A Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts, Processes, and Collateral Information (part 7)

Bouquet de la Reine. Prep. 1. Essence of bergamot, 1 dr.; English oil of lavender, 25 drops; oil of cloves, aromatic vinegar, and essence of musk, of each 10 drops; alcohol, 1 fl. oz.; mix.

2. Oils of bergamot and lavender, of each 30 drops; neroli, 15 drops; oils of verbena and cloves, of each 5 drops; essences of musk, ambergris, and jasmin, of each ⁄2 dr.; rectified spirit of wine (strongest, scentless), 2 fl. oz.; mix. A much-esteemed perfume.

BRA′GRAS. Tar, black resin, and the dregs of strained resin, melted together.

BRAIN (brāne). Syn. Brains‡; Cer′ebrum, L.; Cerveau, Fr.; Gehirn, Hirn, Ger. The soft whitish mass of nerve-matter contained in the skulls of animals, and, in man, supposed to be the seat of the soul and the mind.

Brains. (In cookery.) There appears to be scarcely anything which is at all eatable that the ingenuity and taste of the modern cook does not appropriate to his purposes, and clothe with delectability, or transform into something execrable. We observe that our chef de cuisine—no unimportant personage—has taxed every viscera and brought together every novelty and dainty to humour and excite the appetite. Animals which were guiltless of brains whilst living, are found by him to possess excellent ones when dead, from which he prepares a variety of miniature dishes which are truly novel and inviting. Let frugal housewives for the future carefully value their brains, and apply them to useful purposes in a double sense. When cleaned, washed, blanched, and flavoured with the necessary seasoning, they may be formed into a variety of hors-d’œuvres creditable to any table. Mrs Rundell tells us that “beat up with a little white pepper and salt, a sage-leaf or two (scalded and finely chopped), and the yelk of an egg, and fried, they make excellent cakes, fritters, &c.”

BRAMAELIXIR—GENUINE ASIATIC STOMACH BITTER (Ch. Rama Ayen, Hamburg). Cardamoms, cinnamon, cloves, of each 15 grammes; galangal, ginger, zedoary, pepper, of each 30 grammes; wormwood oil, 15 drops; 90 per cent. spirit, 830 grammes; water, 330 grammes; digest and filter. (Hager.)

BRAN. Syn. Fur′fur, L.; Bran, Son, Fr.; Kleie, Ger. The inner husk or proper coat of the cereal grains, sifted from the flour; appr., that of wheat. Comp. 100 parts of bran contain albuminoid bodies, 13·80; oil, 5·56; starch, fibre, &c., 61·67; ash, 6·11; water, 12·85.

Uses, &c. The bran of wheat, diffused through hot water, is largely employed by the calico-printers to remove the colouring matter from those parts of their goods which are not mordanted. A handful mixed with a pail of warm water forms an excellent emollient foot-bath. Infused in hot water (bran-tea), and sweetened, it forms a popular demulcent, much used in coughs and hoarseness, and which, taken in quantity, proves gently laxative. It also forms an excellent manure, and, from containing the ammonio-magnesian phosphate, is especially adapted as a ‘dressing’ for potatoes. It is frequently mixed with flour, and made into bread (bran-bread), which is eaten by the poorer orders for economy, and by the higher classes because it is recommended by the faculty as being more wholesome than white wheaten-bread.

Bran Mash. Put half a peck of bran or pollard into a bucket and pour on to it enough scalding water to wet it thoroughly; stir well with a stick or work with the hands; and let it stand, covered up, till new-milk warm. If a horse is not in work on Sunday, it is a good custom to give it on Saturday evening a bran mash in lieu of a feed of corn. Bran mash is cooling and slightly laxative. The bran should always be freshly ground. When intended to be nutritive, oats should be scalded with the bran.

BRANDISH’S ALKALINE (Liqueur de potasse des Anglais, Solutio Alkalina Anglica), used in England to add to meat and vegetables about to be cooked, to help in “drawing” tea and coffee, and as a medicine to neutralise acidity of the stomach and lubricate the digestive passages [die Verdanungswege schlüpfriger zu machen]. Preparation:—Crude carbonate of potash 3 parts, wood ashes 1 part, quicklime 1 part, warm water 40 parts. Add to the water the lime, carbonate, and ashes, digest one day, and filter. (Hager.)

BRANDRETH’S PILLS, much used as a purging pill in North America, consist of gamboge, podophyllin, the inspissated juice of pokeberries, saffron adulterated with turmeric, powdered cloves, and peppermint oil. Gamboge is stated to be present in Brandreth’s pills on the authority of two American druggists and one dealer. The action of the pills does not, however, correspond with that ingredient, for in two persons five pills produced no loose stools. (Hager.)

BRAN′DY. Syn. Spir′itus Gal′licus, S. vi′ni Gal′lici (-sī; B. P.), A′qua vi′tæ†*, L.; Eau-de-vie, Fr.; Branntwein, Cognac, Ger.; Bran′dywine†. A well-known spirituous liquor obtained by the distillation of the wine of grapes. The name is also often, though improperly, given to the spirit distilled from other liquors, and particularly from the fermented juice of fruits; but in this case usually with some qualifying epithet.

When first distilled, brandy, like other spirituous liquors, is colourless (WHITE BRANDY), and continues so if kept in glass or stoneware; but if stored in new oak casks, as is usually the case, it gradually acquires a yellowish tint from the wood (PALE BRANDY). The deep colour that this spirit frequently possesses when it reaches the consumer is imparted to it by the addition of a little burnt sugar (caramel). Catechu, or terra japonica, in powder or solution, is also sometimes added to give a roughness to the spirit. The original intention was merely to imitate the appearance acquired by brandy from great age, when kept in wood; but in process of time the thing has come to be overdone. The natural colour which the spirit receives from the cask, however long it may be kept in it, never exceeds a light amber tint, about equal to that of pale Jamaica rum. Nothing, however, will now please the public taste but a spirit of lively and full ‘brandy-colour,’ as it is called. The consequence is that more colouring is commonly added than is compatible with a rich appearance or a very fine flavour.

The brandies most esteemed in England are imported from France, and are those of Cognac and Armagnac, the preference being generally given to the former. The brandies of Rochelle and Bordeaux come next in quality; while those obtained from Portugal, Spain, and Italy are very inferior.

The constituents of pure brandy are alcohol and water, together with small quantities of a volatile oil, acetic acid, acetic ether, œnanthic ether, colouring matter, and tannin. It is from the presence of the two ethers that the spirit derives its characteristic smell and flavour. The amount of absolute alcohol in brandy varies from 45 to 55 per cent. When first imported it is generally 1 or 2 over-proof, but its strength decreases by age, and by the time it is taken from the bonded store for sale, it is seldom stronger than 3 or 4 under-proof. Pure brandies of the best quality, even when new, seldom exceed proof, and are generally a little below it. The reason of this is that they are but slightly rectified, as redistillation tends to injure the ethereal oils, upon which the flavour of the brandy depends.

The quality and flavour of the brandy imported from France vary, and often considerably, from that which is drunk at the best tables on the Continent; this principally arises from it being prepared, or, as it is technically termed, ‘made up,’ for the London market; which means lowering it by the addition of plain spirit, colouring, &c. This is done to any extent desired by the English purchaser, and the quantity and prices of the substances so added are regularly set out in the invoice. The strength at which foreign brandy is sold in England varies from proof to 33 under-proof. In large quantities, and from bond, the strength, of course, depends much upon the age and quality of the spirit; a fine old brandy being, perhaps, 15 or 17 u. p., while one of the last year’s vintage, of a commoner quality, may be as strong as 2 u. p., or even 1 u. p. These matters are familiar to every experienced brandy dealer.

In France there are several varieties of brandy, which are known by names descriptive of their qualities, source, and strengths:—

“Eau-de-vie supérieure” is obtained from pale white wines by skilful distillation, and is remarkable for its rich and delicate flavour. It forms the finest variety of Cognac brandy, both ‘white’ and ‘pale,’ of the English drinker, being seldom artificially coloured. Its deepest tint, though long kept in wood, never exceeds a pale amber; and hence, even when thus coloured, it is frequently called ‘white brandy’ by the uninitiated.

“Eau-de-vie ordinaire,” or common brandy, is distilled from inferior or spoilt white or red wines; average sp. gr. about 0·9476 (from 22 to 27 u. p.). It forms the ‘ordinary brandy’ of the taverns and hotels; and, after being ‘made up’ with plain spirit to 1 or 2 u. p., a very large portion of that which is exported.

Of each of the above varieties there are numerous degrees of qualities, which are further increased in number by their admixture, and by the addition to them of plain spirit.

“Eau-de-vie de marc.” From the lees of sour, damaged, and inferior red wines, the marc or cake of grapes, &c., distilled by a quick fire, to drive over as much essential oil and flavouring matter as possible. Coarse flavoured and inferior. Used chiefly to mix with other brandy, or to flavour plain spirit.

“Eau-de-vie seconde.” The weak spirit that passes over, after the receiver has been changed. Very weak and inferior.

“Eau-de-vie à preuve d’Hollande.” Sp. gr. ·941 to ·942 (18 to 20 u. p.). The common strength at which brandy is retailed in France, and that at which it stands the ‘proof’ or ‘bead.’

“Eau-de-vie à preuve d’huile.” Sp. gr. ·9185 (about 23° Baumé, or 1⁄4 o. p.); pure, olive oil just sinks in it. It is the strongest brandy kept for retail sale in France.

“Eau-de-vie forte.” From common brandy distilled at a low temperature. It answers to our spirit of wine. Sp. gr. ·839 (38° Baumé, or 55° o. p.).

