A Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts, Processes, and Collateral Information (part 4)

In veterinary medicine it is employed to promote diaphoresis and expectoration, and to reduce arterial action, particularly in fevers, and catarrhal affections, the dose for HORSES being 20 gr. to 1 dr., or even occasionally 1⁄2 dr., in gruel, thrice daily; also sometimes as a diuretic and vermifuge, in doses of 1 to 2 dr., combined with tin-filings, for 2 or 3 successive days, followed by a purge of aloes. The usual dose for CATTLE is 20 gr. to 1 dr.; SHEEP, 5 or 6 to 20 gr.; SWINE (chiefly as an emetic), 2 to 5 or 6 gr.; DOGS (chiefly as an emetic), 1 to 3 gr. It is sometimes, though seldom, used externally, as a counter-irritant, in chest affections, &c.; but its employment thus requires caution.

Pois., &c. That from large doses has been already noticed under ANTIMONY (which see). In poisoning the treatment is the entire disuse of all antimonials, followed by tonics, a light nutritious diet, the use of lemon-juice or ripe fruit, a little wine, warm baths, and mild restoratives generally.

Antimony, Tar′tarised. See Antimony, Tartarated.

Antimony, Vit′rified. See Antimony, Glass of.

ANTI-MIASMATICUM. A disinfecting powder, manufactured first in Berlin in 1866, and described as “prepared by steam.” Quicklime slaked with a solution of sulphate of iron and mixed with turf ashes, also probably containing some carbolic acid. Fluid anti-miasmaticum is a solution of sulphate of iron in impure acetic acid. (Hager.)

ANTIPHLOGIS′TIC (-flo-jĭs′-). Syn. Antiphlogis′ticus, L.; Antiphlogistique, Fr.; Antiphlogistisch, Ger. In medicine, the common epithet of remedies, agents, and treatment (ANTIPHLOGIS′TICS; ANTIPHLOGISTICA, L.), which lessen inflammatory action, or allay the excited state of the system which accompanies it. Of these the principal are bleeding, purging, a low diet, cooling beverages (as water and acidulous drinks), and sedatives generally.

ANTIPSILOTHRON, for preventing loss of hair (Hegewald, Berlin). A brownish-yellow, clear, pleasant-smelling liquid, which consists of a filtered extract of 2·5 grms. of nutgalls, with 50 grms. strong spirit and 30 grms. water; perfumed with several ethereal oils. The liquid is not made turbid by dilution with water. Sold in square bottles containing about 80 grms. The directions strongly recommend the supplementary use of a Swiss “vegetable oil,” which probably Switzerland has never seen. (Hager.)

ANTI-RHEUMATIC DROPS (Roll, Amsterdam). A turbid, dark-brown liquid, which consists of a solution of spirituous extract of aconite in a decoction of couch-grass root, and to which some tincture of opium with saffron and oil of valerian have been added.

ANTI-RHEUMATIC SALVE, Mrs HUNGERFORD’S (Wedecke, Berlin). Recommended for acute and chronic rheumatism, gout, and nervous pains. Camphor, 1 grm.; carbolic acid, 1 grm.; simple cerate, 12 grms. (Schädler.)

ANTISCORBU′TIC (-skor-bū′-). Syn. Antiscorbu′ticus, L.; Antiscorbutique, Fr.; Antiscorbutisch, Gut wider den scharbock, Ger. Good against scurvy. In medicine, an epithet of remedies, agents, &c. (ANTISCORBU′TICS; ANTISCORBU′TICA, L.), used in scurvy. Lemon-juice, ripe fruit, milk, the salts of potassa, green vegetables, potatoes, meal-bread, fresh meat, and raw or lightly boiled eggs, belong to this class.

ANTISEP′TIC. Syn. Antisep′ticus, L.; Antiseptique, Fr.; Antiseptisch, Fäulnisswidrig, Ger. An epithet of substances, agents, &c. (ANTISEP′TICS; ANTISEP′TICA, L.), that impede, arrest, or prevent putrefaction. The principal antiseptics in common use are culinary salt, saltpetre, spices, sugar, vinegar, carbolic acid, creasote, and alcohol; to which may be added intense cold, desiccation, and the exclusion of air. Among ANTISEPTIC MEDICINES, bark, dilute acids, quinine, wine, spirits, camphor, charcoal, and yeast, take the first rank. See Putrefaction, Solutions (Antiseptic), &c.

ANTISPASMOD′IC (-spăz-). Syn. Antispas′tic; Antispasmod′icus, L.; Antispasmodique, Fr.; Krampestillend, Ger. In medicine, an epithet of substances and agents (ANTISPASMOD′ICS; ANTISPASMOD′ICA, L.) which allay spasms and convulsions. It is frequently incorrectly applied to anodynes and narcotics, which soothe pain, but do not repress muscular spasm. Ammonia, assafœtida, bark, camphor, castor, chalybeates, chloral hydrate, chloroform, ether, Indian hemp and cannabine, musk, opium, saffron, and valerian, with many other similar substances, are regarded as antispasmodics.

ANTI-SPASMODIC SYRUP, for hooping-cough (Dessaga, Strasburg). A pleasant syrup, leaving a slightly sharp taste, containing a little carbonate of potash, and faintly coloured with rosaniline. (Hager.)

ANTISUDIN, a remedy for sweaty feet (Mandowski, Annaberg). Powdered alum. (Hager.)

ANTS (ănts). See Ant, Formic Acid, Gardening, Insects, &c.

AORT′A [L., Ger.] Syn. Aorte, Fr. In anatomy, the main trunk of the arterial system, arising immediately from the left ventricle of the heart, and giving origin to all the other arteries of the body, except the pulmonary artery and its ramifications, which permeate the air-vesicles of the lungs.

AP′ATITE (-tīte). In mineralogy, native tricalcium phosphate (phosphate of lime). It is found in Devonshire and Cornwall, and abundantly in Spain, whence it is imported for use as manure, and recently particularly for the manufacture of ARTIFICIAL GUANO. Its powder phosphoresces on burning coals. It differs from phosphorite in not containing fluorine.

Apatite (phosphate of lime of similar constitution to bone-earth, Ca3(PO4)2) is found in every fertile soil, and of which it is an essential ingredient.

APE′′RIENT (ă-pēre′-ĕ-ĕnt; -pĕr′-, as marked by Mayne and Smart, though etym. correct, is less usual). Syn. Aper′itive (-tĭv); Aper′iens, L.; Apéritif, Fr.; Abführend, ÖFFNEND, Ger. In medicine, opening, laxative, gently purgative; usually applied as an epithet to substances and agents (APE′RIENTS; Aperien′tia, Aperiti′va, L.) which, in moderate doses, and under ordinary circumstances, gently, but completely, open the bowels; and in this respect rank between the simple laxatives on the one hand, and the stronger purgatives and cathartics on the other. Among these may be named as examples—Aloes (when combined with soap or aromatics), Castile soap, castor oil, compound extract of colocynth (in small doses), compound rhubarb pill, confection of senna, cream of tartar, Epsom salts, Glauber’s salt, phosphate of soda (tasteless purging salt), pil. rufi, seidlitz powders, cold-water compress over the abdomen, &c. Several of these, in larger doses, become active purgatives or cathartics. See Purgatives, also Draughts, Mixtures, Pills, &c.

A′PIOL (-pe-ōle; or -ŏl). Prep. The soft alcoholic extract of parsley-seed is either digested or agitated for some time with ether; after sufficient repose in a cool place, the ethereal solution is decanted, and the ether removed by distillation; the residuum is purified by solution in rectified spirit, and agitation first with a little litharge, and next with animal charcoal; after which the spirit is removed by distillation from the filtered solution.

Prop., &c. A yellow, oily, non-volatile liquid, having a peculiar smell, and a highly disagreeable taste; soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform; insoluble in water; and coloured red by strong sulphuric acid. Sp. gr. 1·078. In small doses it excites the pulse and nervous system; and in larger ones it causes headache, giddiness, vertigo, &c. It is said to be powerfully febrifuge, and has been highly extolled by MM. Joret and Homalle as a substitute for quinine in intermittents. It has also been found useful in intermittent neuralgias and the nocturnal sweats of phthisis. Dose, 5 to 15 drops, in capsules.

A′PIS. [L.] The bee. In entomology, a genus of hymenopterous insects of the family anthoph′ila or mellif′era, section apia′′riæ. (Latreille.) The mouth has two jaws, and a proboscis infolded in a double sheath; the wings are four; the two foremost covering the hinder ones when at rest. The sexes are three—prolific females or queens, unprolific females or workers commonly (termed neuters), and males or drones. The females and working bees have a sting. The honey or hive bee is distinguished from the other species of this genus by having the femora of the posterior pair of legs furnished with a smooth and concave plate on the outer side, and fringed with hair, forming a basket or pocket for the reception and conveyance of the pollen of plants; and also in being destitute of spines at the extremity. The Linnæan genus includes nearly 60 species. See Bee.

Apis Mellif′ica. [Linn.] The honey bee.

APLANAT′IC. In optics, applied as an epithet to lenses, of which the figure, as well as the materials of which they are composed, are such that, with a given index of refraction, the amount of aberration, both chromatic and spherical, is insignificant, or the least that can be possibly obtained. See Aberration, Achromatism, Lens, &c.

APLOTAXIS AURICULATA. Nat. ord., Compositæ. A plant growing in the North Western Himalayas. It was first shown by the late Dr Hugh Falconer to be the source of the Costus Arabicus of the ancients, which Dr Royle had previously identified with the Patchuck or Koot root met with in the Indian bazaars. Dr Irvine states that formerly, when opium was not produced in Rajwarra, this root was extensively smoked as a stimulant. He adds, that it is said to be a narcotic when thus used, and that formerly great quantities went to China for smoking purposes. It is chiefly used as a perfume, as for protection of bales of cloth against insects.

APO-. [Gr.] In composition, from; denoting derivation, separation, opposition, or departure. It is a common prefix in words from the Greek, and is etymologically the same as the latin ab-.

APOC′NYINE (-pŏs′-e-nĭn). Syn. Apocyni′na, L. A bitter, crystallisable substance, found in apŏ′′cynum cannabi′num (Linn.), or the Indian hemp of North America. See Alkaloid.

APOMORPHINE. Syn. Apomorphia. C17H17NO2. A remarkable base, obtained from morphia by Matthiessen and Wright. It is possessed of powerful emetic properties. Introduce into a strong glass tube, closed at one end, 1 part of pure morphia, and 20 parts of pure hydrochloric acid; these should not occupy more than one fifteenth of the tube. Seal the open end, and place the glass tube in another of cast iron, closed with a screw, and heat the whole in an oil-bath at a temperature between 140° and 150° C., during three hours. After cooling, the morphine has been converted into apomorphine, which can be purified as follows:

The tube is opened, and the liquid it contains diluted with water and neutralised by bicarbonate of soda; then an excess of this salt being added, the apomorphine is precipitated with any morphia that may remain. The liquid is decanted, and the precipitate is exhausted with ether or chloroform, which dissolves the apomorphine only. To the ethereal or chloroformic liquor are afterwards added a few drops of hydrochloric acid to saturate the base. Crystallised apomorphine then separates spontaneously, and is deposited on the sides of the vessel. These crystals are washed rapidly with cold water, and purified by crystallisation from boiling water. The apomorphine can be obtained by precipitating a concentrated solution of this hydrochlorate by bicarbonate of soda; the precipitate is white, but turns green rapidly in the air. It should be washed with a little cold water, and promptly dried to avoid this alteration.

AP′OPLEXY (-plĕks-e). Syn. Apoplex′ia, Apoplex′is, L. (from απο-πλησσω, I astound, or strike down, Gr.); Apoplexie, Fr.; Schlagfluss, Ger. A disease so named on account of the suddenness and violence of its attacks.

Symp. Sudden suspension or loss of the powers of sense and motion; the heart continuing to beat and the lungs to act, but generally with difficulty. During the fit the patient usually lies in a state resembling sleep, or the stupor induced by drunkenness. In some cases there is paralysis of one side of the body, and convulsions of the other. In the sanguineous or sthenic variety, or the one which is most common, the pulse is hard and full, the countenance flushed and bloated, and the breathing stertorous; in the serous or asthenic variety, the pulse is feeble, the skin cold, and the countenance pale. “The presence of convulsions is indicative of great danger.” (Dr Cheyne.) In both cases the patient is generally found lying on his back, in a state of complete insensibility, which defies every effort to arouse him; the eyelids almost cover the eyes, which are fixed and devoid of intelligence, whilst the pupils scarcely change their dimensions under the varying influence of light and darkness; the lips are usually purple or very dark; and both the lips and nostrils have generally a slight trembling movement communicated to them by the deep and laborious breathing of the patient.

Treat. In this disease, more than perhaps any other, medical aid should be immediately sought. In the mean time the patient should be placed in an easy posture, in a well-ventilated apartment, and in the sanguineous or sthenic variety, in as erect a position as possible; but in the asthenic variety, when the face is pale, with the head and shoulders only moderately elevated. The neckcloth should be removed, and the clothes loosened, and the head and neck laid bare. Crowding round the patient should be particularly avoided, and a free exposure to fresh air secured in every possible way. When medical aid cannot be immediately procured, blood should be freely taken (say 15 to 20 fl. oz., or more) from the arm, by any person competent to do so; unless the face be pale, and the pulse feeble, when cupping at the back of the neck, or leeches behind the ears, should be substituted for ordinary bleeding. Cold water should be dashed on the head, the legs placed in pretty warm water, and blisters or mustard poultices applied between the shoulders. In the mean time 8 or 10 gr. of calomel may be administered, and its action subsequently promoted by the use of saline purgatives and stimulating clysters. When there is a difficulty of swallowing, a couple of drops of croton oil may be applied to the tongue; or it may be poured on sugar, before placing it in the mouth. Indeed, this mode of relieving the bowels should be adopted in all extreme cases, as soon as possible. Emetics should be carefully avoided. The only exception to this rule is, when the stomach is distended by a heavy undigested meal; when an emetic is hazarded as the less of two evils. Nasal stimulants, as smelling salts or aromatic vinegar, should also be avoided. If the bleeding has not afforded some relief, it may be repeated in from 3 to 5 hours. When these means prove successful, the remainder of the treatment may consist in the administration of mild purgatives and diaphoretics, and the avoidance of stimulating food or drinks, and of other like exciting agents.

Prev., &c. The premonitory symptoms of apoplexy are giddiness, pain and swimming in the head, loss of memory, faltering in speech or using one word for another, diminished sensibility either of body or mind, or both, drowsiness, noises in the ears, specks floating before the eyes, nightmare, frightful dreams, laborious respiration, heavy yet unrefreshing sleep, an inclination to sigh without any moral cause, cramp in the legs at night when there is no irritation of the bowels to account for them, &c. &c. When any of these symptoms occur (especially in “free livers”) aperient medicines and a light diet should be at once had recourse to, and wine, beer, and spirits avoided as the most dangerous poisons. If the symptoms increase or continue, active purgation, a still lower diet, and even bleeding may be had recourse to. Pure air, early rising, regular habits, gentle muscular exercise, and loose, easy clothing, are powerful preventives of apoplexy. By attending to the admonitions of nature, and adopting the simple means which are within the reach of all, it is indisputable that many fatal cases of apoplexy might have been avoided, and a still larger number lessened in severity.

Robust, plethoric persons, with short thick necks, are universally accounted the most liable to apoplexy. In them the fit generally comes on without warning; and when once attacked with this malady they are especially liable to its recurrence. But it must be recollected that the possessor of no particular constitution or temperaments, to whatever class it may belong, enjoys immunity from the attacks of apoplexy—a disease more fatal among Englishmen than the natives of other countries.

Obs. A loss of consciousness exists alike in apoplexy, epilepsy, narcotism from opium and opiates, complete intoxication, and common fainting. These may be distinguished by observing that—in EPILEPSY there are almost always convulsions, and more or less rigidity of the limbs, with (generally) foaming at the mouth and gnashing or grinding of the teeth, and frequently, the utterance of noises often not unlike the barking of a dog; whilst stertor and laborious breathing, as a rule, are absent:—in the stupor produced by OPIUM, MORPHIA, &c., the face is pale, calm, and perspiring, and the respiration is tranquil and without stertor; whilst the patient can, in almost all cases, be temporarily aroused to consciousness and kept awake by being made to walk between two attendants; the odour of opium or laudanum is also frequently perceptible in the breath or ejected matter:—in the insensibility of INTOXICATION the pulse is usually feeble, and the patient may be temporarily roused by violent shouting in the ear, or by the application of nasal stimulants, particularly the common smelling-bottle (if strong); and the breath, and ejected matter (if any), smells of liquor:—in ordinary FAINTING the face and lips are pale, the breathing quiet, the pulse scarcely perceptible, the limbs mobile, and the fit lasts only a few minutes.

Treatment for Horses. Give in the first place a strong stimulant internally, and apply mustard embrocations to the belly and spine. Bleed, should the pulse be small and indistinct.—In the parturient apoplexy of cows. Bleed in the very earliest stage; give salts and croton; diluents; no solid food; let the body and legs be rubbed and clothed; use catheter; apply ice and refrigerants to head and neck; give frequent clysters of linseed gruel; remove milk every hour, and apply rubefacients to the spine.

APOSEP′EDIN (-dĭn). A substance found in putrid cheese, and supposed to be a product of the fermentation of caseine. Mulder and others have shown that it is merely impure leucine.

AP′OSTEME† (-tēme or -tĕm). Syn. Ap′ostem†; Aposte′ma†, L. An abscess or collection of purulent matter in any part of the body.

APPARA′TUS. [L., Eng.; class. pl., appara′tus; Eng. pl., appara′tuses—Webster.] Syn. Appareil, Fr.; Apparat, Geräthschaft, Ger. In technical language, the instruments, utensils, and mechanical arrangements, employed in any operation, experiment, or observation, or in any art or trade.

Apparatus. In anatomy and physiology, a catenation of organs all ministering to one general purpose or function; as the digestive apparatus, respiratory a., &c.

APP′ETITE. Syn. Appeti′tus, L.; Apétit, Fr.; Apetit, Begierde, Esslust, Ger. The natural desire of gratification, whether corporeal or mental. In physiology, the instinctive inclination to perform certain natural functions, as those of digestion and generation; but appr., the natural desire for food. In psychology and philosophy, the APPETITES (pl.) are affections of the mind directed to general objects, as fame, glory, or riches; these when subsequently turned to particular objects, constitute the PASSIONS, as envy, gratitude, revenge, or love. In its common and unqualified sense, the word appetite is confined to the desire for food; and in that sense chiefly concerns us here.

The sensations of hunger and thirst are seated in the stomach, and their recurrence at proper intervals is a necessary consequence of vital action, and is essential to the existence of the body in a state of vigour and health. Any alteration from their normal condition indicates diseased action of the stomach, or of the nervous system or circulation; or it may result from vicious habits. A healthy appetite for food is usually a most certain indication that nature requires a supply; but in the indulgence of this appetite certain regulations should be observed, and a boundary should be put to mere animal gratification. By slowly eating and thoroughly masticating the food, the stomach becomes gradually and equally distended, and the individual feels himself satisfied only after he has taken a quantity sufficient for the nourishment of his body; but, on the contrary, if the food be swallowed rapidly, and without proper mastication, it presses heavily and roughly against the sides of the stomach, and induces a sensation of fulness before a sufficient meal has been made. The consequences are, that hunger soon returns, and the party must either have recourse to food between the usual time of meals, or suffer the consequences of imperfect nutrition. Exercise and labour, within certain limits, promote the healthy functions of the stomach and bowels, through the action of the muscles of the abdomen increasing the peristaltic motion of these viscera. An inordinate appetite in persons leading a sedentary life is generally indicative of the food passing off imperfectly digested, or of the coats of the stomach being relaxed, or even diseased. More food is required in winter than in summer, in consequence of the greater radiation of the heat of the body; and hence the increased appetite which is usually an accompaniment of that season. In persons who lead a more sedentary life in winter than in summer, either no change of this kind occurs, or the reverse is the case; the want of exercise producing a diminution of appetite corresponding to the increase of it that would otherwise result from the seasonal change of atmospheric temperature, or even greater. Deviations of the appetite from the healthy standard, or the normal condition, constitutes DEFECTIVE or DISEASED APPETITE.

Deficiency or loss of appetite (AN′OREXY; ANOREX′IA, L.) generally arises from disordered stomach; but is also frequently symptomatic of other affections, particularly dyspepsia, biliousness, feverishness, and organic diseases of the lungs, stomach, and primæ viæ. It is a common consequence of sedentary life, and of extreme mental anxiety, excitement, or exhaustion. The treatment will necessarily vary with the cause. In simple spontaneous cases the appetite may generally be improved by outdoor exercise, and the occasional use of mild aperients, especially salines and aloetics. When the affection arises from the stomach being loaded with bile and crudities, an emetic in the evening, followed by a stomachic purgative the next morning, with an occasional aperient afterwards, will seldom fail to effect a cure. With heavy drinkers a gradual reduction of the quantity of the strong liquors usually consumed is generally followed by a restoration of the appetite and digestive powers. The change thus gradually effected in the course of 8 or 10 days is often almost magical. The excessive use of liquors—especially of spirits, wine, or beer, or even of warm weak ones, as tea, coffee, soup, &c.—is always prejudicial. Hence drunkards are particularly subject to defective appetite; and teetotallers and water-drinkers to a heartiness often almost approaching voracity. See Bile, Dyspepsia, &c.

Depraved appetite (PI′CA, L.), or a desire for unnatural food, as chalk, cinders, dirt, soap, tallow, &c., when an idiopathic affection or when depending on vicious tastes or habits (as is often the case in childhood), it may be treated by admixing very small doses of tartar emetic or ipecacuanha with the objectionable food or articles. When symptomatic of pregnancy, a plentiful and nutritious diet, including the red meats, with a little good malt liquor or wine, may be adopted with advantage. When symptomatic of chlorosis, to this diet may be added the use of chalybeate tonics, and sea or tepid bathing; when of dyspepsia, a light diet, bitter tonics, free exercise, fresh air, and cold bathing, will generally effect a cure.

Insatiable appetite (CANINE APPETITE, VORACITY; BULIM′IA, L.) is generally symptomatic of pregnancy, or worms, or diseases of the stomach or the viscera immediately connected with it; but sometimes exists as a separate disease, and is even said to be occasionally hereditary. When it occurs in childhood, worms may be suspected, and vermifuges administered. In adults, a common cause is imperfect digestion, arising from stomach complaints or gluttony, when the languor and gnawing pains of disease are mistaken for hunger. In this case the diet should be regulated and the bowels kept gently relaxed with mild aperients, and tonics (as bark and steel), or bitters (as orange-peel and gentian), may be administered. When pregnancy or vicious habits are the cause, the treatment indicated under DEPRAVED APPETITE may be adopted. When the affection is occasioned by acidity in the stomach, an emetic, followed by the moderate use of absorbents or antacids, will generally effect a cure. In those cases depending on a highly increased power of the stomach in effecting rapid and complete digestion, its contractile force and morbid activity may be often allayed by the copious use of salad oil, fat meat, &c., by the cautious use of opiates, or by the use, or freer use, of tobacco (either smoked or chewed, or both). A cathartic daily, with a dose of blue-pill, or mercurial powder, every second or third day, is also often advantageous. 25 or 30 drops of solution of potassa, in broth, twice or thrice daily, has also been recommended. See Bile, Dyspepsia, Worms, &c.

APP′LE (ăp′l). Syn. Ma′lum, Po′mum, L.; Pomme, Fr.; Apfel, Ger.; Appel, Dut.; Aple, Swed. This well-known fruit is the product of the cultivated varieties of pyrus malus (Linn.), or the crab-apple of our hedges; a tree of the nat. ord. Rosaceæ. The date of its amelioration from the wild state is probably very remote, as several kinds are noticed by Pliny in a manner that would lead to the inference of a high antiquity. Pippins, or ‘seedling improved apples,’ are said to have been introduced into this country from the South of Europe towards the end of the 16th century. Don enumerated 1400 varieties of the cultivated apple; there are now probably above 1650. Rennet apples (POMA RENETTIA) are those ordered in the P. Cod. to be used in pharmacy. In botany and composition, the term apple (POMUM) is used to designate any large, round, fleshy fruit, consisting of a ‘pericarp,’ enclosing a tough ‘capsule’ containing several seeds; as love-apple, pine-apple, &c.

The wood of the apple-tree is much used in turnery; that of the crab-tree is generally preferred by mill-wrights for the teeth of mortise-wheels.

The expressed juice of 1 cwt. of ripe apples, after the free acid has been saturated with chalk, yields from 11 to 13 lbs. of a very sweet, but uncrystallisable sugar.

Apples have been analysed by Fresenius, and were found to have the following composition:—

Soluble Matter—

Sugar 7·58

Free acid (reduced to equivalent in malic acid) 1·04

Albuminous substance 0·22

Pectous substances, &c. 2·72

Ash 0·44

Insoluble Matter—

Seeds 0·38

Skins 1·44

Pectose 1·14

[Ash from insoluble matter included in weights given] [0·13]

Water 85·04

100·00

Love′-apple‡. The tomato.

Mad′-apple‡. The larger Mecca or Bussorah gall. They are also called Dead-sea apples, a. of Sodom, &c. See Galls.

Acid of Apples. Malic acid.

A′PRICOT. Syn. A′pricock†; Armeni′acum ma′lum, Præco′tium, L.; Abricot, Fr.; Aprikose, Ger. The fruit of armeniaca vulgaris (Lamb.; prunus armeniaca, Linn.), a rosaceous tree indigenous in Armenia, Cachmere, &c., and now cultivated in every temperate region of the world. Under the name of præcox it was known in Italy in the time of Dioscorides; but it was not introduced into England until the reign of Henry VIII (A.D. 1540). Its cultivation has since been zealously attended to by our gardeners, and it is now one of the choicest and most esteemed of our wall-fruits, and is particularly valued for desserts. It is reputed to be nutritious, easy of digestion, laxative, and stomachic. The seeds are bitter and saponaceous.

Apricots are principally eaten as gathered; but are also dried, candied, and made into jam. In confectionery, the Brussels and Breda varieties are preferred to the larger and sweeter kinds. See Fruit, Preserves, &c.

Apricots, Briançon′. The fruit of armeniaca brigantiaca (Pers.). Acidulous; seeds or kernels, by expression, yield HUILE DE MARMOTE.

A′QUA (-kwă). [L.] Water.—Aqua destilla′ta or A. DISTILLA′TA, is distilled water; A. FLUVIA′LIS or A. EX FLU′MINE (-ĭn-e), river-water; A. FONTA′NA, spring-water; A. MARI′NA or A. MA′′RIS, sea-water; A. MINERA′LIS, mineral water; A. NIVA′LIS or A. EX NI′VE, snow-water; A. PLUVIA′LIS, A. PLU′′VIA, or A. IM′BRIUM, rain-water, soft water; A. PUTEA′NA or A. EX PU′TEO, well, pump, or hard water.

Aqua. In chemistry and pharmacy, this word was formerly applied to numerous preparations and articles now included under other heads. See Eau, Esprits, Hair-dyes, Liquors, Solutions, Waters, &c.

Aquafor′tis. [L.] Literally, ‘strong water,’ the name given by the alchemists to the acid obtained by distilling a mixture of nitre and sulphate of iron. The word is still commonly employed by mechanics and artists to designate the impure fuming nitric acid of commerce, and is thus also retained in trade. By these parties concentrated nitric acid is called ‘spirit of nitre.’ ‘Double aquafortis’ merely differs from the other in strength. See Nitric acid.

Aqua Amarella. A compound for hair-dyeing; is prepared with sugar of lead, common salt, and water.

Aqua Græ′ca, A. Orienta′lis. See Hair-dyes.

Aqua Mari′na. [L.] The beryl†.

Aqua Mirab′ilis†. [L.] Literally, ‘wonderful water,’ a cordial and carminative spirit distilled from aromatics, and formerly reputed to possess many virtues.

Aqua Re′gia. [L.] Nitrohydrochloric acid, originally so called, by the alchemists, from its power of dissolving gold.

Aqua Toffa′nia. [L.] See Acquetta.

Aqua Vi′tæ†. [L.] Literally, ‘water of life,’ a name familiarly applied to the leading native distilled spirit. Thus, it is whiskey in Scotland, usquebaugh in Ireland, geneva in Holland, and eau de vie or brandy in France. When the term is employed in England, French brandy is understood to be referred to. See Alcohol, &c.

Aqua Vitæ Aromatico-Amara. (F. Bolle, formerly J. B. Claude, Berlin). Galangal ginger, āā, 2 parts; orange berries, European centaury, gentian, cinnamon, angelica, āā, 1 part; alcohol, 30 parts; water, 26 parts. Digest and filter. (Hager.)

AQUARIUM. A tank or vessel made of glass, containing either salt or fresh water, and in which either marine or fresh-water plants and animals are kept in a living state. In principle, the aquarium depends upon the interdependence of animal and vegetable life. The carbonic acid evolved by the animals is decomposed under the influence of solar light by the plants, and the oxygen necessary for the maintenance of the life of the animals is thus eliminated, whilst the carbonic acid essential to the existence of the plants is supplied by the animals. The aquarium, therefore, must be stocked both with plants and animals, and for the welfare of both, something like a proper proportion should exist between them. But even under these conditions the water should be frequently aërated, whether the aquarium contains fresh or salt-water. This may be done by simply blowing through a glass tube which reaches to near the bottom, or, still better, in the following manner:—Take a glass syringe which can be easily worked. Having filled it with water, hold it with the nozzle about two inches from the surface of the water in the aquarium, into which the contents are to be discharged quickly and with a sort of jerk. By this means a multitude of small bubbles are forced down into the fluid. This operation should be several times repeated. A simpler method is to take out a portion of the water from the aquarium and to pour it back again from a height. When, as not infrequently happens, the aquarium is provided with a fountain, this of course ensures a continual change of water; but even where this is the case the joint presence both of plants and animals is advantageous to the health of both. When sea-water cannot be procured for the marine aquarium a substitute for it may be made as follows:—Mix with 970,000 grains of rain-water 27,000 grains of chloride of sodium, 3600 of chloride of magnesium, 750 of chloride of potassium, 29 of bromide of magnesium, 2300 of sulphate of magnesia, 1400 of sulphate of lime, 35 of carbonate of lime, and 5 of iodide of sodium. These all being finely powdered and mixed first, are to be stirred into the water, from which a stream of air may be caused to pass from the bottom until the whole is dissolved. On no account is the water to be boiled, or even to be heated. Into this water, when clear, the rocks and seaweed may be introduced. As soon as the latter are in a flourishing state the animals may follow. Care must be taken not to have too many of these, and to remove immediately any dead ones. The loss that takes place from evaporation is to be made up by adding clear rain-water. The presence of a number of molluscous animals, such as the common periwinkle, is necessary for the consumption of the vegetable matter continually given off by the growing plants, and of the multitudinous spores, particularly of the confervæ, which would otherwise soon fill the water, rendering it greenish or brownish, and turbid. In a fresh-water aquarium the bottom should be covered with a layer of fine sand and shingle, and in this the weeds should be planted. The best for this purpose are valesneria spiralis, anacharis, and chara vulgaris. A few water-snails should also be put in; the best are planorbis, paludina, and amphibia glutinosa. One plant and two or three snails should be used for each gallon of water put into the aquarium.

AQUATINT′A. [L., Fr.] Syn. A′quatint, Eng.; Acquatinta, It. A species of etching on copper, producing an effect resembling a drawing in Indian ink.

A′QUEOUS (-kwe-). Syn. Aquose′*; A′queus, Aquo′sus, L.; Aqueux, Fr.; Wässerig, Wässerhaltig, Ger. Watery; made with, containing, or resembling water. In chemistry and pharmacy, applied to solutions, extracts, &c., prepared with water.

