced of late years, is the only product of the potter’s art that appears entirely to meet the case; but even this yields in durability to enamelled iron as a material for baths adapted to all liquids and temperatures, and to rough or careless usage. (See engr. 1.) The better qualities of PORT′ABLE BATHS (see engr. 2) are generally made of copper. Stout tinned or galvanised iron, and even stout block-tin thickly covered with waterproof paint or japan, are also employed; but though less expensive than copper, they have the disadvantage of being much less durable. All these substances are, however, readily acted on by chemicals. A durable and cheap portable bath, adapted to all purposes, must, therefore, like a fixed one, be made of one or other of the materials already noticed. For MED′ICATED BATHS large wooden troughs are frequently employed, particularly for acidulated, ioduretted, and sulphuretted baths.

The arrangements for supplying cold and hot water must necessarily greatly depend on circumstances, and the quantity required. For a single fixed bath, or even for two or three of them, the common circulating water-heater or boiler, placed in some apartment on a rather lower level than the bath, is, perhaps, the most convenient; but where this is not attainable the water may be run, by means of a pipe, from a boiler situated on a somewhat higher level. In either case a supply of cold water must also be at hand, and conveyed in a like manner, to enable the bath to be reduced to any required temperature. On the large scale, as in our public baths, where numerous baths are in constant use during the day, the hot water is best supplied from a large cistern somewhere above the level of the bath-rooms, and which is heated by a coil of pipe supplied with high-pressure steam from a boiler situated on a lower level, as the ground floor or basement. The hot and the cold water, conveyed by separate pipes of about 1⁄2 inch diameter, unite in a two-way cock close to the bath, so as to enter it together, by which only one aperture in the end of the bath is required for the purpose. The bath is emptied, and excess of water removed, by a grated aperture in the bottom, also stopped by a cock which, like the former, has handles or keys so placed as to be accessible to the attendant outside the bath-room, as well as to the bather, whilst the danger of overflowing is obviated by a two-inch waste-pipe, opening into the bath at about two inches from the top.

For heating portable baths, so many plans are in use, and have been suggested, and even patented, that the reader cannot possibly be at a loss for one to suit his particular case. A small grate for burning charcoal is the one most commonly adopted; but where attainable, a ring or cross of small inflamed gas-jets, is more cleanly and manageable.

When the bath consists of a wooden tub, or any other deep vessel, a simple and inexpensive apparatus brought out in America, under the title of the ‘Ital′ian bath′-warmer’ (see engr. 3), and made of thin sheet-iron, will occasionally be found useful.

a, Bath-tub.

b, The larger arm of the warming-tube by which the charcoal is introduced, and by which the fumes fly off.

c, The smaller arm to admit air to support the combustion.

d, The fire grate, to support the burning charcoal.

This situation and the minor details connected with the comfort and convenience of the bath, must greatly depend on the character of the building, and the sum to be devoted to the purpose. When possible, the bath-room should always be on the same floor as the bedrooms, of easy access to them, and so situated and arranged, that a plentiful and constant supply of pure water can be ensured, and the waste water removed without trouble or inconvenience. The basement story should always be avoided; for, as observed by Dr Ure, there is a coldness and dampness belonging to it, in almost all weathers, which is neither agreeable nor salubrious.

The ranges of the temperature of water appropriate to the respective baths, according to the common nomenclature, are shown in the following Table:—

Name. Temperature. Fahr.

Cold bath 33° to 75°

Temperate bath 75 ” 82

Tepid bath 82 ” 90

Warm bath 90 ” 98

Hot bath 98 ” 112

Concluding Remarks. The importance, and indeed the absolute necessity of frequent personal ablution, has been already insisted on and explained. But however important and beneficial the use of water in this way may be, the effects arising from the immersion of the body in that liquid, as in the practice of bathing, are far more extensive and complete. What the one does usefully but not completely, the other accomplishes readily, satisfactorily, and perfectly. There is no absolute succedaneum for the entire bath. Its physiological effects are peculiar to itself, and of the utmost importance in pathology and hygiene. The practice of wearing flannel, the daily use of clean linen, the mere washing of the more exposed parts of the body, are but poor attempts at cleanliness, without the occasional, if not frequent, entire submersion of the body in water. Nor should the action of judicious bathing in the promotion of personal comfort and personal beauty be forgotten. Intellectual and moral vigour are also gradually, but materially, influenced and promoted by the beneficial action of bathing on the system; for mind and conscience being linked to matter in the ‘house we live in,’ become perturbed, or lethargic, in almost exact accordance with the fluctuations of our physical health. The neglect of bathing in this country is, to us, an absolute enigma. We are always talking about health, and continually professing to be seeking it; but the practical applications of the principles which we advocate, and the doctrines which we teach, are, unfortunately, the exceptions and not the rule.

Our recommendation of bathing applies chiefly to the warm bath and the tepid bath, which are alike adapted to the delicate and the robust, and to every condition of climate and season. Cold bathing, in this climate, is only suited to the most healthy and vigorous, and can only be safely practised during the warmer months of the year, and in a mass of water sufficient to permit of the heat of the body being maintained by swimming or other active exercise. The plunge and shower baths are partial exceptions to these remarks; whilst sea-bathing, for the reasons given elsewhere, comes under another category. This last, “on account of its stimulative and penetrating power, may be placed at the head of those means which regard the care of the skin; and it certainly supplies one of the first wants of the present generation, by opening the pores, and thereby re-invigorating the whole nervous system.” “Besides its great power in cases of disease, it may be employed by those who are perfectly well, as the means most agreeable to nature for strengthening the body and preserving the health.” Another important advantage which sea-bathing has over bathing in fresh water is, that persons seldom take cold from indulging in it.

For old people, or those of middle age, the cold bath is not to be recommended, or if taken, considerable caution is required in using it. By such persons, also, bathing in very hot weather, or in the sea, should likewise be prudently practised. For these, the warm or tepid sponge-bath will be found the much safer method.

It sometimes happens that, both with the old and young, the cold bath gives rise to headache, palpitation, shortness of breath, loss of appetite, or great languor. Whenever any of these effects are produced, the bath should be at once given up.

The best time for taking a cold hath or for swimming is in the morning, not too early, but when the sun is well up. Immersion is best practised after a light meal, but not immediately following one. After breakfast, from 10 a.m. to noon, are the preferable hours. Should the bather be unable to swim, when going into the sea or into a river, he should keep briskly moving all the time his body is immersed in the water. If in a room bodily friction must be substituted for exercise. A desirable glow may often be produced by rubbing the body with either a rough towel, a flesh-brush, or a pair of horsehair gloves.

The above remarks are meant to apply only to persons in average health.

Weakly and delicate persons, even without any disease about them, would always do well to consult their medical adviser before taking to cold bathing.

We may add, that for bathing to produce its best effects the water should be soft and pure, and good soap sparingly, but regularly, employed whenever the skin requires it. See Ablution and Wash-houses.

The medical and hygienic properties of baths are noticed below, under their respective names:—

Bath. In chemistry, &c., a vessel or apparatus containing some medium in which the vessel holding the substance to be heated is immersed, instead of being exposed to the direct action of the fire; by which means a limited and uniform temperature may be ensured.

The highest temperature that can be given to any substance contained in a vessel placed in another of boiling water, is about 205° or 206° Fahr.; but by adding ⁄5th part of common salt to the bath, a heat of fully 212° may be obtained. Baths of fusible metal, saturated solutions of salt, sand, and (on the large scale) steam, are also used for the same purpose. A bath of oil may be safely heated to about 500° Fahr. without suffering decomposition, and will be found an exceedingly appropriate and convenient source of heat in many processes. The simplest and most convenient form of water bath is that afforded by raising water to the boiling point in a copper basin placed over a gas lamp, and supporting the vessel to be heated over the basin, by means of a circular hoop of copper resting on the top of the basin. By this means the lower surface of the dish or vessel to be heated is brought in contact with the steam. Copper basins, fitted with a series of concentric copper rings, so as to render the basin capable of supporting dishes of different sizes, are made for this purpose.

For drying many substances an air bath is required. The accompanying cut represents a convenient form of air bath. It consists of a cylindrical copper vessel (A), the cover of which is moveable, and has two apertures, the middle one (E) serving for the escape of vapour, and the lateral one (C) for the insertion of a thermometer. The vessel holding the substance to be heated rests on a ring within the box, supported on a tripod.

A larger air bath, by means of which several small vessels can be heated at once, is seen below.

Air-baths are sometimes surrounded with a jacket, and may be converted into water or oil baths, according as the jacket is filled with either of the fluids. For a Table of Boiling-points, see Ebullition.

An air-bath of constant temperature between 100° and 200° C. has been contrived by Sprengel. It consists of an ordinary hot-water oven made of sheet-lead autogenously soldered, and filled with dilute sulphuric acid boiling at the required temperature.

In order that the temperature may remain constant, the water which distils from the dilute sulphuric acid is condensed and allowed to flow back again into the bath by means of a worm of lead cooled by the atmosphere, or a long vertical metal or glass tube.

Bath. In medicine, the medium in which the body, or a part of it, is bathed or immersed, for some object beyond that of mere personal cleanliness or enjoyment; the composition, use, or temperature of the medium being generally indicated by some epithet, as in the instances below. When only the last is pointed out, pure water is, of course, intended to be used.

Baths are divided by medical writers into classes, and even minor subdivisions, in a manner which is more ingenious than useful. They are said to be SIMPLE when water or its vapour forms the bath; and COMPOUND when the water or vapour is medicated by the addition of other substances (COM′POUND BATHS; BAL′NEA COMPOS′ITA, L.). The latter class is also subdivided into THERAPEU′TIC BATHS (MED′ICATED BATHS; BAL′NEA MEDICA′TA, B. THERAPEU′TICA, L.); and NUTRIT′IVE BATHS (B. NUTRIEN′TIA, B. NUTRI′′TIA*, B. NUTRITO′′RIA*, L.). Thus, besides the ordinary water and vapour baths, the medical uses of which are hereafter noticed, we have WINE′-BATHS, MILK′-BATHS, SOUP′-BATHS, &c. (used to convey nourishment, or to sustain the body, as in occlusion of the œsophagus, certain diseases of the stomach, &c.); CHLO′′RINE BATHS, SUL′PHUROUS B., MERCU′′RIAL B., &c. (used in skin diseases, syphilis, &c.); AROMAT′IC and CHALYB′EATE BATHS (employed as tonics); and ACID BATHS (sometimes used to remove the effects of mercury).

On the Continent a variety of substances are employed to medicate baths, which are seldom or never so used in this country.

The quantity of any medicinal substance used to medicate a bath, for an adult, may be, in general, for each gallon of water employed, about the same as that which is used to form a half-pint lotion of medium or rather weak strength. Thus; taking the quantity of bichloride of mercury to form the lotion at 5 gr., and that of sulphurated potash at ⁄2 dr., the quantity required for a bath of 30 to 40 galls. will be about 2⁄2 dr. of the first, and about 1⁄4 oz. of the second of these substances. Much, however, depends on the nature of the case, the length of the immersion, the periods of recurrence, and the intended number of repetitions. In the case of very active remedies it will be safest and best to begin with less than (say ⁄4 to ⁄3) the quantity thus indicated.

Medicated baths are, in nearly all cases, taken warm or fully tepid.

⁂ In the following baths the quantity of the ingredients ordered, when not otherwise indicated, is that proper for an ordinary full-sized bath for an adult; viz., from 40 to 60 galls. Those which do not contain volatile substances may be used more than once; and many of them several times by adding a small quantity of fresh ingredients to keep up their strength.

Bath, Acid (ăs′-). Syn. Bal′neum ac′idum (ăs′-), L. See Hydrochloric, Nitric, Nitro-hydrochloric, and Sulphuric Acid Baths (below). Enamelled, hard-glazed, or wooden vessels must be used with all of them.

Bath, Air. Syn. Bal′neum pneumat′icum, L.:—a. (Cold.) Simple exposure of the body, in a state of nudity, for a short time to the atmosphere. Tonic, anodyne, and sedative; in febrile excitement, nervous irritability, and restlessness accompanied by a quick or full pulse, &c. Safe and often very effective. It will frequently induce sleep when all other means fail.

b. (Hot:—Assa, A. suda′tio, L.) An apartment to which dry heated air is admitted. Sometimes the arrangement is such that the air is not inhaled. Stimulant; sudorific; more so than even the vapour bath; produces copious perspiration, being, indeed, the most powerful and certain diaphoretic known. It has been advantageously employed in cholera (for which its advocates state that it is almost a specific), congestive fevers, chronic rheumatism, contractions, stiff joints, paralysis, scaly skin-diseases, dropsical swellings, and most of the cases in which the vapour bath is usually employed. The temperatures are—as a sudorific, 85° to 105° Fahr.; as a stimulant, 100° to 130°. When not inhaled it may be often raised, with advantage, 15° to 25° higher. See Bath, Turkish.

c. (Compressed.) Recommended, by M. Tarberie, in aphonia, &c. It has recently been employed in asthma, phthisis, and some other like diseases, with extraordinary success, at Ben Rhydding.

d. (Rarefied.) Applied locally. Revulsive; resembles CUPPING, DRY (which see).

Bath, Al′kaline. Syn. Al′kalised bath; Bal′neum alkali′num, B. alkaliza′tum, L. Carbonate of potash (salt of tartar), ⁄4 lb. In itch, prurigo and chronic skin diseases accompanied with dryness and irritation, acute gout, lithic gravel, scurvy, diarrhœa, &c. Scotch soda, 1 lb., is sometimes substituted for the ‘potash’; but is less effective, and is theoretically objectionable.

Bath, Al′um. Syn. Bal′neum alu′minis, L. Alum (in powder, or previously dissolved in hot water), ⁄4 lb. to 1⁄2 lb., or even 2 lbs. In troublesome excoriations, extensive burns, obstinate vesicular eruptions, diarrhœa, &c.; also in obstinate piles and prolapsus ani. See Bath, Astringent.

Bath, Ammoni′acal. See Hydrochlorate of Ammonia Bath (below).

Bath, Animal. Syn. Bal′neum anima′le, L. The skin or any part of an animal just killed, wrapped round the body or a limb. Once much esteemed; now, happily, disused in this country.

Bath, Antimo′′nial. Syn. Bal′neum antimonia′le, L. Tartar-emetic, 1 to 2 oz. (Soubeiran.) In lumbago and certain skin diseases; also as a counter-irritant.

Bath, Antipso′′ric. Syn. Bal′neum antipso′′ricum, L. See Bath, Sulphuretted (also others).

Bath, Aromat′ic. Syn. Bal′neum aromat′icum, L. Balm, chamomile, lavender, mint, rosemary, sage, thyme, with any other like aromatic herbs (at will), of each a handful, mixed together and steeped in a (covered) pail of boiling or very hot water, for an hour, and then strained, with pressure, into the bath. Sometimes 2 or 3 oz. of sal-ammonia, a ⁄4 lb. of alum, or 1 lb. of common salt, is also added. Occasionally used in cutaneous affections, chronic rheumatism, diarrhœa, dyspepsia, stiff-joints, &c.; also in debility arising from loss of blood, spermatorrhœa, suppressions, hysteria, hypochondriasis, &c.