“Esprit de vin” is brandy or spirit, carefully rectified to ·861 (28° Baumé, or 42 o. p., and upwards).

Pur., &c. The method of determining the strength of brandy is explained under ‘Alcoholometry,’ Of the large quantity of this liquor consumed in England, we can assure the reader that a small fraction only escapes adulteration. Pure French brandy is indeed an article quite unattainable by the small consumer. The brandy of our shops and taverns is not only systematically ‘lowered’ a little (with spirit of wine or British brandy) by the wholesale dealer, but it undergoes a like process, but to a much greater extent, at the hands of the retailer. The only method to obtain perfectly pure brandy is either to take it direct from the bond store, or to buy it of some known respectable party, and to pay a price that offers no inducement to dishonesty. When this cannot be done, British brandy had better be at once purchased, by which money will be saved, and a more wholesome article obtained.

French brandy, as already noticed, is commonly ‘lowered’ with water, malt brandy, and spirit of wine, by which its original flavour is more or less weakened and injured. This species of adulteration is best detected by the palate. Another, and no very uncommon fraud practised by the retailers, is to reduce their brandy with a large quantity of water. As a natural consequence their liquor suffers so greatly in flavour, and its deficiency in alcohol becomes so apparent, that they soon see the necessity of either abandoning the nefarious practice, or resorting to others of a less harmless character to disguise it. The latter alternative is commonly adopted. An excess of burnt sugar is immediately introduced into the spirit, followed by sundry portions of cayenne pepper, grains of paradise, horse-radish, acetic ether, &c., to give it a pungency and ‘make-believe strength’ that “passes muster” with the petty consumer. This fraud may be detected by gently evaporating a little of the suspected liquor in a spoon or glass capsule, when the acrid matter, colouring, and sugar will be left behind, and may be readily detected by their flavour, sweetness, glutinosity, &c. A little perfectly pure brandy evaporated in a similar manner (on a watch-glass, for instance), merely leaves a trifling discoloration on the surface of the glass. Genuine French brandy always reddens blue litmus paper, from containing a little acetic acid; the old coloured varieties are also blackened by a solution of a persalt of iron. Another test for caramel (burnt sugar) is, let a small quantity of the brandy be well shaken with one sixth of its volume of white of egg, and the precipitate formed allowed to deposit, or be removed by filtration; the clear liquid ought to be colourless. Should caramel be present, however, it will retain its colour. Sometimes brandy is contaminated with a small quantity of lead or copper derived from the apparatus or utensils with which it has been prepared or measured. Sugar of lead has also sometimes been used by the ignorant dealer to clarify it. The presence of these highly deleterious substances may be detected in the following manner:—

1. Copper:—a. A small piece of clean polished iron or steel immersed in the suspected liquid for a short time (with agitation) becomes coated with a film of metallic copper, when that metal is present. To facilitate the precipitation of the metal, the sample under examination may be slightly acidulated with a few drops of pure acetic acid. Minute traces of copper may sometimes be detected on the surface of the iron with a lens, which would be passed over unnoticed by the naked eye.

b. (Böttger.) A little of the brandy is to be agitated with a few drops of pure olive oil. The latter will acquire a green colour if copper be present.

2. Lead:—a. Hydrosulphuric acid and sulphide of ammonium produce a black precipitate or discoloration in brandy containing lead.—b. A solution of sulphate of soda (Glauber-salts), or water soured with sulphuric acid, produces a heavy white precipitate, which turns black when moistened with sulphide of ammonium.

3. Methylated spirit is detected by rubbing a little of the suspected brandy on the hands, and then drawing a long breath with the hands over the mouth. The peculiar odour of the methylated spirit, if present, then becomes evident. This is a test, however, requiring practice and experience.

4. To determine the Alcoholic Strength.—Put 100 c. c. of the brandy into a small retort, or into a flask, with a lateral tube, and distil to dryness, or nearly so, condensing the distillate by means of a suitable receiver, and let the alcohol by means of the processes detailed under ALCOHOLOMETRY. The brandy may be roughly tested for fusel oil by burning a little of it in a dish, and depressing over the flame a saucer or other cold piece of porcelain. If a black stain is left, some of the lower alcohols are very probably present, and should be looked for by distilling half a pint of the spirit, and examining the later for heavier products. The vinic alcohol being the most volatile comes over first, the heavier fusel oil remaining until the later stages.

Concluding Remarks. In the ‘trade,’ the addition of water (‘liquor’) to spirit is technically called ‘reducing,’ whilst absolute adulteration is known under the questionable name ‘improving.’ Both of these operations have now been so long practised with impunity as to form the leading qualifications demanded in a cellarman.

The following formulæ for ‘reducing’ brandy are those of two large wholesale dealers, who consider themselves much more honest than their brethren in the same line:

1. Cognac brandy (10 u. p.), 20 galls.; British brandy (17 u. p.), 5 galls.; water, 4⁄2 galls. Strength of mixture, 25 u. p.

2. To 72 galls, of full-flavoured French brandy (5 u. p.) are added 10 galls, of spirit of wine (58 o. p.); 25 galls. of water, and 1 pint of good colouring. The whole is then well ‘rummaged up,’ and allowed to stand for two days, when it is fit for use. Strength of mixture, 22 u. p.

A liqueur, sold in London under the name of “brandy improver,” or “brandy essence,” consists of a thin sugar syrup, flavoured with acetic ether and essence of cayenne, and coloured with burnt sugar. It is said to heighten the true Cognac flavour, and restore lost alcoholic strength.

Brandy, British. Syn. Malt Brandy, &c. For a long time this liquor was distilled from spoiled wine and the dregs of wine, both British and foreign, mixed with beer-bottoms, spoiled raisins, and similar substances. Malt and molasses spirit were afterwards employed, as at the present day, for the purpose; but it was long considered as “an unpardonable and wicked misuse of these articles.” Modern experience, however, has proved that pure malt spirit is, in this country, the most convenient, if not the best kind, to form the basis of an imitation brandy.

Prep. 1. To 12 galls. of malt spirit (finest and flavourless) at proof, add, of water, 5 galls.; crude red tartar or wine-stone, ⁄4 lb. (previously dissolved in 1 gall. of boiling water); acetic ether, 6 fl. oz.; French wine-vinegar, 2 quarts; French plums (bruised), 5 lbs.; sherry wine-bottoms, ⁄2 gall.; mix in a sherry or French-brandy cask, and let them stand for about a month, frequently ‘rummaging up’ the liquor with a stick; next draw over 15 galls. of the mixture from a still furnished with an agitator. Put the ‘rectified spirit’ into a clean, fresh-emptied Cognac-brandy cask, and add of tincture of catechu, 1 pint; oak shavings, 1 lb.; and spirit colouring, ⁄2 pint; agitate occasionally for a few days, and then let it repose for a week, when it will be fit for use. Prod., 15 galls, of BRANDY, 17 u. p. Age greatly improves it.

2. Malt spirit (as before), 99 galls.; red tartar (dissolved), 7 lbs.; acetic ether, ⁄2 gall.; wine-vinegar, 5 galls.; bruised raisins or French plums, 14 lbs.; bitter-almond cake (bruised and steeped for twenty-four hours in twice its weight of water, which must be used with it), ⁄4 lb.; water, q. s.; macerate as before, and draw over, with a quick fire, 120 galls. To the distilled spirit add a few lbs. of oak shavings; 2 lbs. of powdered catechu (made into a paste with hot water), and spirit-colouring q. s.; and ‘finish’ as in the last. Prod., 120 galls, of spirit, fully 17 u. p. Equal in quality to the last.

3. Clean spirit (17 u. p.), 100 galls; nitrous ether, 2 quarts; cassia buds (ground) 4 oz.; bitter-almond meal, 5 oz.; orris-root (sliced), 6 oz,; powdered cloves, 1 oz.; capsicum, 1⁄2 oz.; good vinegar, 3 galls.; brandy colouring, 3 pints; powdered catechu, 2 lbs.; full-flavoured Jamaica rum, 2 galls. Mix in an empty Cognac ‘piece,’ and macerate for a fortnight, with occasional stirring. Prod., 106 galls., at 21 or 22 u. p.

4. Malt spirit (17 u. p.), 100 galls.; catechu, 2 lbs.; tincture of vanilla, ⁄2 pint; burnt sugar colouring, 1 quart; good rum, 3 galls.; acetic or nitrous ether, 2 quarts. Mix as the last.

5. Clean spirit (17 u. p.), 89 galls.; high-flavoured Cognac, 10 galls.; oil of cassia, 2 dr.; oil of bitter almonds, 3 dr.; powdered catechu, 1 lb.; cream of tartar (dissolved), 1⁄4 lbs.; Beaufoy’s concentrated acetic acid, ⁄2 gall.; sugar colouring, 2 to 3 pints; good rum, 1 gall. When the above mixtures are distilled, the French brandy, colouring, and catechu, should be added to the distilled spirit.

6. To plain spirit (coloured), at 17 u. p., add a little tincture of catechu, and a sufficient quantity of eau-de-vie de marc, or of the oil distilled from wine-lees, to flavour it.

Obs. The oil referred to in the last formula is obtained by distillation from the lees of wine, either dried and made up into cakes, or in their wet state, mixed with about 7 or 8 times their weight of water. This oil should be kept dissolved in alcohol, as it is otherwise apt to lose its flavour. Brandy from any part of the world may be very closely imitated by distilling the oil from the lees of the wines produced in that particular district. Where black tea is cheap, as in the United States of America, it is very commonly employed to impart the roughness of brandy to the coloured spirit, and the subsequent addition of a little ‘flavouring’ greatly improves it. A really good article of cider-spirit thus treated forms a passable ‘mock brandy.’ In conclusion, we may remark that, as the strength and quality of ingredients frequently vary, and success depends greatly on skill in manipulation, much must be left to the experience, judgment, and discretion of the operator. In all cases he must recollect that a certain degree of ‘age’ is absolutely necessary to give a high character to any spirit. Indeed, to age in the one case, and its absence in the other, may be referred the reasons why French brandy and British brandy, apart from mere shades of flavour, so materially differ.