AR′ABESQUE (-bĕsk). [Fr.] In the Arabian manner; more particularly applied to a species of capricious, fantastic, and imaginative ornamentation, consisting of foliage, stalks, plants, &c., to the entire exclusion of the figures of animals. The designs of this class, now so much employed in cloth and leather binding, are produced by the pressure of hot plates or rollers having the pattern engraved on them. See Moresque.

AR′ABIN (-bĭn). C12H22O11. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Soluble gum; Arabi′na, L. The pure soluble principle of gum acacia.

Prep. Dissolve white gum arabic in pure water, filter the solution, and add alcohol as long as it produces curdiness; collect the precipitate, and dry it by a gentle heat.

Prop. &c. Very soluble in water; basic acetate of lead, alcohol, and ether, precipitate it from its solutions. It is isomeric with crystallised cane sugar. It possesses no practical superiority over the best gum arabic, except its paler colour.

AR′ABLE (ăbl). Syn. Arab′ilis, L.; Arabile, Labourable, Fr.; Pflügbar, Ger. In agriculture, fit for or under tillage or aëration; ploughed.

Arable Land. In agriculture, land which is chiefly or wholly cultivated by the plough, as distinguished from grass-land, wood-land, common pasture, and waste. See Land, Soils, &c.

ARACHIS HYPOGÆA. Syn. Ground Nut Plant. Hab. Cultivated throughout the tropics of the Old and New World. Officinal part. The oil of the seeds (Oleum Arachis, Ground Nut Oil). Obtained by expression. Limpid, clear, light yellow, almost inodorous, or with a faint smell and bland taste. Sp. gr. 0·916.—Prop. and Uses. This oil affords a cheap and excellent substitute for olive oil for pharmaceutical and other purposes.

The following notice, by the Editor of this work, appeared in ‘The Veterinarian’ for October, 1876:—

“Having in the course of my analytical practice had occasion to examine some samples of Marseilles earth-nut cake, I take the opportunity of communicating the results obtained, in the hope of furnishing interesting information respecting a material which is chiefly employed in the sophistication of the more expensive feeding cakes, but which I think might in some instances be with advantage substituted for them.

“Arachis seeds constitute one of the varieties of food termed pulse, and the oil which exists in them to the extent of from 40 to 50 per cent., is rapidly being introduced in the making of soap in this and other countries. It is an article also of the Indian Pharmacopœia.

“By pressure the seeds yield all but about 7 per cent. of their oil, and the material which remains after the expression of the greater part of the oil is sent into commerce as earth-nut or ground-nut cake.

“Sometimes the husks of the seeds are first removed and only the kernels subjected to pressure for the sake of the oil; the cake so produced is called ‘decorticated earth-nut cake,’ at other times the entire seeds are subjected to this treatment, and then the resulting cake is known as ‘undecorticated earth-nut cake.’

“The following table shows the composition in 100 parts of both descriptions of cake, as well as that of linseed cake of first-rate quality; the last analysis being added for the sake of comparison:—

Table showing the Centesimal Composition of Decorticated and Undecorticated Earth-nut Cake and Linseed Cake.

Decorticated Earth-nut Cake. Undecorticated Earth-nut Cake. Linseed Cake.

Moisture 9·58 9·28 11·72

Fat and heat producers

Oil 7·40 6·99 12·00

Starch digestible fibre, &c. 27·63 23·66 25·29

Flesh-formers (albumenoids) 42·81 32·81 32·64

Indigestible fibre 7·87 23·80 11·79

Ash 4·71 3·45 6·47

100·00 100·00 100·00

“From the foregoing analyses it will be seen that both descriptions of earth nut are exceedingly rich in flesh-formers, and that they contain a moderately large amount of oil. They also possess a sweet agreeable flavour, and are, I believe, very digestible. As these may, I am informed, be bought at from £6 to £8 per ton, it is evident that farmers would do well to give earth-nut cakes a trial in the feeding of their stock.

“Pure linseed cake does not contain starch, but in its stead mucilage. The feeding qualities of starch and mucilage are, however, very similar.”

ARAROBA. Syn. Araroba powder. Bahia powder. Goa powder. The pith or medulla of the stem and branches of a leguminous tree (a species of Centrolobium) growing in Brazil. It is in extensive use amongst the natives of India, who employ it in affections of the skin. It has been applied with success in shingles and ring-worm, in the form of ointment made as follows:—

Araroba in powder 20 grains.

Acetic acid 10 drops.

Benzoated lard 1 ounce.

Dr Attfield found the powder to contain from 80 to 84 per cent. of chrysophanic acid, to which substance its remedial powers are doubtless due. It is now the chief source of this acid.

ARA′TION*. In agriculture, ploughing; culture by ploughing; tillage. Lands in a state of aration’ are those under tillage.

AR′BOR. [L.] A tree. The seventh family of vegetables in Linnæus’s system. In anatomy and chemistry, a term formerly applied to membranes and substances having some real or fancied resemblance to a tree or vegetation. An ar′boret is a little tree; an arborist, or ar′borātor†, is one who studies or cultivates trees.

ARBUTIN. C12H16O7. A substance obtained by Kawalier from the leaves of the red bearberry Arctostophylos uva ursi, and by Zwenger and Himmelmann from the leaves of a species of winter-green, Pyrola Umbellata. It is prepared by precipitating the aqueous decoction of the leaves of either of these plants, with basic acetate of lead, filtering, removing the excess of lead with sulphuretted hydrogen, and either treating the filtrate with animal charcoal and leaving it to crystallise or evaporating and digesting the residue with a mixture of eight parts of ether and one part of alcohol, which dissolves out the arbutin, and deposits it on evaporation in the crystalline state.

ARCA′NUM [L.] Syn. Arcane, Fr.; Geheimnis, Ger. A secret. In alchemy, a term applied to various preparations without any precise meaning. “Arcanum is a thing secret, incorporeal, and immortal, which can only be known to man by experience; for it is the virtue of each thing, which operates a thousand times more than the thing itself.” (Ruland) In ancient medicine and pharmacy; a nostrum. The word is still occasionally used in the plural (ARCA′NA, secrets, mysteries), in the titles of books; as, ‘Arcana of Chemistry,’ a book professing to contain a full exposition of the mysteries of that art.

Among the old chemists, ARCANUM AL′BUM was ‘pulvis Viennensis albus virgineus’ (see Powders); A. BEC′CHICUM, a sweetened aqueous solution of liver of sulphur; A. CORALLI′NUM, red oxide of mercury that had been digested in a solution of potash, washed with water, and then had spirit of wine burnt on it (once a favourite mercurial and escharotic); A. DUPLICA′TUM, sulphate of potash; A. D. CATHOL′ICUM, roots of colchicum and plantain (worn as an amulet against fevers and pestilential diseases); A. LUDEMAN′NI, oxide of zinc; A. TAR′TARI, acetate of potassa; A. VI′TÆ, elixir vitæ; &c.

ARCHE′US (-kē′-ŭs; ăr′*—Mayne). [L.] Syn. Archæ′us, L. A term invented by Paracelsus, and employed by the alchemists and older physicians, to imply the occult cause of phenomena, as well as the sub-causes or agents by which the effects were accomplished. Van Helmont and Stahl ascribe certain vital functions to the influence and superintendence of a ‘spiritus archæus’ or intelligent vital principle. According to others, the powers of ‘Archæus’ were indefinitely extended. He or it was an occult power of nature, the artificer of all things, physician-general to the universe, &c. &c., to the utmost bounds of absurdity and confusion.

From this word comes the adj. Arche′al or Archæ′al, hidden, operative.

ARCH′IL (artsh′-ĭl). Syn. Arch′el*, Or′chil; Archil′la, Orchil′la (ch as k), L.; Orseille, Fr., Ger.; Oricello, It. A violet-red, purple or blue colouring matter or dye-stuff, obtained from several species of lichens, but of the finest quality from roccella tinctoria (DC.), and next from r. fuciformis (DC.).

The archil of commerce is met with as a liquid paste, or as a thin liquid dye or stain of more or less intensity. The ordinary archil or orchil of the shops (ORCHIL-LIQUOR) is under the last form; and is known as either BLUE OR RED ARCHIL—distinctions which arise as follows:—

Prep. 1. Blue archil:—The bruised or coarsely ground lichen is steeped for some time in a mixture of stale urine, or bone-spirit, and lime or milk of lime, or in any similar ammoniacal solution, contained in covered wooden vessels in the cold; the process being repeated until all the colour is extracted.

2. Red or crimson archil:—The materials are the same as for the last variety, but rather less milk of lime is used, and the ‘steep’ is generally made in earthen jars placed in a room heated by steam, technically called a stove. The two kinds merely differ in the degree of their red or violet tint—the addition of a small quantity of lime or alkali to the one, or of an acid to the other, immediately bringing them both to the same shade of colour.

Prop. Archil has a disagreeable putrid ammoniacal odour. Its colouring matter is soluble in water, alcohol, urine, ammoniacal and alkaline lyes, and weak acid liquors; alkalies turn it blue, acids red; alum gives with it a brownish-red precipitate, and solution of tin a red one; the alcoholic solution gradually loses its colour when excluded from the air. Its colouring matter consists chiefly of orcein.

Pur. Archil is frequently adulterated with extract of logwood, or of Lima or Sapan-wood. It may be tested as follows:—1. A solution of 50 or 60 drops of pure archil in about 3 fl. oz. of water slightly acidulated with acetic acid, almost entirely loses its colour, or presents only a yellowish tinge, when heated to ebullition in a flask along with 50 drops of a fresh solution of protochloride of tin made with 1 part of the salt to 2 parts of water:—2. A drop of fluid extract of logwood treated in the same way, gives a distinct violet tint, which resists several hours’ boiling; but when only 3 or 4 per cent. of logwood is present, the boiled liquid has a permanent grey tint:—3. If the boiled liquid retains its red hue, extract of Sapan-wood is present:—4. The boiled liquor, when the archil is pure, re-acquires its colour by exposure to the air, and the addition of an alkali, particularly ammonia; whilst the colour produced by logwood is destroyed only by an alkaline solution of tin, and is restored by acids.

Uses, &c. It is employed to tinge the spirit used to fill the tubes of thermometers, and to stain paper, wood, &c. The aqueous solution stains MARBLE, in the cold, of a beautiful violet colour, of considerable permanence when not exposed to a vivid light. “Marble thus tinged preserves its colour unchanged at the end of two years.” (Dufay.) Its principal use is, however, in dyeing. By proper management it may be made to produce every shade of pink and crimson to blue and purple. Unfortunately, although the hues it imparts to silk and wool possess an exquisite bloom or lustre, they are far from permanent, and unless well managed, soon decay. It is hence generally employed in combination with other dye-stuffs, or as a finishing bath to impart a bloom to silk or woollens already dyed of permanent colours. In using it as a dye it is added to hot water in the required quantity, and the bath being raised to nearly the boiling-point, the materials are put in and passed through it, until the desired shade is produced. A mordant of alum and tartar is sometimes used, but does not add to the permanence of the colour. Solution of tin added to the bath increases the durability, but turns the colour more on the scarlet. (Hellot.) Milk of lime or salt of tartar is added to darken it; acids or solution of tin to redden it. A beautiful crimson-red is obtained by first passing the stuff through a mordant of tin and tartar, and then through a bath of archil mixed with a very little solution of tin. By the proper management of this dye, lilacs, violets, mallows, rosemary flower, soupes au vin, agates, and many other shades may be produced on silk or cloth, either alone or in conjunction with other dyes to modify it. ⁄2 lb. of solid archil, or its equivalent in a liquid form, will dye 1 to 2 lb. of cloth. Herb-archil, it is asserted, will bear boiling, and gives a more durable tint than the other lichens, especially with solution of tin. (Hellot.) Recently Mr Lightfoot has patented a process for dyeing with archil with the aid of oil, after the manner followed for producing Turkey-red on cottons.

Archil, Facti′′tious:—1. From a mixture of onions (in a state of incipient putrefaction) with about 1-10th to 1-12th their weight of carbonate of potash and some ammonia, fermented together; and adding, after some days, 1-7th to 1-8th of the weight of the potash used in a salt of lead. The details of the process essential to success are, however, now unknown, the secret having died with a relative of the writer of this article.

2. Extract of logwood dissolved in juice of elderberries and putrid urine, with the addition of a little pearlash for the BLUE, and a very little oxalic acid or oil of vitriol for the RED variety. Used to stain wood.

Arch′il, Herb. Roccella tinctoria. See Archil (above), Lichens, and Mosses.

ARE (ăr; āre—Eng.). [Fr.] See Measures.

ARE′CA. [L.] In botany a genus of East Indian trees, of the nat. ord. Palmæ (DC.).

Areca Cate′chu. [L.; Linn.] Syn. Are′ca, A. In′dica, A. Faufel, Be′tel-nut tree. Hab. East Indies. Fruit (BETEL-NUT), astringent and narcotic; husk of fruit (PENANG or PINANG), sialagogue and stomachic; both are used as masticatories; wood and nut yield an inferior or bastard sort of catechu; charcoal of the nut highly esteemed as tooth-powder; also given in tape-worm in doses of ⁄4 oz. and ⁄2 oz.; said to be more efficacious in coarse than in fine powder.—Doses for Animals. HORSE, 4 to 6 drachms; CATTLE, 4 to 8 drachms; DOG, 30 grains to 2 drachms.

Areca Globulif′era. [L.] Properties similar to the last.

Areca Olera′cea. [L.; Willd.] Cabbage-palm.

ARENA′CEOUS (ăr-e-). Syn. Arena′ceus, L.; Arénacé, Sablonneux, Fr.; Sandig, Sandartig, Ger. In agriculture, mineralogy, &c., sandy; resembling sand; friable.

ARENA′′RIOUS (-nare′-). Syn. Arena′′rius, L.; Arénaire, Fr. Sandy, arenaceous. In agriculture and botany applied to soils (ARENARIOUS SOILS) in which sand is the prevailing and characteristic ingredient; also to plants that grow in sandy or arid soils.

ARENA′TION. Syn. Saburra′tion; Arena′tio, L.; Arénation, Fr.; Sandbad, Ger. In medicine sandbathing; a practice formerly prevalent, in dropsy, of applying hot sand, either by immersion or otherwise, to the feet, legs, or even the whole body.

ARENOSE′ (ăr-e-nōse’). Syn. Ar′enous*; Areno′sus, L.; Aréneux, Fr. Sandy; arenaceous (which see).

AREOM′ETER (ă-re- or ăr-re-; āre-e—Smart). Syn. Areom′etrum, L.; Aréomètre, Fr. Literally, a ‘measure of lightness’ or ‘rarity,’ originally applied to any instrument for determining the specific gravity of alcoholic and ethereal liquids; but since applied, like the word ‘hydrometer,’ to instruments adjusted to the densities of all liquids. In this country the term is principally confined to the aréomètres of Baumé, on account of their general use by Continental chemists. The relations and equivalents of Baumé’s scales, as now adopted in France, are shown in the first two of the following Tables:—

I.—Corresponding DEGREES of Baumé’s Areometers and REAL SPECIFIC GRAVITIES:—

1. Areometer for liquids LIGHTER than WATER, or Pèse-esprit.

Degrees Baumé. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baumé. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baumé. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baumé. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baumé. Specific Gravity.

10 1·0000 21 0·9300 32 0·8690 42 0·8202 52 0·7766

11 0·9932 22 0·9241 33 0·8639 43 0·8156 53 0·7725

12 0·9865 23 0·9183 34 0·8588 44 0·8111 54 0·7684

13 0·9799 24 0·9125 35 0·8538 45 0·8066 55 0·7643

14 0·9733 25 0·9068 36 0·8488 46 0·8022 56 0·7604

15 0·9669 26 0·9012 37 0·8439 47 0·7978 57 0·7556

16 0·9605 27 0·8957 38 0·8391 48 0·7935 58 0·7526

17 0·9542 28 0·8902 39 0·8343 49 0·7892 59 0·7487

18 0·9480 29 0·8848 40 0·8295 50 0·7849 60 0·7449

19 0·9420 30 0·8795 41 0·8249 51 0·7807 61 0·7411

20 0·9359 31 0·8742

2. Areometer for liquids HEAVIER than WATER; Pèse-acide, or Pèse-sirop.

Degrees Baumé. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baumé. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baumé. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baumé. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baumé. Specific Gravity.

0 1·0000 16 1·1176 32 1·2667 47 1·4476 62 1·6889

1 1·0066 17 1·1259 33 1·2773 48 1·4615 63 1·7079

2 1·0133 18 1·1343 34 1·2881 49 1·4758 64 1·7273

3 1·0201 19 1·1428 35 1·2992 50 1·4902 65 1·7471

4 1·0270 20 1·1515 36 1·3103 51 1·5051 66 1·7674

5 1·0340 21 1·1603 37 1·3217 52 1·5200 67 1·7882

6 1·0411 22 1·1692 38 1·3333 53 1·5353 68 1·8095

7 1·0483 23 1·1783 39 1·3451 54 1·5510 69 1·8313

8 1·0556 24 1·1875 40 1·3571 55 1·5671 70 1·8537

9 1·0630 25 1·1968 41 1·3694 56 1·5833 71 1·8765

10 1·0704 26 1·2063 42 1·3818 57 1·6000 72 1·9000

11 1·0780 27 1·2160 43 1·3945 58 1·6170 73 1·9241

12 1·0857 28 1·2258 44 1·4074 59 1·6344 74 1·9487

13 1·0935 29 1·2358 45 1·4206 60 1·6522 75 1·9740

14 1·1014 30 1·2459 46 1·4339 61 1·6705 76 2·0000

15 1·1095 31 1·2562

II.—Corresponding SPECIFIC GRAVITIES and DEGREES of Baumé’s Areometer for heavy liquids. From the Batavian Pharmacopœia.

Degrees Baumé. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baumé. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baumé. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baumé. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baumé. Specific Gravity.

0 1000 16 1125 32 1286 47 1485 62 1758

1 1007 17 1134 33 1298 48 1501 63 1779

2 1014 18 1143 34 1309 49 1516 64 1801

3 1022 19 1152 35 1321 50 1532 65 1823

4 1029 20 1161 36 1334 51 1549 66 1847

5 1036 21 1171 37 1346 52 1566 67 1872

6 1044 22 1180 38 1359 53 1583 68 1897

7 1052 23 1190 39 1372 54 1601 69 1921

8 1060 24 1199 40 1384 55 1618 70 1946

9 1067 25 1210 41 1398 56 1637 71 1974

10 1075 26 1221 42 1412 57 1656 72 2000

11 1083 27 1231 43 1426 58 1676 73 2031

12 1091 28 1242 44 1440 59 1695 74 2059

13 1100 29 1252 45 1454 60 1715 75 2087

14 1108 30 1261 46 1470 61 1738 76 2116

15 1116 31 1275

AREOM′ETRY. Syn. Areome′tria, L.; Aréométrie, Fr. The art or operation of ascertaining the specific gravity of liquids, and hence also their strength or commercial value; hydrometry. See Areometer (above), Hydrometry, Specific Gravity, &c.

ARE′CINA. C23H26N2O4. An alkaloid discovered by Pelletier and Comol, in white cinchona bark from Aréca. It is extracted from the bark by the same process as Quinine, viz., by boiling the bark with acidulated water, treating the liquor with lime, and digesting the lime-precipitate in alcohol. The solution filtered at the boiling heat yields a very dark-coloured liquid, which, after a time, deposits the greater part of the aricine in crystals. An additional quantity may be obtained from the mother-liquor by expelling the alcohol by distillation, treating the residue with a slight excess of hydrochloric acid, separating the greater part of the colouring matter by means of a saturated solution of common salts, then throwing down the aricine by ammonia, dissolving the precipitate in alcohol, decolourising with animal charcoal and crystallising.

ARGAMONE MEXICANA (nat. order Papaveraceæ). A tropical American plant, now a common weed growing in almost every part of India. A fixed oil is obtained from the seeds by expression, which has long been employed as an aperient in the West Indies. In half-drachm doses it is said to act as a gentle aperient, and at the same time it allays, apparently by its sedative qualities, the pain in colic. The smallness of the dose, and the mildness of its operation, commend it to the notice of the medical practitioner. Its efficiency is impaired by keeping, the freshly prepared oil proving more active and uniform in its action than that which has been long on hand. It is reported to exercise a well-marked and soothing influence when applied to herpetic eruptions and other forms of skin disease. By the natives of India the expressed yellow glutinous juice of the plant is held in high repute as a local application to indolent and foul ulcers.

ARGENT′INE (-ĭn). Syn. Argenti′nus, L.; Argentin, Fr.; Silberfarben, &c., Ger. Silver-like; pertaining to, resembling, or sounding like silver; argental.

Ar′gentine. (-tĭn). [Eng., Fr.] German silver*. In mineralogy, nacreous carbonate of lime, from its whiteness and silvery lustre.

ARGENT′UM. [L.] Silver. In old chemistry and pharmacy, ARGENTUM, FUGITI′′VUM†, A. MO′BILE† (-ĭl-e), was quicksilver; A. MOR′TUUM†, dead silver, grain-s; A. MUSI′VUM†, mosaic s., silver-bronze; A. NITRA′TUM†, lunar caustic; A. VI′VUM†, quicksilver; A. ZOÖTIN′ICUM†, cyanide of silver; &c.

AR′GIL† (jĭl). Syn. Argil′la, L.; Argile, Fr. Clay or potter’s earth.

ARGILLA′CEOUS (-jĭl-). Syn. Argilla′ceus, L.; Argilleux, Fr.; Thonig, Thonartig, Ger. Clayey; pertaining to, containing, or of the nature of clay or argil. In agriculture, an epithet of soils (ARGILLACEOUS SOILS) of which clay is the principal or characteristic ingredient.

Argil′lo-arena′ceous (-jĭl-). In agr., consisting chiefly of clay and sand.

Argillo-calca′′reous. In agr., consisting chiefly of clay and chalk.

AR′GOL. Syn. Argal*; Tar′tarus cru′dus, L.; Tartre brut, Fr.; Weinstein, Ger. Crude bitartrate of potash, as deposited by wine. That from red wine is RED ARGOL; that from white wine, WHITE ARGOL. See Tartar.

ARM′ATURE (-ă-tūre). Syn. Armatu′′ra, L. In magnetism, a piece of soft iron used to connect the poles of a horseshoe magnet, for the purpose of preventing loss of power.

AR′NICA. [L., Fr., Eng.] Syn. Arnique, Fr.; Arnika, Wolverlei, Ger. In botany, a genus of plants of the nat. ord. Compositæ (DC.). In the Ph. U. S., arnica montana (see below).

Arnica Monta′na. [L.; Linn.] Syn. Arnica, Moun′tain a., M. tobac′co, German leop′ard’s bane; Panace′a lapso′′rum*, L. Arnique, A. des montagnes, Tabac des Savoyards et des Vosges, Fr.; Arnika, Falkraut, &c., Ger. Hab. Meadows of the cooler parts of Europe, North America, and Siberia. It is now cultivated in our gardens. Flowers (ARNICA, Ph. U. S., Castr. Ruth., and Bor.) and leaves, diaphoretic, diuretic, stimulant, and narcotic; in large doses emetic and purgative; root discutient; whole herb diaphoretic, stimulant, and nervine.

Prop., &c. Arnica acts as an energetic stimulant on the cerebro-spinal system, and as an irritant on the stomach and bowels. It is much employed on the Continent, and is given in a great variety of diseases—amaurosis, chlorosis, convulsions, diarrhœa, dysentery, gout, paralysis, rheumatism, &c. It is much used in Germany, instead of bark, in intermittents, putrid fevers, and gangrene. In France it is commonly employed as an excito-tonic in paralysis. It has been greatly extolled, as a restorative, and in bruises and injuries from falls. The Savoyards and inhabitants of the Vosges both smoke and ‘snuff’ the leaves. In England it is little used except by homœopaths. It is said that no animal but the goat will eat this plant. (Thomson.) Its noxious properties chiefly depend on the presence of cytisine.—Dose. Flowers, 5 to 10 gr., in powder, with syrup or honey; root, 10 to 20 gr. It is most conveniently administered under the form of infusion or tincture. Severe abdominal pains and vertigo, and even tetanus and death, have followed excessive doses.

Obs. According to Dupuytren, the emetic action of infusion of arnica depends on minute particles of the down of the plant which remain suspended in it, and which may be removed by filtration. See Infusions, Tinctures, &c.

ARNATT′O, Arnott′o. See Annotta.

AR′NICINE (seen). This name has been applied to two substances—the one discovered by Pfaff; the other by Bastick:—

Arnicine (of Pfaff). The resinous matter extracted by alcohol from the roots and flowers of mountain arnica, and in which their acridity appears to reside.

Arnicine (of Bastick). Syn. Arnici′na, Arnici′′a (nīsh′-y′ă), L. Prep. 1. (Bastick.) From the flowers, by a similar process to that by which he obtains lobelina. 2. From the flowers (or root), as directed under Aricina.

Prop., &c. Bitter; acrid; crystallisable scarcely soluble in water; soluble in alcohol and ether; forms salts with the acids, the hydrochlorate and one or two others being crystallisable. Its physiological properties and dose have not as yet been accurately determined.

ARO′MA. [L.] Syn. Arome, Fr.; Arom, Geruchstoff, Ger. The characteristic odour of substances, particularly the peculiar quality of plants, and of substances derived from them, which constitutes their fragrance.

AROMA′TA. [L.] See Aromatic.

AROMAT′IC. Syn. Aromat′icus, L.; Aromatique, Fr.; Gewürzhaft, Ger. Fragrant; odoriferous; spicy; applied chiefly to plants and their products (Aromatics, A. plants; Aromat′a, AROMAT′ICA, L.; Aromatiques, ÉPICES, Fr.; Gewurz, Ger.) characterised by their spicy odour or aroma, and warm pungent flavour, and of which allspice, cinnamon, cloves, lavender, pepper, rosemary, sage, &c., are well-known examples. They are all stimulant, carminative, and antiseptic; and from remote antiquity have been regarded as prophylactic and disinfectant.

Aromatic. In medicine, pharmacy, perfumery, &c., applied to substances, simple or compound, characterised by an agreeable odour or carminative properties, or both; as aromatic confection, a. pastilles, a. vinegar, a. bark (CORTEX AROMATICUS, white canella), &c.

AROMATIC SULPHUR-SOAP (Ed. Heger). For cleansing the teeth and mouth. A hard sulphur-coloured soap externally; on cutting, greyish-brown. Composed of soap with 10 per cent. of hyposulphite of soda, perfumed with a scent resembling oil of balm. (Hager.)

AROMATIQUE (Albin Müller, Brünn). Spirit (90 per cent.), 50 grms.; sugar, 45 grms.; extractive matter, 4 grms. (composed of cinnamon, cloves, galangal, zedoary, angelica, anise); water, 81 grms. Sold in wine-bottle-shaped bottles, and recommended for all derangements of the digestive organs. (Hager.)

ARQUEBUSADE′ (ar-ke-bŏŏ-zade′). [Fr.] Primarily, the shot of an arquebuse; but afterwards applied to an aromatic spirit (EAU D′ARQUEBUSADE, Fr.), originally employed as an application to gunshot (arquebuse) wounds.

AR′RACK (Syn. Rack) (arrack′—Brande). [Ind.] Syn. Arac, Arack, Rack‡§; Palm-spirit; Ar′ac′ca, Spir′itus Pal′mæ, S. SUC′CI P., S. ORY′ZÆ*, L.; Arack, Fr.; Arak, Ger. A spirituous liquor imported from the East Indies. The finer qualities are distilled from the fermented juice (toddy, palm-wine) of the cocoa-nut tree, palmyra tree, and other palms; and the other kinds, from the infusion of unhusked rice (rice-beer), fermented with cocoa-nut or palm-juice, either with or without the addition of coarse sugar or jaggery.

Prop., &c. It is colourless or nearly so, but like other spirit, when long kept in wood, gradually acquires a slight tinge, similar to that of old Hollands. The best kinds, when of sufficient age, are pleasant flavoured, and are probably as wholesome as the other spirits of commerce; but common arrack has a strong and somewhat nauseous flavour and odour, depending on the presence of volatile oil derived from the rice, and corresponding to that of corn-spirit. The inferior qualities are hence more heating and apt to disagree with the stomach than the other commercial spirits. In this country it is chiefly used to make punch. When sliced pine-apples are put into good arrack, and the spirit kept for some time, it mellows down and acquires a most delicious flavour, and is thought by many to be then unrivalled for making ‘nectarial punch’ or ‘rack-punch.’

Obs. Batavian arrack is most esteemed; then that of Madras; and next that of China. Others are regarded as inferior. The common par′iah arrack is generally narcotic, very intoxicating, and unwholesome; being commonly prepared from coarse jaggery, spoilt toddy, refuse rice, &c., and rendered more intoxicating by the addition of hemp-leaves, poppy-heads, juice of stramonium, and other deleterious substances.

Arrack, Facti′′tious. Syn. Mock ar′rack, Brit′ish a.; Vauxhall′nec′tar; &c. Prep. Good old Jamaica rum (uncoloured), rectified spirit (54 to 56 o. p.; clean flavoured), and water, of each 1 quart; flowers of benzoin, 1 dr.; sliced pine-apple, ⁄4 oz. (or essence of pine-apple, ⁄2 teaspoonful); digest, with occasional agitation, for a fortnight; then add of skimmed milk 1 wine-glassful; agitate well for 15 minutes, and in a few days decant the clear portion.

The crude Indian arrack, when subjected to distillation until it has a sp. gr. ·920, is employed in India, as proof spirit, in the preparation of official tinctures, and for other pharmaceutical purposes. A very useful stimulating application, known in India as toddy poultice, and intended as a substitute for yeast poultice, is prepared by adding freshly drawn toddy to rice flour, till it has the consistence of a soft poultice, and subjecting this to heat over a gentle fire, stirring constantly till fermentation commences.

The light brown cotton-like substance from the outside of the base of the fronds belonging to the Palmyra palm is employed by the Cyngalese doctors as a styptic for stopping the hæmorrhage of superficial wounds.

AR′ROW-ROOT. The common name of maran′ta arundina′cea (Linn.; m. Indi′ca—Tuss.); a plant of the nat. ord. Marantaceæ (Lindl.; Cannaceæ—Endl.). It was originally brought from the island of Dominica to Barbadoes, by Col. James Walker. It has since been extensively cultivated in the West Indies.

Tubers yield true ARROW-ROOT; when fresh and good they contain about 26% of starch, of which 23% may be obtained as arrow-root, and the rest by boiling.

Arrow-root. Syn. Maran′ta, Am′ylum Maran′tæ, Fæc′ula M., L.; Racine Fléchière, Pivot, Fr.; Pfeilwurz, P.-satzmehl, Ger. The starch or fecula obtained from the rhizoma or tubers of maran′ta arundina′cea (Linn.; see above), and which forms the true ‘arrow-root’ of commerce.

Prep. The fecula is extracted from the tubers when they are about 10 or 12 months old, by a process similar to that by which the farina is obtained from potatoes. In Bermuda the tubers, after being washed, are deprived of their paper-like scales and every discoloured and defective part by hand; they are then again washed and drained, and next subjected to the action of a wheel-rasp, the starch being washed from the comminuted tubers with rain-water; the milky liquid is passed through a hair sieve, or a coarse cloth, and allowed to deposit its fecula. This is then allowed to drain, after which it is again carefully washed with clean water, again drained, and, after being thoroughly dried in the air or sun, is at once packed for market. (Cogswell.) In St. Vincent (on the Hopewell Estate), a cylindrical crushing-mill, tinned-copper washing machines, and German-silver palettes and shovels are employed; whilst the drying is effected in extensive sheds, under white gauze, to exclude insects. In Jamaica the washed tubers are generally pulped in deep wooden mortars; machinery being seldom employed in any part of the process.