The AROMATIC VAPOUR BATH is made by causing the vapour to pass through the herbs.

Baths, Aromatic Malt (J. Hoff, Berlin). Wittstein says these consist of coarsely crushed barley malt at six times its selling value.

Bath, Astrin′gent. Syn. Bal′neum astrin′gens, L. Prep. (Most.) Alum (2 to) 4 lbs.; dissolve in boiling water; and add, whey, 6 or 8 pailfuls, or q. s. In extensive burns, piles, prolapsus ani, &c. See Bath, Alum, Bath, Oakbark, &c.

Bath, Balsamic. Syn. Bal′neum balsam′inum, L. Bordeaux turpentine and tar, of each 2 lbs. (or of tar alone, 3 to 4 lbs.); hot water, 6 or 7 galls.; stir continuously until nearly cold, then add the clear portion to water q. s. to form a bath. In mumps, pruriginous diseases of the skin, eczema, impetigo, &c.

Bath, Barèges (Factitious). Syn. Bal′neum Baretginen′se (Factitium), L. Prep. 1. Crystallised sulphide of sodium, 3⁄2 oz.; chloride of sodium, 1⁄2 oz.; gelatine (dissolved), 4 oz.

2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Dry sulphide of potassium, 4 oz.; water, 16 oz.; dissolve, and add the solution to the bath; then further add, of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, ⁄2 oz., previously diluted with water, 8 oz. In itch, moist skin diseases, chronic diarrhœa, chronic rheumatism, lead colic, &c. See Balls, Waters, &c.

Bath, Benzo′ic. Syn. Bal′neum benzo′icum, L. 1. Benzoin (in powder), ⁄2 lb.; water (at 90°) q. s. In irritations, hysteria, hypochondriasis, &c. It is also reputed to be feebly aphrodisiac. 2. A common warm bath, with a little powdered benzoin laid on a heated plate near the bather, so that the fumes may be inhaled. Slightly soothing or anodyne; in chronic laryngitis, relaxed uvula, &c.

Bath, Bichlo′′ride of Mer′cury. See Bath, Mercurial.

Bath, Bran. Syn. Bal′neum fur′furis, L. Bran, 5 to 7 lbs.; boiling waters, 2 or 3 galls.; digested together for an hour, or boiled for 15 minutes; the strained liquid being added to the bath. Emollient; in dry and scaly skin disease, and to allay itching and surfacial irritation; also to promote suppuration, &c.

Bath, Bromine. The saline waters of Kreuznach contain bromides. The salts derived from the evaporation of these waters are imported into this country, and are employed in baths. Or the following substitute may be used:—Artificial sea-salt, 11 lbs.; bromide of potassium, 4 oz.; mix, and let the above be added to a bath containing sufficient water for immersion. The bromine bath is more especially used for tumours of every kind. It requires to be continued in for a long time. When the patient does not possess the conveniences for taking the bath, flannels dipped in a strong solution of the salt and wrung out may be applied wet to the abdomen for some hours daily.

Bath, Cam′phor. Syn. Bal′neum cam′phoræ, B. camphoratum, L. Camphor, 3 or 4 dr., coarsely powdered, and placed on a plate heated by boiling water, in the bathroom. Anodyne, anaphrodisiac, and diaphoretic; in spasmodic asthma, chronic cough, relaxation of the uvula, ardor urinæ, nervous irritability, &c.

Bath, Carbon′ic. Syn. Carbon′ic acid bath; Bal′neum carbon′icum, B. ac′idum carbonicum, L.

1. Carbonic acid gas applied, by means of a suitable apparatus, to prevent its being respired. Antiseptic, diaphoretic, and excitant to the vascular system; in amenorrhœa, chlorosis, hysteria, scrofula, cancerous and other ulcers (particularly foul ones), &c.

2. Water, at 50° Fahr., charged with the gas. Powerfully antiseptic and sedative; in foul ulcers, gangrene, &c.

Bath, Chlo′′ride of Ammo′′nium. Syn. Bal′neum ammo′′nii chlori′di, B. ammo′′niæ hydrochlora′tis, L. Sal-ammoniac, 2 to 3 lbs., or even 4 lbs. In chronic inflammations, glandular enlargements and indurations, chronic rheumatism and affections of the joints, leucorrhœa, chilblains, frost-bites, &c.

Bath, Chlo′′ride of Soda. Solution of chlorinated soda, 1⁄2 lb.; water, 30 galls.

Bath, Chlo′′rine. Syn. Bal′neum chlorin′ii, B. chlorina′tum, L. Tepid water to which a little chlorine has been added. Antiseptic, stimulant, and subsequently sedative and antiphlogistic; in itch, foul and gangrenous ulcers, chronic liver affections, &c. Chloride of lime is commonly substituted for chlorine.

2. (Magendie; Wallace.) Chlorine gas (obtained from salt, 1⁄2 oz.; oil of vitriol and water, of each 1 oz.; and black oxide of manganese, ⁄2 oz. to 1 oz.) diluted with air, at a temperature of 104° to 150° Fahr., and applied, by means of a suitable apparatus, for 10 minutes to ⁄2 an hour; every possible precaution being taken to prevent it being inhaled. In chronic liver affections, gradually and cautiously increasing the ingredients to three times the above quantity, and decreasing the dilution with air until the gas is used nearly pure.

Bath, Cold. Syn. Balneum frig′idum (-frĭj′-), Frigida′′rium, L.; Bain froid, Fr. Water, fresh, saline, or mineral, at a temperature varying from 33° to about 75°; but usually understood to apply to water between 50° and 70° Fahr. When below 50° it is considered very cold. At a temperature ranging from 60° to about 75° it is commonly used by the healthy and vigorous as a luxury, and for cleanliness.

“The immediate effects of the cold bath are a sensation of cold (speedily followed by one of warmth), contraction of the cutaneous vessels, paleness of the skin, diminution of perspiration, and reduction of the volume of the body. Shivering, and, as the water rises to the chest, a kind of convulsive sobbing, are also experienced. Continued immersion renders the pulse small, and ultimately imperceptible, and the respiration difficult and irregular. A feeling of inactivity succeeds; the joints become rigid and inflexible; pain in the head, drowsiness, and cramps, come on; the temperature of the body falls rapidly; and faintness, followed by death, ensues.” “Its primary effects constitute the SHOCK—its secondary effects, the REACTION or GLOW.” Hence it is that immersion of the body in water below about 65° Fahr. cannot be tolerated for any length of time without such a loss of animal heat as frequently to induce highly sedative and depressing effects, from which the constitution does not readily recover. Water at a temperature of below about 50° Fahr. can only be safely used as a plunge-bath. The sedative effects of sea and mineral waters is much than that of pure water, or of spring or river water.

The cold bath, medically considered, is tonic, stimulant, and restorative, when judiciously taken, and when not too long continued or too often repeated. When beneficial, the patient feels a pleasant glow on the surface of the body immediately following it. If a sensation of coldness or shivering ensues, it acts injuriously, and should not be repeated. The duration of the immersion may vary from 2 to 15 minutes, the precise time depending upon the temperature of the water and the feelings of the bather; the longer period being only proper in fine weather, and when accompanied by swimming or violent exercise.

As a remedial agent, the cold bath is principally recommended to increase the tone and vigour of the system; and is contra-indicated when there is a tendency to apoplexy, or to chronic affections, functional or organic, of the heart, lungs, or kidneys. It should never be taken when the person feels chilly, languid, or depressed; or if drowsiness and shivering follow it.

The temperature of the water of the rivers and the coasts of England ranges, in summer, from 55° to 70 or 72° Fahr.

Bath, Creosote. Creosote, 2 dr.; glycerin, 2 oz.; boiling water, one gall. To be added to 29 galls. of water.

Bath, Douche. See Bath, Shower, Douche, &c.

Bath, Dry. Syn. Bal′neum siccum, L. The immersion of the body in any dry material, as ashes, salt, sand, &c. Earth-bathing, as administered by the once notorious quack, Dr Graham, was of this kind. In the sudatorium or sweating room of the ancients the body was immersed in heated sand.

Bath, Elec′tric. Syn. Bal′neum elec′tricum, L. The patient, placed on an insulated stool, is put in contact, by means of a metallic wire, with the prime conductor of an electrical machine in action. The surface of the body is thus rendered electro-positive, and the surrounding air, by induction, electro-negative. It has been recommended in chronic rheumatism, scirrhous tumours, &c.

Bath, Electro-chemical (of Dr Caplin). This is founded on the supposition that all diseases arise from the presence of mineral, or other extraneous morbific matter, in some organ, or the whole organism, and which is capable of removal by electrolysis. The patient is placed in an appropriately arranged voltaic bath, and there “saturated with the electric fluid.” This “decomposes everything which is foreign to the organism, the vital parts being protected by the law of conservation belonging to every organic production.” These foreign substances are said to be thus carried out of the system by the electric current, and to be “fixed and plated on the copper in the same way, and according to the same law and principle (only reversed), as in the process of electro-plating.”

Bath, Fec′ula. Syn. Bal′neum am′yli, B. fæc′ulæ, L. Potato-starch or wheat-starch, 1 to 4 lbs.; boiling water q. s. to dissolve. Resembles the BRAN-BATH.

Bath, Ferru′ginous. Syn. Chalyb′eate bath; Bal′neum ferrugin′eum, B. Chalybeatum, L. 1. Green sulphate of iron, 1 to 2 lbs. A well-tinned copper, wooden, or japanned bath may be used. In general debility when chalybeates are indicated, and the stomach will not bear iron; also in piles and prolapsus. The stains on the towels used to wipe the patient may be removed by at once soaking them in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid.

2. (Ioduretted.) See Bath of Iodide of Iron.

Bath, Foot. Syn. Pedilu′vium, L. Warm (or hot). Revulsive, counter-irritant; in colds, menstrual and hæmorrhoidal suppressions, rheumatism, stiffness of the ankles, tender feet, &c. A little common salt, flour of mustard, or sal-ammoniac, is often added to render it more stimulant, to prevent ‘taking cold,’ &c. See Feet, &c.

Bath, Gelat′inous. Syn. Bal′neum gelatino′sum, B. gelatin′ii, L. Gelatin or fine Salisbury glue, 3 or 4 lbs.; dissolved in boiling water, 2 galls., or q. s.; and added to a warm bath. At the ‘Hospital for Cutaneous Diseases’ 8 lbs. of patent size are used for a bath of 30 to 35 galls. Emollient; formerly, but erroneously, considered nutritive. Used in skin diseases; generally combined with sulphur. See Bath, Barèges.

Bath, Glyc′erine (glĭs′). Syn. Bal′neum Glycerin′ii, B. g. compos′itum, L. Glycerine, 2 lbs.; gum arabic (dissolved), 1 lb. Used as a soothing emollient, in itching, dryness, irritation, and hardness of the skin, &c. Where expense is an object, 3 or 4 lbs. of good honey, and 1 oz. of salt of tartar, form an excellent substitute for the glycerine.

Bath, Hem′lock. Syn. Bal′neum co′nii, L. 1. Dried hemlock-leaves (or herb), 4 to 6 handfuls; water, 1 gall.; infuse 2 hours, and strain. The part to be immersed in, or bathed with, the warm infusion, observing not to apply it if the skin is unsound; or it may be added to the water of a bath in the usual manner. In gout, cancer, chronic rheumatism, and certain skin diseases.

2. (Cut. Hosp.) Extract of hemlock, 2 oz.; starch, 1 lb.; boiling water, 1 gall.; dissolve. For a bath of about 30 galls. As the last.

Bath, Hip. Syn. Coxælu′vium, L. Usually warm; sometimes fully warm, or somewhat hot. In inflammatory, spasmodic, and chronic affections of the abdominal and pelvic viscera; in suppressed and painful menstruation, hæmorrhoids, strangury, prolapsus, ischuria, &c.; also as a substitute for a full bath, when this last is contra-indicated by some affection of the lungs, heart, brain, or great vessels. Like full baths, it may be often advantageously medicated. See Bidet.

Bath, Hot. Syn. Bal′neum cal′idum, Calda′′rium, L.; Bain chaud, Fr. Usual temperature, 98° to 106° Fahr.

The hot bath has a remarkably tranquillising effect upon the nervous system, producing a strong tendency to quietude and sleep. It also acts as a powerful antispasmodic, and by determining the blood to the surface of the body tends to relieve visceral inflammation and congestion. In chronic affections arising from the action of cold and damp and from exhausted energy, in stiff joints, rheumatism, neuralgia, diarrhœa, and numerous other affections, its effects are often rapid and remarkable. At high temperatures it strongly stimulates the arterial system, and arouses nervous energy and vital action, producing excessive excitement and turgescence, followed by copious perspiration, which has been often found successful in cholera, paralysis, &c. If the immersion be too long continued, or the bath be injudiciously employed, lassitude, debility, and somnolency ensue, and the good effect of the bath is more or less lost. In these cases violent throbbing and painful distension of the vessels of the head, with a distressing feeling of suffocation and anxiety, are premonitory symptoms of impending apoplexy, an accident which sometimes, though seldom, follows its improper use.

Bath, Hydrochlo′′rate of Ammonia. See Bath, Chloride of Ammonium.

Bath, Hydrochlo′′ric Acid. Syn. Muriat′ic acid bath; Bal′neum hydrochlo′′ricum, B. acidum h., B. muriat′icum, &c., L. Commercial hydrochloric acid, 1 to 3 lbs. (in chronic liver affections); or 3 to 6 fl. oz. (in prurigo and lichen).

Bath, Hydrosul′phuretted. Syn. Bal′neum hydrosulphure′tum, L.—1. A tepid sulphuretted bath, with the addition of hydrochloric acid, 2 or 3 fl. dr., immediately before immersion. In rheumatism, chronic skin diseases, hooping-cough, and certain forms of paralysis:—2. A tepid bath to which 3 to 6 fl. oz. of (liquid) hydrosulphate of ammonia is added immediately before use. Used as the last. It often acts almost as a specific in hooping-cough and certain breath ailments.

Bath, I′odine of I′ron. Syn. Bal′neum fer′ri iodi′di, L. Prep. (Pierquin.) Iodide of iron, ⁄2 oz. to 2 oz. In amenorrhœa, leucorrhœa, chlorosis, scrofula, &c.; gradually increasing the quantity of the iodide until 4 oz., or more, is used for a bath.

Bath, I′odine. Syn. Bal′neum iodin′ii, L.:—1. Iodine, 3 to 5 dr.; dry siliceous sand, 2 oz.; triturated together until reduced to fine powder, and then agitated with the water of a tepid bath for 10 or 15 minutes. 2. (Cutan. Hosp.) Iodine, 4 dr.; liquor of potassa, 4 oz.; water, 2 pints; dissolve; for a bath of 30 galls. In skin diseases complicated with scrofula, glandular enlargements, amenorrhœa, &c.

Bath, Io′duretted. Syn. Io′durated bath, I′odised b., Compound iodine-b., &c.; Bal′neum iodure′tum, B. iodura′tum*, B. potas′′sii superiodi′di, &c., L. Lugol, the leading authority on this subject, employs this bath of the different strengths, &c., shown in the following tables:—

a. For Adults:—

Degree. Iodine. Iodide of Potassium. Water for the bath.

dr. dr. gal.