The production of a flavoured British spirit closely resembling French brandy is a subject well worthy of the attention of the ingenious chemist, rectifier, and cellarman, as a matter of profit; and of the amateur, as affording an interesting field for useful and amusing experiment.

Brandy, Car′away. A species of cordial commonly prepared as follows:—1. Caraway-seeds (bruised), 4 oz.; lump sugar, 2 lbs.; British brandy, 1 gall.; macerate a fortnight, occasionally shaking the bottle.—2. Sugar, 1 lb.; caraways (bruised), 1 oz.; 3 bitter almonds (grated); spirit-colouring, 1 oz.; plain spirit or gin (22 u. p.), ⁄2 gall.; as before. Some persons omit the colouring.

Brandy, Cher′ry. Prep. 1. Brandy and cherries (crushed), of each 1 gall.; let them lie together for 3 days, then express the liquor, and add 2 lbs. of lump sugar; in a week or two decant the clear portion for use.

2. To the last add 1 quart of raspberry juice, and ⁄2 a pint of orange-flower water. Both the above are excellent.

3. Treacle, 1 cwt.; spirit (45 u. p.), 41 galls.; bitter almonds (bruised), 1 lb. (or more or less to taste); cloves, 1 oz.; cassia, 2 oz.; macerate a month, frequently stirring. This is the article now commonly vended in the shops and at stalls for cherry brandy.

4. German cherry juice 15 galls.; pure rect. spirits, 20 galls.; syrup, 5 galls.; oil of bitter almonds, 1 drachm.

Obs. Equal part of fully ripe Morello cherries and black cherries produce the richest cordial. Some persons prick each cherry separately with a needle instead of crushing them; in which case they retain them in the liquor, and serve up a few of them in each glass. The plan named in the first formula is, however, that usually adopted. On the small scale, the fruit is commonly bruised between the fingers. A portion only (if any) of the stones in the cherries should be crushed, to impart a nutty flavour. See Liqueurs.

Brandy, Ci′der. From cider and perry; also from the marc of apples and pears fermented. It is very largely manufactured in the United States of America and Canada, where it may be purchased for about 2s. 1d. a gallon. See British Brandy (above).

Brandy, Dant′zic. From rye, ground with the root of calamus aromaticus. It has a mixed flavour of orris and cinnamon.

Brandy, Guern′sey. Beet-root spirit flavoured.

Brandy, Lem′on. Prep. 1. Fresh lemons (sliced), 1 dozen; brandy, 1 gall.; macerate for a week, press out the liquor, and add of lump sugar, 1 lb.

2. Proof spirit, 7 galls.; essence of lemon, 3 dr.; sugar, 5 lbs.; tartaric acid, 1 oz.; (dissolved in) water, 2 galls.; turmeric powder or spirit-colouring, a dessert-spoonful; as before. Sometimes milk is added to the above, in the proportion of 1 quart (boiling hot) to every gallon.

Brandy, Malt. See British Brandy.

Brandy, Or′ange. As lemon brandy, but employing oranges.

Brandy, Pale. This article has been already referred to. (See p. 337.) That of the gin-shops and publicans is generally a spurious article, made by mixing together about equal parts of good brown French brandy, clean spirit of wine, and soft water, and allowing the whole to stand until the next day to ‘fine down.’ If the first is 9 u. p., and the second 58 o. p., the product will be 17 u. p. Any deficiency of strength is made up by adding a little more spirit of wine.

Brandy, Pat′ent. The article so much bepuffed under this name, by certain houses, is merely very clean malt-spirit mixed with about 1-7th of its bulk (or less) of strong-flavoured Cognac, and a little colouring.

Brandy, Peach. From peaches, by fermentation and distillation. Much used in the United States, where peaches are very plentiful, and consequently cheap. A cordial spirit under the same name is prepared as follows:—

1. From peaches, sliced and steeped in twice their weight of British brandy or malt-spirit, as in making cherry brandy.

2. Bitter almonds (bruised), 3 oz.; proof spirit (pale), 10 galls.; water, 3 galls.; sugar, 5 or 6 lbs.; orange-flower water, ⁄2 a pint; macerate for 14 days. Add brandy-colouring, if required darker.

Brandy, Rais′in (rā′zn). See Spirit (Raisin).

Brandy, Rasp′berry (răz′-). From raspberries, as directed under Cherry brandy. Sometimes a little cinnamon and cloves are added. The only addition, however, that really improves the flavour or bouquet is a little orange-flower water, a very little essence of vanilla, or a single drop of essence of ambergris.

Brandy, White. See Brandy (p. 337) and Pale brandy (antè).

BRASS. Syn. Æs, Æ′′ris metal′lum, L.; Airain, Laiton, Cuivre jaune, Fr.; Erz, Messing, Ger.; Bræs, Sax. A well-known alloy of copper and zinc.

Prep. Brass is now generally manufactured by plunging copper, in slips, into zinc melted in the usual manner. The former metal rapidly combines with the fluid mass, and the addition is continued until an alloy somewhat difficult of fusion is formed, when the remainder of the copper is at once added. The brass thus obtained is broken into pieces, and remelted under charcoal, and a proper addition of either zinc or copper made, to bring it up to the colour and quality desired. It is next poured into moulds of granite. Before being submitted to the rolling-press for reduction to thin plates it undergoes the operation of annealing.

The proportions of the metals forming this alloy are varied according to the desired colour, and the purposes to which it is to be applied. The following formulæ are founded chiefly on analyses of standard brasses and yellow metals, made expressly for this work. Small fractions are omitted; the nearest whole numbers being generally taken:—

a. Fine Brass:—1. Copper, 2 parts; zinc, 1 part; either combined, as explained above, or the two metals separately melted, suddenly poured together, and united by vigorous stirring.

2. Copper, 7 parts; zinc, 3 parts. Bright yellow; malleable.

3. Fine copper, 4 parts; zinc, 1 part. Deeper coloured than the last; an excellent and very useful alloy.

b. Malleable Brass:—1. Copper, 33 parts; zinc, 25 parts; as before.

2. Copper, 3 parts; zinc, 2 parts. These alloys are malleable whilst hot.

c. Red Brass. This name is commonly applied to all those alloys which do not contain more than 18 to 20% of zinc. In the deeper-coloured foreign varieties (RED TOM′BAC) the per-centage of copper occasionally amounts to 88, 90, or even 92%.

d. Yellow Brass. See Fine Brass (above).

e. Button-brass:—1. Copper, 8 parts; zinc, 5 parts. This is the ‘PLATIN’ of the Birmingham makers.

2. Yellow brass, 16 parts; zinc, 2 parts; tin, 1 part. Paler than the last.

3. Copper, 25 parts; zinc, 20 parts; lead, 3 parts; tin, 2 parts. Pale; used for common buttons.

f. For fine Castings:—1. As fine brass, according to the colour desired. (See above.)

2. Copper, 62 parts; zinc, 35 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 1 part.

3. Copper, 60 parts; zinc, 36 parts; tin, 4 parts. Both the last two are rather pale and brittle.

4. Copper, 90 parts; zinc, 7 parts; tin, 2 parts; lead, 1 part. Rich deep colour.

5. Copper, 91 parts; zinc, 5 parts; tin, 3 parts; lead, 1 part; as the last.

g. For Gilding:—1. As fine brass (above).

2. Copper, 64 parts; zinc, 32 parts; lead, 3 parts; tin, 1 part.

3. Copper, 82 parts; zinc, 18 parts; tin, 3 parts; lead, 1 part.

h. For Solder:—1. Fine brass, 12 parts; zinc, 6 parts; tin, 1 part; melted together.

2. Brass, 2 parts; zinc, 1 part; as before.

3. Brass, 3 parts; zinc, 1 part. Very strong. Used for soldering tubes and other like purposes requiring great strength. The above alloys form the ‘HARD SOLDER’ of the braziers. For certain purposes a little silver is added to them, when the compound receives the name of ‘SILVER-SOLDER,’

i. For Turning:—1. Fine brass, 98 parts; lead, 2 parts; melted together.

2. Copper, 61 parts; zinc, 36 parts; lead, 3 parts.

3. Copper, 65 parts; zinc, 33 parts; lead, 2 parts.

j. For Wire:—1. Copper, 72 parts; zinc, 28 parts; the resulting alloy being subsequently properly annealed.

2. Copper, 64 parts; zinc, 34 parts; as before.

3. To the last add of lead, 2 parts.

Anal. This may be briefly described as follows:—

a. 100 gr. of the alloy is digested in nitric acid. The insoluble portion is peroxide of tin, every 74 gr. of which, when washed and dried, contain 58 gr. of metallic tin.

b. Sulphuric acid is added to the nitric solution as long as a white precipitate falls; after a time the precipitate is collected on a filter, washed with a mixture of water and alcohol, and ignited in a porcelain crucible. Every 152 gr. of the residuum represents 104 gr. of metallic lead.

c. The liquid filtered from the precipitate of sulphate of lead is treated with a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen; the precipitate is collected on a filter, washed with water mixed with a little sulphuretted hydrogen, dried, and digested in pure nitric acid until the sulphur which separates acquires its natural full yellow colour; the resulting solution is next diluted with water, and reprecipitated with potassa, the whole being boiled until the precipitated oxide of copper becomes of a deep brown or black; it is then collected on a filter, washed, dried, ignited in a platinum crucible, and weighed therein immediately after it becomes cold. Every 40 gr. of oxide of copper thus obtained represents 32 gr. of pure copper.

d. The liquid poured from the precipitate of sulphide of copper is boiled for about a minute, when it is precipitated with a solution of carbonate of sodium; the whole is then boiled for a few minutes, and the precipitated oxide of zinc collected, washed, dried, and ignited. Every 40 gr. of this oxide contains 32 gr. of metallic zinc.