Prop., &c. A light, dull, dead-white, tasteless, inodorous powder or small pulverulent masses, feeling firm to the fingers, and crackling when pressed or rubbed; viewed by a pocket lens it appears to consist of glistening particles, which are shown by a microscope to be convex, irregular, ovoid or truncated granules, most of them, according to Mr Jackson, being ·0010 of an inch in length, and ·0008 of an inch in breadth; mixed with others varying from about double to only half that size. In its action with boiling water, and its general properties it resembles the other starches; than which, however, it is freer from any peculiar taste and flavour; and thus agrees better with the delicate stomachs of invalids and infants than the ordinary farinas.

Comp. Similar to that of the other starches.

Pur. A large portion of the arrow-root of the shops consists either wholly or in part of the fecula or farina of potatoes or of inferior starches such as cacuma, or East Indian arrow-root, jatropha, or Brazilian arrow-root, canna, or tous les mois; or is more or less mixed with sago-meal or rice-meal: such materials can be readily detected by the microscope. Potato starch is known in commerce as ‘FARINA’ or ‘British arrow-root,’ or simply ‘arrow-root,’ whereas genuine arrow-root is always described as ‘Bermuda,’ ‘St. Vincent,’ ‘St. Kitts,’ or, at least, as ‘West Indian arrow-root.’ The substitution of the inferior farinas for genuine arrow-root is not only fraudulent on account of their inferior value, but is reprehensible in a hygienic point of view; as some of them are offensive to a delicate stomach, and exert of themselves, and still more when carelessly manufactured, a laxative action on the bowels; whereas the effect of true arrow-root is that of a slight and soothing tonic.

Uses, &c. As an agreeable, non-irritable article of diet for invalids and children, in the form of cakes, biscuits or puddings, or boiled with milk or water and flavoured with sugar, spices, lemon-juice, or wine, at pleasure. For young children a little caraway or cinnamon water is to be preferred. It is especially useful in irritation or debility of the stomach, bowels, or urinary organs, and in all cases in which a demulcent or emollient is indicated. It must not, however, be employed to the entire exclusion of other food, as, being destitute of the nitrogenous elements of nutrition, it is incapable alone of supporting life. Arrow-root jelly is prepared by first rubbing the powder up with a very small quantity of cold water, and then gradually adding the remainder boiling, stirring well all the time. Beef tea, veal broth, or milk may be used instead of water. Some persons boil it for a few minutes. This jelly, flavoured with a little genuine port wine and nutmeg, is almost a specific in cases of simple diarrhœa arising from habit or debility.

Obs. Arrow-root is imported in tins, barrels, and boxes, from all the West India Islands; and from Calcutta and Sierra Leone. The best quality was, until recently, solely obtained from Bermuda; but of late equally fine samples have been produced on the Hopewell Estate, St Vincent, and, according to Dr Ure, with the advantage of being prepared with the purest spring water, in profusion, instead of rain water.

In commerce, the word arrow-root is now often loosely used as a generic term to indicate any white, tasteless, and edible starch or fecula.

Arrow-root, Brazil′ian. Cassava-starch or tapioca-meal.

Arrow-root, East In′dian. Curcuma starch; from the tubers of the curcuma angustifolia or narrow-leaved turmeric. The maranta arundinacea is now also extensively cultivated in India under the name of maranta Indica, and the fecula therefrom extensively exported, which might, with equal propriety, be called East Indian arrow-root; but this is not the case in commerce, the whole passing as W. I. arrow-root irrespective of the place of its production.

Arrow-root, Eng′lish. Potato-starch.

Arrow-root, Portland. From the underground tubers of arum maculatum (Linn.) or wake-robin.

Arrow-root, Tahi′ti. Tacca starch or Otaheite salep; from the tubers of tacca oceanica.

ARSE′′NIATE. Syn. Ar′senate; Arse′′nias, Ar′senas, L.; Arséniate, Fr.; Arse′′niksaure salze, Ger. A salt consisting of AsO4 and a metal or other basic radical; e.g., ammonio-magnesium arseniate, NH4Mg9AsO4.

AR′SENIC (-se-nĭk). As. Syn. Arsenium; Arsen′icum, Arse′nium, L.; Arsenik, A.-metall, Ger. Arsenico, Sp., It. The brittle, grey-coloured metal, or metalloid, which forms the base of the white arsenic and orpiment of commerce. Discovered by Geber in the eighth century, but first accurately described by Brandt (A.D. 1773). The poisonous properties of arsenious acid were not generally known for some centuries after its discovery. As a medicine it was first employed in intermittents in Hungary.

Sources. Arsenic is peculiar to the mineral kingdom. The metallic arsenic of commerce is obtained by roasting arsenical pyrites (MISPICKEL), in earthen tubes, or in tubular earthen retorts; the arsenic sublimes, and sulphuret of iron remains behind. On the small scale it is prepared by sublimation from a mixture of arsenious acid and charcoal or black flux. Combined with oxygen it frequently exists in mineral waters; and, in a larger quantity, in certain rivulets and streams.

Prep. A mixture of arsenious acid, 1 part; and black flux, 2 or 3 parts; is exposed to a low red heat in a Hessian crucible over which is luted a deep empty crucible, or an earthen tube, to receive the metal; the latter being kept as cool as possible. Charcoal or even oil may be substituted for black flux, and a retort of hard glass may be used, with the same result. Or the following method may be used:—White oxide of arsenic, of commerce, 2 dr.; is placed at the sealed end of a hard German-glass tube (⁄2 × 18 inches), and covered with about 8 inches of dry and coarsely powdered charcoal; the portion of the tube containing the latter is then raised to a red heat, whilst a few ignited coals are placed beneath the oxide to effect its slow sublimation. The sublimed metal gradually attaches itself to the inside of the tube at its cool extremity. A small charcoal furnace similar to that used for organic analysis should be employed, and the process conducted under a flue to carry off any fumes that may escape. The open end of the tube should be loosely closed with a cork.

Prop. Very brittle, so much so that it may be easily powdered in a mortar; lustre highly metallic; colour steel-grey or bluish-white; texture crystalline; crystals rhombohedrons; sublimes, without fusion, at 356 to 360° Fahr., (and slowly at lower temperatures), in close vessels unaltered, but when exposed to the air with conversion into arsenious acid; at a higher temperature, in open vessels, it burns with a pale-blue flame. Its vapour or fumes have a characteristic alliaceous odour; it is slowly oxidised and dissolved by boiling water; but may be preserved unchanged in pure cold water; it rapidly tarnishes in the air, particularly when moist, a black film, consisting of metallic arsenic and arsenious acid forming on its surface; with chlorine, iodine, sulphur, and hydrogen, it unites to form definite compounds. With oxygen it forms acids, but no basic oxide. It combines with the metals in a similar manner to sulphur and phosphorus, the latter of which it resembles in many respects. These compounds are termed AR′SENIDES, formerly Arseniurets. Sp. gr. 5·7 to 5·9; sp. gr. of vapour, 1·0362.

Uses, &c. With copper it forms a white alloy (PACKFONG); and it is added to some other alloys to increase their whiteness, hardness, and fusibility. In medicine it is only used in combination. In the metallic state it is inert; but, from its great affinity for oxygen, it rapidly becomes oxidised and poisonous; and hence acts as a powerful poison when swallowed, or when rubbed on the skin. Its fumes are also highly poisonous. See Arsenious Acid (and below).

Arsenic, Tribro′mide of. AsBr3. Syn. Terbro′mide of arsenic, Sesquibro′mide of a.; Arsen′ici Bromi′dum, L. Prep. Add metallic arsenic, in powder, cautiously and in a very small quantity at a time, to pure bromine, contained in a vessel set in ice or a freezing mixture, until light ceases to be emitted; then cautiously distil into a well-cooled receiver.

Prop., &c. Solid below 68° Fahr.; above it, a yellowish fuming liquid, which boils at 428° Fahr.

Arsenic, Trichlo′′ride of. AsCl3. Syn. Chlo′′ride of a., Arsen′ici terchlori′dum, &c., L. Prep. 1. From a mixture of white arsenic, 1 part; and bichloride of mercury, 6 parts; both in powder, carefully distilled into a well-cooled receiver.

2. Gently boil powdered white arsenic for some time in hydrochloric acid to which a little nitric acid has been added; then concentrate cautiously by evaporation, and distil as before. It is also produced, with the disengagement of heat and light, when powdered metallic arsenic is thrown into gaseous chlorine.

Prop., &c. A colourless, volatile, highly poisonous liquid, decomposed by water into arsenious acid and hydrochloric acid. It has been employed as a caustic in cancer and venereal warts; but its use requires the greatest caution.

Arsenic, Flu′oride of. AsF3. Syn. Arsenic trifluoride, Terflu′oride of arsenic. A fuming volatile liquid, prepared as the bromide.

Arsenic, Trii′odide of. AsI3. Syn. Teriodide of arsenic, Iodide of arsenic; Arsen′ici iodi′dum, A. teriodi′dum, L.; Arsenic iodure, &c., Fr. Prep. 1. From finely-pulverised metallic arsenic, 2 parts; iodide, 11 parts; mixed and gently heated in a bent glass tube, or a suitable retort, until combination is complete; the heat being then raised, and the sublimed iodide collected, and at once put into a well-stopped phial.

2. Arsenic, in fine powder, 1 part; iodine, 5 parts; triturate them together, place the mixture in a small flask or retort just large enough to contain it, and apply a gentle heat until liquefaction is complete, avoiding the formation of iodine vapour; when the odour of iodine is no longer perceptible, and the mass assumes a reddish-yellow colour and crystallises on the sides of the vessel, the operation is complete, without having recourse to sublimation. A very easy and excellent process.

Prop., &c. A deep orange-red, crystallisable solid; soluble in water, and highly volatile and poisonous. Its aqueous solution yields the iodine unchanged by rapid evaporation, but when slowly concentrated and set aside, white pearly plates are obtained, consisting of arsenious acid and the teriodide. As a medicine it combines the properties of both arsenious acid and iodine, but its use requires great caution. It has been successfully employed by Dr A. T. Thomson, Biett, and others, in obstinate skin diseases (lepra, impetigo, herpes, lupus, psoriasis, &c.), and in real or stimulated cancer.—Dose, ⁄16 to ⁄12 gr. (in pills or solution), gradually increased to ⁄6 or even ⁄3 gr. (A. T. Thomson.) Externally, 2⁄2 gr., to lard 1 oz.; of which 1 dr. may be used at a time. (Biett.)

Arsenic, Disulphide of. As2S2. Syn. Arsenic bisulphide, Bisul′phide of a., Red sul′phide of a., &c., Realgar; Réalgal, Arsenic rouge sulfure, Orpin rouge, &c., Fr.; Rothes schwefelarsenik, &c., Ger. This substance is found native at Solfaterra, near Naples, and in several other volcanic districts; but that of commerce is often prepared by distilling arsenical pyrites, or a mixture of sulphur and white arsenic, &c., in the proper proportions, as noticed under Reälgar and Red Pigments.

Prop., &c. A fusible, volatile substance; scarlet or ruby-red in mass, but orange-red in powder, by which it is distinguished from cinnabar; crystals, oblique rhombic prisms. Sp. gr. 3·3 to 3·6. Its chief use is as a pigment and in pyrotechny to make white fire. The factitious sulphide has not the rich colour of the native mineral, whilst it is much more poisonous. It is improved by re-sublimation.

Arsenic, Trisul′phide of. As2S3. Syn. Tersul′phide of arsenic, Yellow sul′phide of a., Sesquisul′phide of a., Or′piment; A. sesquisulphure′tum, Orpimen′tum, L.; Orpiment, Sulfure jaune d’arsenic, &c., Fr.; Auripigment, Operment, Rauschgelb, Ger. This sulphide, like the last, is found ready formed in nature; and is prepared artificially, by sublimation, from a mixture of arsenious acid and sulphur, as noticed under Orpiment and Yellow Pigments. It also falls as a precipitate when a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen gas is passed through an acid solution of arsenious acid or of an arsenite.

Prop., &c. Golden-yellow crystalline lumps, or a fine golden-yellow powder; crystals, right rhombic prisms; volatile; fusible; very soluble in pure alkalies, by which it is distinguished from sulphide of cadmium; and from trisulphide of antimony by being soluble in hydrochloric acid. The factitious sulphide (KING’S YELLOW) of the shops often contains 80 to 90% of white arsenic; and is, therefore, much more poisonous than the native trisulphide. Sp. gr. (native) 3·44 to 3·60.

Use, &c. As a dye, as a pigment, and as an ingredient in fireworks, and in some depilatories. Silk, woollen, or cotton goods soaked in a solution of pure orpiment in ammonia, and then suspended in a warm apartment or stove-room, rapidly lose their ammonia, and become permanently dyed of a superb yellow colour. The native sulphides (both red and yellow) are much less soluble, and hence less poisonous, than those prepared artificially. They also possess the richest colour; and are, therefore, preferred by artists and dyers. In former times, orpiment, like realgar, was employed in medicine. See Arsenic.

Arsenic, Pentasul′phide of. As2S5. Syn. Sulpharsen′ic acid, &c.; Arsen′ici pentasulphure′tum, &c., L. When a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen is transmitted for some time through a solution of arsenic acid, a precipitate of the PENTASULPHIDE is deposited after some hours’ repose. Its formation is accelerated by boiling the liquid.

Prop., &c. It greatly resembles the tersulphide in its appearance and general properties.

Arsenic, White‡. See Arsenious anhydride.

Arsenic, Yell′ow. Trisulphide of arsenic.

ARSENIC ACID. H3AsO4. Syn. Acidum arsen′icum, L.; Acide arsénique, Fr.; Arsenicsäure, Ger.

Prep. 1. Arsenious acid, in fine powder, 2 parts; concentrated nitric acid, 6 parts; hydrochloric acid, 1 part; mix in a flask or tubulated retort, and digest, with heat, until solution is complete; after repose, decant the clear portion and evaporate, to the consistence of a thick syrup.

2. Dissolve arsenious acid in hot hydrochloric acid, and when the solution is cold add concentrated nitric acid, in small quantities at a time, until red vapours cease to be evolved, then proceed as before.

Prop. Thick syrup, occasionally forming clear transparent crystals, very deliquescent, readily soluble in water, and converted by heat into the anhydrous acid. Extremely poisonous.

Arseniates. Prep. Most of the metallic arseniates may be formed by adding a solution of a soluble salt of the metal to another of an alkaline arseniate, as long as a precipitate falls; which must be collected, washed, and dried. The alkaline arseniates may be prepared by adding the base or its carbonate to a solution of the acid, to alkaline reaction, and then evaporating and crystallising the liquid.

Prop., &c. The arseniates of the alkalies are soluble in water; those of the earths and metals insoluble, except in acids. They are isomorphous with the corresponding phosphates.

Tests. Nitrate of silver added to the solution of an arseniate gives a highly characteristic reddish-brown precipitate, which distinguishes it from arsenious acid. Nitrate of lead gives a white precipitate, and the salts of copper greenish-blue ones. Pure lump-sugar dissolved in an aqueous solution of this acid becomes, in a few hours, of a reddish colour, and afterwards of a magnificent purple. Heated with charcoal it evolves a garlic-like odour, and is reduced to the metallic state. The suspected liquid being treated with sulphurous acid and boiled for a short time, the arsenic acid loses oxygen and is converted into arsenious acid, which may be tested for as such. Sulphuretted hydrogen does not precipitate a solution of arsenic acid, or an acidified arseniate, until after the lapse of several hours; and alkaline and neutral solutions not at all.

ARSENIC ANHYDRIDE. As2O5. Syn. Anhydrous arsenic acid, Arsenic acid; Acidum arsenicum, L.; Acide arsénique, Fr.; Arseniksäure, Ger. Best prepared by igniting the arsenic acid, in a platinum crucible, at a low red heat, as long as water is given off.

Prop. White deliquescent substance, and violent poison, readily soluble in water to the acid.

ARSENIOUS ACID. See Arsenious anhydride.

ARSE′′NIOUS ANHYDRIDE. As2O3. Syn. Ar′senious acid, Ar′senic, White a.; Acide arsénieux, Arsenic blanc, Oxyde, Fr.; Arsenigsäure, Arsenichste s., Ger.; Arsenico bianco, It.; A. blanco, Sp. The arsenic, or white arsenic, of the shops.

Sources. The white arsenic of commerce is principally imported from Germany, where it is obtained in the process of roasting arseniuretted cobalt ores, in making zaffre. At Altenburgh it is procured from arsenical iron pyrites (mispickel); and at Reichenstein from native arsenide of iron. About 900 to 1000 tons are also annually collected at Cornwall, being principally a secondary product of the process of roasting grey copper ore and white mundic. The British arsenic works in that county are perhaps the finest in the world. The usual plan is to roast the powdered ore in muffle-furnaces; by which its arsenic is converted into arsenious anhydride, which escapes as vapour (smelting-house smoke), and passing into the condensing-chambers, is deposited in a pulverulent state, forming the flowers of arsenic, or rough white arsenic, of the smelters, (the giftmehl or poison-flour of the Germans). The crude article obtained in this way is purified by re-sublimation in suitable iron pots or other iron vessels, before it is fit for sale. It then forms a semi-transparent vitreous cake, which gradually becomes opaque, and of snowy whiteness, by exposure to the air, and at length acquires a more or less pulverulent state on the surface.

In Silesia the crude arsenious anhydride obtained from arsenical pyrites is refined by sublimation as follows:—For this purpose the cast-iron vessels (a) are employed. Upon these are placed iron rings or collars (b, c, d) and a hood (e), communicating by means of tubes with a series of chambers, of which the first only is shown in i. The flanges of the cast-iron collars and all other joints having been thoroughly luted, the fire is lighted and the heat so increased as to cause the semi-fusion of the arsenious anhydride, which, after cooling, exhibits a peculiarly porcelain-like appearance, at first being as transparent as glass.

Prop. Crystals (obtained by careful sublimation, or by cooling a boiling aqueous solution), usually transparent, regular octahedrons (fig. 1), but sometimes, though rarely, assume the form of tetrahedrons (see 2). When prepared on the large scale it forms large, glassy, colourless or yellowish-white, transparent or semi-transparent cakes or porcelain-like masses (vitreous arsenious anhydride, glacial a. a.), which soon becomes opaque on their exterior, and often friable and pulverulent; odourless; volatilises at 380° Fahr.; fumes odourless, unless carbonaceous organic matter be present, when they smell strongly like garlic; heated under pressure it liquefies and forms a transparent glass; taste faintly sweetish, with a slight acidity and astringency, not perceived until some minutes after being swallowed. The opaque variety is soluble in 80 parts of water at 59° Fahr., and 7·72 parts of boiling water; but on cooling to 60°, only about one third of this quantity continues in solution. The transparent variety is soluble in 103 parts of water at 59°, and 9·3 parts of boiling water. Both soluble in alcohol, syrups, oils, and spirits, and freely so in alkaline lyes and hydrochloric acid; organic matter generally impedes its solution; solutions redden litmus; heated with organic matter it is reduced to the metallic state. Sp. gr. 3·5 (lowest opaque var.) to 3·8 (highest transp. var.).

Arsenites. True arsenious acid (HAsO2) has never been obtained in a satisfactory condition, but its salts are readily obtained by dissolving arsenious anhydride in a solution of the base, or by double decomposition. They are generally white, nearly all insoluble, except those of the alkalies, and all soluble in acids.

Tests, Detec., &c. Owing to the importance of the subject, and for convenience and facility of reference, the leading tests for the arsenites and arsenious anhydride are noticed alphabetically below; to which a few general remarks on their application, under the various circumstances that occur to the chemist and toxicologist, are appended. When not otherwise stated, it is to be understood that they are to be applied to pure, or nearly pure and colourless solutions of arsenious acid or the arsenites. Ammonio-nitrate of silver gives a well-marked yellow precipitate of arsenite of silver in an aqueous or arsenious anhydride solution which is soluble in ammonia and in dilute nitric acid.

Crystallisation Test.—A very minute quantity of arsenious acid placed in a small tube (arsenic-tube), and heated in the flame of a spirit lamp, gives a crystalline sublimate, which collects on the cooler portion of the tube, and which, when examined by a pocket lens, is found to consist of sparkling octahedral crystals (see engr.)

Ellis’s Test.—This is a modification of the ‘nascent hydrogen test,’ in which the suspected gas is passed through a tube containing slips of copper leaf or riband, or still better pure oxide of copper, gently heated; the end of the tube communicating with the atmosphere being drawn to a capillary size, at which the gas may be inflamed and tested, as in ‘Marsh’s Apparatus.’ (See engr.) If arsenic be abundant in the gas, the copper will be almost instantly covered over with a coating of metallic arsenic; and after continuing the heat for a few minutes it will present a beautiful silvery surface, and may then be submitted to further examination.

a, Flask containing the suspected fluid, dilute sulphuric acid, and zinc.

b, Funnel.

c, Tube containing the copper-leaf or c.-riband, and heated by the lamp d.

e, Support.

f, Capillary end of tube c, with the gas inflamed.

Lassaigne’s Test. (Adopted by the French Academy.) This consists in passing the gas generated in the suspected liquid, through a solution of nitrate of silver. (See engr.) When arsenic is present black flocculi of metallic silver are deposited, and arsenious acid remains in solution mixed with nitric acid and some arsenide of silver. The filtered liquor, treated with ammonia, will now give a characteristic yellow precipitate of arsenite of silver; or a little dilute hydrochloric acid may be cautiously added to precipitate any remaining nitrate of silver, and the liquid, after filtration, tested for arsenic either in a Marsh’s apparatus, or with any of the liquid tests; or it may be evaporated to dryness, when its arsenious acid will be converted into arsenic acid by the nitric acid present, and will then be found to give the usual brick-red precipitate of arseniate of silver with a solution of the nitrate of that metal. See Marsh’s Test.

Marsh’s Test. Some of the suspected liquid is mixed with dilute sulphuric acid until strongly acid, and is then poured upon some pure granulated zinc, or clippings or other small pieces of zinc, previously placed in the apparatus; hydrogen gas is immediately evolved, and, if arsenic be present, unites with it, forming arseniuretted hydrogen gas, which escapes by the aperture b (see engr.), and may be recognised as follows:—

It possesses a garlic-like odour.

It burns with a bluish-white flame and emits a whitish smoke.

a, a, Bent glass tube, containing dilute sulphuric acid, zinc, and suspected liquid.

b, Stop-cock and jet.

c, Plate of glass to receive the stain.

d, Support.

e, e, Bands to keep the tube upright.

If a piece of window-glass, or a white porcelain plate or saucer, be held a short distance above the flame, a fine pulverulent film of arsenious acid is deposited on it. See (fig.) above.

If the cold plate be held in the flame, so as to slightly impede the combustion of the gas, a blackish-brown deposit of metallic arsenic is obtained, more or less deep, brilliant, and glistening. Both these deposits may be obtained simultaneously by holding nearly vertically over the flame a glass tube about 8 or 10 inches long and ⁄8ths of an inch in diameter. See (fig.) above.

A solution of arsenious acid may be obtained by letting the flame play upon 3 or 4 drops of water placed on the under side of the piece of glass or china, to which the liquid tests may be then applied. Another plan is to apply drops of the liquid tests to the plate as above, and to let the flame play on them successively.

The true arsenical spot or film is of a blackish-brown colour, and generally of a very deep hair-brown, usually surrounded at the circumference, with a white film of arsenious acid; whilst that of antimony, which in some points is similar, is of a deep black colour, and but feebly lustrous, and, when viewed by transmitted light, appears smoky black; whereas an arsenical spot viewed in the same way appears brown. It is further distinguished from others by—Treated with concentrated nitric acid, it instantly disappears, leaving upon the surface of the liquid traces of the metal, which only dissolve on the application of heat. This solution, gently and carefully heated, leaves a white residuum, which, when cold, gives with a concentrated solution of nitrate of silver a dull-red precipitate of arseniate of silver.—The nitric solution treated with a few drops of sulphurous acid, and subsequently with sulphuretted hydrogen, gives a canary-yellow precipitate of trisulphide of arsenic, which readily redissolves, forming a colourless solution with ammonia.—The arsenical spot, when heated, is turned bright yellow by sulphuretted hydrogen, and is then readily dissolved, as before, by ammonia, and by its bicarbonate; whereas one of antimony is turned of a deep orange-red, or reddish-brown, by sulphuretted hydrogen, is not readily dissolved by ammonia, and is scarcely or not at all affected by bicarbonate of ammonia.—It is freely soluble in and removed by hypochlorite of soda; a reagent which does not affect antimonial spots. Heated by a flame of pure hydrogen an arsenical stain rapidly disappears. A mixed stain of antimony and arsenic does not disappear by the action of the last two reagents, and is shown to contain arsenic by the two first tests above. When hydrochloric acid is present zinc stains are sometimes formed, but they do not resemble those from arsenic. The flame which produces it is very pale blue or bluish-white; whereas antimoniuretted hydrogen burns with a pale green or greenish-yellow flame, and a white smoke, both of which are characteristic.

Obs. Marsh’s test is admirable for its simplicity, delicacy, and trustworthiness, as well as for the ease of its application. It is adapted to all liquids, whether colourless or coloured, which are not so glutinous as to inconveniently froth during the extrication of the hydrogen. Various modifications of the original apparatus have been proposed to obviate this difficulty; among which the one chiefly deserving notice is figured in the margin. It consists of a bent tube having two large bulbs blown in it, and fitted with a stop-cock and jet in the usual manner. In this case the grains or fragments of zinc are put into the lower bulb (a). It is, however, worthy of remark, that, with ordinary care and skill, a simple wide-mouthed bottle, furnished with a tube and cock, will often be found to answer quite as well as more costly apparatus; as the fluid is less liable to froth than in a narrow tube. Even a common quinine-phial, or a 4-oz. or 6-oz. medicine phial, fitted with a piece of glass tube of very small bore, or even with a piece of a common tobacco-pipe, for a burner (see engr.), may be used when no more convenient instrument is at hand.

A film of oil placed on the surface of the liquid tends considerably to lessen the frothing.

Objec., precau., &c. Objections have been raised to this mode of testing, from the great frothing which often occurs with organic mixtures, and from antimony and imperfectly charred organic matter also forming crusts somewhat resembling, to the inexperienced eye, those produced by arsenic. But these objections are invalid, because there are easy means of purifying the liquid before testing it, and of discriminating between true arsenical spots or deposits and false ones. Another objection is, that both zinc and sulphuric acid sometimes contain arsenic; but to obviate this difficulty, we have only to use them when perfectly pure; and to test them by means of the apparatus before pouring the suspected liquid into it. Indeed, these objections apply with equal force to all those tests which depend on the production of nascent hydrogen. The precaution necessary to success, and to reliable results, is to set the apparatus with simple zinc, acid, and water, and after it has worked a short time to test the evolved gas for arsenic (as above); when, if no trace of that substance is detected, the suspected fluid, in which the organic matter (if necessary) has been destroyed by any one of the methods hereinafter pointed out, may be added, and the operation continued. Care should also be taken not to light the jet of gas before all the atmospheric air is expelled from the apparatus, as without this precaution an explosion may take place.

Modification of Marsh’s Test.—Davy. This process consists in the use of sodium amalgam instead of zinc and sulphuric acid, both of which are liable to be contaminated with arsenic. Sodium, on the other hand, has never been found to contain arsenic, and mercury only very rarely; but should it exist in that metal, it can be easily removed by digesting the mercury in dilute nitric acid, and afterwards well washing it with water.

One part by weight of sodium to 8 or 10 parts of mercury forms a very good amalgam. The mercury is placed in a test-tube, and the sodium gradually added in small portions; the metals readily combine, forming an alloy, liquid whilst hot, but hard and brittle when cold.

The author uses this amalgam by placing the suspected solution, or solid substance, along with a little water in a test-tube, then adding a small piece of amalgam about the size of a grain of wheat, and quickly covering it with a piece of white filtering paper or the lid of a porcelain crucible moistened with a dilute solution of silver nitrate slightly acidified with nitric acid. If arsenic is present, a dull black or deep brown stain on the paper or porcelain will be developed on the moistened part, owing to the silver being reduced to the metallic state by the arseniuretted hydrogen. The solution may be made by dissolving 20 gr. of nitrate of silver in an ounce of distilled water acidulated with 2 drops of strong nitric acid.

It is advisable to place between the moistened paper or lid and the tube a small disc of bibulous paper, to prevent any particles of the liquid producing minute black spots, and thus interfering with the results. ⁄1000th part of a grain of arsenious acid in 1 c. c. of distilled water gives a very decided effect in a few moments, but much smaller quantities may be detected, e.g., the ⁄100000th or even ⁄1000000th part of a grain in 1 c. c.

This method is applicable not only to arsenic as arsenious acid, but also to other compounds of arsenic, soluble or insoluble in water, e.g., orpiment and realgar, the alkaline arsenates, and even the metal itself if in powder. Organic matter interferes but very little with this method. Antimony, as in Marsh’s process, will produce, with the sodium amalgam, results similar to those of arsenic; this, when brought into contact with the nitrate of silver, forms a black antimonide of that metal.

Fleitmann, however, pointed out that antimoniuretted hydrogen is not evolved from strongly alkaline solution, and, as in this case, the action of the sodium amalgam is to render the mixture quickly alkaline, only a very small quantity of antimony present will be evolved, and by previously rendering the mixture strongly alkaline the evolution of that gas may be almost entirely prevented.

It may be occasionally necessary to determine whether the stains on the paper moistened by the silver solution are due to arsenic or antimony. It is then best to digest the paper-stain in sulphide of ammonium, the metal present being converted into a sulphide, and dissolving in the excess of the alkaline salt, leaving the silver sulphide undissolved; the alkaline solution when evaporated will, in the case of arsenic, leave a bright yellow residue, almost insoluble in hydrochloric acid; whereas in the case of antimony an orange-coloured residue will remain soluble in that acid. Dr Russell observes that hydrogen alone is capable of reducing silver solution to the metallic state, but acknowledges that this action is exceedingly slow. Pellet, on the other hand, maintains that pure hydrogen when passed through solutions of soda and nitrate of silver has no action at the ordinary temperature; but he states that the silver salt which has been fused possesses an alkaline reaction in solution, and hydrogen thus produces a slight precipitate, which can be prevented by adding a drop or two of nitric acid.

Davy, however, found in his experiments only the faintest possible effect of the reducing action of pure hydrogen in solutions of caustic soda and nitrate of silver.

Finally, the author mentions that where paper is used with the silver solution we must not forget that the silver alone will after some time blacken the paper, especially if exposed to light; but this gradual change is very unlike the quick effect produced by arseniuretted or antimoniuretted hydrogen. (‘Chem. News,’ xxxiii, 58-63.)

Nascent Hydrogen Test. The apparatus used may be similar to that figured in the engr. The plan followed in the laboratory of Giessen is to heat the long tube through which the gas passes to redness in several parts, to produce distinct metallic mirrors; and then to remove the tube from the hydrogen apparatus and transmit a very feeble stream of dry sulphuretted hydrogen through it, the metallic mirrors being at the same time heated by means of a common spirit lamp from the outer towards the inner border or extremity. If arsenic alone is present, yellow trisulphide of arsenic is formed within the tube; if antimony alone is present, an orange-red or black trisulphide of antimony is produced; and if the mirror consists of both metals, the two sulphides appear side by side, the sulphide of arsenic, as the more volatile, lying invariably before the sulphide of antimony. If dry hydrochloric acid gas be now transmitted through the tube, without application of heat, no alteration will take place if sulphide of arsenic alone is present, even though the gas be transmitted through the tube for a considerable time. If sulphide of antimony alone is present, this will entirely disappear; and if both sulphides are present, the sulphide of antimony will immediately volatilise, whilst the yellow sulphide of arsenic will remain. If a small quantity of ammonia be now introduced into the tube, the sulphide of arsenic is dissolved, and may thus be readily distinguished from sulphur, which perhaps may have separated.