1 2 to 2⁄2 4 to 5 50

2 2 to 3 4 to 6 60

3 3 to 3⁄2 6 to 7 75

b. For Children:—

Age. Iodine. Iodide of Potassium. Water.

gr. gr. gal.

4 to 7 30 to 36 60 to 72 9

7 to 11 48 to 72 96 to 144 18

11 to 14 72 to 96 144 to 192 31

⁂ The dry ingredients of the first Table are to be dissolved in a pint of water, and of the second, in ⁄2 pint of water, before adding them to the bath.

In scrofulous affections and the other cases in which the external use of iodine or the iodides is indicated. Enamelled ware, stoneware, or wooden vessels must be employed.

Bath, Lime. Syn. Bal′neum cum cal′ce, L. Lime, 3 lbs.; slaked, and added to the bath. In gout, lithic diathesis, itch, &c. See Bath, Vapour.

Bath, Mercu′′rial. Syn. Antisyphilit′ic bath; Bal′neum mercuria′le, B. hydrar′gyri bichlori′di, B. antisyphilit′icum, &c., L.; Bain mercuriel, B. antisyphilitique, &c., Fr. Bichloride of mercury, in fine powder, 1 to 3 dr., hot water, 1 pint; agitate together until solution is complete, before adding them to the bath, the ‘water’ of which (contained in an enamelled or wooden vessel) must be soft (rain) and pure. At the ‘Cutan. Hosp.’ hydrochloric acid (= ⁄3rd the weight of the chloride) is commonly added; and at the ‘Fr. hospitals,’ an equal, or rather more than an equal weight, of sal-ammoniac. These additions facilitate the solution of the chloride, and retard its decomposition by any slight impurity in the water forming the bath.

Uses, &c. In syphilitic affections, either with or without skin disease; in chronic rheumatism, swelled joints, and chronic skin diseases generally, where the use of mercury is indicated, and the remedy is rejected by the stomach; especially in these affections in women and children (for the last, proportionately reduced in strength and quantity). Also used in it, and to destroy pediculi on the body.

Bath, Met′al. See Bath (in Chemistry), Fusible Metal, &c.

Bath, Mud. Syn. Bal′neum lu′teum, B. lu′ti, L. Mud-bathing (ILLUTA′TION) was common among the ancients. The slime of rivers, and the mud on the sea-shore, were especially prized for this purpose. The Tartars and Egyptians still employ baths of this description in hypochondriasis, scrofula, and scurvy. At Franzenbad, in Germany, an acidulous species of black bog-earth found there, is beaten up with warm water to a semi-liquid consistence, and used as a bath. This is said to render the skin satin-like and soft; and to be useful in debility, and in paralytic affections of a gouty origin. In France, hot dung (DUNG BATH) is occasionally used in rheumatism; and in Poland, in syphilis. The husk of grapes and the refuse of olives, after undergoing a partial fermentation, have been successfully employed in France against acute rheumatism.

Bath, Muriat′ic. See Bath, Hydrochloric Acid.

Bath, Mus′tard. Syn. Bal′neum sina′pis, L.:—1. Flour of mustard, 2 lbs.; warm water, 1 gall.; make a thin soup; in fifteen minutes pour it into a coarse linen bag or cloth, and press out the liquid, which is to be stirred up with the bath. In cholera, diarrhœa simulating cholera, &c.; also to cause reaction; the patient remaining in the bath until a somewhat painful sense of burning and irritation is experienced:—2. Flour of mustard, 3 to 8 oz.; as before. Used as a gentle stimulant to excite the skin, and promote its healthy action, &c.

Bath, Ni′tro-hydrochlo′′ric. Syn. Ac′id bath‡ (ăs′-), Nitro-muriat′ic b.*, N. a. b.*; Bal′neum nitro-hydrochlo′′ricum. B. ac′idi (ăs′-), B. a. nitro-hydrochlo′′rici, B. a. nitro-muriat′ici*, &c., L.:—1. Water slightly acidulated with the acid, so that its sourness to the taste is about that of common vinegar. According to Ainslie, 1 oz. of acid is sufficient for 1 gall. of water. Other formulæ in use are—

2. (Cutan. Hosp.) Nitric acid, 1⁄2 lb.; hydrochloric acid, 1 lb.; for a bath of 60 to 70 galls.

3. (Soubeiran.) Nitro-hydrochloric acid, 4 to 16 fl. oz.; according to the case.

4. (Dr Scott.) Nitric acid, 2 fl. oz.; hydrochloric acid, 3 fl. oz.; water, 5 fl. oz.; mix. 1⁄2 to 2 fl. oz. to each gall. of water for a general bath; 3 fl. oz. to the gall. for a foot, knee, or sponge bath.

Uses, &c. In its weaker forms, in skin-diseases depending on disordered liver; in others, chiefly in liver complaints, and to relieve the pain on the passing of gall-stones. It must be contained in an enamelled or wooden vessel, and may be used as a hip, knee, or foot-bath; a knee-bath being the one generally adopted in England. Dr Scott, of Bombay, who first brought this bath into notice, once plunged the Duke of Wellington up to his chin in one, in India, and thus cured him of a severe hepatic affection. In its stronger form it causes tingling and pricking of the skin, and a peculiar taste in the mouth, and affects the gums and salivary glands, often producing plentiful ptyalism, without which, indeed, its advocates regard its action as incomplete. Time of application, 15 to 20 minutes daily, for a fortnight or three weeks; and afterwards, every second or third day.

Bath, Oak-Bark. Syn. Bal′neum quer′cûs, B. quer′ci, L. Oak-bark, 3 or 4 handfuls for a child; 10 to 15 for an adult; made into a decoction, and strained with pressure into the bath. In hæmorrhoids, prolapsus, leucorrhœa, hernia, diarrhœa, ill-conditioned and bleeding ulcerations, &c. Drs Elaesser, Eberle, and Fletcher have successfully employed it in the intermittents of infancy and childhood, tabes mesenterica or scrofula, &c. It has also proved useful in phthisis.

Bath, Oil. Syn. Bal′neum oleo′sum, L. Olive or other oil (hot), strongly aromatised with the oils of cassia, cloves, nutmegs, cedron, and juniper; and digested for a week on ambergris and vanilla, of each (bruised), about 10 gr. to the gallon. Used, in the East, to anoint the body, as a preservative against the plague and other contagious diseases; also as a full bath or hip-bath, the immersion being for 15 to 30 minutes.

Bath, Pneumat′ic. See Bath, Air.

Bath, Saline′ (Gelatinous). Syn. Bal′neum sali′no-gelatino′sum, L.; Bain de Plombières, Fr. Prep. Common salt and Flanders glue, of each 2 lbs.; water, 1 gall.; dissolve separately, and add the solutions to the bath. In scrofula, &c.

Bath, Salt. See Bath, Saline, Bath, Sea, &c.

Bath, Sand. Syn. Bal′neum are′næ, L.; Bain de sable, Fr. See Bath (in Chemistry), Bath, Dry, &c.

Bath, Sea. Syn. Bal′neum mari′num, L.; Bain marin, Fr. Immersion in the sea or in recent sea water (temperate, tepid, warm, or hot). Owing to the saline matter which it contains, it possesses stimulant, alterative, and resolvent properties, superadded to those of pure water at the corresponding temperature. When taken, in summer, on our coasts, the reaction and glow follow more speedily and certainly than after a common water bath; and it may be taken with greater safety, and for a longer period. It often proves very serviceable in diseases accompanied with debility, in phthisis, scrofula, glandular enlargement, &c. A warm or hot sea-water bath is one of the most restorative imaginable; often removing the effects of fatigue and exposure—exhaustion, stiff joints, cramps, rheumatism, &c.—like a charm. Unless under sanction of a medical man, boys and girls should never be allowed to bath in the sea after the end of September. See Bath (above), Waters, &c.

Bath, Sea. (Factitious). Syn. Bal′neum mari′num facti′′tium, L. Artificial sea-water, or rather a substitute for sea-water, for this purpose, is commonly prepared by adding about 3% of common salt to ordinary water. The following are, however, more serviceable imitations:—

1. As above, with the addition of 1 dr. of iodide of potassium to every 3 or 4 galls. of water.

2. (Cutan. Hosp.). Common salt, 8 lbs.; sulphate of magnesia, 2 lbs.; chloride of calcium, 1 lb.; water, 50 to 60 galls.

3. Salt, a handful; water, a pailful; flour of mustard, 1 oz. For a foot-bath.

Bath, Show′er. Syn. Implu′′vium, Bal′neum pen′sile, &c., L.; Douche, Fr. Similar in its effects to the cold bath or plunge-bath; but without many of its advantages. It is less alarming to nervous persons, and less liable to produce cramp, than immersion in cold water; whilst the reaction or glow follows more speedily and certainly. It is considered the best and safest mode of cold bathing, and is often highly serviceable in nervous affections. A good plan is to allow the water to remain in the bedroom all night, by which any undue degree of coldness is removed. Tepid water may be commenced with; and at first, in extreme cases, the patient may stand in hot or warm water at the time of taking the bath. The reaction following its use is greatly promoted by friction of the surface with dry rough towels.

Bath, Soap. Syn. Bal′neum sapo′nis, L. White soap, 2 to 3 lbs.; water, 3 quarts; dissolve by heat, and add it to a warm bath. Detergent, lubricating, and discutient; in itch and other skin diseases, &c.

Bath, Spon′′ging (spŭnje′-). This title explains itself. In the sponging bath exercise and ablution are combined, and its employment by persons of sedentary habit is highly advantageous.

Bath, Sulphur. Syn. Bal′neum sul′phuris, L. 1. Flowers of sulphur, ⁄2 to 1 lb.; water, a pailful; mix, agitate occasionally for 12 to 24 hours, and then add the whole to an ordinary bath. Useful in various mild, but obstinate, skin diseases. Its occasional employment, even in health, seldom fails to render the skin soft, smooth, and delicate. Soap may be used with it.

2. (Compound; B. s. compos′itum, L.)—a. (Cutan. Hosp.) Precipitated sulphur, 2 lbs.; hyposulphite of soda, ⁄2 lb.; water, 1 gall.; dissolve, and add of sulphuric acid, 1 dr. One pint to every 30 galls. of water. In various skin diseases (see below).

b. See Bath, Sulphuretted.

Bath, Sul′phurous. Syn. Sul′phurous acid bath; Bal′neum sulphuro′sum, B. sul′phuris‡, L. From sulphur, ⁄2 oz., sprinkled on a hot plate placed under or near the patient; the proper precautions being taken as directed under CHLORINE BATH. In itch, lepra, psoriasis, &c. Cleanly, but seldom used, chiefly on account of the number of baths required to prove serviceable. See Bath, Sulphuretted.

Bath, Sul′phuretted. Syn. Bal′neum sulphuret′um, B. sulphura′tum, B. sulphu′′reum, &c., L.; Bain sulfuré, &c., Fr. 1 Sulphurated potash, 1 oz.; for every 10 or 12 galls. of water employed. Sometimes sulphurated soda, or (in the Ger. hosp.) suphurated lime, is the sulphur-salt employed. ⁄2 dr. of sulphuric acid is also occasionally added to the bath; but this increases its fœtor, without adding much, if anything, to its curative power; whilst, without care, the evolved gas may impede respiration.

2. (Gelatinous; Gelat′ino-sul′phurous b.; B. s. gelatino′sum, L.) Flanders glue, 1⁄2 to 2 lbs.; dissolved and added to a ‘sulphuretted bath.’ Recommended, by Dupuytren, as a substitute for the ‘Barèges bath.’

Obs. The sulphur or sulphuretted bath, under any of its forms, is a powerful remedy in almost every description of skin disease. Leprosy, the most obstinate of all, has been completely cured by it; the common itch requires only one or two applications to eradicate it entirely; all the scurfy and moist skin affections, local irritation, pimples, inflammatory patches, &c., speedily yield to its influence; scrofula, and, indeed, all those affections in which the warm or vapour bath is serviceable, also derive powerful assistance from the sulphur bath.

Bath, Tem′perate. Syn. Bal′neum tempera′tus*, L.

Bath, Tep′id. Syn. Bal′neum tep′idum, B. egel′idum, Tepida′′rium, L.; Bain tiède &c., Fr. Approaches the warm bath in its hygiènic and medical properties; and is, perhaps the one best adapted for the mere purposes of personal cleanliness. In the spacious public tepid baths of London, swimming may be safely indulged in even in cold weather.

Bath, Tum′ble. An obsolete form of the shower bath.

Bath, Turk′ish. Syn. Bal′neum tur′cicum, L. A hot vapour bath or sweating bath, with massing or shampooing, ending with a warm bath or warm ablutions and friction. The Egyptian, Persian, and Russian baths are essentially similar. In the Anglo-Turkish bath, recently introduced to this country, hot dry air wholly takes the place of vapour. See Bath, Air (antè).

Bath, Turpentine. Syn. Bal′neum terebinthina′tum, L. Prep. (Dr T. Smith.) Camphine (rectified oil of turpentine), ⁄4 to ⁄2 pint; Scotch soda, 2 lbs.; oil of rosemary, ⁄2 dr.; for an adult. It calms the pulse, softens the skin, and renders the perspiration freer.

Bath, Va′pour. Syn. Dew′-bath*; Bal′neum va′poris, B. ro′′ris†, As′sa suda′tio, A. vapora′tio, Vapora′′rium*, L.; Bain de vapeurs, Fr. The vapour of hot water, either pure or medicated.

The simplest form of vapour bath is, perhaps, produced by placing some wet cloths, or sprinkling a little water on two or three heated bricks, laid under a chair on which the patient is seated; both the patient and whole apparatus being covered with a sheet or blanket, or, better still, a spacious waterproof cloak, to keep in the heated vapour. A large lump of quick-lime, set in a pan or an old iron pot and sprinkled with a little water, or else wrapped up in a thick coarse towel which has been previously soaked in water, may be substituted for the hot bricks; and often advantageously so. The slaking of the lime and the consequent evolution of vapour may be kept up or renewed, when necessary, by sprinkling on a little more water. This forms the “POOR MAN’S VAPOUR BATH” of the French. Dr Serres has suggested, as something apparently original, that a lump of quick-lime, wrapped in a wet cloth and covered with a dry one, be placed on each side of the patient; and the whole being covered up allowed to remain until copious perspiration is established. It must, however, be recollected that by none of these minor contrivances can the temperature of the vapour, and its supply, be regulated, as in a perfect bath, even a portable one, such as is shown in the engraving.

The following are the temperatures, &c., of this bath:—

Temperature of Vapour, Fahr.

Breathed. Not breathed.

Tepid vapour bath 90° to 100° 96° to 106°

Warm vapour bath 100 to 110 106 to 120

Hot vapour bath 110 to 130 120 to 160

Uses, &c. It is one of the most powerful diaphoretics known, and is almost specific in nearly all those cases wherein warm or hot bathing proves advantageous. It is one of the most certain agents existing in cases of chronic rheumatism, contracted muscles and tendons, stiffness of joints, indurations, dysentery, diarrhœa, suppressions, &c. Instances are numerous in which the lame have thrown aside their crutches and the bedridden have again mixed with the world after a few applications of this bath. It is no uncommon thing to hear a patient start and shriek with agony before entering the bath, and to receive his congratulations and thanks on his coming out. They often exclaim—“It is wonderful. I could not have believed it!”