Concluding Remarks. In the adoption of his formula the operator should be entirely led by the object he has in view. The larger the proportion of copper, the deeper will be the colour, and the greater the density, and, within certain limits, the toughness of the alloy. Zinc lessens the specific gravity and colour. Tin gives it hardness and grain; whilst lead toughens it, and renders it fitter for turning. These facts are known to every experienced brass-founder. See Alloys, Copper, Mosaic Gold, Prince’s Metal, Tombac, &c.

BRASS BATH (FOR ELECTRO-PLATING). For steel, wrought and cast iron, and tin; using ordinary cyanide of potassium. Dissolve together in 14 pints of distilled or rain water:—Bisulphite of soda, 7 oz.; cyanide of potassium (containing 75 per cent. of real cyanide), 17 oz.; carbonate of soda, 34 oz.

To this solution add the following, made up to 3⁄4 pints of water:—Acetate of copper, 4⁄2 oz.; neutral protochloride of zinc, 3⁄2 oz.; the two liquors become colourless when mixed. Ammonia must not be used for brass electro-plating baths for iron, especially for solutions worked in the cold.

BRASS BATH (FOR ELECTRO-PLATING). For zinc. Pure or rain water, 4⁄2 gallons; bisulphite of soda, 24⁄2 oz.; cyanide of potassium (containing 75 per cent. of cyanide), 35 oz. To this add the following solution:—Water, 9 pints; acetate of copper and protochloride of zinc, each 12⁄2 oz.; liquid ammonia, 14 oz.

The filtered bath is colourless, and gives, under the action of the battery, a brass deposit of a very fine shade, varying from red to green, by increasing the proportion of copper or that of zinc.

BRASS′-COLOUR. Syn. Brass-pigment, B.-bronze. Prep. 1. Grind copper filings, or the precipitated powder of copper, with a little red ochre. Red-coloured.

2. Gold-coloured brass, or Dutch leaf, reduced to a very fine powder. Yellow or gold coloured.

Obs. Before application these powders are mixed up with pale varnish, no more being worked up at once than is wanted for immediate use. They are also applied by dusting them over any surface previously covered with varnish to make them adhere.

BRASS-PASTE. Prep. 1. Soft soap, 2 oz.; rotten-stone, 4 oz.; beaten to a paste.

2. Rotten-stone made into a paste with sweet oil.

3. Rotten-stone, 4 oz.; oxalic acid (in fine powder), 1 oz.; sweet oil, 1⁄2 oz.; turpentine, q. s. to make a paste.

Obs. The above are used to clean brass-work, when neither varnished nor lacquered. The first and last are best applied with a little water; the second with a little spirit of turpentine or sweet oil. Both require friction with soft leather. See Brass-work, Pastes, &c.

BRASS PLATING. By simple dipping. A colour resembling brass is given to small articles of iron or steel by a long stirring in a suspended tub containing the following solution:—Water, 1 quart; sulphate of copper, and protochloride of tin crystallised, about 1-5th of an oz. each. The shades are modified by varying the proportions of the two salts.

BRASS-STAIN. Prep. 1. Sheet-brass (cut into small pieces) is exposed to a strong heat for 2 or 3 days, then powdered, and again further exposed in a like manner for several days; the whole is then reduced to fine powder, and exposed, a third time, to heat, testing it occasionally, to see if it be sufficiently burnt. When a little of it, fused with glass, makes the latter swell and froth up, the process is complete. It imparts to glass a green tint, passing into turquoise.

2. Equal parts of plate-brass and sulphur are stratified together in a crucible, and calcined, until they become friable; the whole is then reduced to powder, and exposed to heat as before. This imparts a calcedony red or yellow tinge to glass by fusion; the precise shade of colour being modified by the mode of using it.

Obs. The common practice in the glass-houses is to conduct the calcination by exposing the metal, placed on tiles, in the leer or annealing arch of the furnace; a plan both convenient and economical.

BRASS′-WORK. Articles of brass and copper, when not varnished or lacquered, may be cleaned and polished with sweet oil and tripoli, rotten-stone, or powdered bath-brick, applied with friction on flannel, and ‘finished off’ with leather; due care being taken to ensure the absence of anything gritty, which would scratch and disfigure the surface of the metal. A strong solution of oxalic acid in water gives brass a fine colour. Vitriol and spirits of salts make brass and copper very bright, but the polish thus obtained soon tarnishes, and the articles consequently require more frequent cleaning. A strong lye of roche alum and water also improves the appearance of brass. In all cases where acids or saline matter has been used, the metal should be at once well rinsed in clean water, and then wiped dry, and finally dry polished with soft leather.

Brass inlaid-work may be cleaned with tripoli and linseed oil, applied by a rubber of felt or leather; the whole being afterwards thoroughly rubbed off, and then finished with clean soft leather. The ornaments of a French clock, and similar articles, are said to be best cleaned with bread-crumb, carefully rubbed, so as not to injure the wood-work. Ormolu candlesticks, LAMPS, and BRANCHES, may be cleaned with soap and water. Lacquered and GILDED ARTICLES are spoiled by frequent rubbing, and by acids and alkaline leys.

1. A fine colour may be given to BRASS ORNAMENTS, when not gilt or lacquered, with a little sal-ammoniac, in fine powder, moistened with soft water. The articles must be afterwards rubbed dry with bran and whiting. Another plan is to wash the brass-work with a strong lye of roche alum (1 oz. to water 1 pint), and after rinsing it in clean water and drying it, to finish it off with fine tripoli. These processes give to brass the brilliancy of gold. See Brass-paste.

2. A gold varnish for giving a beautiful gilding to brass and bronze objects is prepared from 16 grams of shell-lac, 4 grams of dragon’s blood, 1 gram of turmeric-root, and 332 grams of rectified spirit of wine. The varnish is thinly stroked over the surface with a sponge, the metal being warmed over a small coal fire.

The surface at first appears dull, but soon after it appears as if most beautifully gilded. The ready-prepared spirituous varnish must be preserved in well-stoppered vessels.—Dingler’s Journal.

BRASS′ING. Syn. Brass-coating. 1. Copper-plates and copper-rods may be covered with a superficial coating of brass by simply exposing them, in a heated state, to the fumes given off by melted zinc at a high temperature. The coated plates and rods are rolled into thin sheets or drawn into wire. The spurious gold wire of Lyons is said to be made in this way.

2. Vessels of copper may be coated with brass, internally, by filling them with water strongly soured with hydrochloric acid, adding some amalgam of zinc and cream of tartar, and then boiling the whole for a short time. This plan may be usefully applied in certain cases to copper boilers in laboratories, and to other purposes.

3. By the electrotype (which see).

BRAUNETINCTUR—QUINSY OR BROWN TINCTURE (Netsch, Rauschau), an embrocation for the larynx, is a mixture of 3 parts oil of cloves and 1 part creosote. (Hager.) According to Leimbach 1 part creosote with 3 parts of a spirituous tincture of cochineal perfumed with oil of cloves.

BRAWN. A boar or its flesh. When young, the horny parts feel moderately tender. If the rind is hard, it is old. (Mrs Rundell.) Also in cookery, the flesh of the boar, or of swine, collared so as to squeeze out as much of the fat as possible, boiled, and pickled.

Brawn, Mock. Prep. (Mrs Rundell.) Take the head and belly-piece of a young porker, well saltpetred; split the head and boil it; take out the bones and cut it to pieces; then take 4 ox-feet, boiled tender, and cut them in thin pieces; lay them in the belly-piece with the head cut small; roll it up tight with sheet tin, and boil it 4 or 5 hours. When it comes out set it up on one end, put a trencher on it (within the tin), press it down with a heavy weight, and let it stand all night. The next morning take it out of the tin and bind it with a fillet, put it in cold salt-and-water, and it will be fit for use; it will keep a long time, if fresh salt-and-water are put into it about once every four days.

BRAXY. Inflammation of the bowels in sheep, chiefly affecting young sheep. It is most frequent during winter, and occurs in exposed wet localities. The symptoms are restlessness, thirst, tenderness along the spine or belly, and constipation.

Treatment. Bleed early, and give 3 oz. castor oil; 8 grains of calomel; ⁄2 oz. of laudanum; 3 oz. treacle; beat up with two eggs, and mixed with about 6 oz. of warm water; let this be repeated in half doses every six hours.

This should be combined with clysters and hot fomentations to the belly. If, after two days, no benefit should be derived, give thrice daily, 5 grains of calomel, 20 grains of carbonate of ammonia, and 1⁄2 dram of laudanum, in gruel. The animal should be removed to a shed or sheltered place.

BRAZIL NUTS. The particular tree yielding these nuts (the Bartholetia excelsa) is a native of Brazil, whence the nuts are exported to the yearly annual amount of about 60,000 bushels.

When the kernels of the nuts are submitted to pressure they yield an oil in great repute for domestic purposes and for export, each pound of the nuts yielding nine ounces of the oil, valued at two shillings the pound. According to Martius, this oil consists of 74 per cent. of eldein, and 26 per cent. of stearin. The finely laminated inner bark of the trunks is also a valuable article of commerce, especially adapted for the caulking of ships and barges, and is worth about eighteen shillings the cwt.