Reduction Test. A small quantity of the suspected sample, in the state of powder, is mixed with twice its weight, or more, of some reducing agent or flux, and the mixture is placed at the bottom of a very small glass tube, and heated in the flame of a spirit lamp for some time, when the arsenic gradually sublimes, and condenses in the cooler portion of the tube, under the form of a metallic crust, mirror, or ring. A common test-tube, if of very small diameter, may be employed; but those known as the reduction tubes of Liebig, Rose, or Berzelius are undoubtedly the most convenient and efficient. (See engr.)

Liebig’s method is by using a mixture of equal parts of dry carbonate of sodium and cyanide of potassium. The suspected substance, perfectly dry and in powder, being first introduced into a Berzelius’ tube, is then covered with 6 times the quantity of this mixture, and so that the whole will not more than half fill the bulb. A very gentle heat is next applied, to expel any adhering moisture from the powder and the tube, after which a strong heat is applied to the bulb, and continued for some time, to effect the entire reduction and sublimation of the arsenical compound.

a, The arsenical mixture.

b, Arsenical ring.

The best fluxes to use are ferrocyanide of potassium dried at 212° F., calcined bitartrate of potassium, cyanide of potassium, and powdered charcoal.

The metallic ring is proved to be arsenical by the properties and tests previously noticed. Should it be imperfectly formed, or masked by decomposed organic matter, the portion of the tube which contains it may be cut off with a file, next coarsely powdered, then reintroduced into another arsenic tube, and the exposure to heat repeated.

The characteristics most simple and well-marked are—

The volatility of the deposit when heated, shown by its escaping from the hotter portion of the tube and condensing on the cooler part higher up or further on.

Its conversion into minute octahedral crystals of arsenious anhydride, when repeatedly chased up and down the tube by the cautious application of the flame of a spirit lamp first to one part, and then to another. The character of these crystals with respect to volatility, lustre, transparency, and form, is so exceedingly well marked that a practised eye may safely identify them, though their weight should not exceed the ⁄100th or even the ⁄250th part of a grain. A pocket lens is here serviceable. The form of the crystals is very evident with a microscope of 4 powers. Oxide of antimony never forms octahedrons, but only prisms.

In employing this test, particular care must be taken to avoid soiling the sides of the tube in inserting the mixture, and that the substances operated on are perfectly dry; as unless this is attended to, the experiment does not succeed. The common plan is to introduce the mixture through a small paper funnel or tube extemporised for the purpose. The heat at first should be gentle, and merely sufficient to expel any adhering moisture from the mixture and the inner surface of the tube; after which (except where otherwise ordered) the upper portion of the mixture should be strongly heated, and then the bulb or bottom of the tube exposed to the full flame. After the operation is complete the bulb or lower portion of the tube is usually removed by a file, and the portion containing the deposit hermetically sealed, when it may be preserved, unaltered, for any length of time, ready to be produced as evidence if required.

This test is usually regarded as decisive; as we here actually obtain the arsenic in a solid form, recognisable by the most unequivocal characters.

Reinsch’s Test; Cupro-arsenical Test. The suspected solution is strongly acidulated with hydrochloric acid (1 to 6 or 8), and after being raised to ebullition in a porcelain or glass vessel, a piece of bright and clean metallic copper about ⁄2 inch long and ⁄4 inch wide in the form of gauze or foil, but preferably the first, is added, and the whole boiled together. The time required for the ebullition varies according to the strength of the solution; when weak it should be continued for at least a quarter of an hour. When the quantity of arsenic in the suspected liquid is very small, at least half an hour should elapse before the removal of the copper. In solutions containing a notable quantity of arsenic, a few seconds is often sufficient to obtain a coating; but which, for safety sake, may be extended to two or three minutes, or even longer. Liquids rich in organic matter also require longer boiling than those nearly free from it. The coated copper, which has now acquired a characteristic iron-grey colour, is then taken from the liquid, carefully washed in distilled water, in alcohol, and (if greasy) in ether, next dried on blotting-paper, and then either cut into small pieces, or rolled into a small coil or cylinder. It is then heated in a reduction-tube over a spirit lamp, when the metallic arsenic forming the coating is volatilised, and yields a sublimate of minute octahedral crystals of arsenious anhydride; or, if the tube be very small, or any reducing agent be added, a bright metallic ring. When the coating on the copper is sufficiently thick, it may be scraped off with a knife, and heated separately in an arsenic-tube.

This test is invaluable as affording a certain and ready means of abstracting arsenic from its solution, whether pure or mixed with organic matter. The contents of the stomach or other viscera may thus be at once examined, without any tedious preliminary operations. In this way Dr Christison discovered the presence of arsenic upwards of four months after interment; and we have ourselves found it two years and eight months after interment. The coated copper may be preserved unharmed for years. Dr Taylor found that the 1-8th of an inch in one of these deposits that had been kept in paper nearly fourteen years gave a well-marked ring of octahedral crystals when heated.

Sulphuretted Hydrogen Test; Sulphur Test. This produces a bright yellow precipitate of trisulphide of arsenic (orpiment) in solutions containing a free acid; but acts slowly and imperfectly on pure and neutral solutions, and does not disturb those that possess an alkaline reaction. The suspected liquid should therefore be slightly acidulated with hydrochloric or acetic acid before applying this test, unless it be already acid, when it is better first to neutralise it with an alkali, and then to add the acid. The transmission of the gas through the liquid (see engr.) should be continued for at least half an hour; when the end of the conducting tube, after being well rinsed in the liquid, is removed, and the glass, lightly covered with a piece of porous paper, set aside in a temperature of about 100° Fahr., until the odour of sulphuretted hydrogen is completely lost. The precipitate is now collected on a small filter, washed with pure water, and dried by a gentle heat. It is then placed in a watch-glass or small capsule, and redissolved in a little liquor of ammonia, which is then again expelled by heat; or it may be at once submitted to confirmatory tests. It is shown to contain arsenic by its ready and perfect solubility in ammonia, and in solutions of the fixed alkalies, their carbonates and bicarbonates, and in alkaline sulphides; by being nearly insoluble in hydrochloric acid, even when concentrated and boiling; and by yielding a metallic mirror when mixed with a flux and submitted to the reduction-test (which see).

Sulphuretted-hydrogen water and sulphydrate of ammonium act in a similar way to gaseous sulphuretted hydrogen; but much less effectively.

For accuracy, the sulphuretted hydrogen should be washed by passing it through a small bottle containing a little pure water, or dilute sulphuric acid, before allowing it to enter the arsenical liquor. The reduction of the newly precipitated sulphide is generally regarded as the most important part of the investigation, and requires great care and attention. An extremely elegant and sensitive method of effecting this is by heating the mixture in a stream of dry carbonic acid gas. This method has been followed by Drs Babo and Fresenius with the most satisfactory results, and is thus performed:—(A) is a capacious flask for the evolution of carbonic acid, half filled with rather large pieces of solid limestone or marble (not chalk). To one aperture of the doubly perforated cork, a funnel-tube (a) is adapted, which nearly reaches to the bottom of the vessel; to the other aperture a tube (b), by means of which the gas evolved is conducted into a flask of smaller size (B), in which it is washed and dried by concentrated sulphuric acid. The tube (c) conducts the carbonic acid into the reduction-tube (C), which is shortened in the engr., and must be made of difficultly fusible glass. When the apparatus is prepared, the sulphide of arsenic intended for reduction is rubbed in a small basin, previously heated in a water-bath, with about twelve parts of a well-dried mixture consisting of 3 parts of dry carbonate of sodium and 1 part of cyanide of potassium (prepared by Liebig’s method). The mixed powder is then placed on a small strip of card-paper beat into the shape of a gutter, which is next pushed into the reduction-tube up to the point (f), and the tube is turned half round. In this manner the mixture is deposited without soiling any other part of the tube; after which the strip of card-paper is cautiously withdrawn. The reduction-tube is then, by means of the cork (e), fixed in its place; a moderate stream of carbonic acid gas is evolved by pouring hydrochloric acid into the funnel-tube (a), and the mixture carefully dried, by very moderately heating the tube along its whole length, by means of a small spirit lamp. When the gas-stream has become so low that the bubbles pass through the sulphuric acid at intervals of about a second, the spot (k) is heated to redness by means of a spirit lamp. When this point is attained another strong spirit-flame is applied to the mixture, progressing from (d) to (f), until all the arsenic is reduced and volatilised (the first flame at the same time continuing in action at (k)).

The reduced arsenic recondenses at the spot (g), forming a mirror, whilst an exceedingly small portion escapes at the capillary orifice (h), and fills the air with its garlic-like odour. The second spirit lamp is at last slowly advanced towards the other lamp, or the spot (k), so as to drive towards (g) all the arsenic which has adhered to the walls of the wider part of the tube. Both lamps are then removed, the tube closed at the point (h) by fusion, and heat applied, progressing from the point (h) towards (g), to contract the mirror on that side also, which increases its beauty and distinctness. The tube is then cut off at (f), and hermetically closed and sealed. In this state it becomes a permanent evidence which may be referred to in any future proceedings. Neither sulphide of antimony nor any other compound of antimony yields a metallic mirror or ring when treated in this way. Less than ⁄300 gr. of trisulphide of arsenic thus gives a very distinct and beautiful mirror; and even ⁄500 gr. a clearly perceptible one.

Voltaic Test. The wires from the opposite poles of a voltaic battery are immersed or brought in contact with a little of the arsenious solution placed in a capsule or on a piece of window glass. If arsenic be present it is developed at the negative pole; and if this be formed of copper wire, it becomes whitened and assumes the appearance of polished steel or silver, in consequence of the formation of arsenide of copper.

Detection of Arsenic in Organic Mixtures. Of the tests those which act by producing coloured precipitates are only applicable, with any degree of certainty, to perfectly limpid and colourless liquors. Those depending on the extrication of arseniuretted hydrogen are partially free from this inconvenience; but even here, if the suspected liquid be more than slightly charged with organic matter, so much frothing ensues, as to render the process nearly unmanageable. In this respect Reinsch’s Test possesses advantages over all others, as it may be applied even to coloured liquids containing a considerable quantity of organic matter, without these being subjected to any preliminary process, and without danger of failure. In some cases also, as with liquids possessing only a slight degree of consistency or colour, the arsenic may be separated, after simple filtration and acidulation with hydrochloric acid, by a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen, in the usual manner. The reduction-test is only applicable to solid arsenious acid, or to compounds of arsenic obtained by means of other tests or processes. In toxicological examinations the poison is almost always to be sought for in mixtures loaded with organic matter, and under other conditions even more embarrassing. Soon after arsenic is swallowed it enters the circulation, contaminates the various tissues, localises itself in certain viscera, and is eliminated in the excretions. Hence it becomes necessary not only to examine the solids and liquids in which it is suspected the poison has been administered, the vomited matter, and the contents of the stomach and primæ viæ, but also, in fatal cases, the stomach itself, the liver, blood, muscles, and more especially the urine. In such cases the stomach is the part first laid open, and a careful examination is made of its contents and coats in order to detect any undissolved particles of the poison, a pocket lens being employed, if necessary, in the search. If any particles, however minute, are found they are carefully collected and submitted to the reduction-test. If the reverse be the case, the stomach (cut into small pieces), together with its contents, is submitted to some further process, to obtain a solution suitable for the application of the usual tests. The liver, also some muscle, and any other portion of the body that may be selected, are likewise separately treated in the same manner. We have here both solid and liquid organic matter to operate on, and the problem for solution is the abstraction of their arsenic in the simplest and most certain manner, and in a form in which its presence may be demonstrated by tests. This subject has long engaged the attention of the most eminent chemists and toxicologists, and various plans have been proposed for the purpose, among which the following appear to be the most valuable and that usually adopted:—

(Reinsch.) Solids (as the stomach, liver, &c.) are cut into small fragments and boiled in a glass vessel with water acidulated with about 1-4th of its volume of hydrochloric acid, until the tissues or fragments are entirely broken down into flakes or grains, when the whole, after filtration, is again heated to the boiling-point, and tested as described under Reinsch’s test (see ANTIMONY). Liquids do not require this preparation.

Reinsch’s test is inapplicable when, as sometimes happens, the arsenic sought after may be in the state of one of the sulphides—either as orpiment or realgar—a not improbable contingency, when it is remembered that, although arsenious anhydride or white arsenic is the form most generally used for criminal or suicidal purposes, the yellow and the red varieties being largely employed in workshops where fireworks are manufactured, have not unfrequently been had recourse to. Again, when the examination of a corpse long buried and disinterred takes place, it must be borne in mind that the arsenious anhydride taken by the deceased has, by the decomposition of the body, become converted into sulphide. In these cases the hydrochloric acid necessary for the performance of Reinsch’s test fails to effect the solution of the sulphide.

Mr Blyth says: “It is found that the post-mortem change into orpiment is never quite complete, so that for the detection of arsenic in solid organic substances, such as the tissues of the body, the best general method is most decidedly to convert the arsenic, if present, into the volatile chloride; and according to Dr Taylor, there is always sufficient arsenic (if present at all) unchanged into sulphide to ensure success. The only necessary caution is that the substance be thoroughly dried, and that the reagents be pure. After drying it is placed in a retort with fuming hydrochloric acid, and slowly distilled by the heat of a sand-bath. The distillate contains chloride of arsenic (if arsenic was present), and may be submitted to further tests.”

Estim. This may be effected in various ways:—

1. Gravimetrically:—Arsenic is usually WEIGHED under the form of arsenate of lead, arsenate of sesquioxide of iron, tersulphide of arsenic, (metallic) arsenic, or (directly) as arsenious anhydride. The last three only, as the more simple and convenient, will be noticed here:—

As trisulphide:—The whole of the arsenic being precipitated by a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen, with the necessary precautions, in the manner already noticed, the precipitate, after being carefully collected, washed, and dried, is purified by redissolving it in pure ammonia water, and evaporating the resulting solution in a weighed watch glass or capsule by the heat of a water-bath. It is then dried at a temperature not above 212° Fahr., and finally weighed. Each grain of the tersulphide so found corresponds to ·80487 gr. of arsenious acid, or ·61 gr. of metallic arsenic.

As (metallic) Arsenic:—Obtained by one of the processes already given. Each gr. represents 1·32 gr. arsenious acid.

As Arsenious anhydride:—Obtained in a weighed capsule or tube, either by the crystallisation or sublimation test. The weight is the answer sought for arsenious anhydride. Each gr. of this is equiv. to ·75758 gr. of metallic arsenic.

Volumetrically. (Method of F. Mohr.) This depends on the fact that an aqueous solution of arsenious acid, or of an alkaline arsenite, when mixed with an excess of saturated solution of pure bicarbonate of soda and a little starch-paste, has its arsenious acid converted into arsenic acid by a solution of iodine. A standard solution of iodine is, therefore, an appropriate arsenim′eter for the above mixture. The solution of iodine is added until the blue starch-reaction just begins to appear, the arsenious solution having been previously exactly neutralised with pure carbonate of soda if acid, or with pure hydrochloric acid if alkaline. The results are accurate when no substance capable of oxidising or decomposing iodine is present in the liquid tested.

Phys. eff., &c. Arsenious anhydride or white arsenic is alike destructive to vegetable and animal life. Seeds soaked in any but a very weak solution of it lose their power of germination, and buds plunged in it become incapable of expanding into flowers. When applied to the leaves, roots, or stems, absorption takes place, and the plant soon perishes. On combustion it evolves the characteristic garlic-like odour of arsenic, and arsenic may be discovered in its substance by chemical tests. According to Jäger, Gilgenkrantz, and Pereira, a few of the lower order of the algæ are occasionally developed in solutions of arsenious acid. To all animals, from the infusoria up to man, arsenic proves deleterious, although in different degrees, the highest susceptibility of its effects existing in man on account of the superiority of his development. In all of them death is preceded by inordinate actions and increased evacuations, especially from the mucous surfaces. Difficult respiration, thirst, vomiting, and convulsions are the leading symptoms which gradually develope themselves as we approach the higher grades of the system. (Jäger.) In very small or therapeutical doses, properly administered, it is a valuable medicine, and acts as a tonic, alterative, and antispasmodic attenuant, and externally as an escharotic. In slightly increased medicinal doses, or long-continued small doses, nausea, vomiting, purging, griping, debility, emaciation, and all the effects of slow-poisoning, occur in succession—a gradual sinking of the powers of life, without any violent symptom; a nameless feeling of illness, failure of the strength, an aversion to food and drink, and to all the enjoyments of life. Redness of the conjunctiva and eyelids, headache and giddiness, spasms, eczematous eruptions, numbness and paralysis of the limbs, and ptyalism, are also frequent and well-marked symptoms of slow poisoning by arsenic. In an excessive or poisonous dose the symptoms are rapid and violent, usually indicating extreme gastro-intestinal inflammation and disorder of the cerebro-spinal system, and often occasioning death in from one to three days. The smallest fatal dose found recorded by Christison is 4⁄2 gr., taken in solution. The subject was a child 4 years old, and death occurred in six hours. 2⁄2 gr. destroyed a robust girl in 36 hours. (Letheby.) 2 gr., in solution, are suspected to have caused the death of a full-grown woman. 2 or 3 gr. may be a fatal dose. (Dr A. Taylor.) Notwithstanding these facts much larger quantities have been taken, under peculiar circumstances, with comparative impunity; and cases are not wanting in which even enormous quantities have produced very trifling effects.

The dose for animals is—Cattle, 5 to 10 grains. Horse, 5 to 10 grains. Sheep, 1 to 2 grains. Pig, ⁄2 to 2 grains. Dog, ⁄15th to ⁄10th of a grain.

Under all circumstances arsenious anhydride is, undoubtedly, one of the most powerful of the mineral poisons; and in whatever form or way it is introduced into the system it exerts the same deleterious influence. In all cases, in sufficient doses, its action is to increase the secretions, diminish the contractility of the voluntary muscles, and to produce convulsions, prostration and death.

Arsenic is a non-accumulative, irritant poison, and exerts no decided chemical or corrosive action on the tissues. (Taylor.)

Pois., &c.—Symp. These sometimes begin to appear within half an hour after the poison has been taken, or even sooner; but much more generally, not until after the lapse of some hours. They usually commence with nausea and distress at the stomach, followed by thirst, often intense, and a sense of burning heat in the bowels; then come on constriction of the œsophagus, violent vomiting, severe colic pains, tenesmus, and excessive and painful purging, the stools being occasionally bloody; but pain, vomiting, &c., do not invariably occur. The pulse is generally quick, small, feeble, and irregular—sometimes scarcely perceptible, and the heart’s action is irregular and tumultuous. The tongue is dry and furred; the respiration difficult and panting; the urino-genital apparatus is often affected; there is pain and difficult micturition, and sometimes entire suppression of urine; faintings, coldness of the limbs, and cold sweats, with other signs of debility, intervene. Itching, and eczematous eruptions of the skin, trembling, painful cramps, and contractions of the extremities, and violent convulsions often follow; and after these, a greater or less prostration of strength, which induces a deceitful calm. At length the heart’s action abates, the skin becomes suffused with a cold clammy sweat, and the sufferer dies from exhaustion. The progress, succession, and precise character of the symptoms are modified by the idiosyncrasy of the individual, the quantity of the poison, and the manner in which it has been taken; and are seldom all present in the same person.

Treatm. If vomiting has commenced it should be promoted by tickling the throat, and administering a large quantity of gelatinous hydrated peroxide of iron, or other appropriate antidote, in divided doses, mixed with a large quantity of warm or tepid water, strongly sweetened with sugar. If vomiting has not commenced, which is rare, it must be excited by administering 15 to 20 gr. of sulphate of zinc, or ipecacuanha (or in the absence of these, a teaspoonful of flour of mustard) in a tumbler of tepid water, and tickling the throat as before. If these means fail in rapidly inducing copious vomiting, the dose must be repeated, or the stomach-pump had recourse to. Altogether as much as 16 to 18 oz. of the hydrated peroxide of iron may be administered. If the poison has been swallowed several hours previously, and hence may have passed the pylorus, a strong dose of castor oil or a purgative clyster may be administered, and, after its action, another clyster containing the antidote. As soon as the stomach and bowels are cleared, diuretics and sudorifics should be given in abundance. Lastly, any remaining irritation must be relieved by demulcent and soothing remedies; or if urgent, by slight general or local bleeding, which cannot be earlier practised without danger; and opium, camphor, and ether, followed by tonics, may be had recourse to, to recruit the system.

Lesions. Redness and inflammation of the whole primæ viæ; and sometimes of the mouth, fauces, and œsophagus, but more usually the contrary. Sometimes also, though seldom, there is no marked appearance of inflammation in the stomach and intestines. The stomach is usually highly injected, and frequently marked with extravasations; lungs gorged with blood; mucous lining of trachea reddened; heart generally flabby, and exhibiting deep red or blackish stains, and the right cavities more or less loaded with blood; the conjunctiva is sometimes very vascular; and redness, extravasation of blood, and effusion of serum is occasionally seen in the brain. The blood is frequently, though not invariably, fluid after death, and dark coloured. Under certain circumstances, the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines is lined with a multitude of brilliant points or grains, which have been mistaken for arsenious anhydride; but which, according to Orfila, are composed of fat and albumen. Placed on burning coals, they decrepitate on drying, and produce a species of explosion or detonation. These grains are also met with in the stomach of persons who have not been poisoned. Digested in water, the liquid obtained from them does not show the presence of arsenic when submitted to reagents.

Ant. In the order of their assumed efficiency:—Moist peroxide of Iron.—See under the preparations of Iron (Arsenici Antidotum, G.). Hydrated or gelatinous sesquioxide or peroxide of iron (for an adult—a tablespoonful, in water, every 8 or 10 minutes until 12 or 16 oz., or more, have been taken). Hydrated sulphide of iron (as the last). Gelatinous hydrate of magnesia (as the last). Calcined magnesia (taken as the first). Salad or olive oil, or almond oil, and oil or fats generally (ad libitum), are all highly effective in lessening, if not destroying the action of arsenious anhydride. Albumen (white of egg), or liquids containing it (in cold water, ad libitum). Milk, wheat-flour, oatmeal gruel (with water, ad libitum). Lime water, with milk (as the last). Chalk, with milk and water (as the last). Infusion or decoction of bark, or better, of nut-galls (as the last). Sugar or syrup (ad libitum). See Treatm. (above); also the above substances under their respective heads.

Uses, &c. Arsenious anhydride and its compounds are extensively employed in the arts and medicine. It is used by the dyer, it furnishes the artist with several of his most beautiful pigments, and the glass-maker and enameller with a flux or material to whiten and decolour their wares. In agriculture, it is used (in solution) as an anti-smut for seed-wheat; and as an anti-vermin lotion or dipping for sheep and cattle. In small (therapeutical) doses it is a valuable remedy in intermittent fevers, chronic skin diseases (especially lepra and psoriasis), and in several nervous affections (as neuralgia, epilepsy, chorea, tetanus, &c.). It is the active ingredient of the tasteless ague-drop; of Fowler’s and Pearson’s solutions; and in the Tanjore pills, long celebrated in India for the cure of the bite of the cobra di capello and other venomous serpents, as well as of hydrophobia. It has been given in syphilis, chronic rheumatism, typhus, and several other diseases, with more or less advantage. Cautiously administered in phthisis, it frequently restores the appetite and strength and greatly retards, and in some cases arrests, the progress of the disease. It has been recently used to relieve toothache arising from caries. Externally, it is employed in the form of powder, lotion, and ointment, for the cure of cancer. Plunkett’s ointment, Pâte arsénicale, Davidson’s Remedy for Cancer, and several other like preparations, owe their activity to arsenious anhydride. Water in which white arsenic has been steeped has become a favorite cosmetic wash with many ladies, since its assumed property of softening the skin was announced in a certain popular periodical. It is also the prime ingredient in the papier moure, a popular fly paper. Its use, whether internal or external, is, however, attended with considerable danger in unskilful hands, and should, therefore, never be adopted but under proper advice.—Dose, ⁄20 to ⁄8 gr., made into pills with crum of bread and lump sugar; or in solution, 3 to 5 or 6 drops, twice or thrice daily, gradually and cautiously increased to 12, or even 15 drops. As a rule, arsenical preparations should be taken soon after a meal, and by no means on an empty stomach. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) The dose should be suspended, or greatly reduced, as soon as the conjunctiva is affected (Hunt); or if dryness of the mouth or throat, or irritation of the stomach or bowels, ensues. Mr Maculloch found the pills more efficacious than the solution; they act differently, and cannot be substituted for one another.

Arsenic is a favorite tonic and alterative with farriers, who often administer it very carelessly to horses, to the serious injury of these animals. It is also a favorite with grooms, who have imbibed the notion that small doses of it contribute to improve the condition of the skin. The best-informed veterinarians, however, either wholly avoid it, or use it with very great caution.—Dose (for a HORSE), 2 to 5 or 6 gr., twice or thrice daily; in farcy or glanders, 10 to 12 gr. In solution it is often employed as a wash or dipping to destroy vermin in cattle and sheep; but its use is not free from danger, particularly to the shepherds or dippers.

Gen. commentary. The necessary length of the preceding article, owing to the great importance of the subject in its relations to toxicology and medical jurisprudence, has left us little space for further remark here. In addition to what has been said on arsenical testing, it may be useful to caution the reader of the absolute necessity of only employing tests and reagents which are themselves absolutely pure; and in which the operator has, by personal examination, failed to detect the slightest trace of arsenic. Commercial sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids, potash, soda, nitre, iron, and zinc, frequently contain arsenic; from which, however, they may be freed by chemical processes; or they may be purchased in the pure state from respectable dealers in chemicals. But no assurance of the vender should be regarded as a proof of their purity. In all judicial investigations the absence of arsenic in the several tests and reagents, and the apparatus employed, must be demonstrated and sworn to. We may further add, that the results afforded by no single test can be depended on. In matters of such vast importance, the most ample confirmatory evidence must be sought.

Marsh’s, Reinsch’s, Lassaigne’s, the sulphur, and the Reduction Tests, and their modifications, are those now generally preferred by toxicological chemists; each of which, with its confirmatory tests, are amply sufficient for the indisputable identification of arsenic.

Modern toxicologists have abandoned most of the old processes for the detection of arsenic, and have adopted one of two, which have been found more expeditious as well as more certain. These are the tests of Marsh and Reinsch, preferably the latter.

Herapath’s Method is to obtain deposits by Reinsch’s Test on 4 or 5 pieces of No. 13 copper wire; each piece being about 2⁄2 inches long, and previously flattened and planished with a polished hammer for about one half its length. The deposit, with some of the adhering copper, scraped from one of these coated pieces, is sealed up hermetically in a tube for future production. The scrapings from three pieces of wire are separately submitted to the sublimation test in tubes bent in the form of an obtuse V capillary at one end, and about ⁄10ths of an inch in diameter at the other; the capillary leg being about three times as long as the larger one. The scrapings are placed in the bent part of the tube; and the flame of a small spirit lamp is so applied as to slowly drive the sublimate into the narrower portion of the tube, which is held rather higher than the other. If the deposit so obtained be mercury, it condenses in white shining globules;—if lead or bismuth, it does not rise but melts into a yellowish glass, which adheres to the copper; if tellurium, it falls as a white amorphous powder; if antimony, it does not rise at that low temperature; but if it be arsenic, it sublimes as arsenious anhydride, which condenses as minute octahedral crystals, looking, with the microscope, like very transparent grains of sand. One of these tubes containing the sublimed arsenious anhydride is then sealed up, like the first one, for future production. The capillary part of another tube containing the sublimate is then cut off, and carefully boiled in a few drops (10 to 15) of distilled water; and, when cold, 3 or 4 drops of the resulting solution is poured on a plate of white porcelain, and to this, by means of a glass rod, one drop of solution of ammoniacal sulphate of copper is added. The mixture is then carefully conducted on to a piece of white filtering-paper set on the surface of a smooth, clean, and dry chalk-stone, by which the moisture is absorbed, and the smallest portion of Scheele’s green produced by the test rendered more conspicuous. The ammonio-nitrate of silver test is then applied, in a similar manner, to 3 or 4 drops of the remaining solution; after which the pieces of paper with the spots are dried, and sealed up in separate tubes, as before, observing to exclude the light from that containing the yellow precipitate of arsenite of silver. A stream of sulphuretted hydrogen is then passed through the remaining tube containing the arsenical sublimate, by which the latter is converted into the yellow tersulphide—this too is sealed up. Here are now five tests—the metal, the acid, arsenite of copper, arsenite of silver, and yellow tersulphide of arsenic.

It is now well known that certain soils contain arsenic, either as arsenite of lime or sulphide of arsenic; and which, under favorable circumstances, may permeate or be absorbed by a body, after interment. In judicial investigations following disinterment it is, therefore, necessary to examine portions of the cemetery-earth taken from the grave, as well as from parts more or less distant from it. For this purpose the earth should be thoroughly dried in a water-bath, drenched with pure and concentrated hydrochloric acid, and allowed to stand for twenty-four hours. The mixture is then distilled, and the distillate tested for arsenic by Reinsch’s or Marsh’s test. Should the product of one distillation yield no evidence of arsenic, it should be returned to the retort, if necessary, a second or even a third time, and the distillation repeated.

The practice of employing an alkaline solution of white arsenic as an anti-smut steep for wheat, has lately arrested the attention of chemists. M. Audouard states that he has detected traces of arsenic in the crops raised from seed-wheat thus treated. But that which appears to be likely to prove much more dangerous is the introduction of arsenic into crops by the employment of crude superphosphate of lime as manure—a substance often rich in this poison. Dr Edmund Davy positively states that arsenic, as it exists in artificial manures, is taken up by plants growing where those manures have been applied! He found cabbages and turnips taken from fields manured with superphosphate give unmistakeable evidence of being ‘arseniated.’ These facts have some important bearings; for though the quantity of arsenic which occurs in such manures is not large when compared with their other constituents, and the proportion of that substance which is thus added to the soil must be necessarily small, still plants during their growth, as in the case of the alkaline and earthy salts, take up a considerable quantity of this substance. Further, as arsenic is well known to accumulate in soils, though not an accumulative poison in the animal system, the effects after some time will probably be, that vegetables raised on those continuously so manured will ultimately be found to contain such a proportion of arsenic as will exercise an injurious effect on the health of man and animals. The statement of M. Audouard has been disputed by M. Girardin, because he failed to detect arsenic in corn under the circumstances; and it is also denied by Dr A. S. Taylor, and others; but our own experiments, very carefully performed, confirm the assertions of both Audouard and Davy. The ultimate consequences of pouring into the Thames such enormous quantities of disinfectants contaminated with arsenic, as has been done during the last three or four years, is another matter deserving consideration, and one which has been ably pointed out by Dr Letheby, in his reports as Officer of Health to the City of London.

Dr Lois has found arsenic, often in large quantities, in ordinary brass, and brass utensils; and we have ourselves repeatedly found arsenic in the Britannia-metal, German-silver, and other cheap white alloys at present in such general use.

The preceding facts are recommended to the careful attention of medical jurists.