Bath, Warm. Syn. Bal′neum cal′idum, B. calid′ulum, B. Therma′le, Therm′a, &c. L., Bain thermal, B. chaud, &c., Fr. A bath at a temperature equal, or nearly equal, to that of the human body.

The sensations attendant upon immersion in a warm bath are most delicious. Its first effect is to increase the circulation of the blood, and to determine it to the skin. After a few minutes an agreeable and universal increase of heat is experienced; the face and head are generally soon bedewed with perspiration; a pleasing and prevailing calm, both mental and physical, follows; and after remaining in it some 12 or 15 minutes the effect is of the most refreshing and happy character.

The idea that the warm bath is relaxing is erroneous. It is only so where persons remain in it too long, or take it too frequently. Nor are those who indulge in it more liable to take cold than others. On the contrary, they are less liable, unless they wilfully expose themselves, insufficiently clad (particularly about the neck and chest), to draughts of cold air.

As a remedial agent, the warm bath is adapted to general torpor of the system, liver and bowel complaints, hypochondriasis, hysterical affections, morbid suppressions, dryness of the skin, nearly all cutaneous and nervous diseases, chronic rheumatism, &c. As a tonic or stimulant after excessive fatigue, great mental excitement, or physical exertion, it is unequalled, and furnishes one of the most wholesome, and at the same time luxurious sources of refreshment we are acquainted with. “To those who are past the meridian of life, who have dry skins and begin to be emaciated, the warm bath for half an hour, twice a week, I believe to be eminently serviceable in retarding the advances of age.” (Darwin.) The healthy longevity of the late Duke of Wellington, after a period of exposure and trials equal to the entire life of many individuals, has been by some, and we think correctly, mainly attributed to the free and constant use of the warm bath. A warm bath frequently gives great relief to infants suffering from griping or flatulence. See Bath (antè), &c.

Bath, Wa′ter. Syn. Bal′neum a′quæ, B. Aquo′sum, B. ma′′riæ, B. ma′′ris, L.; Bainmarie, Fr. A water bath; in chemistry and cookery, applied to a bath of hot or boiling water. See Bath (in chemistry), Bainmarie, &c.

BATH′ING (bāthé-). See Bath.

BATH METAL. A species of brass having the following composition:—

1. Zinc, 3 parts; copper, 16 parts; melted together under charcoal.

2. Fine brass, 32 parts; spelter, 9 parts. See Brass and Alloys.

BATH PIPE. See Pipes.

BATH, VICHY (ARTIFICIAL). Bicarbonate of soda, 17 oz.; water, 60 galls.

BATHS and WASH′HOUSES. See Bath.

BATTER. Ingredients beaten together so as to form a semi-fluid mass. In cookery, a semi-fluid paste, which becomes hard in dressing, formed of flour, and milk or water, or a mixture of them, enriched and flavoured with eggs, butter, and (frequently) spices, currants, &c., at will. Used for frying vegetables, fillets, &c., and as a material for fritters and pancakes; also to form puddings, which are either baked alone, or under meat; and to cover various articles during the operation of cooking them. Miss Acton gives the following formulæ:—1. (For the Frying-pan.) Butter, 2 oz.; boiling water (nearly) ⁄4 pint; mix, and stir in, gradually, of cold water, ⁄4 pint; when quite smooth, mix it by degrees, very smoothly with fine dry flour, ⁄4 lb.; adding (for fruit) a small pinch of salt (but more for meat or vegetables); just before use, stir in the whites of two eggs (or the white and yelk of one), and fry until light and crisp. In humble cookery the eggs may be omitted.

2. (For Puddings.) Eggs (yelk and white), about 4 in no.; flour, ⁄2 lb.; milk, q. s.

Obs. When fruit, &c., are added, the batter must be made thicker than when none is used, to prevent it sinking. When sufficiently dressed it should cut smoothly and not stick to the knife. Eggs increase its firmness.

BATT′ERY. In frictional electricity, a series of Leyden jars so arranged as to admit of being charged and discharged together. See Electricity, &c.

Battery. In electro-chemistry, galvanism, &c., a pair, or series of pairs, of ‘excited’ metallic plates, so arranged as to act in unison, producing an electrical current by chemical decomposition.

BAUME (Baumé). See Areometer.

Baume Nerval. See Ointments.

BAUXITE. A ferruginous aluminic hydrate containing 55·4 per cent. of alumina and 44·5 of ferric oxide. It is met with in roundish masses in the crystalline limestone of Baux (hence its name) near Arles, in France. Bauxite is one of the sources of alum.

BAY. See Sweet Bay.

BAY ESSENCE. Bay Rum. This compound, which is largely employed as a perfume in America, and is one of the articles of the United States’ Pharmacopœia, is, when genuine, imported from the West Indies, where it is said to be prepared by distilling rum, with the leaves of the bayberry tree. More than three fourths, however, of the bay rum consumed is undoubtedly an imitation of the imported essence, and is a mechanical mixture of the volatile oil of the bayberry tree, rum, and spirit; sometimes with the addition of aromatic spices and various colouring matters. The volatile oil from which this last preparation is made is frequently adulterated to a large extent.

Mr Rother, an American chemist, states that in one sample alone he found about fifty per cent. of fixed oil. The imported rum is far superior in point of fragrance to the artificial. When mixed with water the genuine essence remains clear, whilst the imitation almost always becomes turbid or milky.

Mr Rother finds the following formula to yield a satisfactory product, and one much stronger in aroma than the imported perfume:

Oil of bayberry tree and ml xx. 1 fl. oz.

Jamaica rum 1 pint o.m.

Strong alcohol 4 pints o.m.

Water 3 pints o.m.

Mix the rum, alcohol, and water, then add the oil; mix, and filter.

Bay Rum. One of the highly valued American head-washes, pleasant in use, cooling and cleansing, and promoting the growth of the hair. It is prepared by distilling rum from the leaves of Myrica acris (called “Bayberry” in America).

BDEL′LIUM (dĕl′-yŭm). The commercial name of two gum-resins:—

Bdellium, Af′rican. Syn. Bdellium, Africa′num, L. From the heudola′tia africa′na (Guillem.), a terebinthaceous tree, of Senegal.

Bdellium, In′dian. Syn. In′dian myrrh, False m.; Bdellium (of Scripture); Bdellium in′dicum, L. From am′y̆̆ris commiph′ora (Roxb.), or balsamoden′dron Roxbur′gii, a terebinthaceous tree of India.

Prop., &c. Once considered slightly deobstruent; sometimes used as a pectoral and emmenagogue, and, externally, as a stimulant and suppurative. It is now seldom met with in this country.

BDELLOM′ETER (dĕl-). Syn. Mechan′ical leech; Bdellom′etrum, L.; Bdellomètre, Fr. In surgery, a contrivance combining the principle of the cupping-glass, scarificator, and exhausting-syringe in one small instrument.

BEACH’S (Dr) Specific against Hemorrhoids and Stomach Complaints of all kinds. A tin box containing about 160 grammes of a fine sulphur-yellow powder, and imbedded in it a vial with 40 grammes of a brown clear fluid. The powder is a mixture of 7 parts of washed flowers of sulphur, 2⁄2 parts cream of tartar, ⁄6 part of an inferior kind of rhubarb, finely powdered. The drops consist of a solution of brown sugar in strong spirit, with traces of various ethers. (Hager.)

BEAD (bēde). Syn. Glob′ulus, sphær′ula, &c., L.; Grain (de collier), &c., Fr.; Bethe, Perle, &c., Ger. A little ball or spheroid pierced for stringing; any very small globular body‡; a bubble (‡ or tech.). A number of the first mounted on a thread or ribbon form a ‘string of beads’ or ‘chaplet.’

Materials, Manufac., &c. Beads are often formed of coral, gems, jet, pearls, porcelain, rock-crystal, &c.; but much more frequently of white and coloured glass. The mode in which these last are produced is as follows:—Glass tubes, appropriately ornamented by colour, reticulation, &c., are drawn out in various sizes, and from 100 to 200 feet in length. These tubes are cut into two-feet lengths, and then, by means of a steel knife, divided into pieces having, as nearly as possible, the same length as diameter. The resulting small fragments or cylinders are next well stirred with a mixture of sand and wood ashes, in order to prevent the closure of the perforations and their adhering together during the subsequent part of the process. They are then placed in a revolving cylinder and gradually heated until they become sufficiently spherical. They are next sifted from the sand and ashes, sorted into sizes, first by means of sieves, and afterwards by hand, and are lastly either put up in weighed parcels or strung by women and children for the market.

The manufacture of coral, gems, jet, and minerals generally, into beads, belongs to the lapidary.

Uses. Chiefly to form necklaces, bracelets, and other articles of personal ornament; by milliners to decorate head-dresses, &c.; and for other like purposes. They are also employed among Catholic and Mohammedan nations for devotional purposes; and among savage tribes in lieu of money. They are still sometimes worn as amulets. See Bugle, Coral, Glass, Paste, Pearls, &c.

Beads, Jum′ble (bēdz). The dried seeds of a′brus precatōr′ius (Linn.) or Jamaica wild liquorice. Hard and indigestible; accounted cephalic and ophthalmic by the vulgar.

Beads, Lo′vi’s. Syn. Specif′ic-grav′ity beads. Small hollow spheres of glass carefully adjusted and numbered, in sets, intended to supersede the hydrometer in determining the density of fluids. They are used by dropping them into the liquid, in succession, until one is found that exhibits indifference as to buoyancy, and will float under the surface at any point at which it may be placed. The number on this ball indicates, in thousandths, the sp. gr. sought. They are particularly serviceable in the hurry of the commercial laboratory, and have the advantage of being applicable to very small quantities of liquid; but their use, of course, requires the same precautions, and the results obtained the same corrections for deviations from the normal temperature, as with other instruments. See Hydrometer, Specific Gravity, &c.

Bead. Syn. Bead′ing‡. In architecture, cabinet-work, &c., any small moulding or continued projection of which the vertical section is semicircular.

Bead (of Liquors). [Tech.] The small bright iridescent bubbles, possessing some slight degree of permanence, which form on the surface of alcoholic liquors of sufficient strength, when agitated. See Alcoholometry, Proof, &c. (also below).

BEAD′ING. In the liquor-trade, anything added to commercial spirits to cause them to carry a ‘bead’ and to hang in pearly drops about the sides of the glass or bottle when poured out or shaken. The popular notion being that spirit is strong in proportion as it ‘beads,’ the object is to impart this property to weak spirit, so that it may appear to the eye to be of the proper strength. Various formulæ are current among the ‘knowing ones’ of the trade, most of which are unscientific, and many of them absolutely ineffective. The following are those now usually employed:—

Prep. 1. Oil of sweet almonds and oil of vitriol, of each 1 oz.; rub them together in a glass, porcelain, or wedgewood-ware mortar or basin, adding, by degrees, of crushed lump-sugar, 1 oz.; continue the trituration until the mixture becomes pasty, then add, gradually, sufficient rectified spirit (strongest) to render the whole perfectly liquid; pour it into a quart bottle, and wash out the mortar twice, or oftener, with a little fresh spirit, until about 1 pint of rectified spirit has been employed, adding the washings each time to the bottle; lastly, cautiously shake the bottle (loosely corked) until admixture appears complete, and then set it aside in a cool place. For use, this compound (after agitation) is thrown into a two-gallon can or measure, which is then filled, from a tap, with the spirit to be ‘beaded,’ when the whole is thrown into the cask, and the measure washed out by refilling it and returning it two or three times; after which the contents of the cask are well ‘rummaged up,’ Gin is usually ‘fined’ a few hours afterwards; but it is better not to add the ‘finings’ for two or three days. Other spirits are allowed to become ‘fine’ by simple repose. According to Mr Hartley, and others, this quantity is “sufficient for 100 galls. of any spirit;” but it is more commonly used for a puncheon of 80 to 85 gallons.

2. Oil of vitriol, 2 to 3 oz.; rectified spirit, (strongest), 1 pint; cautiously agitate them together in a loosely corked quart bottle; in 2 or 3 hours add another pint of rectified spirit, and again agitate. It will be fit for use in a week; as before.

3. Sulphuric ether, ⁄2 lb.; strongest rectified spirit, 1 quart; mix. May be used at once, as before; but if otherwise, should be kept, like the last, closely corked, and in a cool place.

4. Soapwort-root (saponaria officinalis), bruised or rasped small, 1 lb.; rectified spirit and water, of each ⁄2 gall.; macerate in a corked jar, with occasional agitation, for 8 or 10 days, strain with pressure, and, after a few days’ repose, decant the clear portion. Used as before.

Obs. The above are not injurious when employed for ‘beading,’ since the quantity employed is much too small to injure the wholesomeness of the liquor. The fraud consists in their being used to disguise the presence of 10 to 12% of water, which is thus sold at the price of spirit. Beyond a certain degree of dilution they fail, however, to produce the intended effect, the bubbles becoming ‘soapy,’ and without the requisite permanence. The addition of a little powdered white sugar (⁄2 oz. to 1⁄2 oz. per gall.) increases the efficacy of all of them. This may be dissolved in the water, if any is added at the time; but its effect on the hydrometer must be recollected. See Alcoholometry, Gin, Spirit (Management of), &c.

BEAK′ER (bēke′-). Syn. Beak′er-glass. In chemistry, a beaked cup or glass, more or less of the tumbler-pattern, used to collect precipitates and to heat liquids in.

BEAL* (bēle). Syn. Bouton, Pustule, Fr. A pimple or pustule; a small inflamed tumour.

BEAM (bēme). See Balance, Scales, &c.

BEAM′-TREE. Syn. White beam-tree. The ‘pyrus aria’ or wild pear. Wood, hard, compact, and tough; used for axle-trees, naves and cogs of wheels, &c.

BEAN (bēne). [Sax., Eng.] Syn. Fa′ba, L.; Fève, Fr.; Bohne, Ger. The general name of leguminous seeds, as also of the plants which produce them; appr., fa′ba vulgār′is (Mönch. vĭcia faba, Linn.) or common GAR′DEN-BEAN, phase′olus multiflōr′us (Willd.) or SCARLET-RUNN′ER, and ph. vulgaris (Sav.), French bean, KID′NEY-B., or HAR′ICOT (-ko), with their varieties, all of which are annuals cultivated in our gardens—the first chiefly for its seeds—the others both for their green pods and ripe seed. The name is also often popularly applied, as an appellative, to the fruit or seeds of other plants which, in size and appearance, resemble common beans, as noticed below.

Those principally cultivated in our gardens are the small Lis′bon, Sand′wich, Span′ish, Tokay′, Wind′sor, and Maz′agan (from north Africa), with almost innumerable sub-varieties of each. The exquisite perfume of beans in blossom is referred to by the poet Thomson:—

“Arabia cannot boast a sweeter gale.”

Preparations including their fragrant principle are highly prized in modern perfumery.