The following analysis by Corenwinder gives the composition of the kernels taken from the nuts when in a fresh condition:

Water 8·00

Oil 65·60

Nitrogenous matters 15·31

Non-nitrogenous organic matters 7·39

Phosphoric acid 1·35 3·70

Lime, potash, silica, &c. 2·35

100·00

BRAZIL′-WOOD (-zēle′-). Syn. Brazil‡; Lig′num brazilien′se, L.; Bois de Brésil, Fr. A dye-stuff furnished by several species of trees of the genus cæsalpin′ia, and much used in dyeing various shades of red. The usual practice is to boil it for some hours in hard spring-water, and to keep the resulting decoction for some time, or until it undergoes a species of fermentation; as it is thus found to yield more permanent and beautiful colours than when employed fresh. The following are examples of its application:—

a. For Cotton:—

1. The goods are first boiled in a bath of sumach, next worked through a weak mordant of solution of tin, and then run through the Brazil bath lukewarm. This gives a bright red.

2. The goods are alumed, rinsed, next mordanted with solution of tin, rinsed again, and then turned through the Brazil dye bath. This gives a rose colour.

b. For Linen:—This, for the most part, is similar to that adopted for cotton.

c. For Silk:—The goods, after being alumed in the same way as wool, but at a lower temperature, are rinsed, and passed through the Brazil-wood bath lukewarm.

d. For Wool:—The goods are first steeped or boiled in a weak mordant of alum and tartar, for 1 hour, and then allowed to lie in the cold liquor for 2 or 3 days, with frequent moving about; they are lastly boiled in the Brazil-wood bath for about ⁄2 an hour.

Obs. The shades of colour given with Brazil-wood may be modified by varying the strength of the bath, the mordant, &c. The addition of a little alum turns it on the purple. A little alkali added to the bath, or passing the goods, after being dyed, through water holding a little alkali in solution, produces what is called false crimson. A deep crimson is obtained by adding a little logwood to the Brazil-wood bath. 1 lb. of Brazil-wood, ⁄2 oz. of alum, and 2 oz. of tartar, are sufficient to dye from 20 to 28 lbs. of cotton, according to the depth of shade required. See Dyeing, Red Dyes, &c.

BRAZI′LIN. Syn. Breze′′lĭne, Sapan′ĭne. The colouring matter of Brazil-wood. It forms small orange-coloured needles, soluble in both water and alcohol. Alkalies turn it violet; acids, yellow. Bolly has shown it to be identical with the colouring matter of Sapan-wood.

BRA′′ZING. The operation of uniting pieces of copper, brass, iron, &c., by means of hard solder.

Proc. The edges, after being filed or scraped quite clean, are covered with a mixture of hard solder and powdered borax, made into a paste with water. The whole is then allowed to dry, and is afterwards exposed, in a clear fire, to a heat sufficient to melt the solder. See Autogenous, Soldering, Solders, &c.

BREAD (brĕd). Syn. Pa′nis, L.; Pain, Fr.; Brod, Ger.; Brood, Dut.; Bröd, Dan., Swed.; Breod, Sax. Loaves or cakes made from ground corn, and constituting the staple article of food of all civilised nations.

This important article of food is made of the flour of different cereal grains, but only those that contain gluten admit of conversion into light or spongy bread. In this respect wheat-flour is superior to all others. When this flour is made into a paste or dough with water, and the dough, previous to baking, is left for some time in a moderately warm place, a state of fermentation comes on, owing to the sugar of the flour gradually undergoing the process of conversion into alcohol, in every respect similar to that which takes place during the fermentation of wine and beer. In this process a large quantity of carbonic acid gas is liberated, and the toughness of the dough preventing its escape, the whole mass becomes puffed up and spongy, and a light porous paste is formed, the porosity of which is still further increased by the heat of the oven. The natural process of fermenting the dough just described is, however, tedious and uncertain, whilst the dough has a tendency to run into the acetous fermentation, and to acquire a sour and disagreeable taste, by which it is rendered less nutritious and less easy of digestion. This has led to the use of a ferment which produces a similar condition more speedily, and with greater certainty. Leaven or dough was originally employed for this purpose, and the bread so made was hence called LEAVENED BREAD. At the present time barm or yeast is almost universally used for this purpose. All that is essential to make a loaf of bread is to add a proper quantity of yeast to the dough, and to allow it to remain for a short time in a warm place, and as soon as it rises or becomes spongy, to subject it to the process of baking.

In preparing his dough, the modern baker takes a part of the water needed for the batch, and having rendered it tepid or lukewarm (80° to 90° Fahr.) by the addition of boiling water, dissolves his salt in it, and adds the yeast, together with a portion of the flour. With these he forms a thin dough, which he sets aside in a moderately warm place provided for the purpose, and technically called the ‘kneading trough,’ ‘prover,’ or ‘tryer,’ where it soon begins to ferment and swell up. This process is called ‘setting the sponge,’ and according to the proportion the water in it bears to the whole quantity that is to be used, it receives the name of ‘whole,’ ‘half,’ or ‘quarter sponge.’ Here the sponge heaves and swells, and ultimately the surface bursts and subsides, and if not checked swells again and again in a similar manner and would continue to do so until the whole of the ‘saccharine matter’ was destroyed, and the dough had become sour. The baker is careful, however, to stop it before it has communicated a sourness to the mass. After the first, or, at the furthest, after the second or third ‘dropping of the sponge,’ he adds the remaining quantity of flour, water, and salt, necessary to form the ‘batch,’ and then kneads the whole until it becomes sufficiently tough and elastic to bear the pressure of the hand without adhering to it. The ‘dough’ is now left to itself for a few hours, during which the fermentation still goes on. The inflated mass is then again kneaded, cut into pieces, weighed, and shaped into loaves. In an hour or two these unbaked loaves swell up to nearly double their former size, and are then placed in the oven and baked. During this operation they continue for a time to increase in size, in consequence of the dilation of the pent-up gas by the heat. At length the fermentation is checked, and the dough becomes too solid to admit of further alteration.

Such are the principles and practice of the art of baking. The operations are precisely the same on both the small and the large scale, and therefore need not be separately described.

The kneading of the dough by hand is not only a very laborious process, but it is unhealthy and additionally objectionable on account of its being uncleanly. Added to this, the uniform quality of the dough is not to be depended upon. Although it is impossible to perform by machinery any labour which absolutely requires the touch of the human hand, bread-kneading machines have been introduced wherever the making of only one and the same kind of bread is required. Amongst the numerous kinds of machines devised for bread-making, is Clayton’s. (See cut.)

The constituents of the dough are placed in the cylinder, A, mounted in the framework, b b, and provided with hollow axles, c and d, turning in their bearings at e. The interior of the cylinder is fitted with the framework, f, which may be made to revolve by the aid of the axles, g and h. The two halves of this framework are connected together by the diagonal knives i, i, which, when the machinery revolves, work up the dough; the trough or outer cylinder revolves in the opposite direction to the revolution of the framework. The crank, o, is connected with the axle of the trough or outer cylinder, the crank, p, with that of the inner framework; as the two cranks are turned in opposite directions, they impart opposite movements to trough and framework. The revolving of the machinery may be performed by one man by the aid of one crank, since the axle, h, of the crank, o, which is fitted to the inner frame by means of the hollow axle-tree, and revolves along with it, carries a conically shaped wheel, m, fitted to the wheel k, which, being connected with l, causes the trough also to revolve; when therefore the wheel m turns towards the right, the wheel t will revolve towards the left. Another kneading machine is that of Mr Stevens. It is employed at the Holborn Union, where more than 5000 lbs. of bread are made every week by one man and two boys.

Adult. The adulteration of both flour and bread is carried to a fearful extent, more especially in London. The baker’s flour is very often made of the worst kinds of damaged foreign wheat; and other cereal grains, and particularly beans, are mixed with them in grinding them into flour. In this capital no fewer than six distinct kinds of wheaten flour are brought into the market—fine flour, seconds, middlings, fine middlings, coarse middlings, and twenty-penny flour.

Among the principal substances which have been proved to have been used to adulterate wheat-flour and bread are the following:—

** Alum.

* Ammonia (Sesquicarbonate).

** Beans.

* Bone dust.

* Chalk.

Clay.

Copper (Sulphate).

Lime (Sulphate from the soda water makers).

* Magnesia (Carbonate).

* Plaster of Paris.

* Potash (Carbonate and bicarbonate).

** Potatoes.

** Rice.

** Soda (Carbonate and sesquicarbonate).

* Starch (Potato).

** Water (in excess).

Zinc (Sulphate).

Of these substances, those marked thus (*) are very frequently used; and those marked thus (**) almost universally so.

In the absence of chemical analysis the unalumed loaf may be roughly distinguished from the alumed one by the following characteristics: it is neither so white, so bulky, nor so symmetrical; it bites shorter, and it is free from the sour taste which accompanies the presence of alum. Again, unalumed bread a day or two old will be found to crumble with great readiness; alumed bread, however old, crumbles, on the contrary, with difficulty.

According to Mr Accum, the smallest quantity of alum that can be employed with effect to produce white, light, and porous bread, from the inferior kinds of flour commonly used by the bakers, is from 3 to 4 oz. to a sack of flour weighing 280 lbs. But Dr P. Markham states that the ordinary bread of the London baker is made of one sack or 5 bushels of flour; 8 oz. of alum; 4 lbs. of salt; ⁄2 gall. of yeast; and about 3 galls. of water. Our own analyses, extending to many hundred samples of London bread, as well as those of other chemists, show that even this large quantity of alum is often very much exceeded by the bakers.