By an Act of Parliament it is provided—1. That every vender of arsenic shall, before the delivery of the same to the customer, enter in a book or books kept for the purpose, the date of sale, name, and residence of the purchaser, in full, his or her condition or occupation, the quantity so sold, and the purpose or purposes for which it is required, in a form set forth in the schedule to the Act; which form or schedule shall be signed by the vender, and by the said purchaser, unless he be unable to write, when such fact shall be recorded in the said schedule by the vender; and this schedule, when a witness is required to the sale, shall also bear his signature, together with his place of abode:—2. Arsenic is not to be sold to a stranger, unless in the presence of a witness acquainted with both vender and purchaser:—3. No person to sell arsenic unless it be previously mixed with at least 1 oz. of soot or ⁄2 oz. of indigo to the pound; unless such admixture would be injurious to the object for which it is intended, when not less than 10 lbs. is to be sold at any one time:—4. Penalty for evading the Act, either as vender, purchaser, or witness, £20:—5. Act not to extend to arsenic used in compounding prescriptions nor to the wholesale trade:—6. The word ‘arsenic’ to include ‘arsenious anhydride,’ and the arsenites, arsenic acid and the arseniates, and all other colourless poisonous preparations of arsenic. See Arsenic, Arsenic Acid, Lotions, Pills, Sheep-dipping, Soaps, Solutions, Wheat-steeps, Iron, Potassa, Soda, and other Bases, &c. &c. (also below).

Self-detect′ing Arsenious Anhydride. Prep. (Dr Cattell.)—1. Ordinary white arsenic to which is added a small quantity of a mixture of dry calomel and quick-lime; or of dried sulphate of iron and powdered gall-nuts. The product is white, but immediately turns black when mixed with liquids:—2. As the last, but adding a mixture of thoroughly dried sulphate of iron and ferrocyanide of potassium. Strikes a blue:—3. As last, but using dried phosphate of sodium and dried sulphate of iron. Strikes a green. Proposed as a method of preventing arsenic being used as a poison.

ARSENICAL PIGMENTS, EFFECTS OF. The composition of those substances which are compounds of copper with arsenious, very frequently combined with acetic acid, will be found under Green Pigments, under their respective commercial names of Scheele’s Green, Mineral Green, Emerald Green, and Schweinfurt Green. The purity of tint and durability of these arsenical salts have, not unnaturally, caused them to be employed in many branches of industry, the products of which are everywhere around us, and as the colouring material of these, they are placed in conditions very favorable to their being taken into the stomach or lungs. This will be apparent when we name a few of the materials in which they are employed:—wafers, candles, wall-papers, window curtains, confectionery.

A curious illustration of the risks attending their use may be cited from the ‘Medical Times and Gazette’ of April, 1854, which states that some loaves found to contain arsenic were discovered on inquiry to have got the dangerous intruder from having been allowed to stand on shelves freshly painted a bright green colour. Arsenical-coloured wafers may be pronounced free from danger, so long as they are kept out of the reach of children; and although the arsenical vapours given off by burning a green wax taper would not be sufficient to induce toxic results, the fact of the extreme sensibility of some people to the action of this poison, when taken in by the lungs, renders the use of these tapers a very objectionable one, particularly if they are generally employed in a household. The burning of wax candles, coloured with arsenical green, is, of course, still more strongly to be condemned, because from its superior mass, when compared with the taper, the candle gives off a greater amount of the poisonous fumes. An arsenical taper weighing 17·69 grains was found upon analysis by Mr Bolas, late of Charing Cross Hospital, to contain 0·276 grains of arsenious acid. “A Christmas tree,” says Mr Blyth, “brilliantly illuminated with Christmas candles, may be taken as an extreme instance of the danger likely to arise from this source.” That the employment of arsenical green in the manufacture of sweetmeats was not abandoned in 1873 may be evidenced from a circumstance quoted by Mr Blyth in his interesting work on ‘Hygiène.’ “During the Christmas of 1873 a large cake in which was imbedded a green card labelled “for the bairnies,” was seized in a baker’s shop at Greenock. The card was coated with sugar, and on being submitted to analysis, was found to contain 7·04 grains of arsenious acid.

A curious case, illustrating the effect of arsenical wall-papers, is furnished by Dr Dalzell, of Malvern. He was attending a lady ill with scarlet fever, and during the attack her husband occupied a small bedroom. The first night he slept in it his slumbers were most unrefreshing and disturbed by horrible dreams, and on rising in the morning he felt languid and weak, had lost his appetite, and had a dull headache. Towards the evening these unpleasant symptoms had nearly vanished. On the second night (when he occupied the same dormitory) and on the day following the same disagreeable symptoms returned. He then changed his bedroom, and forthwith they troubled him no more. A servant, who next occupied the chamber, was affected as her master had been. Dr Dalzell suspecting the wall-paper as the cause, examined it, and found it to contain a large quantity of arsenic.

Some little time since Mr Bolas examined a sample of wall-paper containing 27·53 grains of arsenious acid in the square foot, and in this case the pigment was so loosely fixed that the slightest friction was sufficient to detach a portion and diffuse it through the air. Nor is this surprising when we consider how slightly the arsenical colour is attached to the surface of the paper, as well as how easily it may become liberated from it by the desiccation of the air of the room when heated by a fire. This may be exemplified by drawing the sleeve of a black or dark-coloured coat over an arsenical wall-paper, and observing the green deposit that is left on the garment.

After this we shall be prepared for the following statement: “Hamberg drew, by means of aspirators, the air of a room, the walls of which were papered with a very old green paper, through various tubes containing cotton wool and silver nitrate. On examination scarcely any solid particles could be discovered. The cotton-wool was fused with sodium nitrate and carbonate, and gave a little ferric oxide and a trace of arsenic, but the solution of nitrate of silver gave decided evidence of arsenic, as well as of sulphide of silver.” (‘Phar. Jour.’)

Not many years since Professor Fleck showed that the arsenious acid in the Schweinfurt green, when in contact with moist organic substances, and especially starch-sizing, forms arseniuretted hydrogen, which diffuses in the room, and which is no doubt the cause of some of the cases of arsenical poisoning from green papers. So that a contrary condition to a dry atmosphere, viz. a moist or damp one, may also lead to results nearly, if not quite as objectionable, when rooms are papered with arsenical papers. We have Mr Blyth’s word for the assertion, that the most dangerous of the arsenical papers, viz. those covered with a thick, unvarnished, loosely coherent layer of Seheele’s green are most frequently to be met with in our nurseries, where the beds are placed next the wall, and where the attrition of the bedclothes frequently removes portions of the poisonous colouring matter. The fine cupro-arsenical dust which thus becomes diffused through the room, now and then produces in children symptoms resembling those of violent catarrh. Some of the wall-papers of these nurseries have been found to yield 18 grains of arsenious acid in a square foot. It would appear that the use of arsenical pigments is by no means restricted to green wall-papers. Very recently an analytical chemist examined a great number of samples of wall-papers of different colours, and was surprised to find arsenic in most of them. Within the last year the writer examined the pigment which he could disengage without much difficulty from a very small piece of green muslin window curtain, and found it yield a large quantity of arsenic. In Paris alone there are more than 15,000 people who earn their living by making artificial flowers, a quarter at least of these workers being engaged in that branch of the manufacture in which Schweinfurt green is used. From the instances already adduced of the ill effects caused, although in a mild degree, by occasional and accidental exposure to arsenical pigments, we shall be prepared to learn that the danger and the damage to health is very much more intensified when, as in the case of these poor artisans, the workman is constantly handling the deadly material, and incessantly inhaling an atmosphere laden with its particles. Dr Vernois has published a most interesting description, which we subjoin, of the artificial flower-maker at work. He says:—“These greens are formed either from arsenite of copper alone, or mixed in variable proportions with acetate of copper (English green). Arsenical greens are employed to colour different herbs, to tint the fabric destined to prepare the leaves of artificial flowers, as they are painted directly on the leaves or petals of flowers worked on cloths of various textures. For these various purposes they buy the Schweinfurt or the English green (vert Anglaise), either in powder or in aqueous solution, and add to it, according to the effect desired, a certain quantity of Flanders glue, starch, gum, honey, or turpentine. Sometimes it is applied in the dry state, in order to sprinkle it over the things already coloured by the arsenical green. They frequently also, in order to modify the colour, mix with it a certain quantity of chromate of lead or picric acid.

The preparation of herbs is carried on as follows:—The workman plunges into a shallow vessel, containing a sufficiently liquid solution of Schweinfurt green, one or several stalks of natural plants, perfectly dried, and agitates them quickly, seizing them by their roots with a pair of forceps. This operation, which is termed ‘steeping,’ stains the fingers, the arms, the person, and the clothes of the workman, and the surrounding objects are covered with traces of this kind of paint. The plants thus prepared are hung on a line, and there allowed to dry for thirty-four or forty-eight hours. At the end of that time all the stalks are gathered and formed into bundles, which are used finally for bouquets. Often enough, to satisfy some freak of fashion, they are sprinkled with powdered arsenite of copper. This is the powdering. The bouquet-work constitutes one of the principal dangers; for the colouring matter not having been fixed by any mordant, detaches itself in the form of a fine dust, which penetrates the skin of the hands, and which the workman breathes constantly. This danger is still more increased when he handles bouquets covered with arsenical powder. At other times, however, in the manufacture of the plants, the Schweinfurt green is diluted with a sufficient quantity of turpentine. In this way the colour takes a smooth appearance, not altered by contact with water, and does not escape immediately in the form of powder by gentle handling; but when it is thoroughly dry it falls to the ground in little flakes, and may again rise in the air with ordinary dust. Thus the danger is modified, a little retarded, but always exists. There are then in this speciality of the florist the operations of steeping, drying, powdering, and arranging the flowers for bouquets, which in their details place the workman or the purchaser under the more or less direct, and more or less active influence of arsenical salt. This particular industry is exercised under conditions which render it still more injurious; for it is freely practised by a number of poor workpeople, by households living in one or two rooms, ill-ventilated, ill-lighted, and which they never sweep, and of which the floor like the furniture, and like the clothing of the workpeople, is continually impregnated by pigment and covered with arsenical dust. The preparers of the cloth destined for the manufacture of the artificial leaves by the aid of arsenical greens, comprehend the portion of the work most exposed to deleterious action. They use arsenite of copper alone, mixed principally with starch, and in rare instances associated with acetate of copper in variable proportions. Some use eublèe, a mixture of picric acid and of greenish indigo, in which they steep their stuffs. Other manufacturers use fabrics prepared with hot solutions by ordinary dyers. According to the hue which the Schweinfurt dyer wishes to obtain, the workman commences by giving the stuff a yellow shade, by plunging it into a solution of picric acid and pure alcohol. He squeezes it between his fingers, in order to completely impregnate it and dries it. It is this preliminary operation which stains the workman’s fingers yellow. Frequently the latter mixes picric acid by grinding it with the Schweinfurt green, and applies this paste immediately to the fabric. The paste is prepared by kneading the Schweinfurt green, already treated with water, with a solution of starch thick enough, yet sufficiently liquid, to be easily spread on the cloth. During this working up the paste the fingers, arms, and hands of the workman are covered with arsenical solution. This being ready, the workman lays out his stuff, distributes the paste over it, then beats it between his hands, in order to make the colouring matter thoroughly penetrate the cloth. The longer it is beaten the better is the quality of the article. During this operation the skin of the hands and arms is completely impregnated with the solution. Sometimes the cloth, having been touched here and there with arsenical paste, is attached to a hook in the wall, and twisted different ways—wrung as it were. In this way a very uniform colouring is obtained. This process is as bad to the workman as the former. Lastly, a process which is generally practised consists in placing the fabric, stained or not with picric acid, on a wooden table, and distributing on both sides the arsenical preparation with a brush, and then beating the stuff with a thick rubber. In this way the hands and arms of the workman are much less exposed to the paste than in the preceding processes. After the brushing and beating of the fabric comes the drying, to which operation attention must next be directed. Once impregnated with the green colour by whatever process, the pieces in squares of about 1 metre 50 cent. are hung on wooden frames, furnished with teeth, on which the borders of the cloth are transfixed. During this simple operation the workmen stain themselves much. When the stuffs are detached from the squares they are folded, and from every crease falls a fine dust, which may then be carried into the mucous membranes. The workmen then are liable to all the accidents of the manufacturers of flowers, especially in the operations of kneading the paste, or during the beating, brushing, drying, and folding of the cloths. From the hands of the fabricator the fabrics are very often immediately consigned to the manufacturers of artificial flowers, who press them, figure them (that is to say, make the nerves), arm them with a wire, and mount them with flowers. It may be at once understood how much all the manipulations I have just mentioned are liable to develop the arsenical dust. The paste has not been fixed on the stuffs by any mordant; the starch with which it is mixed has given it a very brittle consistence, and has predisposed it to be easily detached from the cloth.

The stamping is effected by putting a certain number of folded pieces one above the other, and submitting them to the pressure of a stamping instrument. Repeated blows of this instrument detach the paste in scales, and cover with dust the fingers and person of the workman. A series of small packets are taken from the stamping press, which contain, strongly pressed together, from twelve to twenty-four leaves. They are passed on to another workman, who is charged with the folding. This operation is performed by holding the little bundle of leaves between the thumb and index finger of the left hand.

The thumb of the right hand presses the edges quickly and sharply so as to separate the leaves one from another, as you separate the leaves of a book recently bound. During this process still more dust escapes. Then comes the figuring, which by reason of successive blows applied to each leaf covers the body of the operator with the same pulverulent material. Fixing a wire to the leaves at their lowest part by the aid of gum follows that operation.

Then the leaves are arranged together in dozens, and passed to the bouquet manufacturers, who mount them. From thence they go to the milliners, who adapt them to different articles of dress, and sell them to the public. Through all this series of transformations there are the same manipulations, the same production of dust, the same action on the skin and mucous membrane, only in a decreasing degree, from the first preparer to the milliner. There is, however, a process of preparing the cloth which diminishes notably the severity and frequency of the evils of the Schweinfurt green. It is that which immediately after the drying of the stuffs submits them at once to the “calendrage.” This operation causes the arsenical paste to penetrate mechanically into the fibres of the stuff, and gives it a smooth and glazed aspect, which only permits imperfectly the production of the arsenical dust. This process renders the successive workings of the cloth less injurious, but it would be an error to consider it as inoffensive. During the action of the press, and especially during the separating and the fixing of the flowers, a notable quantity of the toxic dust is still produced. However well prepared the fabrics may be, you have only to tear it, to detach the coating under the form of a palpable powder.

It is only necessary to add that the waxing of the leaves, after they have been separated and figured, and before putting them into bouquets, constitutes a protecting envelope against the effects of the powdered coating for workmen who then handle them, as well as for women who wear them; but this film of wax is only applied, comparatively speaking, to a small number of leaves, for it alters the green and vivacity of its colour.

In the preparing of the stuffs in the process of drying, Dr Vernois says:—A new condition and serious results appear. The multiplicity of sharp points fixed in the wooden squares inevitably pricks and scratches the skin of the workmen. An inoculation of the arsenical salt immediately takes place, as if it had been practised experimentally. The skin irritates and inflames, a vesicle first, then a large pustule covers the orifice of the prick, and undergoes all the stages of inflammation, which produces suppuration and often gangrene, below which a deep and painful ulceration is developed—all the more tedious to heal as the inoculation is renewed from day to day.

The action of picric acid mixed with the paste can only augment and aggravate the irritation of the wounds. If the ulcerations are numerous the workmen may absorb the arsenious acid and be liable to serious results. I have seen a certain number of workmen with glandular enlargements under the armpits, and the hands in such a state that they were obliged to come to the hospital, where they were only cured after one or several months of treatment. The aspect of the hand was then characteristic to the greenish-yellow tint of all the skin, and especially of the palmar aspect of the hands. To the greenish crust under the nails was nearly always added a yellow colour of the nails, produced by the repeated contact with picric acid.

When we add a generally diffused erythema, then a series of black points, or of inflamed pustules, and sometimes a whitlow, we shall have a faithful representation of the evils which most frequently present themselves in the preparers of stuffs, for artificial flowers tinted with Schweinfurt green.

Amongst the endeavours to counteract the evils entailed upon the workers in this branch of industry may be mentioned the attempt to substitute chrome for Schweinfurt green, as the less poisonous of the two substances, and the ingenious process of M. Bérard-Zenzilin, which consists in directly incorporating the arsenical colouring matter with a specially prepared collodion.

AR′SENIDE. Syn. Arsen′iuret; Arseniure′tum (-i-ū-), L.; Arséniure, Fr. A combination of arsenicum with a metal (including hydrogen), in definite proportion.

AR′SENITE (-nīte). Syn. Ar′senis, L.; Arsenite, Fr.; Arsenigsäure salz, Ger. A salt of arsenious acid.

ART. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Ars (gen., ar′tis; pl., ar′tes), L.; τεχνη, (tech′ne), Gr.; Kunst, Ger. Primarily, strength, power, and hence also mental strength, skill; the application of knowledge or power to effect a desired purpose; the power or ability of doing something not taught by nature or instinct; practical skill guided by rules. Science is knowledge—Art, practical skill in applying this knowledge. Art is applied science; whilst SCIENCE is knowledge obtained by observation, experience, and ratiocination. This distinction is nowhere more fully seen than within the domain of chemistry, where knowledge, deduction, great power of generalisation, and great expertness are necessary elements of success. Art has filled the world with luxuries, conveniences, and comforts; and art—the ARTS—useful or fine—are the safest and surest civilisers of our race. See Science.

ARTESIAN WELL. A cylindrical perforation bored vertically down through one or more strata of the earth till it reaches a porous bed of gravel containing water, this fluid being placed under such incumbent pressure that it rises up the perforation either to the surface, or to a convenient height for the operation of a pump. When they rise to the surface these wells are called spouting or flowing. The name of these wells is taken from Artois, a province in the Departement du pays de Calais, where their use was revived. They have been in use for a long time in Italy and in the East. The accompanying drawing represents the manner in which rain may be supposed to distribute itself when it falls upon a portion of the surface of our globe. The figure represents a geological section, showing the succession of the different strata.

The figure is supposed to represent two beds, A, B, more porous, and consequently more absorbent than the rocks by which they are interstratified. The condensed dews and rains falling upon the distant hills pass rapidly by the outcrops of the strata to the lower levels, until the entire mass becomes thoroughly saturated with water. Supposing two such beds as are represented in the section to exist, fully charged with water, it is evident that if we bored down into them through the rocks as represented at C, D, the water would rise through those wells or borings, and spring out in the form of a jet to such a height above the surface as is due to the height of the hills from which the water has been obtained. The fountain derived from B would necessarily flow as much higher as that derived from the bed A, as is the height of B above A.

For particulars as to the modes of constructing artesian wells, the reader is referred to ‘Traité sur les puits Artesiens,’ by M Gamier, and to ‘Considérations Géologiques et physiques sur la théorie des puits forcés, ou fontaines Artésiennes,’ by M. le Vicomte Hericart de Thury, and to ‘Rudimentary Treatise on Well-digging, Boring, &c.,’ by J. G. Swindell, and also to Ure’s ‘Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines,’ edited by Mr Robert Hunt.

ARTHANI′TINE (-tĭn). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Artaniti′ne; Arthaniti′na, L. A peculiar substance first obtained by M. Saladin, by the action of alcohol on the tuberous stems of the herb arthrani′ta, or sow-bread. It is acrid, colourless, and crystalline, and imparts its acridity to the plant.

AR′TICHOKE. Syn. Cin′ara, Cyn′ara; Scol′ymus, L.; Artichaut, Fr.; Artischocke, Ger. The cynara scoly̆̆mus (Linn.), a thistle-like perennial plant of the nat. ord. Compositæ (DC.). Hab. Southern Europe; but now extensively cultivated in our gardens, for its ‘bottom,’ or the sweet fleshy receptacle of its flowers, which is eaten as a pot herb. These are soaked in brisk boiling in water, stalk-ends uppermost, until tender; and take ⁄2 to 1 hour according to their age. Sometimes they are preserved in brine (PICKLED ARTICHOKES); and also after depriving them of the ‘choke’ and spiny hairs and blanching them by immersion in boiling water, by drying in the sun (DRIED ARTICHOKES; CULS D’ARTICHAUT, Fr.), by which they retain their flavour for some time. Infusion of the flowers, used with rennet.

As an esculent the artichoke resembles asparagus in its general properties; but it is said to be more nutritious, and even more diuretic.

Artichokes, Jeru′salem. The helianthus tuberosus (Linn.), a perennial plant of the sun-flower family, and quite distinct from the preceding. Hab. The Brazils. The appellation “Jerusalem” is believed to be a corruption of the Italian word girasole—“a sunflower,” to which botanical family the plant belongs. It is cultivated in England for culinary purposes. Roots (tubers) resemble the artichoke in flavour; but are considered far from wholesome, being apt to produce flatulence and dyspepsia. They are diuretic, and impart the odour of turpentine to the urine. They are cooked by boiling (15 to 25 minutes, according to size), or frying; in the former case served with melted butter. They are also served mashed, like turnips. The flowers yield a volatile oil resembling that of turpentine.

Composition of the Jerusalem artichoke from an analysis by Payen, Poisot, and Fevry:—

Nitrogenous matter 3·1

Sugar 14·7

Inulin 1·9

Pectic Acid 0·9

Pectin 0·4

Cellulose 1·5

Fatty matter 0·2

Mineral matter 1·3

Water 76·0

100·0

From the above it will be seen that this esculent contains no nitrogen.

ARTIFICIAL FOODS. See Farina.

ASARABAC′CA (ăs-ă-). Syn. As′arum, A. Europæ′um: (Linn.), Nar′dus monta′na*, &c., L.; Asaret, A. d’Europe, Cabaret, Azarum C., Nard sauvage, Oreille d’homme, &c., Fr.; Hazelwurtzel, Ger. The ασαρον of Dioscorides, a small round, hard, stemless, hardy herbaceous plant, bearing chocolate-coloured flowers; and of the nat. ord. Aristolochieæ (DC.). It grows freely in central France, and is found in woods and shady places in Lancashire, Westmoreland, and other parts of England. Hab. Europe, between 37° and 60° latitude.—Root & rhizome (AS′ARI RA′DIX) has a pepper-like odour and an acrid taste:—Leaves (A. FO′LIA) less odorous, though bitter-tasted, acrid, and aromatic; formerly officinal in the pharmacopœias:—Whole plant (ASARABACCA of the shops) nauseant, emetic, and purgative. Before the introduction of ipecacuanha it was the common emetic (6 to 9 of the green leaves in whey); but, owing to the violence of its action, it has long fallen into disuse. Its common name in France (CABARET, or public-house plant) is said to have arisen from its frequent employment to relieve the stomach of those who had drunk too hard. It is now almost solely used as a sternutatory or errhine, and is probably one of the best.

According to Gräger, asarabacca contains three volatile, oily principles, which may be obtained by distillation with water:—Volatile oil (o′leum as′ari):—As′arite, an odourless, tasteless, and crystalline solid; fusible and volatilisable, yielding white and very irritating fumes:—As′arum-cam′phor, differing chiefly from the last in being precipitated, by water, from its alcoholic solution in cubes or six-sided prisms, instead of delicate flexible needles. Also a brownish, bitter, crystallisable principle (AS′ARINE, AS′ARUM-BIT′TER), which is soluble in alcohol.

Uses, Dose, &c. Dried leaves, 20 to 30 gr., or root, 10 to 12 gr.; as a purge or emetic. As an errhine—leaves, 3 to 5 gr.; root, 1 to 3 gr.; in powder, snuffed up the nose every day, or every other day, at bedtime. It excites irritation and a copious watery discharge, more or less muculent, which frequently continues to flow for several days, and occasionally proves highly useful in certain affections of the brain, eyes, mouth, nose, ear, and throat, on the principle of counter-irritation. It has been found “particularly serviceable in cephalalgia (headache), obstinate headache, chronic ophthalmia (inflammation of the eyes), and some other lethargic affections.” (Dr A. T. Thomson.) In dimness of sight (especially that arising from fatigue or congestion), deafness, and slight paralytic affections of the mouth, tongue, lips, or eyelids, not of a serious organic character, and particularly in chronic earache, it also sometimes affords relief after other remedies have failed. It constitutes the basis of several Cephalic snuffs, Asarabacca-snuff, Baron McKinsey’s medicinal powder (or SNUFF), and several other like nostrums, which are much extolled by their venders, and sold at marvellously high prices. See Patent Medicines, Powders, Snuffs, &c. (also below).

AS′ARIN (-rĭn). C20H26O5. Syn. Asarone. A species of stearopten, discovered by Görtz, in asarabacca. It has an aromatic taste and an odour resembling camphor, and is said to be emetic. It is probably a mixture of asarum-camphor and some partially oxidised volatile oil. (See above.)

As′arine (of Gräger). Syn. Asari′na, L. The crystallisable bitter principle of asarabacca, noticed above. It is said to greatly resemble cytisine.

AS′ARITE (-rīte). See Asarabacca.

ASBES′TOS. Syn. Asbes′tus (ασβεστος, incombustible, unconsumable, Gr.), Amianth′us, La′pis A., &c., L.; Asbeste, Amiante, Fr.; Asbest, Steinflachs, Ger. In mineralogy, a soft, fibrous substance, composed of flexible or elastic filaments which, in their most highly developed form, greatly resemble those of flax or silk, and which bear exposure to a very considerable degree of heat without suffering decomposition. It has been proposed to clothe our firemen in dresses of asbestos; but without freedom of respiration could be insured in a heated and poisonous atmosphere, this envelope would be of little service. Gloves are sometimes made of it, for holding red-hot crucibles. It is also used as a filtering medium for corrosive liquids. A kind of felt made of asbestos is now used as a substitute for wire gauze to support beakers, retorts, &c., over lamps.

Var. Of these there are several; as Am′ianth or ELAS′TIC ASBESTOS, LIG′NIFORM A., MOUNTAIN-CORK, M.-LEATHER, M.-WOOD, &c.; varying from a grey, brown, or green colour, to pure white, and from extreme flexibility and softness, to rigidity and hardness, as indicated by the respective names.

ASCARIS LUMBRICOIDES. A parasite belonging to the genus entozoa, commonly known as the round worm, and found in the intestines of man, the horse, the ox, the pig, and some other of the lower animals. It is of a greyish-red colour and in size and general appearance like the common earthworm.

Children are very frequently infested by them. Their usual habitat is the small intestines. But they are occasionally found in the stomach, and have been known to transport themselves into the gall-ducts, frontal sinuses, nostrils, and mouth. The males are smaller than the females and much more rare. The females produce eggs in great numbers, but it is doubtful if the young are ever developed in the intestine in which the parent worm dwells.

It is probable that the ova gain access to the intestines of the animals of which they eventually become the pests from various outer sources. They are said to be very frequent in persons who partake much of raw leaves and roots. Dr Paterson, of Leith, noticed that families who drank certain water from a well supplied from a dirty pool, which contained various vermiform animalcules, were much infested with this particular species of intestinal worm; whilst others in the same street, who had recourse to a different water supply, entirely escaped. For medicinal treatment, see Worms.

ASCARIS MYSTAX. A parasitic round worm infesting the cat. It has been also occasionally found in man.

ASH. Syn. Frax′inus, L.; Frêne, Fr.; Esche, Ger. The popular name of several species of valuable hardy trees bearing apetalous flowers (except in the ‘flowering ash’), belonging to the nat. ord. Oleaceæ (DC.), and gen. Fraxinus; but appropriately the—

Ash. Syn. Comm′on ash; Frax′inus, F. excel′sior (Linn.), F. apet′ala (Lamb.), F. or′nus (Scop.), L.; Frêne, F. commun, Fr.; Gemeine esche, Ger. A large tree common to our woods and hedges; timber (ASH or ASH-WOOD) used by carpenters, cabinet-makers, and machinists, and much esteemed for its great toughness and elasticity; bark febrifuge, diuretic, resolvent, and tonic; has been successfully exhibited in agues; seeds acrid, bitter, and diuretic; leaves purgative, diuretic, and febrifuge; sometimes used instead of senna. In southern Europe it exudes an inferior kind of MANNA, and its medicinal properties are much greater than in our climate.—Dose. (Leaves) ⁄4 oz. to 1⁄2 oz. (made into an infusion), as a purge; seeds, 1 dr., as a diuretic, &c.

Ash, Flow′ering. Syn. Man′na-ash; Frax′inus or′nus (Linn.), L. A small tree of southern Europe. Yields MANNA. The ‘round′-leaved flowering-ash’ (Cala′brian-ash; FRAX′INUS ROTUNDIFO′′LIA, Lamarck) is a smaller variety of the preceding, and a native of Calabria and the Levant. Said to yield the best MANNA. The ‘small′-leaved flowering-ash’ (FRAX′INUS PARVIFO′′LIA, Lam.) is another manna-yielding species, indigenous to Asia Minor.

ASH. Ashes (which see).

ASH-BALLS. The ashes of land-plants, especially ferns, damped and made into balls. Used as a substitute for soap in washing, and in cleaning paint.

ASH′ERY. [Amer.] A place where potash or pearlash is made or kept.

ASH′ES. (-ĭz). [Eng. pl.] Syn. Ash; Ci′nis, L.; Cendres (pl.), Fr.; Asche, Ger. The remains of anything burned. In antiquity, the remains of a body consumed on the funeral pyre; and hence, figuratively, the remains of the dead. The word, in English, has properly no singular; although ‘ash’ is very commonly heard; and is now almost exclusively used in composition, as in pearlash, potash, soda-ash, &c.

Ashes. In commerce, the residuum of the combustion of vegetable substances containing either carbonate of potassium (‘land-plants’), or carbonate of sodium (‘marine plants’), and from which the commercial alkalies are obtained. Their value depends upon their richness in ‘alkali,’ which is determined in the manner explained under ALKALIMETRY. The word is also commonly employed as a general term for the crude carbonates of potash of commerce (which see).

Ashes of Plants. See following page, on which will be found a table giving the chemical composition of the ashes of a few well-known plants used as food for men and animals. See also Manures, Plants, Vegetation, &c.

A careful determination of the ash of different substances is of great use to the analyst, by enabling him to detect adulteration; for instance, almost every plant on being burnt yields a very constant amount of ash, and not alone the quantity is constant, but the different proportions of the various components are also, within certain limits, tolerably unvarying. Many plants have the power of extracting from the soil certain elements; for instance, the ash of the tobacco contains lithium; tea, manganese; seaweed, iodine. It seems by no means improbable that by the examination of the ashes of plants by means of the spectroscope new elements may be discovered. Appended is a short list of the amount of ash, contained in a few important substances:—

Total Ash.

Cayenne pepper, from 5 to 6 per cent.

Chicory ” 5 ”

Cocoa ” 3 to 4 ”

Coffee ” 4 ”

Flour ” ·7 to 1·5 ”

Mustard ” 3 to 4·5 ”

Pepper ” 4·3 to 5 ”

Rice ” 5 ”

Tea ” 5·6 ”

Turmeric ” 5 to 6 ”

The ashes of plants are employed by the agriculturist according as the nature and proportion of the different salts they contain is suited to the soil and to the crops it is desired to raise. M. Soulange Bodin says that ashes hold the middle place between stable-dung and pasture manure. They act mechanically by dividing soils that are too compact, hygroscopically by absorbing moisture, and they appear to have an action similar to lime in accelerating the decomposition of the mould. They also probably exercise a stimulating effect on the soil. In the case of low-lying lands they are particularly suited for very damp clayey soils. In Picardy the ashes of turf are made use of; in England, the low countries and the north of France, coal ashes are employed.

Peas. Beans. Red Clover. Sainfoin. Wheat Grain. Straw. Barley. Oats. Turnip Root.