Qual., &c. The pods eaten in the green state, properly dressed, are regarded as antiscorbutic and wholesome; but are apt to produce flatulence, unless combined with spices. In the dried or ripe state they are rather difficult of digestion, and very apt to distend the stomach and intestines with wind. This objection does not exist, to the same extent, to their use in the form of flour or meal. The amount of nutritious nitrogenous matter in beans rather exceeds that in wheat, and independently of a disposition to produce constipation in some habits, and being rather less easy of digestion, they must be considered nearly as wholesome as that cereal. The London millers and bakers use immense quantities of bean flour to adulterate their flour and bread.

This sophisticant may be detected by the appearance it presents under the microscope. The meshes of cellulin are very much larger than those of the fourth coat of wheat, with which it has been sometimes confounded, and the starch grains present a totally different appearance. They are oval or reniform, or with one end slightly larger; they have no well-defined hilum or rings, but many have a deep central longitudinal cleft running in the longer axis, and occupying two thirds or three fourths the length, but never reaching completely to the end; this cleft is sometimes a line, sometimes a chasm, and occasionally secondary clefts abut upon it at parts of its course; sometimes, instead of a cleft, there is an irregular-shaped depression. If a little liquor potassæ be added the cellulin is seen more clearly. If the flour be added to a little boiling water, the smell of bean becomes evident.

Green beans (pods or legumes) are cooked by simply throwing them into boiling water, and simmering them until quite tender, taking the precaution of removing the lid of the saucepan, a ‘pinch’ of salt of tartar, or a little common salt, being usually added to preserve their green colour. Young and small ones take from 12 to 18 minutes—large or older ones longer. The first are merely ‘topped and tailed’ with a knife before being dressed; the others require also the ‘side strings’ to be drawn off, and to be cut obliquely into pieces of a lozenge form, or else to be split lengthwise into strips, and then divided once across. Old ones never boil tender. Windsor beans, and other “shelled beans,” take 15 to 30 minutes according to age. These last are sometimes skinned after being dressed. All of them are commonly ‘served up,’ or eaten, with melted butter. Beans, although rich in nitrogenous, are deficient in carbonaceous constituents; hence it is curious to note how almost invariably they are when eaten combined with some substance rich in carbon. The Hindoo, for instance, mixes lentils with rice and ghee or a form of clarified butter. In Yucatan and throughout the whole of central Africa, where a black bean is extensively used as food, they are well boiled in water, and eaten with pepper, salt, and pork. In this country, beans and bacon always appear at table together, and have done so for centuries. See Leguminosæ, Pulse, &c. (also below).

Bean, Algaro′ba. See Algaroba.

Bean, Earth. American earth-nut.

Bean, French; Horse-bean; Kidney-bean; &c. See Bean (antè).

Composition. (Einhof.)

Kidney beans. Field beans.

Water 23·0 15·6

Albumenoid bodies 23·6 11·7

Starch, sugar, gum, &c. 44·7 58·3

Oil and fat 0·7 2·

Husk 7·0 10·0

Salts (ash) 1·0 4·4

100· 100·

Bean, St. Ignatius’s. The poisonous seed of the fruit of Igna′tia amār′a, Linn.; stry̆̆ch′nos Igna′tii, Berg.; a tree indigenous to the Philippine Islands.—Prop., Uses, &c. Similar to those of nux vomica. Contains Strychnine (which see).

BEAR (bare). Syn. Ur′sus, L.; Ours, Fr.; Bär, Ger.; Bera, Sax. In zoology, a Cuvierian genus of the ‘plantigrade carnivora,’ of several species, found both in the Old and New World. Those generally known under the name are omnivorous or frugivorous. The skin of the American black bear (ursus America′nus, Pallas) was formerly highly prized, and fetched an extravagant price. The brown bear (u. arc′tos, Linn.) supplies the Kamschatkans, and some other northern races, with many of the necessaries, and even the comforts of life. The fat or grease (BEAR’S GREASE; AD′EPS UR′SI, L.) of all the common species has long been highly esteemed for promoting the growth of the human hair; but apparently without sufficient reason. The mass of that sold under the name in England is simply hog’s lard or veal fat, or a mixture of them, variously scented and slightly coloured. The quantity annually consumed in Great Britain, and exported, is estimated at many tons; being a larger quantity than all the bears at present procurable in Europe would supply, if slaughtered and stripped of their fat.

BEAR′BERRY, Bear’s Bil′berry, &c. See Uva Ursi.

BEAR’S GREASE. See Bear (above), Hair Cosmetics, Marrow, Pomades, &c.

BEARD (bēerd). [Sax., Eng.] Syn. Bar′ba, L.; Barbe, Fr.; Bart, Ger., Dan.; Baard, Dut. The hair of the lips and chin; but appr., only the last—that on each lip being distinguished, in toilet-nomenclature, by a separate name. In popular botany and zoology, any beard-like appendage; the ‘awn’ of corn or grass; the ‘gills’ or breathing organs of oysters and other bivalves, &c.

Beard-cultivating Pomade, Royer’s (Royer & Co., Berlin). An ointment of 1 part pulv. cinchon. rub., and 1⁄2 parts of a hair pomade containing wax. (Hager.)

Beard-cultivating Tincture (Bergmann, Rochlitz). A spirituous extract of some agreeable bark, mixed with a little oil of rosemary and thyme. (Wittstein.)

Beard-cultivating Tincture, Royer’s (Royer, Berlin). 10 grammes kitchen salt, 150 grammes French brandy, fictitious and fuselly, and 2 grammes tincture of mace. (Schädler.)

Beard Tincture, American (Teinture americaine pour la barbe), for dyeing the beard black. Three fluids. No. 1, nitrate of silver solution; No. 2, tincture of galls; No. 3, sodium sulphide solution.

BEARD′ED. Syn. Barba′tus, L.; Barbu, Fr.; Bartig, Ger. In anatomy, botany, and zoology, having a beard, or a beard-like appendage; prickly, barbed, jagged; awned.

BEA′VER, (bē′-) Syn. Cas′tor, L.; Castor, Bièvre, Fr.; Biber, Ger. The fi′ber cas′tor (Linn.), an animal belonging to the rodentia of Cuvier, and remarkable for the great ingenuity which it exercises in the construction of its lodges or habitations. Hab. Europe and America. Those of the former are burrowers; those of the latter, builders. The fur has long been employed in the manufacture of the best quality of hats (BEAVER HATS). The fat was officinal in the Ph. L. 1618. Castor (CASTO′′REUM) is obtained from this animal.

BE′BEERINE (bēbe′-ĕr-in‡). C19H21NO3. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Bi′birine (bē′-bĕr-ĭn); Bebeeri′na, Bibiri′na, &c., L. A peculiar alkaloid, discovered by Dr Rodie, in the bark and seeds of the beeberu, bibiri, or green-heart tree (nectan′dra Rodiæ′i, Schomb.), of British Guiana; and since minutely examined by Maclagan and Tilley, and by Von Planta.

Prep. 1. That of commerce, which generally contains some sipirine (—? altered bebeerine), and a little lime, is generally first obtained in the form of sulphate, by a process analogous to that employed in the preparation of sulphate of quinine; and from this salt it is precipitated by the addition of ammonia or an alkali.

2. (Pure.) By precipitating the sulphate with ammonia, washing the precipitate with very cold water, and triturating it, whilst still moist, with fresh hydrated oxide of lead; next drying the mixture by a gentle heat, exhausting the residuum with alcohol, distilling off the alcohol, and treating the last residuum with ether; the ethereal solution on evaporation leaves pure bebeerine, under the form of a white or yellowish-white, resinous-looking substance, which is pure white when powdered.

Prop., &c. Amorphous; uncrystallisable; non-volatile; bitter-tasted; inodorous; unalterable in the air; very slightly soluble in water; very soluble in alcohol; less so in ether; reaction alkaline; when quite pure, melts at 355° Fahr., and on cooling forms a vitreous or semi-vitreous mass (Winckler); at a higher temperature it suffers decomposition; ignited on platinum-foil, it burns without leaving any carbonaceous residue; neutralises acids forming uncrystallisable salts, most of which are soluble in water.—Prod. From the bark, 1·5 to 1·75%; dried seed, 2·5% (nearly).

Use, &c. Bebeeru-bark has been proposed and occasionally employed as a substitute for cinchona bark, and bebeerine for quinine, in the usual cases; but whether as a tonic, febrifuge, or antiperiodic, they appear less powerful and certain than these last.—Dose, 2 to 12 gr. or more. (See below.)

Sul′phates of Bebeerine. Of these there are two, both of which are obtained in a similar manner to the Ph. E. formula for sulphate of quinine, and merely differ in the amount of acid finally left in combination with the alkali:—

1. Sulphate. Syn. Neu′tral sulphate of bebeerine; Bibiri′næ sul′phas, &c., L. Easily soluble in water. Contains 86·4% of bebeerine, and 13·6% of sulphuric acid.

2. Subsul′phate. Syn. Bas′ic sulphate of bebeerine, Disul′phate of b.; Biberi′næ subsul′phas, &c., L. Soluble in alcohol; sparingly soluble in water unless acidulated. Contains 90·8% of bebeerine, and 9·2% of sulphuric acid. This is the sulphate of bebeerine of commerce, and the one usually employed in medicine. It is generally met with in thin brownish-yellow scales, which are formed in a similar manner to those of ammonio-citrate of iron.—Dose. As a tonic, 1 to 3 gr.; as a febrifuge or antiperiodic, 5 to 20 gr.; in similar cases to those in which disulphate of quinine is employed.

BECH′AMEL (bĕsh′-ă-mĕl‡). Syn. Béchamel, Fr. In French cookery, a fine white sauce, essentially consisting of concentrated veal gravy or veal consommé and cream, with or without flavouring. See Sauces.

BE′CHIC* (-kĭk). Syn. Be′chous†; Be′chicus (bĕk′-‡), L.; Béchique, Fr.; Hustend, &c., Ger. In medicine, &c., of or for a cough; pectoral; also subst., applied to remedies (BE′CHICS; BE′CHICA, L.) used to relieve cough.

BED. [Eng., D., Sax.] Syn. Lit, Couche, Fr.; Bett, &c., Ger.; Cubi′le, Lec′tus, Lec′tulus, Graba′tus, &c., L. A couch; that in or on which we sleep; that on which anything is generated, deposited, or rests.

Bed curtains and valances are both unnecessary and objectionable as bed appendages, and as such should be discarded. Before making the bed in the morning the blankets and sheets should be stripped off and allowed to remain for an hour or two in a current of air, on the back of a chair or some other convenient support. If it does not rain, or is not too damp, they are best placed near the window. The night dress which has been slept in should be exposed in the same manner; and on going to bed it would be found a good plan, when removing the inner vest which has been worn during the day, to turn it inside out, and to hang it over the footboard of the bed. Under ordinary conditions the sheets should be changed every week. When it is remembered that on an average a third of a human being’s existence may be said to be passed in bed, the importance of his dormitory being kept scrupulously clean will be self evident. Every bedroom should therefore be well swept out each day, and the floor diligently scrubbed once a week. With the exception of a small strip beside the bed, the room should contain no carpet; a piece of New Zealand matting, being less able to retain dust, is preferable to carpeting. The door and windows of the bed-chamber should be kept more or less open during the day, so as to ensure a thorough draught of air through the room, and all slops and contents of chamber utensils should be immediately removed. No plants should be allowed in the bedroom.

There is no better form of mattress than one made of horsehair, both for children and adults. The pillows should also be made of the same material. Both pillows and mattress should be taken to pieces once a year, and their contents well ventilated by exposure to the air. When a child is ricketty, weak in the neck, inclined to stoop, or at all crooked, a pillow is best dispensed with. Cotton sheets have two advantages over linen ones—they are more absorbent, and feel less cold. In cases of sickness the comfortable construction of the patient’s bed, as well as the adoption of such means as shall ensure as much as possible its efficient ventilation, are matters of primary import. Hence because it permits of a more thorough circulation of air than any other kind, the horsehair mattress calls even more imperatively for adoption than in health. It may be placed upon the feather or wool bed, and should it be found too rough, or causing any discomfort, one or two blankets may be placed over it. The straw palliass should at the same time be removed. Both sheets and pillow cases should be frequently changed, more especially in fevers. If the patient perspire very profusely, fresh sheets and pillow cases should be supplied every twenty-four hours. If soiled by evacuation of any kind, it is most important that they should be changed at once, and so with the night dress. In all cases of eruptive and other fevers, and contagious diseases, all articles of wearing apparel (underclothing, as well as sheets, pillow cases, handkerchiefs, &c.) should when removed be placed in a vessel and covered with water.

In the articles on “air” and “vitiated air” the evil effects of ill-ventilated dormitories have been adverted to. Every bedroom should if possible contain an enclosed fireplace having free access to the chimney. Failing this a series of little holes about the size of a shilling should be bored in the lower part of the door, and the upper sash of the window should be opened to the extent of two or three inches.

[On the connection of BEDS and BEDDING with comfort and health, see Cotton, Damp, Feathers, Linen, Sleep, Ventilation, Vermin, &c.; also below.]

Bed, Air. Beds, pillows, cushions, &c., when properly constructed and inflated with air, are clean, luxurious, and healthy substitutes for those in common use. For this purpose the air-proof part should be formed of separate cells or tubes, arranged in ridges (see engr.), or in any similar manner to admit of free ventilation; and in the case of beds, or of cushions for the sick, two or three folds of flannel, or blanket, or of any loose porous fabric, should be placed between them and the under sheet or the person of the sleeper or patient. Without this precaution, discomfort and restlessness, excessive warmth and perspiration and even bed-sores, are apt to follow their use by invalids, when badly constructed. To obviate these objections to articles of this class commonly sold, a new one has been produced under the name of the ‘Incom′parable bed’ (Aycbourn’s Patent), which is thoroughly applicable to all purposes—domestic, medical, naval, or military—and superior to any feather, flock, or spring bed, however good or carefully made up. This bed consists of an outer case made of ordinary bed-ticking divided internally into numerous separate cells, into each of which is placed a suitably constructed bag, which may be either wholly or partially filled with air or water; the latter either hot or cold. (See engr. 2, 3.) It is incapable of bursting, and is very agreeable to lie on. It retains its shape, saves the time, trouble, and wear and tear ordinarily bestowed or produced by servants in daily tossing about one of down or feathers, is easily washed and kept clean, allows all the ventilation essential to health, and is so portable that it may be easily packed in a carpet-bag. In almost an instant it may be converted into six, or more, separate life-preservers; and what is equally important it will stand any climate. Hitherto the use of air-beds and water-beds has been almost exclusively confined to the upper and wealthy classes, and to hospital practice; but the moderate prices at which Aycbourn’s beds, cushions, &c., are sold, place these luxuries, and in many cases—absolute necessities—within the reach of the masses of the people.

Bed, Water. Water-beds, cushions, &c., are chiefly employed for patients labouring under bed-sores, paralysis, spinal affections, &c., or who are the subjects of active surgical treatment in which equable support for the body or a limb is absolutely necessary. Their construction and use are similar to those previously noticed, except that, instead of being inflated with air, they are filled with water, either warm or tepid. For the bedridden, and for long-continued use generally, they are much inferior to air-beds. See Air-bed (above).