Alkaline substances, as the carbonates of ammonia, soda, and potash, are often employed to realise the important consideration of producing light and porous bread from spoiled, or, as it is technically called, sour flour. The first salt becomes temporarily converted into a gaseous state during the operation of baking, causing the dough to swell up in minute bubbles, which thus render it light and porous; the salt itself being at the same time, for the most part, volatilised. Alum is added, not only with a like intention, but also to enable the dough to carry more water. There are several instances of convictions on record of millers and bakers having used gypsum, chalk, and pipeclay in the manufacture of their goods. A gentleman lately writing from the North of England says that he found in one sample of flour which he recently examined upwards of 16% of gypsum; and in another, 12% of the same earth.

A few years since it was discovered that some of the bakers in France and Belgium added blue vitriol to their dough to make it take more water, in the same way as the English baker uses alum. 1 oz. of this sulphate was dissolved in a quart of water, and a wine-glassful of this solution added to the water necessary to make about 50 4-lb. loaves. This enormous crime was soon detected, and deservedly caused the ruin of its heartless perpetrators.

Exam. The following are the methods employed for the discovery of the principal sophisticants of bread, and as the chief of these, and the one most difficult of identification is alum, we have given prominence to the processes now generally adopted for the detection of this article:—

1. Alum:—a. (Robine and Parisot.) About ⁄4 lb. of the suspected bread (somewhat stale or dry) is reduced to crumbs, macerated for 2 or 3 hours in cold water, and then squeezed through a clean piece of white linen. The liquid is next evaporated to dryness at a steam-heat, the residuum redissolved in a little hot water, and the solution filtered. Liquor of ammonia or a solution of sal-ammoniac, and a solution of chloride of barium added to the filtered liquid, give a white precipitate when ALUM is present.

When nearly the whole of the alum has suffered decomposition in the loaf, as is frequently the case, the following process is required:—

b. (M. Kuhlman.) 4 or 5 oz. of bread are reduced to ash, which is powdered and treated with nitric acid, the mixture evaporated to dryness, and about 1 oz. of hot water added. A little caustic potassa is added to the last solution (unfiltered), the whole boiled a few minutes, and passed through a filter. The filtrate is next tested with a solution of sal-ammoniac, and the whole again boiled for 2 or 3 minutes. If a precipitate forms it is alumina; every 50 gr. of which are equivalent to 332 gr. of crystallised alum.

c. The suspected sample is wetted with a weak solution of logwood, or, preferably, of cochineal. Pure bread is only slightly stained by this solution; bread containing alum strikes a lavender, lilac, or purple colour, according to the quantity of the adulterant present. If it acquires a pearl-grey or bluish tint, some alkali (potash, soda, or ammonia) is present.

d. (J. A. Wanklyn.) 100 grams of bread are incinerated in a platinum dish, capable of holding the whole quantity at once. The incineration is managed at a comparatively low temperature, and takes some four or five hours; the platinum dish being heated by means of a large Bunsen burner, abundantly supplied with air. It is well to continue the ignition until the bread-ash is nearly completely burnt, and it is advisable to weigh the dish containing the ash. The weight of the ash should not sensibly exceed 2 grams. The ash having been obtained is then moistened with 3 c. c. of pure strong hydrochloric acid, and then some 20 to 30 c. c. of distilled water is added, and the whole is boiled, filtered, and the precipitate washed several times with boiling water. In this manner a precipitate consisting of a silica, together with some unburnt carbon, is left on the filter, whilst the filtrate contains the phosphates. The precipitate, which, after being burnt, consists of silica, is weighed. The filtrate is mixed with 5 c. c. of ammonia (sp. gr. 0·880), whereby it is rendered powerfully alkaline and opaque, owing to the precipitation of the phosphates. It is finally mixed gradually with some 20 c. c. of strong acetic acid, and as the acid is being poured in, it is to be observed that the liquid is alkaline and opaque, until some 5 c. c. of the acid have been added; that when about 10 c. c. have been added the liquid is acid and much clearer, and that at least 10 c. c. of strong acetic acid are added after the establishment of a distinctly acid reaction. The liquid is then boiled and filtered, and the precipitates, consisting of phosphates of alumina and iron, well-washed with boiling water, ignited and weighed. The last step is the determination of the iron in the weighed precipitate, and this is accomplished either by reduction and titration with standard solution of permanganate in the well known manner, or else by a colour process, viz., by trituration with ferrocyanide of potassium. Having ascertained the amount of iron in the precipitate of mixed phosphates, it is only necessary to calculate it into phosphate of iron, and to subtract the weight of phosphate of iron from the total weight of the mixed phosphates, and the difference is the phosphate of alum yielded by 100 grams of the bread. The following results have been obtained by applying the above-described process to samples of bread presumed to be free from alum:—

From 100 grams of Bread.

Bread-ash.
Silica. Precipitate
insoluble in
acetic acid.

Grams. Grams. Grams.

A 1·408 ... 0·010

B 1·378 ... 0·006

C 1·730 0·018 0·010

D 1·620 0·032 0·014

E ... ... 0·012

(1)F 1·383 0·030 0·012

(2)F 1·324 0·025 0·014

The precipitate insoluble in acetic acid contained in every instance a large proportion of iron, but in some cases at least did not wholly consist of phosphate of iron. On deducting the quantity of phosphate of iron from the total phosphates insoluble in acetic acid, there remains a residue of some five or six milligrams. It would therefore appear that unalumed bread is liable to contain a minute trace of alumina, which, expressed as phosphate of alumina (Al2O3PO5), equals five or six milligrams per 100 grains of bread, or 0·005 per cent. If the alum corresponding to this phosphate be calculated, it will be seen that 100 grams of unalumed bread may appear to contain 0·022 grams of alum; or expressed on the 4-lb. loaf, there may appear to be 6 grams of alum in it. This agrees very fairly with Dr Dupré’s observation.

e. (J. C. Thresh.) The author states that this process requires only a few hours, and quotes experiments, showing the accuracy of the results:—

Take 1250 gr. of bread (from middle of loaf) or flour, and char thoroughly in a platinum dish or on foil over a gas lamp. Powder the char and mix it with sufficient pure strong hydrochloric acid to make a thin cream. Boil gently for a few minutes, then add 100 c. c. of water, and continue the ebullition a few minutes longer. Dilute to 150 c. c., stir well, and filter off 120 c. c., which will contain the alumina from 1000 gr. of the bread or flour. To this filtrate add a slight excess of solution of ammonia, boil for a few seconds. Then let the precipitate subside, and decant the supernatant fluid. Add boiling water to the sediment, and again set aside to settle, and decant the clear fluid. Pass the fluids through a small filter to collect any particles of the precipitate which may have been suspended therein, and throw the filtrate away. Now add to the partially washed precipitate about a gram of pure caustic potash (or soda), warm, and pass the solution through the same filter employed for the previously decanted fluids. Wash the filter with hot water, to which a little KHO may be added, and proceed to precipitate the alumina in the filtrate by adding a few drops of dilute phosphoric acid and excess of pure acetic acid. Heat the solution and precipitate to the boiling point, and then wash the latter by decantation and filtration. Finally dry, ignite, and weigh. The weight of the resulting Al2PO4 in grams, multiplied by 400, will give the amounts of ammonia alum in grains present in one pound of the bread or flour.

f. (Mr Crookes.) The bread of which at least 500 grains should be taken is first to be incinerated on a platinum or porcelain dish, until all volatile organic matter has been expelled, and a black carbonaceous ash remains. The temperature must not be raised much beyond the point necessary to effect this. Powder the coal thus obtained and add about thirty drops of oil of vitriol, and heat until vapours begin to rise; when sufficiently cool, add water, and boil for ten minutes. Filter and evaporate the filtrate until the fumes of sulphuric acid begin to be evolved, when 10 gr. of metallic tin and an excess of nitric acid must be added, together with water, drop by drop, until action between the acid and metal commences. When all the tin is oxidised, add water, and filter. Evaporate the filtrate until fumes of sulphuric acid are again visible, when more water must be added, and the liquid again filtered if necessary. To the clear solution now add tartaric acid, then ammonia in excess, and sulphide of ammonium. Evaporate the liquid containing the precipitate suspended to it, in a dish, until all the smell of sulphide of ammonium has disappeared. Filter, evaporate to dryness, and ignite to get rid of the organic matter. Powder the black ash, boil it in moderately strong hydrochloric acid, filter, add a crystal of chlorate of potash, and boil for a minute. Now add chloride of ammonium and ammonia, and boil for five minutes. If at the end of that time any precipitate is observed, it will be alumina. From the filtered solution, if oxalate of ammonia be added, the lime will be precipitated; and if to the filtrate from this, ammonia and phosphate of soda be added, the magnesia will come down.

Dr Dupré is of opinion that no baker should be fined in whose bread the amount of alumina found corresponds with less than 10 grains of potash alum in the 2-lb. loaf, unless there is direct evidence of adulteration by alum independent of the result of analysis.

Mr Crookes says, “By treatment with a trace of alum, flour with a doubtful soundness is endowed with soundness. For this purpose a proportion of alum is required which does not exceed 20 grains to a 4-lb. loaf.

2. Copper:—a. Moisten the suspected bread with a few drops of a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium. It will assume a pinkish-brown colour if copper be present.

b. A little of the bread may be steeped in hot water, or, better still, in water soured with a little nitric acid, and the clear liquor squeezed or poured off, and tested with ferrocyanide of potassium, as before.

3. Magnesia:—Bread adulterated with magnesia, on digestion in hot water acidulated with sulphuric acid, furnishes a liquid which gives a white precipitate when tested with a solution of either carbonate of potassa or of carbonate of soda, especially on boiling.