Potassa 42·43 36·72 18·44 31·90 29·76 10·51 20·07 17·70 23·70

Soda 3·27 0·14 2·79 ... 5·26 1·03 4·56 3·84 14·75

Lime 5·73 12·06 35·02 24·30 2·88 5·91 1·48 3·54 11·82

Magnesia 5·92 6·00 11·91 5·03 11·06 1·25 7·45 7·33 3·28

Sesquioxide of Iron 0·44 0·65 0·98 0·61 0·23 0·07 0·51 0·49 0·47

Sulphuric acid 6·23 4·28 3·91 3·28 0·11 2·14 0·79 1·10 16·13

Silica 1·74 1·52 4·03 3·22 2·23 73·57 32·73 38·48 2·69

Carbonic acid 4·38 1·63 12·92 15·20 0·22 ... ... ... 10·47

Phosphoric acid 29·92 33·74 5·82 9·35 48·21 5·51 31·69 26·46 9·31

Chloride of potassium ... ... ... 6·24 ... ... ... 0·92 ...

Chloride of sodium ... 3·26 4·13 0·78 ... ... ... ... 7·05

Total amount 99·96 100·00 99·95 99·96 99·96 99·99 99·98 99·96 99·93

Per-centage of dry ash in dry substance 2·60 2·90 7·87 6·37 2·05 ... 2·50 2·50 6·00

Per-centage of ash in the fresh substance 2·24 2·54 6·77 5·65 1·81 ... 2·25 2·27 0·75

Turnip Leaves. Beet Root. Carrot Root. Potatoes. Lettuce Leaves and Stalks. Olive-tree Wood. Hops. Hay. Clupea Sprouts.

Potassa 11·56 21·68 37·55 25·41 22·37 20·60 24·88 11·93 17·23

Soda 12·43 3·13 12·63 ... 18·50 ... ... 1·07 1·19

Lime 28·49 1·90 9·76 2·34 10·43 63·02 21·59 14·76 23·57

Magnesia 2·62 1·79 3·78 4·17 5·68 2·31 4·69 5·30 3·01

Sesquioxide of Iron 3·02 0·52 6·74 0·50 2·82 ... 1·75 2·75 0·28

Sulphuric acid 10·36 3·14 6·34 4·71 3·85 3·09 7·27 0·20 ...

Silica 8·04 1·40 0·76 3·64 11·86 3·82 19·71 53·43 ...

Carbonic acid 6·18 15·23 15·15 ... ... ... 2·17 ... ...

Phosphoric acid 4·85 1·65 8·37 10·38 9·38 4·77 14·47 6·34 43·52

Chloride of potassium ... ... ... 12·40 ... 1·09 ... ... ...

Chloride of sodium 12·41 49·51 4·91 Trace 15·09 ... 3·42 2·27 11·19

Total amount 99·96 99·96 99·99 100·00 99·99 100·00 99·95 100·00 100·00

Per-centage of dry ash in dry substance 16·40 11·32 5·12 4·86 ... 0·58 5·95 6·97 ...

Per-centage of ash in the fresh substance 1·97 1·02 0·77 ... ... ... ... 6·15 ...

Coal ashes, when mixed with excrement, besides disinfecting the latter, make an excellent manure.

ASPAR′AGIN (-ă-jĭn). C4H8N2O3. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Althe′ine, Aspar′amide, Mal′amide*; Asparagi′na, Asparagi′num, L.; Agédoïle, Fr.; Spargelstoff, Ger. A peculiar azotised principle discovered by Vauquelin and Robiquet in asparagus, and since found in the potato, marsh-mallow, liquorice, climbing vetch, and several other plants. Many plants which do not naturally contain it may be made to yield it by growing them in dark damp cellars; whilst many which only normally contain it in very small quantities are found to yield much more when allowed to vegetate in the same manner.

Prep. 1. From ASPARAGUS-SPROUTS:—The expressed juice, after being heated to the boiling-point (to coagulate albumen) and carefully skimmed and filtered, is evaporated, at a gentle heat, to a syrupy consistence, and then abandoned to spontaneous evaporation in a warm dry atmosphere for several days; the resulting crystals being purified by cautious washing with very cold water or very strong alcohol, re-solution, and re-crystallisation.

The following are cheaper and more convenient processes.

2. From MARSHMALLOW-ROOT:—a. The root (chopped small, or grated) is macerated for several days in milk of lime, in the cold; the filtered liquid precipitated with carbonate of ammonium, and the clear solution evaporated in a water-bath, and otherwise treated as before.

b. From the expressed juice, 2 parts; milk of lime, 1 part; agitated well together; the liquid portion, after some hours, being decanted, filtered, and evaporated, &c., as before.

3. From the ETIOLATED SHOOTS OF VETCHES:—The expressed juice of the young shoots when from 2 or 3 to even 12 or 15 inches long, is gently simmered for 8 or 10 minutes, to coagulate the albumen; and, after straining or clarification, the clear liquid is gently evaporated to the consistence of a thin syrup, and set aside to crystallise, as before. The resulting brown crystals are purified by washing with very cold water, re-solution in boiling water, and re-crystallisation, as in No. 1; or, and what is better, the hot liquid, before evaporation to a syrup, is digested for a short time with a little pure animal charcoal in coarse powder, and then filtered, when large and beautifully white crystals are obtained by the first operation. An excellent and very economical process.

Prop., &c. Crystals brilliant, transparent, colourless, right rhombic prisms; neutral to test-paper; non-basic; having a faint, cooling, and scarcely nauseous taste; scarcely soluble in cold water; freely soluble in hot water; insoluble in strong alcohol and ether; solution unaffected by alkaline sulphurets, oxalate of ammonia, acetate of lead, or infusion of galls; triturated with quick-lime, ammonia is evolved; heated to 212° Fahr. the crystals lose two equiv. or 12% of water; heated with water under pressure in a closed vessel, or boiled along with an acid or an alkali, or dissolved in a saccharine liquid and then submitted to fermentation it is converted into ammonium and aspartic acid; aqueous solutions of asparagin and aspartic acid treated with a current of nitrous acid evolve pure nitrogen, with the formation of malic acid which remains in solution. It was called asparamide under the impression that it is aspartite of ammonia minus 1 atom of water; and malamide, for similar theoretical reasons.

Uses. It is sedative and diuretic.—Dose, 1 to 6 gr.; in dropsies, heart-affections, &c.

ASPAR′AGUS. [L., Eng.] In botany, a genus of low, spiny plants, with scale-like leaves, many of which are shrubs and climbers, of the nat. ord. Asparageæ (DC.).; Liliaceæ (Lindl.). The following species, which is that best known in England, is, however, an exception to this description, as it is neither climbing nor spinose.

Asparagus Officina′lis. [Linn.; L.] Syn. Aspar′agus, Comm′on a., Gard′en a.; Spar′agus§, Spar′row-grass§, Sper′age†§; Asperge, Fr.; Spargel, Ger. A well-known perennial plant, and one of the oldest and most delicate of our culinary vegetables.—Young shoots, from the underground eyes (TURIO′NES ASPAR′AGI, L.), the asparagus of our tables; diuretic; communicate a peculiar fœtid odour to the urine, and, when eaten in excess, occasion bloody urine and accelerate fits of gout; formerly esteemed emmenagogue and aphrodisiac.—Root (RA′DIX ASPAR′AGI, L.), properties resemble those of the young shoots, but stronger; one of the five ‘greater aperient roots’ (RAD′ICES APERIEN′TES QUIN′′QUE MAJO′′RES, L.) of old pharmacy. The tops and roots, though no longer officinal in the British Pharmacopœias, are both occasionally employed as popular remedies in dropsy and stone—the first being eaten in the usual way at table; and the second made into an infusion or decoction (⁄2 oz. to the pint), taken ad libitum.

As an article of food, asparagus, in moderation, is both wholesome and nutritious. It is cooked by simply boiling it rather quickly until tender, like the other soft green vegetables; and is either served up plain, or on toast with melted butter or sauce Hollandaise in a boat (Soyer; Rundell.) When very small and green, it is frequently dressed and served like green-peas, the tender portion of each shoot being cut into bits of equal size, and about 1-3rd of an inch long. (Miss Acton.)

Choice, &c. “The large grass is generally preferred; although the smaller has the fullest flavour for a dish.” (Soyer.) Unlike other plants, the asparagus officinalis has not produced a single well-marked permanent variety by cultivation.

Asparagus Petræ′a. [L.] Syn. Rock′-aspar′agus; Corruda; Aspar′agus acutifo′′lia, L,; Corrude, Fr. Resembles the last in its general qualities; but is said to contain more asparagin.

ASPAR′AMIDE (-mĭd). See Asparagin.

ASPAR′TIC ACID. HC4H6NO4. Syn. Malam′ic acid; Acidum aspar′ticum, L.; Acide aspartique, Fr. An acid first obtained, by Plisson, from asparagin, by boiling it along with hydrate of lead or of magnesia. Its salts are called ASPAR′TATES (Eng., Fr.; ASPAR′TAS, L. sing.) See Asparagin.

AS′PEN (-pĕn). Syn. Asp*, Trem′bling pop′lar‡; Pop′ulus trem′ula (Linn.), L.; Tremble, Fr.; Aespe (äspe), &c. Ger. A large tree, of the nat. ord. Amentaceæ; (DC.), not uncommon in the moist woodlands of England, and found native on many of the Scottish mountains. It derives its name from the trembling motion of its leaves, which, owing to the peculiar flattening of the leafstalks, are agitated by the slightest impulse of the air. Bark and leaves contain POP′ULIN associated with SAL′ICIN. Both bark and leaves have been used with advantage in strangury and intermittents.

ASPHALT′ (-fălt′). Asphaltum.

ASPHALT′UM. [L., prim. Gr.] Syn. Asphalt′, Compact bitumen, Mineral pitch, Jew’s pitch, Foss′il bitu′men, Vit′reus b., &c.; Asphal′tus, Bitumen fos′sile (-e-le), B. Juda′icum, B. sol′idum, B. vit′reum, Mu′mia†, M. minera′lis*, &c., L.; Asphalte, Bitume massif, B. solide, Poix juive, &c., Fr.; Asphalt, Erdpech, Judenpech, &c., Ger. A black, hard, brittle, and glossy variety of bitumen found on the shores of the Dead Sea (hence called La′cus Asphalti′tes), on and near the shores of the Great Pitch Lake of Trinidad, and as a mineral product in various other parts of the world.

Prop., &c. Melts without decomposition, and, when pure, burns without residue. It is distinguished from other varieties of bitumen by its more difficult fusibility, and by its fracture being clean, conchoidal, and vitreous. Distilled by itself it yields about 36% of a peculiar bituminous oil (crude PETROLENE), together with combustible gases, traces of ammonia and water. To anhydrous alcohol it yields 5% of a yellow resin, soluble in rectified spirit and ether; by digesting the residuum in ether, a further 70% of a brownish-black resin is obtained, which is freely soluble in the volatile oils and in about 5 times its weight of mineral naphtha. The portion (25%) left undissolved by ether is very soluble in the oils of turpentine and petroleum. These three resinous principles dissolve altogether, when digested, in the oils of anise, rosemary, and turpentine, and in the fixed oils. (John.) According to others, asphaltum consists almost entirely of asphaltene. (Boussingault.) Paranaphthaline has been found in some varieties. (M. Laurent.) Average sp. gr. 1 to 1·68. By friction it affords negative electricity. It is soluble in oil of turpentine, benzole, mineral and coal-tar naphtha, the fixed oils, solutions of the caustic alkalies, and several other liquids, by the aid of heat.

Sources. That of commerce is chiefly obtained from the shores of the Dead Sea; but much of that of the shops is a spurious article of the most worthless character. A short time since some specimens of the purest and most beautiful description, from the Great Bitumen Lake of Trinidad, were given us by our respected and venerable friend, the late Earl of Dundonald, who stated that the supply of both liquid and indurated bitumens, of every grade of quality, was unlimited from that source; but that owing to injudicious importations of inferior kinds (those most easily shipped), a prejudice had been created against them in the London market. Our personal investigations have since confirmed the accuracy of these statements.

Uses. The finer varieties are chiefly used as a ‘glazing colour’ by artists, and in the manufacture of black varnishes and japans. The inferior kinds are applied to the same purposes as ordinary solid bitumen. The Egyptians used it in embalming under the name of MU′MIA; and the Babylonian builders are said to have employed it, as a cement, in lieu of mortar. It is, however, doubtful whether the hard semi-vitreous variety of bitumen, properly termed ‘asphaltum,’ was that which was thus employed; its present hardness being probably due to time. As a medicine it is stimulant; and it was formerly used as an ingredient in certain plasters and ointments. See Bitumen, Pitch, &c. A mixture of asphalt, chalk, sand, ground sandstone, &c., is used as a pavement for making water-tight tanks and covers, as a coating for gas and water pipes, and for various other similar purposes. Sometimes the pitchy residue obtained by distilling off the more volatile portions of gas tar is employed to replace the asphalt in the foregoing mixture; the product is called artificial or gas-tar asphalt.

Asphaltum, Facti′′tious (-tĭsh-′ŭs). Syn. Asphal′tum facti′′tium, L. That of the shops, when not an inferior kind of true asphaltum, is commonly made from the bottoms of Barbadoes tar, and other mineral bitumens, by heating them until quite hard. Sometimes a little Scio turpentine, balsam of copaiba, or even common resin, is added. Colour, hardness, &c., inferior to those of native asphaltum.

Asphaltum, Liq′uid. Syn. Prepared’ asphaltum; Asphal′tum liq′uidum, L. Prep. 1. Scio turpentine, 2 oz.; melt; add asphaltum (in powder), 1 oz.; mix, cool a little, and reduce with hot oil of turpentine.

2. (Wilson’s.) Asphaltum, ⁄2 lb.; melt; add of hot balsam of copaiba, 1 lb.; and, when mixed, thin it with hot oil of turpentine. Both are used as ‘black japan’ or ‘varnish,’ and as a ‘glazing colour’ by artists.

ASPHYX′IA (-fĭk′-sh′ă; -fĭks′-e-ă‡). [L., Gr.] Syn. Asphyx′y‡ (-e), Eng.; Asphyxie, Fr.; Pulslosigkeit, Scheintod, Gr. Literally, absence of pulse; hence, a fainting fit; apparent lifelessness. Its use is now generally confined to a suspension of vitality from some cause interrupting respiration, but in which life is not actually extinct, and may, under favorable circumstances, be revived.

Asphyxia is commonly divided into four varieties by nosologists:—

1. Asphyxia algida:—Cause. Exposure to intense cold.—Symp. Countenance pale, livid, and shrivelled; limbs rigid.

2. Asphyxia elec′trica:—Cause. Stroke of lightning or electricity.—Symp. Countenance pale, limbs flexible, blood incoagulable.

3. Asphyxia mephit′ica:—Cause. Inhalation of irrespirable gases or fumes.—Symp. Countenance pallid, lips wan, &c.

4. Asphyxia suffocatio′nis:—Cause. Suffocation or strangulation, as from drowning, hanging, &c.—Symp. Countenance turgid and livid.

Treatm., &c. No general rules can be given exactly suitable to each variety. Whenever it is possible to procure medical aid, it should, of course, be immediately sought, as the delay of even a single minute may render it unavailing. In the treatment of suspended animation the principal object is to effect a restoration of the respiratory and circulatory functions; the former of which has been arrested by the external condition of the patient; the latter by the contact of morbidly carbonised blood with the capillary vessels of the lungs. The first thing to be attempted is the restoration of warmth by active friction with the warm hands, flannels, &c.; the second, the re-establishment of natural respiration by an available means, of which, perhaps, none is simpler or better than alternate pressure and its relaxation, applied to the thorax and abdomen, so as to induce expiration first, and inspiration immediately afterwards, by the natural action and elasticity of the ribs and diaphragm. Cold water may also be suddenly dashed on the face and general surface previously warmed by the frictions, in the hope of inducing a more decided inspiration. If these measures fail, artificial respiration should be promptly had recourse to. (Dr Marshall Hall.) The warm bath, and slight electrical shocks, or continued streaming electricity, may also be applied.

See Charcoal, Cold, Drowning, Hanging, Respiration (Artificial), Sewers-gas, Strangulation, Suffocation, &c.

ASPHYX′IATED. Syn. Asphyxia′tus, L.; Asphyxié, Fr.; Asphyktisch, Scheintodt, &c., Ger. Affected with or labouring under asphyxia. (See above.)

ASP′IC†. Spike lavender or French lavender; also the male lavender, spica nardi, or pseudo-nardus of old writers.

Aspic. In cookery, “savory jelly extracted from the succulence of meat.” (Soyer.)

Prep. (Miss Acton.) Calf’s feet, 2 in no.; veal, 4 lbs.; ham, 3 lb.; onions, 2 (large); carrots, 3; water, 1 gall.; boil 5 or 6 hours, or until reduced to less than one half, strain, and when cold, put the jelly into a stew-pan with the whites of 4 eggs well beaten, a large bunch of savoury herbs, 3 blades of mace (in shreds), a teaspoonful of white peppercorns, and salt, q. s.; keep it well stirred until pretty hot, then let it gently simmer for about 15 minutes, and, after settling, pass it through a jelly-bag till quite clear. After cooling a little, it is fit for use; or it may be allowed to cool and be at any time remelted. French cooks commonly flavour it with tarragon-vinegar, added after clarification.

Uses, &c. “Cold poultry, game, fish, plovers’ eggs, truffles, and various dressed vegetables, with many other things often elaborately prepared, and highly ornamental, are moulded, and served in it, especially at large déjeûners and similar repasts. It is also much used to decorate raised pies and hams, and for many other purposes.”

ASPIRATOR. An apparatus for drawing a stream of air through a tube or other vessel. There are several forms of aspirator; that invented by Brunner is perhaps one of the most convenient. It consists of two equal cylindrical vessels placed one above the other, and communicating by tubes which can be opened or closed, so that when the water has run from the upper to the lower vessel, the apparatus turning for the purpose on a horizontal axis may be inverted so as to bring the empty vessel to the bottom and the full one to the top; the water may then again be made to flow without the trouble of refilling. See Air, Analysis of.

ASS (ăss). Syn. As′inus, L.; Ane (âne), Fr.; Esel, Ger. The e′quus as′inus (Linn.), a well-known animal found almost everywhere.

ASSAFŒTIDA. [L. and Eng.] Syn. Assafetida, Devil’s dung, Eng.; Assafœtida gummi, L.; Stinkasand, Stinkender asand, Teufels-dreck, Ger. A gum resin exuded from the excised root of narthex assafœtida (B. P.); from ferula assafœfida, and probably from ferula Persica. It yields its virtues to alcohol, and forms a clear tincture, which becomes milky on the addition of water. It is imported into Europe from Persia, viâ Bombay, in cases, mats, and casks.

Comp. Assafœtida contains from 4 to 5% of a peculiar volatile oil, and from 50 to 60% of resin of a whitish colour, turning rose-red and reddish-brown by exposure to the air, and giving a greenish solution with concentrated sulphuric acid. Brande resolved this resin into two others—one soluble in ether; the other insoluble in that menstruum.

Pur. The assafœtida of the shops is generally in masses of a whitish, reddish, or violet hue, formed principally of adhering tears or grains, possesses a peculiar fœtid, alliaceous odour, and forms an emulsion with water in all proportions. Hot sulphuric acid blackens it and forms a dark blood-red liquid, sulphurous fumes being evolved. This solution diluted with water, and then saturated with potassa, has a blue colour, which is most visible by reflected light. Digested first in alcohol, and afterwards in weak spirit-and-water, the residuum should not exceed 16%. Sp. gr. 1·325 to 1·330. It is frequently adulterated with inferior gums, and with chalk, clay, sand, &c. The purest and best is that which is clear, of a more or less pale-red colour, full of white tears, and very fœtid.

Prop., Uses, &c. Assafœtida is stimulant, antispasmodic, emmenagogue, expectorant, aphrodisiac, and anthelmintic, and is the most powerful of all the fœtid gum-resins. It is administered with advantage in several uterine diseases, hysteria, chorea, flatulent colic, hooping-cough, infantile convulsions, spasmodic asthma, and some other affections of a spasmodic and convulsive character.—Dose, 5 or 6 to 30 gr.; in pills, or preferably made into an emulsion; as an enema, 2 dr., with warm water, q. s.—Dose for Animals. Similar to Assafœtida. Some oriental nations esteem it highly as a condiment. The Brahmins use it against flatulence, and to correct the coldness of their vegetable food. In Persia the leaves of the plant are eaten as salad; and the root, after being roasted. In cookery it is now frequently employed as a substitute for garlic. “I am assured by an experienced gastronome that the finest relish which a beef-steak can possess may be communicated by” (slightly) “rubbing the gridiron on which the steak is to be cooked with assafœtida.”

ASSAFŒTIDA, PREPARED. As Ammoniacum, prepared.

ASSAMAR. A substance described by Reichenbach, and found by him in the crust of bread. It possesses the faculty of retarding tissue metamorphosis.

ASSAY′ (-sā). Syn. Essai (anc., asaie), Fr. Prüfung, &c., Ger. Literally, a ‘trial’ or examination. In chemistry, the determination, by any chemical means, of the richness of a substance in its essential material or more valuable ingredient; more particularly applied to quantitative analyses of the commercial alkalies, bleaching-powder, oxide of manganese, ores, and other like articles that are employed on the large scale. In docimacy and metallurgy the determination of the quantity of metal in any ore, alloy, or other metallic compound, particularly in the ‘dry way,’ or by the process of cupellation; and more especially of the quantity of pure gold, or pure silver, contained in coin, bullion, and the commercial alloys and ores of these metals. The substance assayed*. See Assaying, &c.

ASSAY′ING. Syn. Assay′, Doc′imacy (dŏos′-) Docimas′tic art; Coupellation, Fr.; Abtreiben auf der capelle, Ger. The art of assay, or of determining the quantity of gold and silver in ores and alloys of these metals, in the ‘dry way,’ or by cupellation. It differs from chemical analysis in merely furnishing the quantity of the precious metal contained in the sample examined; instead of the nature and proportions of all, or any, of the ingredients in the compound, at the will of the operator.

a, a, Rollers on which the furnace rests.

b, Ash-pit.

c, One of the ash-pit dampers.

d, Grate supporting the muffle-plate.

e, Muffle containing the cupels.

f, The mouth-plate, upon which, during use, is piled ignited pieces of charcoal, by which the mouth of the furnace is closed, and heated air made to pass over the cupels.

h, Interior of furnace containing charcoal.

i, i, Walls of the furnace.

k, Moveable chimney for regulating the draught.

Materials, Appar., &c. These are—furnace, muffle, cupels, charcoal, &c., all of which must be provided and properly arranged for use before an assay can be made:—

The FUR′NACE employed at the Royal Mint and at Goldsmiths’ Hall, London, is figured in section in the above fig., and has the following dimensions:—Total height, 2⁄2 feet; from the bottom to the grate, 6 inches; grate, muffle-plate, and bed of loam that covers it, 3 inches; space between the grate and the bottom of the funnel or chimney, 21⁄2 inches; funnel, 6 inches. A furnace of any other shape and size may be employed, provided it affords a sufficient heat, and allows of the easy introduction of the muffle.

The MUFF′LE (mŭf′l) is a vessel made of clay (see engr.), and furnished with an opening to admit of the introduction of the cupels, and the complete inspection of the process. It is placed on the muffle-plate (see above), by which it is introduced into the furnace.

The CU′PEL (kū′-pĕl) is a small, porous, shallow crucible, usually made of bone ashes or burnt horn. The powder (slightly moistened with water) is placed in a circular steel mould, and after being pressed down tight, is finished off with a rammer having a convex face of polished steel, which is forcibly struck with a mallet, until the mass becomes sufficiently hard and adherent. The newly formed cupel is then carefully removed and exposed in the air for a fortnight or three weeks to dry. Fig. 1 represents a cupel in section, and fig. 2 the tongs used for charging it. The best weight for cupels ranges between 180 and 200 gr. Those used at the Royal Mint are made of the calcined cores of ox-horns.

Proc. of Ass. The muffle, with the cupels properly arranged on the ‘muffle-plate,’ is placed in the furnace, and the charcoal added and lighted at the top by means of a few ignited pieces thrown on last. After the cupels have been exposed for about half an hour, and have become white-hot, the lead (see below) is put into them by means of the tongs. As soon as this becomes bright red and ‘circulating,’ as it is called, the specimen for assay, wrapped in a small piece of paper or lead-foil, is added. The fire is now kept up strongly until the metal enters the lead and circulates well, when the heat, slightly diminished, is so regulated that the assay appears convex and more glowing than the cupel itself, whilst the ‘undulations’ circulate in all directions, and the middle of the metal appears smooth, with a margin of litharge which is freely absorbed by the cupel. When the metal becomes bright and shining, or, in technical language, begins to ‘lighten,’ and prismatic hues suddenly flash across the globules, and undulate and cross each other, followed by the metal becoming very brilliant and clear, and at length fixed and solid (called the ‘brightening’), the separation is ended and the process complete. The cupels are then drawn to the mouth of the muffle, and allowed to cool slowly. When quite cold, the resulting ‘button,’ if of silver, is removed by the pliers or tongs from the cupel, and after being flattened on a small anvil of polished steel, with a polished steel hammer, to detach adhering oxide of lead, and cleaned with a small hard brush, is very accurately weighed. The weight is that of the pure silver; and the difference between the weight of the alloy before cupellation, and that of the button of pure metal, represents the proportion of alloy in the sample examined. (See below.) In the case of gold, the ‘button’ has to undergo the subsequent operations of quartation, parting, and annealing, before it is weighed, as described under that metal.

Assayer’s weights, &c. The materials used in assaying are accurately weighed in a balance of the most susceptible description; and the weights are given in terms of the ‘notation’ employed by assayers. The ‘fineness,’ ‘richness,’ or ‘degree of purity’ of gold is expressed in carats. Pure gold is spoken of as 24 carats fine; and any other sample containing in 24 parts only 12, 18, 22, &c., parts of pure gold, is said to be of as many carats fine. Every carat is nominally divided into 4 ‘assay-grains,’ each assay-grain into ‘quarters,’ and each quarter into ‘eighths’ (= ⁄32 carat), giving 768 “reports” for gold. On this system fractional alloys are commonly spoken of as of so many ‘carats and thirty-seconds fine.’ The real quantity taken for assay, technically termed the ‘assay-pound,’ is, however, very small, generally either 12 gr. or 6 gr., which makes each assayer’s eighth-grain, or “report,” equal to either the ⁄64 or ⁄128 gr. Troy, as the case may be. The nominal assayer’s gold carat is 12 gr. The “journey-weight of gold” is 15 lbs. Troy (= 701 sovereigns = 1402 half-sovereigns).

The ‘fineness,’ ‘richness,’ or ‘purity’ of silver was formerly expressed in pennyweights; but is now generally reckoned in 1000ths, which admits of greater accuracy. Pure silver was said to be silver of 12 pennyweights.” If it contained 1, 2, or 3 parts of alloy, it was termed “silver of 11, 10, or 9 pennyweights,” as the case might be. Every assayer’s pennyweight was nominally divided into 24 gr., and hence gave 288 fine grains, or ‘reports,’ for silver. The fineness of specimens containing odd grains was given in pennyweights and fine grains. The ‘assay-pound’ for silver, on this system, may be 24 Troy gr., when 2 real grains are equal to 1 ‘fine pennyweight,’ and ⁄12 real gr. equal to 1 ‘fine-grain.’ In the decimal method pure silver is = 1000. The usual weight of silver taken for the ‘assay-pound,’ when the fineness is reckoned in 1000ths, is 20 Troy gr., every real grain of which represents ⁄1000th of fineness; and so on of smaller divisions. The mint “journeyweight of silver” is 60 lbs. Troy (=3920 shillings, or a like value in other denominations).

Ratio. Cupellation, which is the distinctive and most important operation in assaying gold and silver, is founded upon the feeble affinity which these metals have for oxygen, in comparison with copper, tin, and other cheaper metals; and on the tendency which these latter metals have to oxidise rapidly in contact with lead at a high temperature, and to sink with it into any porous earthen vessel, in a thin, glassy or vitriform state. The conditions essential to the success of the process, and which are found in the precious metals, are—that “the metal from which we wish to part the oxides must not be volatile;” and that “it should also melt and form a button at the heat of cupellation; for otherwise it would continue disseminated, attached to the portion of oxide spread over the cupel, and incapable of being collected.”

Concluding Remarks. The art of assaying requires very great care, skill, and experience, for its due exercise; and from the costliness of the precious metals, and their general employment for coin, jewelry, plate, &c., is of the utmost importance both to individuals and governments. Such is the extreme delicacy of the operation of cupellation that, without the requisites alluded to, it is more likely to fail than to give reliable results. An assay is thought to be good when the ‘button’ or ‘bead’ separates readily from the cupel, has a round form, with a brilliant upper surface, and the lower one granular and of a dead metallic lustre. When the upper surface is ‘dead’ and ‘flat,’ too much heat has been employed; and in the case of silver, some of the metal may have been lost by fuming or absorption. When the bead adheres to the cupel, or is spongy, variegated, or has scales of litharge still adhering to it, either too little heat has been used, or the process has been stopped before the assay was complete. The remedy is re-exposure to heat in the cupel, adding a little powdered charcoal or a few small pieces of paper, and continuing the heat until the metal ‘brightens’ and ‘circulates’ freely. The lead employed must be absolutely pure, or that technically called ‘poor lead,’ and, for this purpose, is commonly prepared by the reduction of refined litharge mixed with some carbonaceous matter, by heat; but, according to the late T. H. Henry, “lead reduced from the litharge of commerce usually contains from 10 to 15 dwt. of silver per ton.” These remarks apply equally to gold and silver.

The process of assaying by the cupel, however skilfully conducted, gives much less accurate results, especially with silver, than the method of chemical analysis, often termed ‘humid’ or ‘volumetrical assay,’ whilst it is, in all cases, much more troublesome and expensive, and with compounds containing only small quantities of the precious metals, is not to be depended on. See Gold, Silver; also Carat, Cupellation, Parting, Liquation, Quartation, Refining, &c. (and below).

Assay of the Touch. The fineness of JEWELRY, and of small quantities of GOLD which it is either impossible or inconvenient to assay according to the usual method, is generally determined by means of touch-needles and touch-stones. The former are made in sets, containing gold of different degrees of fineness, and differently alloyed with copper and silver. The latter are usually of black basalt; but pieces of good black pottery answer the purpose very well. The mode of using them is to mark the stone with the sample under examination, and to compare its appearance, hardness, colour, &c., with that produced by one or more of the needles. When the two are similar, the quality or ‘fineness’ is considered to be the same. The marks are then further examined by heating the ‘touch-stone’ to redness, and moistening the strokes with aquafortis, when the appearance resulting from oxidation, &c., differ according to the nature and quantity of the alloy. A nearly similar method is sometimes adopted with SILVER; but the characteristics are scarcely so distinct with the metal. (See above.)

Hu′mid Assaying, Humid Assay. Terms applied to the estimation of the quantity of gold and silver in ores and alloys in the moist way, more especially by the method known as volumetrical analysis. See Gold (Estim.), Silver (Estim.), Volumetrical Analysis, &c.

ASSIMILA′TION. [Eng. Fr.] Syn. Assimila′tio, L.; Aneigung, Verähnlichung, &c., Ger. In physiology, the conversion of food into nutriment, and finally into the substances which compose the bodies of animals and plants; the function of nutrition.

ASTHEN′IC. Syn. Asthen′icus, L.; Asthénique, Débile, Fr.; Schwach, Ger. Weak; debilitated. In pathology, an epithet of diseases (ASTHEN′IC DISEASES) accompanied by great and well-marked debility.