Bed. Syn. Stra′tum, L.; Strate, &c., Fr.; Schicht, &c., Ger. In geology, a mineral layer, seam, or stratum, thick or thin.

Bed. In horticulture, a small plot of land, usually raised a little above the general surface, in which flowers, or other plants, are raised or grown.

BEDDING, PURIFICATION OF. To be efficiently disinfected, bedding must be taken to pieces and subjected to dry heat. This last condition can only be satisfactorily carried out in large ovens or disinfecting chambers. Any local authority may provide a proper place and necessary appliances for the disinfection of bedding. Any local authority may direct the detention of bedding, clothing, &c., which have been exposed to infection, and may give compensation for the same.

Any person giving, lending, selling, transmitting or exposing bedding, clothing, rags, &c., which have been exposed to infection, is liable to a penalty not exceeding £5.

Bedding or Litter. The following is from Col. Fitzwygram’s useful work, ‘Horses and Stables,’ “One great item in a horse’s comfort, and consequently in his aptitude to carry flesh, is a good bed. Every horse should be bedded down at mid-day. As regards economy of straw, it is essential not to give the horse a chance of eating it. With this view no fresh straw should be placed within his reach. The fresh straw should be brought in first, and put not merely at the bottom, but also in rear of the stall; then the old litter should be brought in and put at the top and in front. The horse will not readily eat at, and by the following morning the new straw will have become somewhat tainted, and may then be mixed and dried along with the rest. Again, great care should be taken in the morning to thoroughly shake up and cleanse the bedding from dung; and any parts which may have become rotten should be thrown out. Good straw rapidly deteriorates if these precautions are not taken. On the other hand careless servants often throw away along with the bad parts much good bedding which might be dried and used again. Bedding should be taken up, and turned over at least twice in each forenoon, so as to expose every part to the drying and purifying influence of the sun and air. It is, however, a mistake to expose it over-much to the action of a very hot sun, as it makes it too dry and brittle.” See Horse.

BED′EGUAR (-e-gahr). Syn. Bédéguar (or GAR), Fr. Sweet-briar sponge (which see).

BEE (bē). Syn. Hive-bee, Hon′ey-b. (hŭn′-), Domes′tic b.; A′pis, L.; Abeille, A. mellifique, &c., Fr.; Biene, Honigbiene, &c. Ger. The a′-pis mellif′ica (Linn.; Ph. L., E., & D.), one of the hymenop′tera best known and most useful to man. [Those desirous of studying the habits and economy of bees are referred to the works of Huber and Latreille; and for their management to Mr Cobbett’s little book on the subject.] See Apis, Hive, Honey, Wax, &c.

BEE′-BREAD. The pollen of flowers collected by bees as food for their young.

BEE′-GLUE, Syn. Prop′olis, L., Fr. The resinous matter with which bees cement the combs to the hives, and close up and repair the cells.

BEECH (bēche). Syn. Beech′-tree; Fa′gus, L; Hétre, H. commun, Fr.; Buche, Gemeine b., Ger. The fa′gus sylvat′ica (Linn.), a magnificent English forest-tree, of the nat. ord. Amentaceæ (DC.). Fruit (BEECH′-MAST, B.-NUTS), used to feed swine, and, sometimes, in obstinate headaches, and in gravel complaints; yields oil by expression; inner bark occasionally used in hectic fevers. Wood (BEECH, B.-WOOD), handsome and very hard, but brittle and perishable, and particularly liable to become worm-eaten; its durability is increased by steeping it, when fresh-hewn, for some time in water; chiefly used by cabinet-makers, coach-builders, millwrights, and turners; and, sometimes, by coopers; also burnt for charcoal.

BEEF (bēfe). Syn. Chaire de bœuf, Du bœuf, Fr.; Rindfleisch, &c., Ger.; Bu′bula, Ca′′ro bo′vis, &c., L. The flesh of bovine animals, generally; but ordinarily only that of the domestic ox, cow, or bull.

Qual. Good beef is highly wholesome and nutritious; and is well adapted to persons of good appetite, or that labour or take much exercise. For the delicate, especially those suffering from debility, partial anæmia, amenorrhœa, and similar ailments, it is, perhaps, superior to every other kind of animal food. If cooked so as to be left full of gravy, it sits lightly on the stomach, and its fat proves even more digestible than that of either veal or mutton.

It has been proved that under-done beef is one of the causes of tapeworm.

Choice. Ox-beef is known by having a fine smooth, open grain, a lively and agreeable red colour, and a tender texture, with the fat of a pleasing pale whitish-yellow or but slightly yellow, and the suet white and hard. When fine and well fed, the flesh is inter-grained or marbled with fat.—Cow-beef has a closer grain than ox-beef, and the lean is of a deeper red.—Bull-beef is closer still, the fat dark, hard, and skinny, the lean of a deep coarse red, and it has a strong smell and flavour.—Heifer beef resembles ox-beef, except in being smaller, often an advantage; but it lacks the rich flavour of the flesh of full-grown oxen.

Joints, Managem., &c. Beef is CURED, SALTED, and DRESSED, in all the ways common to the other meats; the only care necessary being in the selection of the appropriate joint or part. The ribs, sirloin, rump, and veiny piece are the proper joints for ROASTING or BAKING. The buttock or round, edge-bone, second round or mouse-buttock, brisket, flank, shoulder or leg-of-mutton piece, and the clod, those generally BOILED, STEWED, or SALTED. The choicest STEAKS are cut from the middle of the rump; the next best from the veiny piece, or from the chuck-rib. In summer, excellent ones may also be cut from the shoulder. In France, steaks cut from the sirloin (without bone) are preferred to all others, and are exceedingly delicate and tender. The neck may be either stewed or boiled, and is much used to make soup and gravy. In the country, the round, when fine, and well hung, is also often roasted or baked.

According to Miss Acton, “the finest part of the sirloin is the chump-end, which contains the larger portion of the fillet; of the ribs, the middle ones.”

Beef is in season during the whole year, but is finest—when it is most relished—during the winter months, when, owing to the temperature of the air, it may be ‘hung’ a long time, and thus increased in tenderness and flavour. See Ox, Baking, Boiling, Essences, Roasting, Salting, Tea, &c. (also below).

Beef, Alamode′. Syn. Bœuf à la mode, Fr. The true ‘beef à la mode’ is made as follows; and is not a mere kind of rich stew, such as is daily sold under the name in the ‘cook-shops’ of London:—

1. (M. Alexis Soyer.) Rump, sirloin, or rib of beef (about) 12 lbs.; lard it through with 10 or 12 long pieces of fat bacon; put it into an earthen pan with a calf’s foot, 4 onions, 2 carrots (sliced), a bunch of parsley, 2 bay leaves, 2 sprigs of thyme, 2 cloves, ⁄2 teaspoonful of pepper, 1 do. of salt, 4 wine-glassfuls of sherry, 4 do. of water, and 1 lb. of streaky bacon (cut into small squares); place on the cover, make it air-tight round the edges with a little flour-paste, and expose it in a moderate oven for about 4 hours. Dish up with the vegetables and bacon placed tastefully round it, the gravy (skimmed) being poured over all. Or it may be eaten cold, in which case the pan should not be opened until the whole has thoroughly cooled.

2. (Mrs Rundell.) Rump of beef (or any part of the beef which will stew well), 3 or 4 lbs.; trim it, and cut off the fat; add several sorts (according to taste) of sweet herbs chopped very fine, a little shalot, and a great deal of spice (cayenne, white pepper, allspice, cloves, and mace; or mixed spices), and put them, with vinegar, into a saucer that has been rubbed with garlic; add fat bacon cut into long slips; lard the beef regularly on both sides, and rub it over with the herbs and spices; next flour it, and add a small piece of butter, and a pint of water; bake it in an oven until thoroughly ‘done,’ then strain the gravy, and serve it up with pickles on the top. Excellent either hot or cold.

Obs. Miss Acton—a high authority in these matters—tells us, that 7 or 8 lbs. of beef, thus treated, takes 4 to 5 hours to dress it properly; and that if a stew-pan be used, it should be as nearly the size of the meat as possible, the whole being allowed to simmer very gently, and the meat turned when half done. She also states that “veal dressed in this way is even better than beef;” but, of course, it takes less time in cooking.

Beef, Col′lared. Prep. 1. (Miss Acton.) The piece of beef is rubbed with a little coarse sugar, and set aside for two or three days; it is then slightly salted (about 1 oz. of salt, containing a little saltpetre, to each lb. of meat); and allowed to rest 8 to 10 days; the bones and tougher skin are next removed, and the under side is sprinkled thickly with parsley and other savoury herbs (shred small), after which it is very tightly rolled up, secured with a cloth, and bound as closely as possible with broad tape. A piece of 8 lbs. will require about 5 hours’ gentle boiling, and should be placed, in the same state, whilst still hot, under a heavy weight, or in a press, for a few hours. The ribs, or (better) the thinnest part of the flank, is generally selected. The last should be ‘hung’ in a damp place for a day or two before curing it.

2. (Mrs Rundell.) From stewed shin of beef and ox-tail, re-stewed with a glassful each of wine and ketchup, and some of the old broth, and then poured into moulds. Sweet herbs, sliced eggs, and pickles, may be added at will.

Beef, Dutch, Hung Beef. The round, rump, veiny-piece, or thick flank, cured, for 10 or 12 days, with dry salt to which a little saltpetre and some sugar and black pepper has been added; and afterwards ‘hung’ for use. It eats well if boiled tender with greens or carrots. If to be grated or shred, as Dutch, and eaten as a relish on bread and butter, then cut a lean bit, boil it till extremely tender, and while hot put it under a press. When cold, fold it in a sheet of paper, and hang it in a very dry place. It will then keep two or three months.

Beef, Pott′ed. See Potted Meats, &c.

Beef, Spiced (spīst’). Salted beef when spices (usually black pepper and allspice) have been added to the salt, &c., used in curing it. See Beef, Collared (above).

Beef Tea. An extract manufactured at Berlin, which contains the nutritive matter of the flesh in the highest state of potency. A pale blood-red(!) jelly, which will not keep long, and after a time passes into a state of odorous putrefaction. (A. Buchner.)

BEER (bēre). Syn. Bière, Fr.; Bier, D., Ger.; Birra, It.; Cerevi′′sia (-vĭzh′-’ă), Cervi′′sia (Pliny), C. Lupula′ta* (i.e. hopp′d or modern b.), Vi′num Anglic′anum*, V. hordea′ceum* (-sh′ŭm), Zy′thum* (or -THUS*; ζὑθος, Gr.), &c., L.; Bere, Beere, Sax.; Bir, W. An aqueous infusion of malted grain which, after being boiled with hops, has undergone the vinous fermentation; malt-liquor. The word BEER is now the common generic term for all fermented malt-liquors, and, indeed, for all other beverages prepared by a process of brewing. Whenever the term is used in a special sense, it is with a descriptive prefix, as, for example, spruce beer, ginger beer, &c.

Hist. Ale and wine are fabled to have been invented by Bacchus; the former, in Egypt, where the soil and climate would not permit of the cultivation of the grape. Herodotus ascribes the origin of the art of brewing to Isis, the wife of Osiris, and notices zythum ζὑθος, a beer obtained from barley. Malt-liquor was undoubtedly employed as a beverage in the fifth century before Christ; and, probably, very much earlier. Xenophon distinctly alludes to it in his famous retreat (B.C. 401). Aristotle speaks of ‘beer drunkenness,’ and Theophrastus calls it ‘barley-wine.’ The Romans learned the art of brewing from the Egyptians, and gave the liquor thus made the appropriate name of cerevisia (quasi Cererisia), from its being the product of corn, the gift of Ceres. The most celebrated beer of ancient times was the Pelus′ian pota′tion, so named after a town at the mouth of the Nile where beer was prepared in great perfection. The use of beer was likewise known to the ancient Gauls and Germans, and probably also to most other ancient nations inhabiting the temperate zone. Pliny says “Zythum is made in Egypt, ce′lia and ce′′ria in Spain, and many other sorts (of beer) in Gaul.” In our own country, ale was early known and valued as a beverage. The art of its preparation appears to have been obtained either from the Romans or the Saxons. According to Verstegan, “This excellent and healthsome liquor, beere, anciently called ale, as of the Danes it yet is, was of the Germans invented and brought into use.” Alehouses are mentioned in the laws of Ina, king of Wessex (A.D. 680). Alebooths were regulated by law, A.D. 728. By the beginning of the 13th century ale was drunk generally in England. By a statute of James III, of Scotland, it was made a capital offence to mix wine with beer (A.D. 1482). In 1492, a licence was granted to a brewer at Greenwich to export 50 tons of that “ale” called “beer” or “bere;” the distinction between the two apparently being, that the latter was flavoured with wormwood or other bitters; whereas ale was not. Ale was originally made from barley-malt and yeast alone, and those who put in anything else were held to sophisticate the liquor. Hops were introduced A.D. 1524; and to this date modern, or hopp′d beer, may be traced.

By statute of James I the “ale” called “bere” was taxed, and “one quart of the best thereof” ordered to be sold for a penny (A.D. 1610). Alehouses were first licensed in 1621, and during the reign of Charles II were, together with all malt-liquor, placed under the control of the Excise (A.D. 1660). By the Statutes 1 & 4 Will. IV (1834), previous enactments respecting malt liquors and their sale were reduced to their present form. Beer is now the common beverage in all European countries where the vine is not a subject of rustic husbandry.

Qual. Pure malt-liquor which has undergone sufficient fermentation is perhaps, when taken in moderation, one of the most wholesome beverages that can be drunk. Ale is the most nutritious variety, and, when moderately mature, is the one best adapted to the debilitated and delicate; but good porter, owing to being less rich in extractive and gummy matter, and from being slightly astringent from high-dried or scorched malt being used in its preparation, occasionally agrees better with bilious constitutions and the dyspeptic. Much, however, depends on acquired taste and habit. The most wholesome, and perhaps the least exceptionable beverages obtained from malt, are those known as East-India, Scotch, and Bavarian ales, when honestly prepared and not highly ‘bittered’ with the hop, as is, unfortunately, now so general. A late writer has described good beer as nutritious, from the sugar and mucilage which it contains; exhilarating, from its spirit; and strengthening and narcotic, from its hops. Pereira says, “Beer is a thirst-quenching, refreshing, intoxicating, and slightly nutritious beverage.” Its effects, when taken injudiciously, or in excess, for the most part resemble those of other intoxicating liquors—disease, misery, and crime; and these in direct proportion as it deviates from the true standard of purity and excellence.

All medical authorities agree in discountenancing the use of beer for infants and children. Water or milk with the child’s meals are the best beverages for them.