4. Soda; Potassa:—Hot water after digestion on the ashes or charcoal turns turmeric paper brown. The liquid may be evaporated to dryness, redissolved in distilled water, slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and tested with bichloride of platinum. If a yellow crystalline precipitate forms, either at once or after some hours, it is potash; otherwise the alkali present is soda.

5. Chalk, WHITING, BURNT BONES, plaster of Paris, and similar substances are easily detected by calcining a little of the flour or bread in a clean open vessel, when the amount of ash left will indicate the quantity of adulteration. The quantity of the ash left by genuine bread or flour is very trifling indeed, about 2%.

Microscopic Characters of Bread. When bread is placed under the microscope, starch cells, broken up into angular masses, or greatly enlarged, and stringy masses of gluten are usually visible; besides these, when a microscope of high power is employed, bacteria of the rod-shaped variety may frequently be detected, the source of these being, probably, the yeast. Great caution and diligent observation are necessary to guard against the falling into the serious error of mistaking the many curious forms the broken-up wheat starch presents for adulterants. By practice and the constant examination of the characters of unadulterated bread, combined with a practical knowledge of the appearance different starch grains present, after being more or less changed in shape by cooking, the microscopist may identify rice-flour, bean-flour, and Indian millet. Barley flour and potatoes, however, are very difficult of detection. There is very little difference in the shape of the barley-starch granule and that of the wheat, and in the process of bread-making the potato granules are so changed as to confuse all their distinctive characters. Bone-dust and a few other mineral adulterations may be detected by the microscope.

Concluding Remarks. A number of processes are used by cooks and confectioners to make the different varieties of fancy bread, cakes, puddings, &c., which vary according to the peculiar characteristic it is desired to communicate to them; but none of these articles properly belong to the trade of the common baker. Thus, some kinds of cakes and pastes are made to eat ‘short,’ as it is called, or are rendered less tenacious, and a species of brittleness imparted to them by the addition of starch, rice-flour, or sugar. In pastry a similar effect and peculiar lightness is produced by butter or lard, whilst in some articles white of egg, gum water, isinglass, and other adhesive substances, are added to produce an exceedingly light and porous mass.

The chief varieties of bread at present in use in this country are known according to their shapes, as—Bricks, Coburg, Cottage, Batch, French rolls, and Rye bread. These vary in their quality, chiefly according to the flour of which they are formed, and their various flavours depend upon the heat of the oven in baking. The best WHITE BREAD is made from the purest wheat-flour; ordinary WHEATEN BREAD, of flour containing a little of the finest bran; SECONDS, from flour containing a still larger proportion of bran; and common HOUSEHOLD BREAD, from flour produced by grinding the whole substance of the grain, without any separation of the bran. The last variety is undoubtedly the most wholesome and nutritious, although that least frequently used. Symnel-bread, MANCHET or ROLL-BREAD, and French bread are varieties made of the purest flour, from the finest wheat, a little milk being usually added for rolls, and butter and eggs for choicer purposes. Several other minor kinds of bread are also made, varied by the addition of sundry trifles, as sugar, currants, and other palatable ingredients. The Scotch shortbread is made from a very thick dough, to which butter, sugar, orange-peel, and spices are added, according to the taste of the maker.

In the manufacture of white bread from damaged or inferior flour a large quantity of alum is employed by the fraudulent baker, as already noticed; but with the ‘best flour’ no alum is required. The utmost beauty, sponginess, and sweetness may be given to bread without the addition of one particle of alum, provided the best materials alone enter into its composition. As such materials are seldom employed by the bakers, the usual practice is to introduce 4 or 5 oz. of alum to every sack of flour, or about 1 oz. to each bushel; and very frequently fully double this quantity of alum is employed. But even this enormous quantity is often not the whole of the alum present in common bread; for the miller, in order to cheat the baker, puts in the ‘doctor,’ in the shape of 4 to 6 oz. of alum to the sack, whilst the baker, unconscious of this victimisation, subsequently uses a double dose of alum in order to cheat his customers. The method of detecting this pernicious adulteration has been already explained. The proper quantity of salt is 4 lbs., and never more than 5 lbs., to the sack, or 1 lb. per bushel. One sack of the best flour, with 4 or 5 lbs. of salt, yields about 360 lbs. of good bread; and a sack of seconds, 345 to 350 lbs. of bread; each being moderately baked. If the loaves are well-baked or over-baked, the product will be from 345 to 350 lbs. only; but if they are slack-baked or under-baked, from 370 lbs. to 385 lbs. of crumbling bread may be obtained from 1 sack of good white flour.

The attention of chemists has, at various times, been directed in search of some method to rectify or lessen the effects of bad harvesting and improper storage on grain, so that a damaged or inferior article might be rendered serviceable, and available for human food. Prof. E. Davy recommends the addition of ⁄4 oz. of carbonate of magnesia to about every 3 lbs. of sour, melted, heated, and similarly damaged flour. This substance materially improves the quality of the bread, “even when made from the worst new seconds flour;” whilst it is said to be perfectly harmless; and the bread so prepared, for temporary use, is certainly unobjectionable. What effects would arise from the daily consumption of such bread for several months has not been determined; but it is doubtful whether it would prove salutary. Indeed there are sufficient reasons for condemning the adoption of such bread in the general diet of a people for any very lengthened period. Our own experiments in bread-making, extending over a long period of years, lead us to prefer carbonate or bicarbonate of soda for the purpose. Theoretically, the corresponding salts of potassa would be preferable. A mixture of equal parts of the bicarbonates of potassa and of soda will, perhaps, ultimately be found to be more useful than either substance used separately.

In times of scarcity and famine various substances, besides the flour of the cereals, have been made into bread, or have been mixed with it, in order to lessen the quantity of the former required by the people. For this purpose, almost every amylaceous vegetable at once plentiful and cheap has, in its turn, been eagerly appropriated. Acorns, beech-mast, the leguminous seeds, numerous starchy bulbous roots, and similar substances, have been employed, either in the form of meal, or made into an emulsion or jelly, which has been used instead of water to form the flour of bread-corn into a dough. At such times bran, the most nutritious and valuable portion of the grain, although usually rejected as worthless, has been retained in the flour, and has even been added to it in excess. Birkenmayer, a brewer of Constance, during a period of scarcity, succeeded in manufacturing bread from the farinaceous residue of beer (brewer’s grains). 10 lbs. of this substance, rubbed to a paste, with ⁄2 lb. of yeast, 5 lbs. of ordinary meal, and a handful of salt, produces 14 lbs. of BLACK BREAD, which is said to be “both savoury and nourishing.” The nutritious quality of brewer’s grains is shown by their extensive employment at the present day as food for pigs and cattle, and particularly for milch cows. In like manner Iceland, Carragheen, and other mosses, have been made into bread, either alone, or mixed with flour or meal. They are used, in the first case, in the state of meal, in the same way as flour; in the second case, 7 lbs. of moss are directed to be boiled in 10 or 12 galls. of water, and the resulting glutinous liquid or jelly to be employed to make 70 lbs. of flour into dough, which is then fermented and baked in the usual way. It is said that flour thus produces fully double its weight of good household bread. A simpler plan is to mix 1 lb. of lichen meal with 3 or 4 lbs. of flour; the bitterness of the lichen having been first extracted by soaking it in cold water. Bread so prepared has of late been highly recommended for the delicate and dyspeptic. The modern baker is in the habit of mixing large quantities of potatoes with his bread, whenever he can purchase them at paying prices. Mealy potatoes are selected, and are carefully mashed or pulped, and the dry flour is worked into this pulp or dough, which is then mixed with the sponge in the usual manner. For inferior bread, equal weights of potato pulp and dry flour are often used. Bread so prepared eats ‘short,’ and is deficient in sponginess, and in that fine yellowish-white tint which forms one of the characteristics of pure wheaten bread, More recently, rice boiled with water to a jelly has got into very extensive use among the bakers. A ‘sponge’ is made with a portion of the jelly thickened with some flour, and the whole process is conducted in the ordinary manner, except that the fermentation is generally more slowly conducted and allowed to proceed for a longer period. Flour so treated yields fully 50% more bread than when merely mixed up with yeast and water. This constitutes the process of Messrs Morian, Martin, and Journet, of Paris, which was tested, a few years since, at Marylebone Workhouse. The experiment succeeded, but the only result to the public has been, that the common bakers have adopted the plan, and now very generally surcharge their bread with such an excess of water that, in many cases, it only possesses two thirds the amount of nourishment which it did before the publication of the system just referred to. Unfortunately, the cupidity of dishonest tradesmen appears to be continually impelling them to avail themselves of the exertions of philanthropists and the discoveries of science, in order to increase their profits, regardless alike of the quality of their commodities and the health of their customers. Bread containing an excess of water rapidly becomes sour and mouldy, and is apt to disorder the digestive functions of those who eat it.

From the experiments of Dr Colquhoun, it appears that the starch of flour is partially converted into sugar during the process of fermenting and baking the dough, and thus contributes to the sweetness of the bread. He proposes to add to the flour, arrow-root, the farina of potatoes, and similar amylaceous substances, made into a jelly with hot water, for this purpose. Dr Percival has recommended the addition of salep with the same intention. 1 oz. of salep, dissolved in 1 quart of water; 2 lbs. of flour; 80 grs. of salt; and 2 oz. of yeast, gave 3 lbs. 2 oz. of good bread. The same weight of materials, without the salep, gave only 2⁄4 lbs. If too much salep is added, it gives its peculiar flavour to the bread.