ASTHEN′OPY. Syn. Astheno′pia, L. In pathology, incapacity to keep the eyes fixed on near or small objects for any length of time without confusion of vision. The common causes are over-exertion of the eyes, particularly by artificial light, or by a very brilliant one, or during convalescence; congestion of the ocular vessels; debilitating discharges or indulgences; and general nervous debility, however produced. It “appears to consist in weakness of the apparatus by which the eye is adjusted for the vision of near objects;” and along with this “there is an irritable state of the retina, connected in some manner with a tendency to internal congestion of the eyes.” The treatment may consist of rest to the eyes, and ablution of them in cold water, with such other efforts to restore their tone and the general health as are noticed under Amaurosis. The prospect of complete cure, when the cause is not removable, is unfavorable; but even when confirmed the disease is not likely to end in blindness. The use of convex spectacles of very low power will generally be found serviceable. See Eye, Spectacles, Vision, &c.

ASTH′MA (ăst′mă). [Eng., Ger., L., Gr.] Syn. Asthme, Fr.; Engbrüstigkeit, Ger. In pathology, a well-known disease coming on by fits, and characterised by shortness and difficulty of breathing, accompanied by a wheezing sound, cough, stricture and tightness of the chest, with other like symptoms. These gradually increase until the patient can no longer remain in a recumbent position, being, as it were, threatened with immediate suffocation; and they generally terminate, after the lapse of a few hours, in copious expectoration. The attack usually commences towards evening, and the symptoms increase in urgency during the night—often occurring suddenly after the first sleep—until at length, on the approach of morning, a remission takes place, and, in all probability, the patient, worn out and exhausted, falls into a sound sleep. On awaking in the morning he still feels the ‘tightness’ at the chest, breathes with some difficulty, which is increased by moving, and cannot lie in bed unless his head and shoulders are greatly raised. After a repetition of the fits for some nights, they at length moderate, and after more considerable remissions, pass off at last, leaving the patient in his usual state of health for a time, or until fresh exciting causes produce a return of the disease. For an evening or two previous to the fit the patient generally feels drowsy, indolent, and low-spirited, and experiences a sensation of fulness about the stomach, with headache, general uneasiness, and indigestion—these are the premonitory symptoms.

Asthma is principally confined to the later periods of life, and appears in many cases to be hereditary. It is generally severest in the heat of summer, or in the foggy or damp or windy weather of winter. The fits vary in duration from two to several hours. Sometimes copious expectoration commences early, which has led to the division of asthma, by nosologists, into two kinds—dry, nervous, or spasmodic asthma (ASTHMA SIC′CUM, L.) and humid a. (A. HU′MIDUM, L.).

The exciting causes of asthma are exposure to sudden changes of temperature, particularly from heat to cold; unwholesome effluvia, hard drinking, heavy meals, indigestion, violent exercise, and cold, damp, foggy, and sometimes windy weather.

Treatm. A dry, warm, and airy situation as a residence should, if possible, be sought. The use of flannel next the skin, and tepid or warm bathing is also advantageous. The bowels should be kept regular by mild aperients, and the stomach preserved in order by the adoption of a light and wholesome diet; particularly avoiding excess in either eating or drinking. The severity of the paroxysm may be generally lessened by adopting the sitting posture, and inhaling the vapour of hot water or of an infusion of chamomile. Small doses of camphor, ether, and opium, frequently repeated, may also be tried. The inhalation of the vapour of a little tar liquefied by heat is said to often produce considerable relief. The fumes arising from the slow combustion of porous paper dipped in a solution of nitre, and dried, have also been recommended. “The fumes of a piece as big as one’s hand being placed on an earthenware plate, and ignited, presently become sensible throughout the room; and within a quarter of an hour their influence in many cases is rendered evident, in clearing the passages and gradually opening the air tubes.” “Of calming vapours that of chloroform is, however, the one likely, in respect of its soothing power, to supersede all others. Inspired in moderate quantity, far less than is requisite to produce general insensibility, it has been found of singular efficacy in allaying, at once, the spasmodic distress of an asthma-fit. But it is a remedy too potent and subtle to be entrusted to the discretion of the patient himself.” (Dr Watson); unless, indeed, he well understands its properties and nature, and has some friend near him to restrain his using it too freely—a thing he is, unfortunately, often tempted, by the urgency of the symptoms, to do. “Bleeding is an imprudent operation in every species of asthma” (Dr Bree); and has often proved highly injurious, especially in elderly persons. It is only in full plethoric habits, or when the paroxysms are very severe, and attended with signs of congestion of the lungs and brain, indicated by lividity of the countenance, stupor, extreme dyspnœa, &c., that blood should be taken; and then only by ‘cupping’ between the shoulders, or by leeches to the chest. Emetics and active purgatives must also be avoided during the paroxysm; at which time costiveness may be best removed by an aperient clyster containing assafœtida. At other times, emetics (of ipecacuanha) and diaphoretics, followed by mild purgatives, may be administered with advantage; indeed, an emetic, taken a few hours before an impending fit, will frequently prevent its accession. Dyspeptic symptoms must be treated in the usual manner. “Chalk and opium will astonish the asthmatic, by the excellence of their effects when the irritation proceeds from dyspepsia of the first passages only.” (Dr Bree.) The same authority also states that vinegar, separately administered, counteracts the flatulence and distension of the stomach.

Various other remedies have been recommended for asthma; among which are the smoking of tobacco and stramonium. In using the latter herb, the root and lower parts of the stem are chopped up and placed in the bowl of a common tobacco-pipe, and a few whiffs are occasionally taken. Drinking at the same time should be avoided. Lately lobelia inflata (Indian tobacco) has been highly extolled in asthma, in doses of—tincture, 20 or 30 drops, to 2 teaspoonfuls—powder, 5 to 15 or 20 gr.; taken at the commencement or shortly before the accession of the fit, and repeated after the interval of an hour, if nausea or expectoration does not intervene. Sir John Floyer is said to have been cured of an asthma of 60 years’ standing, at the age of 80, by the constant use of very strong coffee. Sir John Pringle adopted the same remedy with great success. He remarks, “One quality occurred to me which I have observed of that liquor (coffee), confirming what you have said of its sedative powers. It is the best abater of periodic asthma which I have seen. The coffee used ought to be the best Mocha, newly burnt, and made very strong immediately after grinding it. I commonly order an ounce for one dish, which is to be repeated with fresh coffee after the interval of a quarter or half an hour; and which I direct to be taken without milk or sugar.”

Very recently cigars and cigarettes of datura tatula, Linn.—a peculiar species of stramonium—have been prepared by Messrs Savory and Moore; and are strongly recommended by Drs Watson, Latham, Fergusson, and many other physicians of eminence, as the very best remedy yet introduced for asthma.

A change of diet and habits, and particularly a change of residence, will often produce a marked improvement in asthmatic patients, and even effect a cure, when medicines have failed. The use of bark and bitters, or mild chalybeate tonics (when not contra-indicated), tends to improve the tone of the system, and may be adopted, in nearly all cases, with perfect safety. See Bath, AIR (Compressed), Cigars, Datura, &c.

Treatment for Horses. Ether and belladonna; chlorodyne; inhalation of chloroform; or amyl nitrite; subcutaneous injection of morphine or atropine; arsenic; and regular digestible diet.

Asthma, Grind′er’s. See Melanosis.

ASTHMA CURE. 1. (Dr Aubrée, Ferte Vidame, Eure et Loire, France.) Decoction of senega (10 parts of the root), 250 parts; iodide of potassium, 50 parts; extract of opium, 4 parts; simple syrup, 500 parts; weak spirit, 200 parts. Coloured with some cochineal tincture. (Hager.)

According to a later analysis by Schröppel, this remedy is thus composed:—Iodide of potassium, 9 parts; French lactucarium, 1 part; water, 288 parts; simple syrup, 48 parts; chloric ether, 1⁄2 part.

2. (Kubale, Klitschdorf, near Bunzlau.) This is a solution of iodide of potassium, bromide of potassium, and sugar in water, strongly coloured with a cochineal tincture containing alum. It is supplied in six bottles, numbered 1 to 6, No. 1 being the weakest, and No. 6 the strongest in the iodide and bromide. In No. 3, for example, we found:—Iodide of potassium, 5 grms.; sugar, 2⁄2 grms.; alum, ⁄3 grm.; cochineal colouring matter, ⁄2 grm.; water, 200 grms. (Hager.)

ASTHMA TEA (Dr Orleïn). Recommended for difficulty of breathing, dry coughs, loss of sleep, loss of appetite, &c. Liquorice, 8 parts; marshmallow root, 6 parts; Iceland moss, 5 parts; a sort of buckbean, 2 parts; horehound, 2 parts. (Schädler and Selle.)

ASTHMATIC PASTILLES (S. Kittel’s, now Daniel White & Co., New York). Set fire to the pastilles and inhale the smoke. An analysis found in 100 parts:—Nitrate of potash, 20·1 parts; impure resin of scammony, 3·5 parts; gum and sugar, 35· parts; charcoal, plant-stems, and leaves, 40·7 parts. (Dr Fleck.)

ASTRIN′GENT (-trĭnje′-). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Astrin′gens, L.; Zusammenziehend, Ger. That straitens or causes wrinkling or constriction. In pharmacology, an epithet of substances or agents (ASTRIN′GENTS; ASTRINGEN′TIA, L.) which constrict animal fibre and coagulate albuminous fluids, and thereby obviate relaxation and check excessive secretion or discharges. In modern use, the word, both as an adj. and subst., is chiefly applied to internal remedies, those of a like character, employed externally, being usually termed ‘styptics,’ ‘desiccants,’ &c.

The principal astringents are—alcohol, alum, chalybeates (generally), sulphate of copper, sulphate and perchloride of iron, acetate and diacetate of lead, lime, bichloride of mercury, nitrate of silver, vegetable astringents (see below), acetate, carbonate, chloride, oxide, and sulphate of zinc, &c. See Desiccants, Styptics, Tonics, &c.

Astringents, Min′eral. See Astringent (above).

Astringents, Veg′etable. Of these the principal are—alkanet, bistort, catechu, the cinchona barks and their alkaloids, dragon’s blood, French or red rose, galls, kino, logwood, mastiche, oak-bark, red sanders wood, rhatany, tormentil, tannic acid, gallic acid, and areca nut. (See above.)

Astringent Prin′ciple. A term formerly restricted to tannin; but now commonly applied to the astringent matter of any vegetable.

ATMOM′ETER. Syn. Atmidom′eter; Atmom′etrum, &c., L.; Atmomètre, &c., Fr. In chemistry and meteorology, an instrument for measuring the rate of evaporation from a humid surface. It is of very simple construction, and possesses some practical value. It consists of a long glass graduated tube divided into inches, having attached to the bottom a hollow ball made of porous earthenware, similar to that used in water bottles. When used, water is poured in at the top until it rises to the zero point of the scale. The outside of the porous ball being always covered with dew, the more rapidly the evaporation takes place, the more quickly will the water fall in the tube.

AT′MOSPHERE (-fēre). Syn. Atmosphe′′ra, L.; Atmosphère, Fr.; Atmosphäre, Dunstkreis, Ger. Primarily, a ‘vapour-sphere,’ appr., the assemblage of respirable gas and aëriform vapours which surround the earth; fig., any surrounding medium or influence.

Comp., Chem. prop., Pur., Uses, &c. See Air (Atmospheric).

Mechanical properties of the atmosphere:—

Colour:—The prevailing colour of the atmosphere is blue; at considerable elevations this blue tint is lost, and the sky appears deep black. The prevalence of blue is referred to the greater facility with which the blue and violet rays are reflected, whilst the glowing tints of morning and evening are conceived to arise from the red rays possessing greater momentum than the other rays of the spectrum.

Density:—The density of the atmosphere diminishes with the distance from the earth’s surface, and this is the duplicate ratio of the altitude. Thus, if at a given altitude the density of the air is only one half what it is at the level of the sea, at twice that elevation it possesses only one fourth that density. On this fact depends the application of the barometer to the determination of the elevation or depression of any point above or below the level of the sea, taken as a standard.

Density of the Atmosphere at Different Elevations. By Prof. Graham.

Height above the level
of the Sea in miles. Volume of Air. Height of the Barometer.

0· 1 30

2·705 2 15

5·41 4 7·5

8·115 8 3·75

10·82 16 1·875

13·525 32 ·9375

16·23 64 ·46875

Height, &c.:—If the density of the air were uniform throughout its whole extent, the height of the atmosphere, measured by a corresponding column of mercury, would be barely 5⁄4 miles. As, however, its density decreases with the distance from the earth’s surface, its real height must be considerably greater. Kepler found that the reflection and refraction of the sun’s rays by the atmosphere, producing twilight, ceases when that luminary descends 18 degrees below the horizon, whence it is calculated that the atmosphere cannot have a greater altitude than 45 miles. On the other hand, there is reason to believe that it cannot be much less than this sum. “With a good air-pump air may be rarefied 300 times; supposing this to be the utmost limit to which rarefaction can be carried, the atmosphere would still extend to an altitude of above 40 miles.” Whether, in a state of extreme tenuity in which its grosser properties are lost, it extends indefinitely into space, was formerly a subject of controversy. That its boundaries are limited, and that it belongs exclusively to our earth appears almost certain. “We are warranted in concluding that the atoms of air are not infinitely divisible, and consequently that the atmosphere has a limit; and the limit must be situated at that height above the earth where the gravitation of the atoms is just equal to the force of their repulsion.” Under ordinary circumstances the mercury of the barometer falls about one inch for every 1000 feet of elevation.

Pressure:—The weight or pressure of the atmosphere is shown by the rise of water in the barrel of the common ‘lifting pump’ and the suspension of the mercurial column in the tube of the barometer. The last affords a ready means of determining the actual pressure of the air, the column of mercury, and the column of air by which it is suspended, resembling two weights in equilibrio, at the opposite extremities of the same balance. The mean height of the barometer at the level of the sea, in England, is 28·6 inches (= about 33⁄2 feet of water); and as a cubic inch of mercury weighs 3425·92 gr., or ·48956 lb., it follows that the weight of a column of mercury whose base is a square inch is 14·6 lbs. avoirdupois. The pressure of the atmosphere is not merely downwards, but is equally diffused in all directions, and exerts a most powerful effect in the economy of organic beings. On the surface of the body of an adult of ordinary size (say = 15 sq. feet, or 2160 inches), it amounts to the enormous weight of 31,536 lbs., which is not sensible, only because it is balanced by the force of the elastic fluids in the interior of the body. Were this equilibrium to be suddenly destroyed, the consequence would be, either that the body would be instantly torn to pieces with explosive violence, or that it would be crushed under the overwhelming weight that would suddenly fall upon it. Even the comparatively slight variations of atmospheric pressure which occur with changes of wind, weather, and season, exercise a perceptible effect on the functions of life.

Mean pressure of the Atmosphere at the level of the Sea, in different latitudes, at 32° Fahr., expressed in inches of mercury.

Lat. Height (inches). Lat. Height (inches). Lat. Height (inches).

0° 29·930 40° 30·019 54⁄2° 29·926

10 29·975 45 30·000 60 29·803

20 30·064 49 29·978 64 29·606

30 30·108 51⁄2 29·551 67 29·673

Temperature:—The temperature of the atmosphere, independently of changes arising from variations of latitude and season, diminishes, like its density, with its elevation. In general, every 100 yards of ascent causes the temperature to fall 1° Fahr. See Air (Atmospheric), Epidemics, Ventilation, &c.

Atmosphere. In engineering and pneumatics, the pressure of a column of mercury at 0° Cent. or 32° Fahr., which is 76 centimètres or 29·9218 inches high, at the mean level of the sea in latitude 45°, taken as a standard of that exerted by other elastic fluids. In practice this is assumed to be 15 lbs. to the square inch, under a barometrical pressure of 30 inches. Thus, steam or air condensed so as to exert a pressure of 30 lbs. per sq. inch is said to be of two atmospheres; at 45 lbs., of three atmospheres, &c.

AT′OM (-ŭm). Atomic Weight, Atomic Theory. Syn. At′omus, L.; Atome, Fr.; Atom, Untheilbare THEILCHEN, Ger.

Atomic Weight. When the elements unite chemically, they invariably do so in the proportions by weight represented by the numbers attached to them in the following table, or in multiples of these proportions. Dalton accounted for this law by supposing that the constituent particles of matter are indivisible, and believed that, if it were possible to place such particles in the balance, their relative weights would be found to correspond with the numbers given in the table. In other words, the term atom, which is derived from the Greek ατομος, indivisible, is applied in modern chemistry to the smallest quantity by weight of an element which is capable of existing in a chemical compound, hydrogen being taken as unity.

Name. Symbol. Atomic weight. Atomic volume.

ALUMINUM Al 27·5

Antimony Sb 122

Arsenic As 75 ⁄4

Barium Ba 137

Bismuth Bi 208

Boron B 11

BROMINE Br 80 1

Cadmium Cd 112 2

Cæsium Cs 133

CALCIUM Ca 40

CARBON C 12

Cerium Ce 92

CHLORINE Cl 35·5 1

Chromium Cr 52·5

Cobalt Co 58·8

COPPER Cu 63·5

Didymium D 96

FLUORINE F 19 1

Glucinum G 14

Gold Au 196·7

HYDROGEN H 1 1

Indium In 74

IODINE I 127 1

Iridium Ir 198

IRON Fe 56

Lanthanum L 92

LEAD Pb 207

Lithium Li 7

Magnesium Mg 24

MANGANESE Mn 55

MERCURY Hg 200 2

Molybdenum Mo 92

Nickel Ni 58·8

Niobium Nb 97·6

NITROGEN N 14 1

Osmium Os 199

OXYGEN O 16 1

Palladium Pd 106·5

PHOSPHORUS P 31 ⁄4

Platinum Pt 197·4

POTASSIUM K 39

Rhodium Rh 104

Rubidium Rb 85·5

Ruthenium Ru 104

Selenium Se 79 1

SILICON Si 28·5

SILVER Ag 108

SODIUM Na 23

Strontium Sr 87·5

SULPHUR S 32 1

Tantalum Ta 137·5

Tellurium Te 128

Thallium Tl 204

Thorium Th 231·5

Tin Sn 118

Titanium Ti 50

Tungsten W 184

Uranium U 120

Vanadium V 51·2

Yttrium Y 68

ZINC Zn 65 2

Zirconium Zr 90

Atomic Volume. The volume or space occupied by the atomic weights of gases at a temperature of 60° F., and under a pressure of 30 inches of the barometer, compared with that occupied by one part by weight of hydrogen under the same conditions.

In the same table the most important elements are distinguished by the largest type, those next in importance by medium type, and those of rare occurrence, or of which we know but little, by the smallest type.

ATOMIC WEIGHTS. See Atom.

ATON′IC. Syn. Aton′icus, L.; Atonique, Fr.; Atonisch, Schlaff, Ger. Weak; debilitated; deficient in tone or strength. In pathology, applied to diseases or conditions of the body (ATONIC DISEASES; ATONY) in which debility is the leading feature. In pharmacology, ATONICS are agents which relax or lower the tone of the system.

AT′ONY. Syn. Ato′nia, L.; Atonie, &c., Fr., Ger. In pathology, loss of tone, relaxation, morbid diminution of vital energy or power; commonly applied to debility of any kind.

AT′ROPHY (-fe). Syn. Atro′phia, L.; Atrophié, &c., Fr.; Atrophie, Ger. In pathology, wasting or emaciation, with loss of strength, and unaccompanied by fever or other sensible cause; defective nutrition; decline.

Classif., Causes, &c. It is either local, as in the case of a limb which is small, imperfectly developed, or withered; or general, affecting the whole body. Gen′eral atrophy appears to depend on deficient nutrition, arising from a want of due balance between the functions of assimilation and absorption, or from profuse evacuations draining off the materials necessary for the support of the body. In the former case only may it be regarded as an independent disease. Lo′cal atrophy commonly arises from some cause which lessens the normal circulation of blood in the part; or from a diminution of the nervous influence, as in paralysis. General atrophy is most frequent in infancy, childhood, and old age. In the first two it may be often traced to bad nursing, worms, or a scrofulous taint; and not unfrequently to continually inhaling impure or damp air. In adults, the causes are impaired digestion and imperfect action of the chyliferous organs, and sometimes diseased action of the liver. In many cases it results from the use of tobacco.

Treatm. This consists in a close attention to diet (which should be liberal and nutritious), exercise, clothing, ventilation, warmth, &c., with gentle stimulants, and chalybeate tonics where not contra-indicated; and, in the case of adults, the moderate use of pure generous wine or malt-liquor. Among special remedies, both in this disease and anæmia, may be mentioned pure sweet cod-liver oil, which seldom fails to arrest or greatly retard the progress of the disease, and in very many cases effect an entire cure. When this affection is symptomatic of any other disease, as worms, stomach or liver complaints, &c., the removal of the latter must of course be first attempted. See Anæmia, Chlorosis, Tabes, &c.

ATRO′′PIA (trōpe′y′ă). C34H23NO6. [L.; B. P.] Syn. At′ropine (-pin; sometimes atro′pĭne‡), Eng., Fr.; Atropi′na, Atro′′pium*, L. An alkaloid discovered by Brandes in at′ropa belladon′na or deadly nightshade.

Prep. 1. (B. P. Process.) Take of belladonna-root, recently dried, and in coarse powder, 2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 10 pints; slaked lime, 1 oz.; diluted sulphuric acid, carbonate of potash, of each a sufficiency; chloroform, 3 fl. oz.; purified animal charcoal, a sufficiency; distilled water, 10 fl. oz. Macerate the root in 4 pints of the spirit, for 24 hours, with frequent stirring. Transfer to a displacement apparatus, and exhaust the root with the remainder of the spirit by slow percolation. Add the lime to the tincture placed in a bottle, and shake them occasionally several times. Filter, add the diluted sulphuric acid in very feeble excess to the filtrate, and filter again. Distil off three fourths of the spirit, add to the residue the distilled water, evaporate at a gentle heat, but as rapidly as possible, until the liquor is reduced to one third of its volume and no longer smells of alcohol; then let it cool. Add very cautiously, with constant stirring, a solution of carbonate of potash so as nearly to neutralise the acid, care, however, being taken that an excess is not used. Set to rest for six hours, then filter, and add carbonate of potash in such quantity that the liquid shall acquire a decided alkaline reaction. Place in a bottle with the chloroform; mix well by frequently repeated brisk agitation, and pour the mixed liquids into a funnel furnished with a glass stop-cock. When the chloroform has subsided, draw it off by the stop-cock, and distil it on a water-bath from a retort connected with a condenser. Dissolve the residue in warm rectified spirit; digest the solution with a little animal charcoal: filter, evaporate, and cool until colourless crystals are obtained.

2. Expressed juice of belladonna is evaporated over a water-bath to the consistence of an extract, and then triturated in a marble or porcelain mortar with a strong solution of caustic potassa; the resulting mass is digested and well agitated for some time, at the temperature of 75° to 80° Fahr., with benzole, q. s.; and, after repose, the benzole-solution is carefully separated, and its volatile hydrocarbon is distilled off by the heat of a water-bath; the residuum in the retort is now exhausted with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and the resulting ‘acid-solution,’ after filtration, precipitated with carbonate of soda; the precipitate is crude ATROPIA, which is collected on a filter, pressed between folds of bibulous paper, and dried; after which it is purified by one or more re-solutions, in alcohol, and crystallisations, which may or may not be modified in the manner noticed. The proportion of potassa should be about 1 dr. to every quart of the expressed juice. An excellent and economical process. The product is 0·3 to 4% of the weight of the plant from which the juice has been obtained.

3. (Mein and Liebig.) Belladonna-root (fresh-dried and coarsely powdered) is exhausted by alcohol (sp. gr. 0·822); slaked lime (1 part for every 24 of the dried root employed) is then added to the tincture, and the whole digested, with agitation, for 24 hours; sulphuric acid is next added, drop by drop, to slight excess, and, after filtration, rather more than one half the spirit is removed by distillation; a little water is now added to the residue, and the remainder of the alcohol evaporated as quickly as possible by a gentle heat; after again filtering, the liquid is reduced by further evaporation to the ⁄12th part of the weight of the root employed, and a concentrated solution of potassa dropped into the cold liquid (to throw down a dark greyish-brown matter), carefully avoiding excess or rendering the liquid in the slightest degree alkaline; in a few hours the liquid is again filtered, and carbonate of potassa added as long as a precipitate (ATROPIA) falls; after a further interval of from 12 to 24 hours, this precipitate is collected and drained in a filter, and after pressure between folds of blotting-paper, dried by a very gentle heat. It is purified by making it into a paste with water, again squeezing it between the folds of blotting-paper, drying it, re-dissolving it in 5 times its weight of alcohol, decolouring it with pure animal charcoal, distilling off greater part of the alcohol, and evaporation and crystallisation by a very gentle heat; or only about one half the spirit is distilled off, and 3 or 4 times its volume of water gradually agitated with it, the resulting milky liquid being then heated to boiling, and allowed to cool very slowly, when nearly the whole of the ATROPIA crystallises out after a few hours. The same may be effected by at once agitating 6 or 8 volumes of water with the alcoholic solution, and setting aside the mixture for 12 to 24 hours, by which time the crystallisation will be completed. This process originated with Soubeiran, was improved by Mein, and subsequently, with slight modifications, adopted by Liebig. The product is about 0·3% of the weight of root operated on.

4. (Bouchardat and Cooper.) The filtered tincture is precipitated with iodine dissolved in an aqueous solution of iodide of potassium, the resulting ioduretted hydriodate of atropia, decomposed by zinc-and-water, the metallic oxide separated by means of carbonate of potassa, and the alkaloid thus obtained dissolved in alcohol and crystallised.

5. (Mr Luxton.) The dry leaves of belladonna are gently boiled for 2 hours in distilled water just sufficient to cover them, and the resulting decoction is strained through a coarse cloth into a large precipitating jar; this process is repeated with a second quantity of distilled water, and the two decoctions mixed; concentrated sulphuric acid is now added in the proportion of 2 dr. to every pound of leaves operated on, by which the vegetable albumen of the decoction is precipitated, and the liquid becomes clear and sherry-coloured; the clear liquor is now decanted or syphoned off, and, if necessary, filtered; the filtrate is now decomposed by either passing a stream of gaseous ammonia through it, or by suspending in it a lump of carbonate of ammonia. The effect is that the liquid turns black, and crystals of ATROPIA are slowly formed and deposited. At the expiration of a day or two, the supernatant mother-liquid is removed with a syphon, and the crystals thrown on a filter to drain and dry. It may be purified by re-solution and crystallisation. 1 lb. of leaves yields 40 gr.; or at the rate of fully ·57%.

6. (Rabourdin.) To the crystallised juice of the plant (previously heated to coagulate its albumen, filtered, and allowed to cool), 1 quart, is added of caustic potassa 1 dr., and afterwards of chloroform 1 oz.; the whole is then agitated well, and after half an hour’s repose, the supernatant liquor is poured from the discoloured chloroform, which, after being washed with distilled water as long as it gives any colour to that liquid, is placed in a small retort, and the chloroform distilled off by the heat of a water-bath; the residuum is dissolved in a little water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and precipitated with carbonate of potassa, in slight excess; the precipitate is redissolved in alcohol, and the solution, by spontaneous evaporation, yields crystals of ATROPIA.

7. (Ure.) From the expressed juice of the fresh, or the watery extract of the dry plant, by treating it with caustic soda, in slight excess, and then agitating the mixture with 1½ times its volume of ether; the ATROPIA taken up by the ether is again deposited after repose for some time, and is then purified by repeating the treatment with fresh ether as often as necessary.

8. Freshly precipitated hydrate of magnesia is added to the coagulated and filtered expressed juice, and the mixture evaporated to dryness, as quickly as possible, in a water-bath; the residuum is pulverised and digested in strong alcohol, and the clear liquid allowed to evaporate spontaneously. The crystals may be purified by repeated re-solutions in alcohol.

Prop., Tests, &c. The crystals obtained from hot concentrated solutions, colourless, transparent, silky prisms; from solutions in dilute spirit, silky needles, like those of disulphate of quinine. It is colourless; has a bitter, acrid, and somewhat metallic taste; dissolves in 200 parts (300 parts—Thomson) of cold and 50 to 54 parts of boiling water, in 1⁄2 parts of cold alcohol, and in 25 parts of cold, and 6 parts of boiling ether; it has an alkaline reaction, fuses at about 194° Fahr., is slightly volatile at common temperatures, and freely rises in vapour at 212° Fahr.; at higher temperatures it volatilises with partial decomposition; with the acids it forms salts, of which several are crystallisable.

Tests.—1. Nitric acid forms with it a yellow solution:—2. With cold sulphuric acid it gives a colourless solution, which becomes red only when heated:—3. Aqueous solutions of atropia and its salts are—a, turned red by tincture of iodine—b, gives a citron-yellow precipitate with terchloride of gold—c, a flocculent whitish precipitate with tincture of galls, and—d, a yellowish-white one with bichloride of platinum:—4. Heated with caustic potassa or soda, it suffers decomposition, and ammonia is evolved:—5. A weak solution cautiously applied to the eyelid or conjunctiva, produces dilation of the pupil lasting for several hours.

Pur., &c. Alkaloid prepared from the root of atropa belladonna. Crystals; white, in the form of prisms; soluble in water and rectified spirit. It leaves no ash when burned with free access of air (B. P.).

Phys. eff. It is a very powerful narcotico-acrid poison. Its effects are similar to those of belladonna, but considerably more powerful. “A very minute (imponderable) quantity applied to the eye is sufficient to dilate the pupil.” (Pereira.) The ⁄12 to ⁄10 gr. often causes very serious effects in the human subject. The ⁄6th of a grain accelerates the pulse, affects the brain, causes dryness of the throat, difficulty of deglutition, dilation of the pupil, dimness of sight, giddiness, strangury, numbness of limbs, sense of formication in the arms, rigidity of thighs, depression of pulse, and sometimes feebleness or loss of voice. These symptoms continue for from 12 to 24 hours. In larger doses death ensues.

Ant., &c. These may be similar to those described under Belladonna and Alkaloid.

Uses. Chiefly as an external agent, as a substitute for belladonna, to cause dilation of the pupil; and as a local anæsthetic or anodyne, especially in facial neuralgia. Internally, it has been occasionally given in hooping-cough, chorea, and a few other nervous diseases.—Dose, ⁄30 gr., gradually increased to ⁄20, or, occasionally, even ⁄15 gr. in solution, or made into a pill with liquorice powder and honey, or syrup, or used endermically; for a collyrium, 1 gr. to water 1 oz., a few drops only being applied to the eye at a time, the greatest caution in each case being observed. It is also employed to make the sulphate. In dispensing it a single drop of acetic acid, or dilute sulphuric acid, will be found to facilitate and ensure its perfect solution. See Belladonna and Belladonine.

Atropia, Sul′phate of. Syn. Atro′pia sul′phas, L. Prep. (B. P.) Take of atropia, 120 gr.; distilled water, 4 fl. dr.; diluted sulphuric acid, a sufficiency.

Mix the atropia with the water and add the acid gradually, stirring them together until the alkaloid is dissolved and the solution is neutral. Evaporate it to dryness at a temperature not exceeding 100°.

Characters and Tests.—A colourless powder, soluble in water, forming a solution which is neutral to test-paper, and when applied to the eye dilates the pupil as the solution of atropia does. It leaves no ash when burned with free access of air.

Intended for external application. It is a powerful poison.

Uses, &c. The same as those of the pure alkaloid.—Dose, ⁄25 to ⁄20 gr., either in solution or pills; 1 to 3 gr. to water 1 fl. oz., as a collyrium, of which a few drops seldom fail to produce full dilation of the pupil in about a quarter of an hour; 1 to 2 gr. to lard 1 dr. forms an excellent ointment in neuralgic affections.