Var. The numerous varieties of malt liquor met with in commerce may be resolved into two great classes—ALE and PORTER. Ale of all kinds is brewed chiefly from pale malt, and is generally of a light amber colour. Pale ale is manufactured from the finest and lightest dried malt, and the choicest hops, the latter in excess. Mild ale differs from pale ale in being sweeter, stronger, and almost free from the flavour of the hop. Bitter ale or BITTER BEER has, as a rule, less body than pale ale, and is more highly hopped. Table beer is a weak liquor commonly containing three or four times the proportion of water usually present in ordinary beer or ale. Porter differs from ale chiefly in its being artificially coloured by the use of roasted malt, which also imparts to it a peculiar bitter flavour. In point of strength it stands about midway between light and strong ales, although frequently brewed of a strength very slightly above that of table beer. Stout, BROWN STOUT, &c., are simply richer or stronger descriptions of porter, and may be said to have nearly the same relation to the higher qualities of mild ale that porter holds with regard to pale ale or bitter beer. In London, PORTER is called BEER; and, indeed, in all parts of the kingdom, the prevailing beverage of this kind consumed by the masses, of whatever class, commonly goes by the name of beer.

The two great classes of malt liquor above referred to, are, independently of mere differences of strength, excellence, and commercial value, practically subdivided into an almost infinite number of varieties. Every county, every town, and almost every brewer, is distinguished by the production of a different-flavoured beer, readily perceived, and highly appreciated by their respective votaries. These differences may be traced to—variations in the quantity and quality of the materials employed in their manufacture—the temperature of the water used for mashing—the duration of the boiling—the temperature at which the fermentation is conducted, and the extent to which it is carried, together with numerous other circumstances, which, though usually of an accidental and uncertain character, are nevertheless sufficient to affect the flavour and quality of a brewing. Among these, those depending on the condition of the building, the locality, the apparatus, the water, the management, &c., are not the least important. In general, however, when the same quantity and quality of materials are employed, and the same time allowed for the maturation of the liquor, the chief causes of this diversity will be found to depend on the water used in the brewing, and the method followed in the preparation of the malt. Thus, Bavarian, Scotch, and Burton ales differ in style from other ales chiefly from being fermented at a lower temperature, and from the water employed in the brewing being that usually denominated ‘hard,’ whilst porter and stout differ from all these because they are brewed from a mixture of pale and roasted malt. It is from causes like these, though apparently trivial, that the many varieties of malt liquor met with, at the present day, originate.

The per-centage in English beers of malt extract (dextrin and sugar glucose) is least in bitter, and highest in the sweet ales. The hop extract (lupulin and hop resin) is in much smaller amount.

The alcohol varies considerably, as does also the free acidity.

The albuminous matter in most beers does not average more than 0·5 per cent.

The salts, which consist of alkaline chlorides and phosphates, and some earthy phosphates, average 0·1 to 0·2 per cent. Ammoniacal salts are found in small quantities. Caramel and assamar are found in the dark beers and porters. Carbonic acid is always more or less present. The average is 0·1 to 0·2 parts by weight per cent., or about 1⁄4 cubic inches per ounce. Volatile and essential oils are also present.

Parkes says, “Adopting means numbers; one pint (20 oz.) of beer will contain—

Alcohol 1 ounce.

Extractive (dextrin), sugar, &c. 1·2 ” (534 grains).

Free acid 25 grains.

Salts 13 ”

The following beer analyses are given by Professor Wanklyn:

Bass’s bottled bitter ale contains in 100 cubic centimètres:

5·3 grams of alcohol.

5·52 ” organic residue.

0·36 ” ash.

A sample of draught ale, costing 2d. per pint in London, contained in 100 cubic centimètres:

4·7 grams of alcohol.

5·8 ” organic residue.

0·32 ” ash.

A sample of London porter in 100 cubic centimètres contained:

3·3 grams of alcohol.

3·45 ” organic residue.

0·30 ” ash.

“A large number of analyses recently made show that in the various classes of malt liquor sold in London there is a variation in the amount of alcohol contents from 3·87 to 8·41 per cent. of absolute alcohol by weight, these two extremes corresponding to ·98 and 2·18 fluid ounces of absolute alcohol in the pint of beer. The amount of extract varies from 2·16 to 13·32 per cent. by weight, or from ·73 to 2·77 ounces per pint of beer, as will be seen from the accompanying table.

Kind of Malt Liquor. Specific Gravity. Per-centage of Original Gravity of Wort. Malt, per barrel. Con. vols., per pint.

Alcohol Extract Acetic Acid. Alcohol, fl. oz. Extract ounces. Acid, grains.

Burton ale (Allsopp’s) 1040·38 8·25 13·32 ·32 1121·63 4·50 2·16 2·77 29·12

Bass’s barley wine 1032·31 8·41 11·75 ·23 1114·78 4·25 2·18 2·42 20·77

Edinburgh ale 1006·63 4·41 3·58 ·19 1048·38 1·77 1·12 ·72 16·73

Guinness’s stout 1015·51 6·81 6·17 ·24 1078·06 2·88 1·74 1·25 21·32

Truman, Hanbury, & Co.’s porter 1013·16 4·02 5·12 ·24 1051·33 1·90 1·03 1·01 21·27

Whitbread’s porter 1014·04 4·28 5·15 ·18 1054·11 2·00 1·09 1·03 15·97

Hoare’s porter 1012·99 4·18 5·04 ·18 1052·42 1·94 1·06 1·03 15·95

Perry’s ale 1006·48 3·87 3·65 ·14 1045·82 1·69 0·98 0·73 7·97

“The relative proportions of alcohol and extract in beer will also have some influence on its fitness in a medical point of view for certain persons; and in some instances thin dry beer, that has had the fermentation carried so far as to reduce the amount of extract to a minimum, may be very preferable to beer containing a larger amount of extract. In this respect some samples of the Prestonpans’ beer are remarkable for the small proportion of extract they contain.

“In regard to the nutritive value of beer, over and above the stimulant and tonic actions due to the alcohol and to the bitter principle of the hop, it is worth notice that a pint of pale ale contains from ⁄2 an ounce to an ounce of solid extract, while mild and old ale contain from 1⁄10 to 2⁄4 ounces in the pint.

“The amount of free acid in British beer appears to be uniformly larger than in the Viennese and Bavarian beer recently introduced here, and sometimes it is very much larger. This free acid is represented in the tables as acetic acid; but there is reason to believe that beer probably contains lactic acid or other fixed acids, together with a substance analogous to glucic acid, which, according to Graham, Hoffmann, and Redwood, appears to be produced in the fermentation of beer wort, as practised in this country.

“There appears to be great differences in the quality of beer sold by publicans at a given price. Thus, for instance, the variation in the pale ale sold at fourpence per pint is from 4·08 to 7·10 per cent. of alcohol, and from 3·22 to 7·53 per cent. of extract; in the mild ale sold at twopence per pint it is from 4·43 to 5·62 per cent. of alcohol, and from 5·01 to 5·56 per cent. of extract; and in old ale sold at fourpence per pint it is from 6·20 to 8·31 per cent. of alcohol, and from 4·56 to 6·2 per cent. of extract. These differences represent respectively 1·58, ·27, and ·49 bushels of malt per barrel of beer. From the great alcoholic strength of some kinds of old ale they partake more of the nature of wine than of beer, in the usual sense of this term. They are, in fact, quite equal in that respect to most of the cheaper wine imported from the Continent, while in flavour and general character old ale, such as that brewed at Burton-on-Trent and in Scotland, is far superior to any wine of the kind referred to, which can be sold here at a price even double that of the best old ale. This kind of ale, however, is but rarely sold by publicans.”—Dr Paul.

Materials, Manuf., &c. See Malt, Hops, Brewing, &c.

Purity. The leading characteristics of good beer are transparency, a fine colour, an agreeable semi-vinous flavour, and the property of remaining for several hours exposed in a glass or cup without becoming ‘flat’ or insipid. If the materials used were good, if the brewing was skilfully conducted, if the liquor has been carefully stowed in perfectly sweet casks or vessels, in a suitable cellar, for a sufficient time, and has not been tampered with, this will almost always be the case. Hence colour, transparency, and flavour, and the power of resisting exposure, are tests of the purity and quality of beer, which should not be lightly treated. There are none more simple and effectual; and, together with a good ‘palate,’ and a close observance of its effects on the head and on the stomach, will readily distinguish pure and wholesome beer from ‘doctored’ and inferior liquor. If, therefore, we find a sample of beer possessing the above qualities and in good condition, and on testing it for its alcohol and saccharine matter, find these substances in such quantities as fairly to represent the amount of malt which should have been used in the brewing of such a liquor, we may, in the absence of proof to the contrary, infer it to be pure; because the object for which adulteration is practised—the saving of malt and hops—did not exist in this case. To demonstrate the purity of beer requires an elaborate and troublesome analysis, which can only be performed by those accustomed to chemical operations. Good and pure beer should contain nothing but what exists in the malt, the hops, and the water, from which it is brewed, or which is produced from them in the processes of ‘mashing,’ ‘fermentation,’ and ‘maturation.’

Adulteration. Until the year 1862 nothing was allowed to enter into the composition of beer but malt and hops; and the Act 56 Geo. III, cap. 58, imposes a penalty of £200 on any “brewer, dealer, or retailer of beer,” who “shall receive, or have in his possession, or use, or mix with, or put into any worts or beer any molasses, honey, liquorice, vitriol, quassia, cocculus indicus, grains of paradise, Guinea-pepper, or opium, or any extract or preparation of these substances, for, or as a substitute for, malt or hops;” and a further penalty of £500 on any “druggist, or vender of, or dealer in drugs, or chemist, or other person whatever,” who shall “sell, send, or deliver to any licensed brewer,” &c., any of the above materials. However, by the Act 25 Vic., cap. 22, s. 20, so much of the above is repealed as relates to hops. This Act provides that—

“On and after the 16th Sept., 1862, so much of an Act passed in the 56th year of the reign of King George the Third, cap. 58, and of an Act passed in the 7th and 8th years of the reign of King George the Fourth, cap. 52, and of any other Act relating to the revenue of excise, as imposes any excise penalty upon any brewer of, or dealer in, or retailer of beer, for receiving into, or having in his possession, or using or mixing with any worts or beer, any article for, or as a substitute for hops, or as prohibits the sale of any such article to the said persons, shall be, and is hereby repealed: provided always, that nothing herein contained shall be construed to extend to repeal any such penalty or prohibition so far as regards any article which may be used as a substitute for malt, notwithstanding that it may be also a substitute for hops.”

Prior to this an Act (10 Vic., c. 5) had been passed allowing brewers to use sugar under certain restrictions.

As the law now stands, a brewer may use hops, quassia, wormwood, gentian, or any other simple bitter; but he is forbidden to use any substitute for malt, such as unmalted grain, sugar in a liquid state, molasses, or any substance which would give pungency or intoxicating properties to the beer, such as cocculus indicus, grains of paradise, tobacco, &c. It is a well-known and authenticated fact, that beer is commonly and sometimes dangerously adulterated. The cupidity of fraudulent brewers and publicans frequently induces them to introduce other ingredients than malt and bitters into their liquors, with a view of giving them a false appearance and strength. Thus, to give pungency—capsicum, grains of paradise, ginger, &c., have been added; to give intoxicating properties—opium, cocculus indicus, tobacco, &c.; as a substitute for malt—molasses, treacle, colouring, honey, &c.; to impart a false appearance of age—sulphuric acid, alum, green vitriol, glycerin, mustard, &c.; to remove acidity—pearlash, soda, chalk, &c.; and to impart a frothy head—alum, foots, table-salt, &c.

The publicans generally ‘reduce’ their strong beer with water (which they call ‘liquor’), and add treacle, together with a mixture of copperas, salt, and alum (termed ‘heading’), to make it bear a frothy head. The cheap beer sold in many of the low taverns of London is made by dividing the contents of two butts between three butts, filling them up with water, and adding a bladder of porter-extract (technically termed ‘P. E,’) to each. This ‘P. E,’ is a mixture of powdered cocculus, Spanish juice, caramel, capsicum, &c., boiled up with treacle and water to the consistence of a thin extract, and then put into bullocks’ bladders.

Exam., Tests, &c. The analysis of beer, both qualitative and quantitative, as already noticed, is a matter of considerable difficulty. We shall therefore defer its consideration until we come to the article Porter, as that description of beer, on account of its colour, is not only the one most difficult to examine, but also the one most frequently adulterated. See Ale, Brewing, Hops, Malt, Porter, &c.

Beer, Am′ber. Syn. Amber. A liquor, formerly much drank in London, brewed from a mixture of 3 parts of amber malt, and 1 part of pale malt, with about 6 lbs. of hops to the quarter. It was generally ‘tapped’ within a few days after it had done ‘working,’ and was chiefly used mixed with bitters, or made into ‘Purl,’

Beer, Wheat′en, Wheat′-malt Beer. See Mum.

⁂ Besides malt liquor, or BEER properly so called, a somewhat similar beverage, though of inferior quality, may be prepared from any vegetable substance rich in starch and sugar, as noticed in our article on Brewing. Certain summer beverages also pass under the name; but in both the cases referred to, the name of the characteristic ingredient, or that of the vegetable employed, is always conjoined; as in pea-shell beer, potato-beer, ginger-beer, &c. Examples of some of these are given below:—

Beer, Gin′ger. Syn. Cerevis′ia (-vĭzh′-) ZINGIB′ERIS, C. zingibera′ta*, C. cum zingib′ere* (-ĕr-e), L. Prep. 1. Lump-sugar, 1 lb.; good unbleached Jamaica ginger (well-bruised), 1 oz.; cream of tartar, ⁄4 oz. (or tartaric acid, ⁄2 oz.); 2 or 3 lemons (sliced); boiling water, 1 gall.; macerate, with frequent stirring, in a covered vessel, until barely lukewarm, then add of yeast, 1⁄2 or 2 oz. (about ⁄3rds of a wine-glassful), and keep it in a moderately warm place, to excite a brisk fermentation; the next day rack or decant the liquor, and strain it through a jelly-bag or flannel; allow it to work for another day, or two, according to the weather; then skim it, again decant or strain, and put it into bottles, the corks of which should be ‘wired’ down.

2. Good white sugar, 18 to 24 lbs.; lemon-juice or lime-juice, 1 quart; finest Narbonne honey, 1 or 2 lbs.; bruised Jamaica ginger, 1⁄2 lb.; pure soft water (that has been boiled, and then allowed to settle), q. s. Boil the ginger in 3 galls. of the water for half an hour; then add the sugar, the juice, and the honey, with sufficient water (see above) to make the whole measure 18⁄4 galls., and strain the mixture as before. When the liquor has become almost cold, add the white of 1 egg, and ⁄2 fl. oz. of essence of lemon, and strongly agitate the cask or vessel for about half an hour. After standing 3 to 6 days, according to the state of the weather, bottle it, and place the bottles on their sides in a cellar, just as is done with wine or beer. It will be ready for use in about 3 weeks, and will keep good for several months. If wanted for immediate use, about ⁄2 pint of yeast may be added, as in formula 1; but then it will not keep so well, or be quite so transparent and free from deposit. The lemon juice and essence of lemon may be replaced, at will, by cream of tartar (in powder) or tartaric acid, 4 oz.; and lemons (sliced) 1⁄2 to 2 doz.; added with the sugar, &c.; but the original formula is preferable.—Prod. 18 galls. = 24 doz. ⁄2-pint bottles, or 30 doz. ordinary sized ones.