Obs. Sulphate of atropia (which is intended for external use only) is rather difficult to crystallise, as it has a tendency to assume an amorphous or gum-like condition. It is more soluble than the pure alkaloid; and, like it, is a terrific poison.

ATROPIA, VALERIANATÈ. The Paris Codex directs this salt to be prepared as follows:—Dissolve valerianic acid in ether, and add atropia just sufficient to saturate the acid. Let the ether evaporate.

ATROP′IC ACID. Syn. Acidum Atrop′icum, L. The name given by Richter to a volatile crystallisable substance, possessing acid properties, found in atropa belladonna or deadly nightshade. In many respects it resembles benzoic acid, from which, however it is distinguished by not precipitating the salts of iron.

ATROPI′NA, At′ropine. See Atropia.

AT′TAR. See Otto and Volatile Oils.

ATTELETTES (-lĕts′). [Fr.] In cookery, small skewers, generally of silver, with ornamental heads. The term is also applied to small dishes (ENTRÉES, &c.) in which the articles are mounted on attelettes. Small fish, as smelts, are often served in this way. See Aiguillette.

ATTEN′UANT (-ū-ănt). Syn. Atten′uans, L.; Atténuant, Fr.; Verdünnend, Ger. That makes thin, or less dense or viscid; diluting. In medicine, applied to remedies (ATTEN′UANTS, SPANÆM′ICS) which are supposed to act by thinning, diluting, or impoverishing the blood.

ATTENUA′TION. Syn. Attenua′tio, L.; Atténuation, Fr.; Verdünnung, Ger. A thinning or diminishing; a reducing in consistence. In medicine, see the adj. (above); in brewing, the decrease of the density of worts during fermentation, arising from the gradual conversion of their ‘saccharine’ (sugar) into alcohol. See Brewing, Distillation, Worts, &c.

ATTRAC′TION. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Attrac′tio, L.; Anziehung, Ger. The power that draws together matter and resists its separation. That force which attracts bodies towards the centre of the earth, and which keeps on its surface those that are movable, is called GRAVITY, or the attraction of gravitation. It is exerted at sensible, often at immense, distances, and determines the figure and motions of the planets and comets, and causes the descent of heavy bodies to the ground. This force it is which confers the property of weight upon matter.

That force which unites particles of the same kind of matter, so as to cause them to assume the condition of solid or liquid masses, e.g. particles of chalk to form a mass of chalk, particles of water to form a mass of water, is called COHESION, or the ATTRACTION OF COHESION. That force which binds together different substances without changing their properties, as when paint sticks to wood, ink to paper, &c., is called ADHESION, or the ATTRACTION OF ADHESION. Capillary attraction is a modification of adhesion, and is characterised by being exerted between liquids and the internal surfaces of tubes and pervious bodies. The absorption of water by a sponge, the ascent of oil in the wick of a lamp, are examples of this power. The CHEMICAL FORCE or AFFINITY differs from all other kinds of attraction in being exerted between definite and constant quantities (atoms) of matter, usually of dissimilar natures, and producing combinations possessing properties different from those of their components. (See Affinity.) This force, as well as cohesion and adhesion, is exerted at distances so small as to be immeasurable.

The terms ELEC′TRIC ATTRACTION and MAGNET′IC ATTRACTION are employed in physics to denote phenomena which we imperfectly understand, and which operate between bodies at sensible distances, and simulate those of the attraction of gravitation.

ATTRI′′TION (trĭsh′-ŭn). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Attri′′tio, L.; Abreibung, Aufreibung, Ger. In mechanics, the wearing away of parts by friction. In medicine, a graze, abrasion, or solution of continuity of the cuticle, or the act which causes it. In surgery, the crushing or tearing away of any exterior portion of the body by violence. See Abrasion, Anti-attrition, Friction, &c.

AURANTIA′CEÆ (-she-ē). [Lat.; DC.] The orange tribe. In botany, an extensive and important natural order of exogenous trees and shrubs, found exclusively in the temperate and tropical parts of the Old World, and unknown in a wild state in America. The fruit is pulpy, succulent, sub-acid, and eatable, and separated into cells by membranous partitions, and is covered with a leathery aromatic skin or rind. Some of the genera embrace plants of great beauty and utility. A few of the Indian species are climbers. The genus CIT′RUS, which includes the orange, lemon, citron, lime, bergamot, and shaddock, is that best known in Europe.

AURAN′′TIIN (-she-ĭn). Syn. Hesperidin; Auran′tine* (-tĭn), Eng., Fr.; Aurantii′na, &c., L. The bitter principle of the peel of oranges and lemons.

Prep. The exterior or yellow peel of the Seville orange (carefully separated from the white matter, and air-dried) is steeped in hot water, and the filtered liquor gently evaporated to dryness.

Prop., &c. It possesses the bitter properties of the peel without any of its glutinosity or fragrance, and is said to agree better with delicate stomachs. It may be taken in water either with or without the addition of a little sugar or capillaire, or dissolved in wine.

AU′′RIC (aw′- or awr′-). Syn. Auri′cus, L. Of or relating to gold, or containing it, or formed from it.

AURIF′EROUS. Syn. Au′′rifer, Aurif′erus, L.; Aurifère, Fr.; Goldhaltig, Ger. In, mineralogy, that yields or contains gold; as auriferous sand, a. quartz, &c.

AURIPIGMEN′TUM†. [L.] Literally, paint of gold; appr., native orpiment. See Arsenic.

AURO-CHLO′′RIDES (klōre′-īdz). Compounds of terchloride of gold with chlorides of other bases. They may be prepared by mixing the terchloride of gold with the chloride of the base, in atomic proportions, and setting aside the solution to crystallise.

Prop., &c. Most of the auro-chlorides crystallise in prisms, dissolve in both alcohol and water, have an orange or yellow colour, and are decomposed at a red heat.

AURO-CY′ANIDES (ĭdz). In chemistry, compounds of cyanide of gold with cyanides of other bases. They may be formed in a similar manner to the auro-chlorides. Auro-cyanide of potassium is much used in electro-gilding.

AURORA BOREALIS. This luminous phenomenon, which is occasionally seen in our own country on clear frosty nights, and much more frequently and vividly by the dwellers in more northern latitudes, has been supposed to have an electrical origin, and to be occasioned by the passage of electricity through the rarefied strata of the upper regions of the atmosphere from the poles towards the equator. But physicists look upon this explanation as unsatisfactory, and inadequate to account for the effects produced. The hypothesis, however, seems to derive some support from the following fact:—

If one of Gassiot’s vacuum tubes be brought near to a powerful electrical machine, both while the machine is in motion and for some time after, flashes of light may be seen passing from the wire at one end of the tube to the other extremity, which flashes bear a great resemblance to the auroral rays. The great doubt, however, is whether the conditions necessary to the production of the aurora are similar to those prevailing during this experiment, a doubt not lessened by the difficulty of satisfactorily accounting for the rarefied state of the atmosphere which is assumed to exist.

The forms which the aurora assumes are very varied and of great beauty; there appears, however, to be some general similarity in its aspect at the same locality. Its appearance is briefly as follows:—A dingy aspect in the heavens in a northernly direction is usually the precursor of the aurora; and this gradually becomes darker in colour, and assumes the form of a circular segment surrounded by a luminous arch, and resting at each end on the horizon. This dark segment presents the appearance of a thick cloud, and is frequently seen as such in the fading twilight, before the auroral light manifests itself. The density of this segment must, however, be very inconsiderable, as stars may sometimes be seen shining brightly through it.

This dark segment is bounded by a luminous arch of a blueish-white colour, which varies in breadth from 1 to 6 diameters of the moon, having the lower edge sharply defined, and the upper edge only when the breadth of the arch is small. This arch may be considered to be a part of a luminous ring, elevated at a considerable distance above the earth’s surface and having its centre corresponding with some point near the north pole. The preceding description indicates the general features of the appearance of the aurora borealis; but several auroras have been described which presented striking peculiarities. Sometimes the phenomenon assumed the form of one or more curtains of light, depending from dingy clouds whose folds were agitated to and fro as if by the wind. Sometimes this curtain appeared to consist of separate ribbons of light, arranged side by side in groups of different lengths, and attaining their greatest brilliancy at the lower edges. In this country the aurora borealis seldom assumes the distinctness and brilliancy which characterise its appearance in northern latitudes, but the description thus given indicates the type to which such appearance of the meteor more or less approaches. During the winter that prevails in the northern hemispheres the inhabitants of the arctic zone are deprived for months together of the sun’s light, and their long dreary night is relieved by the light emanating from this beautiful meteor, which shines with great frequency and brilliancy in those regions.

A remarkable connection has been observed between the aurora and the earth’s magnetism, the magnetic needle showing great disturbance during a display of the aurora. The arches of the aurora most commonly traverse the sky at right angles to the magnetic meridian, though deviations from this direction are not rare. Sir J. Franklin found that the disturbance of the needle was not always proportionate to the agitation of the aurora, but was always greater when the quick motion and vivid light were observed to take place in a hazy atmosphere. The aurora is most frequent and vivid in high latitudes, towards either pole, but the meteor is not confined to these parts, as Dr Hooker states that one of the most brilliant displays he ever witnessed was under the tropical sky of India; and other observers have recorded instances of its appearance in the equatorial districts of the globe.

The attitude of the aurora varies considerably; there appears to be little doubt, however, that it frequently occurs at small elevations. Both Franklin and Parry record instances where it appeared below the level of the clouds, which they describe as having been hidden behind the masses of its light, and as reappearing when the meteor vanished. It would seem that there are two distinct kinds of aurora one dependent upon local causes, as in the cases last given, while in the other causes are probably cosmical, and the auroral effects are seen at very distant points of the earth’s surface.

AURORA POMADE. For promoting the action of the skin. Cocoa butter with orris.

AUTOG′ENOUS (tŏj′-). Syn. Autoge′′neal; Autog′enus (tŏj′). L. Self-generating or affecting; acting without the aid of foreign matter. In anatomy, &c., developed from distinct and independent centres; as parts or processes. Among metallists, it denotes a method of joining metals by fusing the parts in contact, by means of a flame of hydrogen, or of a mixture of hydrogen and common air, without the intervention of a fusible alloy or solder. Lead, and even ordinary hard solders, are, however, sometimes so employed, and the name, though improperly, retained.

AUTOMAT′IC. Syn. Automati′cus, Autom′atus, L.; Automatique, Fr.; Automatische, Ger. Self-acting or self-moving, or that seems to be so; mechanical; of or resembling an automaton. In physiology, involuntary, applied to functions which are performed without the operation of the will; as the movements in respiration, the contractions and dilations of the heart, the persistent contraction of the sphincters, &c. In mechanics, &c., moving and acting from concealed machinery; also, as applied to machinery, self-regulating and directing, within the limits prescribed by its author, though moved by external power. To the last class belongs the self-acting machinery of our flax and cotton mills, our engineering establishments, &c.; in which the elemental powers are made to animate, as it were, millions of complex organs, infusing into forms of wood, iron, and brass, an agency resembling that of intelligent beings. The manufactures in which such machinery is employed are termed the AUTOMATIC ARTS.

AUTOPSY. Literally, personal observation or examination; ocular view. The term, however, is now applied, rather loosely, to a post-mortem investigation. A post-mortem may be performed with the object of endeavouring to ascertain the cause of death in a medico-legal inquiry, or in the furtherance of the study of pathology. It is also a preliminary to embalmment, and is sometimes had recourse to as a means of saving the child when a woman dies in full pregnancy.

In France no post-mortem examination is permitted to take place until at least 24 hours after death, this delay being enforced as a safeguard against the possibility of the body operated upon being still alive. In England no post-mortem can be made without the consent of the friends of the deceased, unless by warrant from a coroner; although in many public institutions this consent is dispensed with. Whenever, however, a prisoner dies in gaol an inquest and post-mortem are held on the body.

An autopsy is to be discouraged in cases where a person has died from infectious disease; but should the law require it to be undertaken, disinfectants both during and after the operation should be liberally had recourse to.

AUTUMNAL FEVER. This term is chiefly employed by American medical writers to designate typhoid fever, because of its prevalence in the autumn.

AUXILION. A packet of small plasters for the painless and radical cure of corns. Each plaster is to be worn for about a week, and then the horny pustule is to be removed with a sharp knife. The plaster is a compound of 1 part of resin plaster and 2 parts of lead plaster, and is likely to promote the removal and solution of the thick skin of the corns. (Hager.)

AVA. Syn. Kava-kava. The native names of the root, a species of piper, the piper methysticum, cultivated in Tahiti, Hawaii, the Society and Tongan Islands, the natives of which make it into an intoxicating drink. It is said to have been used in France with excellent effect in gonorrhœa; and a tincture of it has been strongly recommended both for external and internal administration in gout. “For medicinal purposes it is used in the form of infusion,” a drachm of the scraped root being macerated in a quart of water for five minutes. Its action appears to vary with the amount taken; in small doses it is generally stated to act as a stimulant and tonic, but when taken in large doses it produces an intoxication which differs from that caused by alcohol, in being of a silent and drowsy nature accompanied by incoherent dreams” (‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ August 19th, 1876, which consult for further information.’)

AVE′NA. [L.] The oat; oats.

AVE′NIN (-nĭn). Syn. Avena′ine* (ăv-e-) Aveni′na, &c., L.; Avénine, &c., Fr. A nitrogenous compound, analogous to, and probably identical with, casein, obtained from oats, and on which its nutritiveness chiefly depends.

Prep. The grain, reduced to the state of powder or meal, is washed on a sieve, and the milky liquid, after being allowed to deposit its starch, is heated to about 200° Fahr., to coagulate the albumen; when cold, acetic acid is added as long as a white powder falls, which is AVENIN; this is collected on a filter, drained, and dried by a gentle heat.

AVEN′TURIN, Avant′urin (-ū-rĭn; -vŏng-tōō—Knowles and Smart). [Eng. Fr.] A beautiful iridescent variety of rock crystal, minutely spangled throughout with yellow scales of mica (AVENTURIN, A. QUARTZ). A variety of felspar (A. FELSPAR) of somewhat similar appearance is found in the Continent and the Peninsula, of which the finer kinds are called A. ORIENTALE and PIERRE DE SOLEIL by the lapidaries. Both varieties are now imitated by the glass and porcelain manufacturers. See Glass, Glaze, Paste, &c.

A′VIARY (-ve-). Syn. Avia′′rium, L.; Volière, Fr.; Vogelhaus, Vogelhecke, Ger. A place for keeping birds; generally applied to an enclosed space or building in which birds are kept, or bred, on account of their rarity, plumage, or song; and not for food.

Situa., &c. For exotic birds, a place should be selected where the temperature can be maintained at a proper degree throughout the year, and which is well protected from the weather. This is commonly done by choosing a space attached to the summerhouse or hot-house. When the aviary is only intended for birds of climates similar to our own, any part of the open garden may be chosen, and a portion closed in, either with trellis-work or wire-work, or netting; care being taken to provide, in some easily accessible portion of it, full protection from vicissitudes of weather and season. Nor must cleanliness, and due ventilation and protection from foul air or noxious fumes, be left unattended to.

AVIGNON′ BERRIES (ăv-veen-yong). French berries.

AV′OIRDUPOIS′ (ăv-ĕr-du-pois′). The common weight of 16 oz. or 7000 gr. to the lb., used in these realms for all kinds of goods, except jewelry and the precious metals, and medicines in dispensing, or as ordered in the ‘British Pharmacopœia’ of 1867.

AX′IS. [L., Eng., Fr.] Syn. Axe, Fr.; Achse, Ger. Primarily, that on or around which anything acts or performs; an axle or axle-tree. In anatomy, that on or around which any organ or part rests, gravitates, or centres. In astronomy, the diameter on or about which a celestial body revolves. In botany, part or parts about which particular organs are arranged; an imaginary line passing from the base to the apex of a pericarp &c. In crystallography, imaginary lines passing through the central points of a crystal, and about which the molecules or particles of matter composing it may be conceived to be symmetrically built up. In geology, the centre of a mountain-group. In mechanics, the straight line, real or imaginary, about which any body oscillates or revolves. See Crystal, &c.

AX′LE, Ax′le-tree (ăks′l). Syn. Essieu, Fr.; Axe (am rade), &c., Ger. In mechanics, the pin, rod, or material line, on which a wheel, &c., turns. See Anti-attrition, Friction, &c.

AX′UNGE (-ŭnje). Syn. Axun′gia, L. Primarily, ‘wheel-grease,’ the lard or fat of an animal; restricted in pharmacy to hog’s lard.—Axungia cura′ta, A. PREPARA′TA, is prepared or washed hog’s lard (which see).

AYER’S PILLS. Sold in long wooden boxes, each containing 25 pills, covered with sugar and starch, and composed of pepper, colocynth, gamboge, and aloes. (Hager.)

AZADIRACHTA INDICA. (Ind. Ph.) Nim or Margosa Tree. (Ind. Ph.) Habitat. Common throughout India; often cultivated in gardens. Officinal parts.—1. The bark (Azadirachtæ cortex, Nim bark). It varies much in appearance, according to the size and age of the tree producing it. The bark from the trunk of a tree above three or four years of age is covered with a thick scaly epidermis, and varies in thickness from ⁄4 to ⁄2 inch. That from the smaller branches is smooth, of a dullish purple colour, marked by longitudinal lines of ash-coloured epidermis, from ⁄8th to ⁄12th of an inch apart. The inner layer of the bark, of a whitish colour in the fresh state, is powerfully bitter, far more so than the outer dark-coloured layer, which, however, possesses a greater amount of astringency. It contains a crystallisable principle (margosine) and an astringent principle (catechin).—2. The fresh leaves (Azadirachtæ folia, Nim leaves).—Properties. Bark astringent tonic and antiperiodic; leaves stimulant.—Therapeutic uses. In intermittent and other paroxysmal fevers, in general debility, and convalescence after febrile and other diseases, the bark has been employed with success. The leaves form a useful application to ulcers and skin diseases when a mild stimulant is required.—Dose. Of the powdered bark, a drachm three or four times a day.

Preparations. Decoction of Nim Bark (Decoctum Azadirachtæ). Take of the inner layer of nim bark, bruised, 2 oz.; water, a pint and a half. Boil for 15 minutes, and strain whilst hot.—Dose. As an antiperiodic, from 1⁄2 to 3 fl. oz., every second hour previous to an expected paroxysm. As a tonic, 1 or 2 fl. oz. twice or thrice daily. As this decoction soon decomposes in hot weather, it should be prepared fresh for use when required.

Tincture of Nim Bark (Tinctura Azadirachtæ). Take of the inner layer of nim bark, bruised, 2⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Macerate for seven days in a closed vessel, with occasional agitation; strain, press, filter, and add sufficient proof spirit to make 1 pint. It may also be prepared by percolation in the same manner as Tincture of Calumba, q. v.—Dose. From ⁄2 to 2 fl. dr. as a tonic.

Poltice of Nim Leaves (Cataplasma Azadirachtæ). Take of fresh nim leaves a sufficiency; bruise and moisten with tepid water. A good stimulant application to indolent and ill-conditioned ulcers. Should it cause pain and irritation, as it sometimes does, equal parts of rice-flour and linseed-meal may be added. The bitter oil of the seeds is held in high repute by the natives as an anthelmintic, and as an external application in rheumatism. It is also said to be an insecticide.

AZOERYTH′RYN (-rĭth′-rĭn). A substance obtained, by Kane, from archil. It is insoluble in alcohol, ether, and water; but is very soluble in alkaline lyes, to which it imparts a port-wine colour.

AZO′IC. Syn. Azöot′ic; Azo′icus, Azöot′icus, &c., L. Lifeless; wholly destitute of organic life. In geology, &c., applied to strata which do not contain organic remains.

AZOLIT′MIN (ăz-o-lĭt′-mĭn). A dark-red substance obtained, by Kane, from litmus, of which it forms a large portion of the colouring matter. It is insoluble in alcohol, and in water unless alkalised.

AZ′OTE* (ăz′ōte; a′-zōte). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Azo′tum*, L.; Azot*, Ger. Nitrogen (because it is unfit for respiration, i.e. destroys life).

AZOT′IC. Syn. Azot′icum, L.; Azotique, Fr.; Azotisch, Ger. Of or like azote, or containing it or formed from it; irrespirable; destructive to life.—Azotic Acid† is nitric acid; A. GAS†, nitrogen.—Azo′tous acid† was nitrous acid.

AZ′OTISED (-tīzd). Syn. Nitrogenised, Containing azote or nitrogen; a common epithet of nitrogenous substances used as food.

AZ′URE (ăzh′-ūre; ā′zhure—Knowles, Smart, Walker). Syn. Cæru′leum, L.; Azur, Fr.; Hellblau, Himmelblau, Ger. In dyeing and painting, sky-blue; also the name of one or more pigments which possess this colour. See Blue Dyes, Blue Pigments, Smalts, Ultramarine, &c.

AZ′URE-STONE. Lapis lazuli.

AZ′URITE (-īte). In mineralogy, lazulite; blue malachite; sometimes, lapis lazuli (the name being, unfortunately, very loosely applied by different writers).

AZ′YMOUS† (-e-mŭs). Syn. Az′ymus, L. Unleavened; unfermented; as sea-biscuit. Unleavened bread was formerly termed AZ′YME† (-e-me) and AZ′YMUS† by theologists.

BAB′LAH. The rind or shell of the fruit of mimosa cineraria. According to Dr Ure, it contains a considerable quantity of gallic acid, some tannin, a red colouring principle, and an azotised substance, and is the article imported from the East Indies and Senegal under the name of NEB-NEB.—Used as a cheap dye-stuff for various shades of drab and grey.

BAC′CA (băk′-ă). [L.; pl., bac′cæ, băk′-sē.] A berry.

BACK. [D., bak, a bowl or cistern.] Syn. Bac. In brewing, a large, open, flat reservoir or cistern; commonly that in which wort is cooled. In distillation, the vessel into which the wort is pumped from the coolers, in order to be ‘worked’ with yeast. The LIQUOR-BACK in a brewery, distillery, or rectifying house is the water reservoir or cistern.

BACKS. In the leather trade, the thickest and stoutest portion of the hide, used for sole-leather.

BACON (bā′-kn). [W., baccun, prob. from Ger., bache, a wild sow; “old Fr., for dried flesh or pork”—Craig.] The flesh of swine salted and dried, and subsequently either smoked or not. The term is usually restricted to the sides and belly so prepared; the other parts of the animal having distinctive names. Sometimes, though rarely, the term is extended to the flesh of bears, and of other like animals, cured in a similar manner.

Qual., &c. When bacon has been properly prepared from young and well-fed animals, and is neither ‘stale’ nor ‘rusty,’ it forms a very wholesome and excellent article of food, especially adapted for a light or hasty meal, or as a relish for bread or vegetables. For persons with a weak stomach, and for invalids, great care should be taken to cook it without injuring its flavour, or rendering it indigestible. This is best effected by cutting it into slices of moderate thickness, and carefully broiling or toasting it; avoiding dressing it too hastily, too slowly, or too much. The common practice of cooking it in almost wafer-like slices, until it becomes brown and crisp, renders it not merely indigestible, but also a most fertile source of heartburn and dyspepsia. Fried bacon is remarkably strong, and is hence more likely to offend the stomach than when it is broiled, or preferably toasted before the fire; the last being, of all others, the best way of dressing it so as to preserve its delicacy and flavour. Gourmands, however, often esteem, as ‘une bonne bouche,’ bacon dressed in the flame arising from the dropping of its own fat.

Choice. Good bacon has a thin rind, and an agreeable odour, the fat has a firm consistence and a slightly reddish tinge; the lean is of a pleasing red colour, is tender, and adheres, whilst raw, strongly to the bone. When the fat is yellow, it is either ‘rusty’ or becoming so, and should be avoided. The streaky parts are not only those which are most esteemed, but are the most wholesome.

Bacon should be broiled or toasted in front of the fire. The rashers should be in thin slices, and the rind should be removed. The melted fat from the bacon should never be wasted. To partake of all broiled meats in perfection they should be served up as soon as they are taken off the gridiron.

BACTERIUM (Bacterion, a little rod). Since the publication of the researches of Professor Cohn, of Breslau, upon the nature of this organism, the idea previously entertained by Ehrenberg and others as to its animal origin has been long abandoned, and microscopists now very generally regard it as belonging to the vegetable kingdom. It is probably one of the lowest and most simple forms of vegetable or animal life, and consists of an envelope more or less enclosing protoplasm—the nitrogenous substance from which the cell nucleus is formed. Dr Lionel Beale very carefully crushed a very large bacterium while under observation by the microscope, and when the external membrane was ruptured the protoplasm was seen to escape, and to exhibit what Dr Beale regards as vital movement. In form, bacteria may be either globular, rod-shaped, egg-shaped, or filamentous. Cohn has described a variety presenting the appearance of beaded chains, or aggregations.

Bacteria vary considerably in size, some being as much as ⁄3000th of an inch in length, whilst others are less than ⁄10000th, and are only visible by the aid of a glass of very high power, such as the ⁄50th of an inch objective. Dr Beale says, “The germs from which the little particles spring are far more minute and more difficult to identify. They appear as minute specks, the largest of them exhibiting a circular outline, and probably being spherical. The smallest are too minute to be discerned with the highest magnifying powers at our command. If a specimen of fluid in which these particles are rapidly growing and multiplying be carefully examined, many points will be observed to appear from time to time. After watching with great care for a considerable time a given spot I have assured myself that new particles actually come into existence; and that one does not, after intently watching for a time and concentrating the attention upon a certain space, merely see one coming into view one after another, as star after star. The material in which the minute germs of bacteria are imbedded, and which, at least in part, consists of formed material produced by the bacteria, is much softer than the matter of which the capsule of fungi consists. It is, perhaps, almost as soft as mucus. I believe that even the most minute bacterium germ is surrounded by a layer of such soft formed matter, in which very minute particles of bioplasm (protoplasm) divide and subdivide before they attain even the ⁄100000th of an inch in diameter. When, therefore, bacteria in an early stage of development dry, it is not possible to identify them. When moistened, the dry mass swells up, and the bioplasm in the soft mucus-like matter grows, each particle producing a fresh investment of formed material, and then if the conditions are favorable, the germs either at once divide and subdivide for a time, or grow into perfect bacteria, which move freely and grow and multiply in this more advanced stage of development.”

Bacteria increase by bisection, and when the surrounding conditions are favorable their rate of production is marvellous. It has been computed that an individual bacterium will generate nearly 17,000,000 of its fellows within twenty-four hours. The very probable vegetable origin and nature of bacteria insisted upon by Professor Cohn not only appears to derive great support from his researches into the metamorphoses they undergo during development, &c., but also from their behaviour with certain chemical reagents. For instance, it was found that boiling them in solution of potash had no effect, and also when treated with sulphuric acid and iodine they deported themselves somewhat as cellulin does under like circumstances; although from their extreme minuteness any changes that take place in their tissue are very difficult to observe. Another remarkable analogy presented between bacteria and plants is the manner in which they both assimilate the elements of which they are built up; for they derive their nitrogen not from previously existing albuminous compounds, but from ammonia.

They may be made to develop themselves in any fluid if the fluid contains an organic substance in which carbon is present, a nitrogenous substance which need not be organic, and a phosphate. They appear to derive their carbon by the decomposition of almost any substance, containing this element except carbonic acid, and they will obtain their nitrogen from a nitrate, the nitrate becoming reduced to the state of a nitrite. A knowledge of these facts will of course indicate the method to be followed if we wish to obtain bacteria. All that we have to do is to prepare a liquid that fulfils the conditions just stated. Dr J. Burdon Sanderson gives the following formula for one:—Phosphate of potassium ⁄2 per cent., sulphate of magnesium, ⁄2 per cent., dissolve in water having a trace of phosphate of calcium in suspension, and then add a per cent. of tartrate of ammonium, and boil the mixture. If properly boiled the liquid will be free from bacteria; but the contact of almost any organic substance, for example, a drop of water, a pinch of hay, a morsel of meal, &c., will cause their appearance.

The tenacity of life exhibited by the bacteria is extremely great. Dr Beale says, “Extreme dryness does not destroy them, and they withstand a temperature far below the freezing point; and that under adverse circumstances they remain dormant, and are not destroyed by a degree of heat which is fatal probably to every other living organism.” Bastian says that the germs of bacteria are destroyed at a temperature of 160° F., but others are of opinion that under certain circumstances these germs are not killed at 212°, and that they may increase and multiply after having been exposed to this degree of heat. Professor Tyndall indeed has shown that in one experiment heating for a quarter of an hour at a temperature of 230° F. was insufficient to destroy them, whilst in another the five minutes’ exposure of an atmosphere containing them to the incandescence of the voltaic current failed to kill them.

Cohn relates that manufacturers of pots of preserved peas at Lubek have since 1858 been obliged to cook them in a solution of 28 per cent. of salt, at a temperature of 226° F., to prevent the putrefaction of their contents, as in warm years nearly half the pots were found to be spoiled. In experiments made in conjunction with Dr Hare, Cohn found that in infusions boiled for less than fifteen minutes organisms were, without exceptions, developed. Somewhat lower temperature proved fatal to the great majority of bacteria. Those that survived were all found to belong to the genus Bacillus, and among bacilli to the species Bacillus subtilis.

The experiments of Drs Ferrier and Burdon Sanderson would seem to show that bacteria do not nominally exist in the fluids and tissues of the body, but that their presence in the animal fluids may be traced to external surface contamination with ordinary water, the extent of their development being in proportion to the amount of the contamination. They contend that different varieties of water possess different degrees of what they term the ‘zymotic power.’ They examined the waters supplied by the several London water companies, and they found them to consist of varying degrees of bacterian impurity. They assert that all except freshly distilled water teems with invisible germs of bacteria. Writing of the universality of the presence of bacteria and bacterian germs, Dr Beale remarks:—“It would be difficult to say where bacterium germs do not exist. In air, in water, in the soil adhering to tiny particles of every kind, in every region of the earth, from the poles to the equator, they are found. In the substance of the tissues—nay, in the cells of almost all plants, and in the interstices of the tissues of many animals—bacteria germs exist. I know not what part of the body of man and the higher animals is entirely destitute of particles which under favorable circumstances develop into bacteria. Upon the skin and the surface of the mucous membranes they exist in profusion, and they abound in the mouth and in the follicles and glands.”

Dr Eberth, of Zurich, states that he has found on ordinary sweat small oval-shaped bacteria which are frequently united in strings of two or three, and endowed with rather active movements. The author thinks that they very likely conduce to produce certain chemical modifications of sweat.

Drs Ferrier and Sanderson appear to have satisfactorily proved that fungi are not developed from microzymes, and that their apparent association is one of juxtaposition only. They give the following reasons for adopting this conclusion:—(1) The quick appearance of torula cells in Pasteur’s solution whenever it is exposed to the air, and the rapid development and luxuriant fructification of the higher form (penicillium) show that so far as the chemical composition of the liquid is concerned, there exist in it all the conditions favorable to the process. (2) When precautions are taken to prevent contamination by impure surfaces or liquids, the development which ends in penicillium goes on from first to last without the appearance of microzymes. (3) Whenever it is possible to impregnate the test-liquid with microzymes, without at the same time introducing torula cells or germs, the development of the former begins and continues by itself without any transformation into the latter. Thus fungi are not developed, notwithstanding the presence of microzymes in the same liquid in which, microzymes being absent, but air having access, they appear with the greatest readiness. As we have already seen the germs of bacteria exist largely in air; the experiments of Hiller, of Berlin, would seem to negative the theory of Ferrier and Sanderson, as they tend to show that bacteria have little influence on putrefaction.

We are indebted to Dr Lionel Beale for these illustrations, which are taken from his very interesting work on ‘Disease Germs.’