3. Extemporaneous:—a. Into each bottle put concentrated essence of ginger, 1 drop; simple syrup or capillaire, ⁄2 oz. (or in lieu of them, syrup of ginger and simple syrup, of each a dessert-spoonful); and fill with aërated soda-water at the ‘bottling machine,’ in the usual way. Very superior.

b. Into each bottle put two or three lumps of sugar, fill them to the proper height with pure water, throw in (quickly) an effervescing ginger-beer powder, and instantly cork the bottle, and secure the cork with wire.

Use. As a cooling and refreshing drink in warm weather; and as a restorative after hard drink, fatigue, &c.

Obs. The products of all the above formulæ, if well managed, are excellent; those of No. 2, and 3a., of the very finest description, much stronger and superior to nine tenths of that sold for the best in the shops. They are often called, by way of distinction, Limo′′niated Ginger-beer, Imperial G.-b., &c. Cheaper articles are made by omitting some of the ingredients, and particularly a portion of the sugar. The ginger-beer vended at 1d. and 2d. a bottle, with that known as Ginger Pop, Impe′′rial Pop, &c., are generally made with moist sugar (⁄2 to ⁄4 lb. to the gall.), and merely flavoured with a little coarse ginger. No. 2, made with 2 lbs. of sugar to the gall. may be kept 2 years, if not bottled for six months, and well-stored; and with 3 lbs. to the gall., for 4 years, when it forms a splendid article (GINGER-CHAMPAGNE).

Beer, Pine. See, Beer Spruce.

Beer, Spruce. Syn. Cerevis′ia (-vĭzh′-) ABI′ETIS, C. abieti′na, C. abiet′ica*, L. Prep. 1. Sugar, 1 lb.; essence of spruce, ⁄2 oz.; boiling water, 1 gall.; mix well, and when nearly cold, add of yeast ⁄2 a wine-glassful; and the next day bottle like ginger-beer.

2. Essence of spruce, ⁄2 pint; pimento and ginger (bruised), of each 5 oz.; hops, ⁄2 lb.; water, 3 galls.; boil the whole for 10 minutes, then add of moist sugar, 12 lbs. (or good treacle, 14 lbs.); warm water, 11 galls.; mix well, and, when only lukewarm, further add of yeast, 1 pint; after the liquid has fermented for about 24 hours, bottle it.

Prop., Uses, &c. Diuretic and antiscorbutic. Regarded by some persons as an agreeable ‘summer-drink,’ and often found useful during long sea-voyages. When made with lump-sugar it is called WHITE SPRUCE-BEER; when with moist sugar or treacle, BROWN SPRUCE-BEER. An inferior sort is made by using less sugar, or more water. If made with 1⁄4 to 1⁄2 lb. of lump-sugar per gall., and without yeast, in a similar manner to that described under Ginger-beer (No. 2), it may be kept a twelvemonth or longer in a moderately cool place.

Beer, Sugar. Syn. Cerevis′ia (-vĭzh′-) sac′chari, L. From moist sugar (1 to 2 lbs. to the gall.) and a little hops; as treacle-beer.

Beer, Trea′cle (trē′kl-). Syn. Cerevis′ia fæ′cis sac′chari, &c., L. Prep. 1. From treacle or molasses, ⁄4 to 2 lbs. per gall. (according to the desired strength); hops, ⁄4 to ⁄4 oz.; yeast, a table-spoonful; water, q. s.; treated as below.

2. Hops, 1⁄2 lb.; corianders, 1 oz.; capsicum-pods (cut small), ⁄2 oz.; water, 8 galls.; boil for 10 or 15 minutes, and strain the ‘liquor’ through a coarse sieve into a barrel containing treacle, 28 lbs.; then throw back the hops, &c., into the copper, and reboil them, for 10 minutes, with a second 8 galls. of water, which must be strained into the barrel, as before; next ‘rummage’ the whole well with a stout stick, add of cold water 21 galls. (sufficient to make the whole measure 37 galls.), and, after again mixing, stir in ⁄2 a pint of good fresh yeast; lastly, let it remain for 24 hours in a moderately warm place, after which it may be put into the cellar, and in two or three days ‘bottled,’ or ‘tapped’ on ‘draught.’ In a week it will be fit to drink. Very superior.—Prod. 1 barrel, or 36 gallons. For a stronger beer, 36 lbs., or even ⁄2 cwt., of treacle, may be used. It will then keep good for a twelvemonth.

Obs. A wholesome drink; but one apt to prove laxative when taken in large quantities. See Brewing, Beer, Ginger, Powders, &c.

BEERS. (In pharmacy.) Syn. Cerevis′iæ (-vĭzh′-e-ē) medica′tæ, L. The general nature and preparation of these articles have been already noticed. They are little employed in this country. The ingredients should be so proportioned that from ⁄4 to ⁄2 a pint may form the proper dose. The following are examples:—

Beer, Antiscorbu′tic. Syn. Cerevis′ia antiscorbu′tica, L.; Sapinette′, Fr. Prep. 1. (P. Cod. 1839) Scurvy-grass and buds of the spruce-fir, of each 1 oz.; horse-radish root, 2 oz. (all fresh, and bruised or sliced); new ale or beer, 3⁄2 pints (say, ⁄2 gall.); macerate 4 days, press, and strain for use.

2. (Ph. Castr. Ruth. 1840.) Horse-radish (fresh), 4 lbs.; juniper berries, 3 lbs.; root of calamus aromaticus and buds of pinus abies, of each 1 lb.; ginger, 1 oz.; syrup (of brown sugar), 6 lbs.; beer, 120 lbs. (say, 12 galls.); macerate 4 days, or until it ferments, then decant, strain, and add of cream of tartar, ⁄2 lb.; tincture of mustard (flour of mustard 2 oz., to proof spirit 12 oz.), 5 lbs. (say, ⁄2 gall.). In scurvy, &c.

Beer, Cincho′na. Syn. A′gue-beer, Bark′-beer; Cerevis′ia cincho′næ, &c., L. Prep. 1. Bruised cinchona-bark, 1 oz.; proof spirit or brandy, 2 oz.; mix; the next day add of new beer, 1 quart, and in 3 days decant or filter.—Dose, 2 or 3 wine-glassfuls.

2. (Mutis.) Cinchona, 4 oz.; sugar, 2 lbs.; boiling water, 5 pints; when lukewarm, ferment with a little yeast, as for ginger-beer.—Dose, 1 or 2 wine-glassfuls.

3. (Ph. Ferrara.) Bruised Peruvian bark, 1⁄2 oz.; cinnamon, 2 dr.; nutmeg (rasped), 7 dr.; sugar, 25 oz.; yeast, 2 oz.; water, 5 pints; mix, ferment, decant, and strain, as before.—Dose, 3 or 4 wine-glassfuls. They are all administered during the intermission of ague.

Beer, Pipsissewa. Syn. Cervis′ia chimaph′ile, &c., L. Prep. (Dr J. Parrish.) Pipsissewa (chimaphila umbellata), ⁄2 lb.; water, 1 gall.; boil, strain, add of sugar, 1 lb.; powdered ginger, ⁄4 oz.; yeast, q. s.; and ferment, stain, and bottle, as for ginger-beer. In scrofulous affections; especially of the joints.—Dose. Half a tumblerful. It is a favorite remedy with some American practitioners.

Beer, Sarsaparil′la. Syn. Lis′bon di′et-beer, Span′ish Jarave; Cerevis′ia sar′zæ, C. sarsaparil′læ, Infu′sum s. para′tum fermentatio′ne, &c., L. Prep. 1. Compound extract of sarsaparilla, 1⁄2 oz.; hot water, 1 pint; dissolve, and when cold, add of good pale or East-India ale, 7 pints.

2. Sarsaparilla (sliced), 1 lb.; guaiacum-bark (bruised small), ⁄4 lb.; guaiacum-wood (rasped), and liquorice root (sliced), of each 2 oz.; aniseed (bruised), 1⁄2 oz.; mezereon root-bark, 1 oz.; cloves (cut small), ⁄4 oz.; moist sugar, 3⁄2 lbs.; hot water (not boiling), 9 quarts; mix in a clean stone jar, and keep it in a moderately warm room (shaking it twice or thrice daily) until active fermentation sets in, then let it repose for about a week, when it will be fit for use.

Obs. It is said to be superior to the other preparations of sarsaparilla as an alterative or purifier of the blood, particularly in old affections. That usually made has generally only one half the above quantity of sugar, for which treacle is often substituted; but in either case it will not keep well; whereas, with proper caution, the products of the above formulæ may be kept for one, or even two years. No yeast must be used.—Dose. A small tumblerful 3 or 4 times a day, or oftener.

Beer, Stomach′ic. Syn. Med′icated purl; Cerevis′ia stomach′ica, L. Prep. (Dr Quincy.) Centaury-tops and Roman wormwood, of each 4 handfuls; gentian root (bruised), 2 oz.; the yellow peels of 6 Seville oranges; Spanish angelica-root and Winter’s lard, of each (bruised) 1 oz.; new ale, or beer, 3 quarts (say, 1 gall.); digest for a few days, as before. One or two wine-glassfuls early in the morning, and an hour before a meal.

Beer, Sulphu′′ric Acid. Syn. Sulphuric lemonade; Cerevisia acidi sulphu′′rici, C. anticol′ica, L. Prep. 1. Treacle beer, or other weak mild beer or ale, to which a little concentrated sulphuric acid has been added, in the proportion of about 1 dr. to every 8 or 10 pints; the whole being well agitated together, and allowed a few hours to settle.

2. Treacle, 14 lbs.; bruised ginger, ⁄2 lb.; coriander, ⁄2 oz.; capsicum and cloves, of each ⁄4 oz.; water, 12⁄2 galls.; yeast, 1 pint; proceed as for ginger-beer, and when the fermentation is nearly over, add of oil of vitriol, 1⁄2 oz. (diluted with 8 times its weight of water), and of bicarbonate of soda, 1⁄2 oz. (dissolved in a little water). It is fit to drink in 3 or 4 days.

Uses, &c. It is taken with great benefit by workers in lead, especially by those employed in white lead works; also in cases of lead colic, poisoning by lead or its salts, &c. A tumblerful twice or thrice daily. It is both harmless and wholesome.

Beer, Tar. Syn. Cerevis′ia pi′cis, C. p. liq′uidæ, L. Prep. (Duhamel.) Bran, 2 pints; tar, 1 pint; honey, ⁄2 pint; water, 6 pints; mix, and gently simmer together for 3 hours; when lukewarm add of yeast, ⁄2 pint; let it ferment for 36 hours, and strain. Pectoral, anti-asthmatic, anti-phthisic, &c.—Dose. One wine-glassful before each meal, in bronchial and chest diseases, and incipient consumption. See Beers (In Pharmacy; above).

BEES′WING. The second or pseudo-crust so much admired in port and a few other wines, and which forms in them only when kept for some time after the first or true crust has formed. It consists of minute, glittering, floating particles or lamellæ of tartar, purer, and freer from astringent matter, than that deposited in the first crust. See Crust, Wines, &c.

BEET (bēte). Syn. Be′ta, L.; Biet, D.; Bette, Fr.; Beete, Mangold, M.-kraut, Ger.; Bietola, It. The common name of plants of the genus ‘beta,’ and the nat. ord. Chenopodæ (DC.). There are said to be only two distinct species cultivated—beta vulgār′is and b. horten′sis—each of which occurs in several varieties; those of the first, and which we have chiefly to consider, producing a large fleshy root (BEET′-ROOT, MAN-GOLD-R.; RA′DIX BE′TÆ, L.; BETTERAVE, Fr.; ROTHE RÜBE, &c., Ger.), which is both sweet and succulent; those of the other, only succulent leaves. The varieties most useful, and now the most extensively cultivated in England, are of comparatively recent introduction; field-beet, the mangold-wurzel of the Germans, having been only brought under the notice of our agriculturists towards the end of the last century.

Beet, Field. See Beet, Hybrid (below).

Beet, Hy′brid. Syn. Common beet, Field′-b.; Be′ta Hy′brida, B. vulgar′′is, h.; L.; Bette commune, Betterave c., Racine d’abondance, R. de disette, &c., Fr.; Mangold, M.-wurzel, Mangel-w., &c., Ger. A variety of beta vulgaris (Linn.), and that usually cultivated by English farmers. Root red on the outside, white inside; chiefly grown as winter-food for cattle, being vastly superior to turnips. It has been used in Germany as a substitute for bread in times of scarcity. Leaves dressed and eaten like spinach.

Beet, Red. Syn. Cu′linary beet, Garden b., Beet′-radish, Beet′-rave, &c.; Be′ta ru′bra, B. vulg′′aris r., L.; Betterave, &c., Fr.; Rothe rübe, &c., Ger. Root tender, well-flavoured, and of a rich red colour throughout, and hence much used in salads, pickles, and cookery; also made into a conserve, jam, or confection. The kinds most esteemed for salads are the small red and the yellowish-red varieties of Castelnaudari.

Beet, Sea. Syn. Be′ta marit′ima, L. Said to be the best variety for dressing as spinach.

Beet, White. Syn. Be′ta al′ba, B. vulga′′ris a., B. ci′cla, L.; Bette blanche, Poirée, &c., Fr. A sub-variety of the red beet. Root white, and hence preferred for making sugar; that with a purple crown being the most esteemed.

Obs. The preceding varieties of beet resemble each other in their general properties. They are all antiscorbutic, detergent, emollient, and nutritious; and their roots contain about 8% of sugar, which, by proper treatment, may be obtained from them of excellent quality. The grated root is sometimes used to dress blisters and foul ulcers. When sliced, and dried in a malt-kiln, a very palatable beer may be brewed with it. The leaves of each variety are dressed and eaten like spinach. The roots, for the table, after being carefully washed, are dressed whole—neither scraped nor cut—and, according to their size and age, require from 1 to 4 hours’ simmering or baking. They are mostly served in slices, cold, intermingled with other winter salad vegetables. See Brewing, Cattle, Salads, Sugar, &c. (also antè).

BEET ROOT. See Beet.

BEE′TLE (bē′tl). Syn. Scar′ab†*, Scar′abee†* (-bē); Scärabæ′us, L.; Escarbot, Scarabeé, Fr.; Käfer, Ger.; Betel, Sax. In zoology, the common name of an extensive genus of insects (scarabæ′us, Linn.), of numerous species. It is also popularly applied to all coleopterous insects, or such as have hard or shelly wing-cases, especially to those of a dark or obscure colour. The common pests of our kitchens and basement floors which pass familiarly under the name of beetles, black beetles, or cockroaches, belong to the order orthoptera, and not to the coleoptera or beetle tribe, as the name implies. See Insects, &c.

Black Beetle; Domes′tic beetle. See Blatta, Cockroach, &c.

Blis′tering Beetle. See Cantharides.

BELL. Syn. Campa′na, Campan′ula, No′la*, Tintinnab′ulum, L.; Cloche, Clochette, Grelot, Fr.; Glocke, Schelle, &c., Ger.; Bell, Bella, Belle, Sax. A hollow vessel or body, usually of cast metal, with a wide cup-like mouth expanding outwards, so formed as to emit sound when suspended and struck with a hard substance. The word is also applied, either alone or in composition, to substances having the figure of a bell; as bells (of flowers), bell-animal, b.-flower, b.-glass, &c.