In reference to the above substitutions, and to the relative quantity of bread produced from any given weight of flour, the reader should remember that the mere increase of the weight or bulk of the product does not carry with it a corresponding increase of the nutritive elements contained in the flour. These remain the same in all cases; and just in proportion as the product, in bread, is greater, will be the decrease in the value of such bread as food. So also with potatoes, rice, and other farinaceous and pulpy substances used as substitutes for wheat-flour. Their poverty in nitrogenous matter, or flesh-formers, is so great, that the greatly increased quantity required as food to support the body, apart from mere inconvenience, more than compensates for their apparent low price. Thus, good wheaten bread, at 2d. per lb., is more than twice as cheap as potatoes at 1d.; for, assuming 2 lbs. of the first as a day’s food, 10 lbs. of the last will be required for the same purpose; and even this large quantity will scarcely effect the desired object. Liebig has demonstrated that, regard being had to the nutritive power of wheat, it is, under all ordinary circumstances, the cheapest article of food provided by nature for man.

We have not entered into particulars respecting oven management, because, on the large scale, it is thoroughly understood by every practical baker. For the instruction of the busy housewife, however, we may state that the oven should always be sufficiently heated before the bread is put into it, in order that the gas contained in the cells of the ‘sponge’ may be expanded as rapidly as possible by the heat, and the resulting light mass quickly rendered sufficiently solid to prevent its subsequent collapse. The heat should also be maintained at nearly the same temperature during the whole of the time the bread is submitted to its action. In general, with ordinary kitchen ovens properly heated, 30 minutes’ baking is sufficient for one-pound loaves and cakes; and 15 minutes in addition for every pound after the first for larger ones. Thus, a 1 lb. loaf requires ⁄2 hour; a 2 lb. loaf ⁄4 hour; and a 4 lb. loaf, 1⁄4 hour.

It is the common ambition of the English baker to give that peculiar tint to the crust of his bread in the process of baking which is so highly esteemed by connoisseurs, and so successfully produced by the Viennese and Parisians. It has been long known at Vienna that if the hearth of an oven be cleaned with a moistened wisp of straw, the crust of bread baked in it immediately afterwards presents a beautiful yellow tint. It was thence inferred that this peculiarity depends on the vapour, which being condensed on the roof of the oven, falls back on the bread. At Paris, in order to secure with certainty so desirable an appearance, the hearth of the oven is generally laid so as to form an inclined plane, with a rise of about 11 inches in 3 feet; and the arched roof is built lower at the end nearest the door, as compared with the further extremity. When the oven is charged the entrance is closed with a wet bundle of straw. By this arrangement the steam is driven down on the bread, and a golden-yellow crust is given to it, as if it had been previously covered with the yolk of an egg.

Pure wheaten bread is one of the most wholesome articles of food, and has been justly termed the ‘staff of life,’ and a certain proportion of it should be taken at every meal.

New and Stale Bread.—As has been just stated, bread which has been kept for 24 hours after baking is more digestible, and therefore preferable to that which has been newly baked. This latter exhibits a well-known elastic appearance, and possesses a certain degree of moisture which renders its taste more agreeable to most persons than bread which has been kept for a day or two, and has become firmer and drier in appearance, and which is commonly termed stale. It is very generally supposed that this change in properties in bread which has been kept for a few days, is owing to the loss of water.

This, however, is not the case. The crum of newly baked bread when cold contains about 45 per cent. of water, and that of stale bread contains almost exactly the same proportion.

The difference in properties between the two is due simply to difference in molecular arrangement. Boussingault found that a loaf which had been kept for six days, though it had become very stale, had not lost more than 1 per cent. of its weight when new. The same loaf was then placed in the oven for an hour, and at the end of that time it had acquired all the properties and appearance of new bread, although during the second baking it lost 3⁄2 per cent. of water. In another experiment a portion of bread was allowed to become stale when enclosed in a tight case, to prevent loss of water by evaporation; it was then heated, and was thus restored to the condition of new bread; these effects were produced alternately, many times in succession, upon the same piece of bread; a heat of about 131° F. was found to be sufficient to convert stale into new bread. Every person who has seen a thick slice of stale bread toasted may have satisfied himself that the crum has during this operation been converted into the same condition as that of new bread.

Fungi. When bread has been kept a few days and has become stale, certain species of fungi show themselves in it: these are the penicillium glaucum, which is the green mould of cheese; the fermentum cerivisiæ or yeast fungus; the oidium auriantiacum or orange-red mould; the puccinia graminis and others. Excess of salt added to the bread prevents the development of these fungi.

Diseases arising from the employment of unsound Flour and Bread.—The flour may be ergotised or grown, and fermenting from the presence of fungi. All the poisonous symptoms of ergot are induced from continuously partaking of bread made with ergotised flour. Dry gangrene is one of the most virulent forms of poisoning caused by partaking of ergotised bread. Severe intestinal derangement is an accompaniment of the milder forms of poisoning. Ergot is more frequently present in rye flour than in wheat. Fermenting bread is a fertile source of dyspepsia, whilst acid bread causes diarrhœa. This latter malady is also caused by the presence in bread of the oidium aurantiacum. Professors Varnell and Tuson state that mouldy oats, the mould being caused by a fungus (the aspergillus), have given rise to paralytic symptoms in horses, so that the presence of these fungi in oats used for making bread should always be regarded with considerable caution.

It has not been demonstrated that the acarus so common in flour has had any injurious effect when eaten. When well fermented and baked bread is very easy of digestion. It should never be eaten until it has stood at least 24 hours after being taken out of the oven. When newer, bread is apt to disagree with the stomach, frequently producing indigestion, biliousness, diarrhœa, dyspepsia, and other like ailments. Bread prepared from meal containing the whole of the bran is the most nutritious and digestible, and should alone be given to children and growing persons, and eaten by the dyspeptic and delicate. Young infants should never be fed upon bread. See Aleurometer, Alum, Flour, Wheat, &c.

Bread, Aërated. The best description of unfermented bread is that manufactured by the process of Dr Dauglish. The method of manufacture has this advantage:—During the whole of the operation neither the flour nor the dough comes into contact with the flesh of the workman. For a full description of the method of preparing this article, see Watts’ ‘Dic. of Chemistry.’ See Bread, Unfermented.

Bread, Amer′ican. From American barreled flour. “14 lbs. of American flour will make 21⁄2 lbs. of bread; whereas the best sort of English flour produces only 18⁄2 lbs. of bread.” (Mrs Rundell.) This arises from the superior quality of the wheat used in its production; and also from its being kiln-dried before grinding, by which much water is driven off.

Bread, Bee. The matter collected by bees to form the bottom of the hive. It resembles a mixture of resin and wax. Its fumes were formerly thought to be anti-asthmatic.

Bread, Bran. 1. From the whole meal, without sifting out any of the bran.

2. By adding about 3 oz. of bran to every lb. of ordinary flour.

Bread, Cassava, is made from the root of the manihot, by first expressing the juice, then grinding the residue into a coarse meal, and baking it in the form of cakes upon thin iron plates. When steeped in oil, and flavoured with cayenne, and slightly broiled upon a gridiron, it is not unpalatable.

Bread, Extemporaneous. See Bread, Unfermented.

Bread, French. Prep. 1. From fine flour, as the best white bread. For the better kinds, and for those intended for rolls and small fancy bread, the sponge and dough is commonly wetted with milk and water, and, occasionally, a very little butter is added. “When the rolls or small fancy loaves have lain in a quick oven about a quarter of an hour, turn them on the other side for about a quarter of an hour longer. Then take them out and chip them with a knife, which will make them look spongy, and of a fine yellow; whereas rasping takes off this fine colour, and renders their look less inviting.”

2. French Soup-bread. From fine flour, but employing fully double the usual quantity of salt. It is baked in thin loaves, so as to be nearly all crust, by which means it becomes more soluble in hot soup.

Bread, Hick’s Pat′ent. This is ordinary bread baked in an oven so arranged that the vapours arising during the process are condensed in a suitable receiver. The condensed liquor is a crude, weak spirit, produced during the fermentation of the dough, and possesses little commercial value; indeed, insufficient to pay for the expenses attending its collection. Besides which, the bread prepared under this patent was rejected by the vulgar, who flocked to the shops of the neighbouring bakers, who professed to sell their bread with “the gin in it.”

Bread, Household. This name is commonly given to bread made with flour from which only the coarser portion of the bran has been removed; and to bread prepared from a mixture of flour and potatoes. The following are examples:—

1. (Rev. Mr Haggett.) Remove the flake-bran from flour, 14 lbs.; boil the bran in 1 gall. of water until reduced to 7 pints; strain, cool, and knead in the flour, adding salt and yeast as for other bread. Very wholesome.

2. Flour, 7 lbs.; mealy potatoes (well mashed), 3 lbs.; as before. Objectionable for the reasons already given.

Bread, Leav′ened. (lĕv′-). Using leaven instead of yeast, and in the same way. About 1 lb. to each bushel of flour is usually sufficient. The more leaven used, the lighter the bread made with it will be; and the fresher and sweeter the leaven, the less sour will it taste. Leaven, except among the Jews and sailors, is now superseded by yeast.

Bread, London White. The common proportions of the London bakers are—Flour, 1 sack; common salt, 4⁄2 lbs.; alum, 5 oz.; yeast, 4 pints; warm water for the sponge (about), 3 galls. The process has been already noticed.

Bread, Paris White. The following has been handed to us as the plan commonly adopted by the Paris bakers for their best white bread:—On 80 lbs. of the dough (before the yeast was added) from yesterday’s baking, as much lukewarm water is poured as will be required to make 320 lbs. of flour into a rather thin dough; as soon as this has risen, 80 lbs. are taken out and reserved in a warm place as leaven for the next day’s baking; 1 lb. of dry yeast, dissolved in warm water, is then added to the remaining portion, and the whole lightly kneaded; as soon as it has sufficiently risen, it is made into loaves, and shortly afterwards baked; the loaves being placed in the oven without touching each other, so that they may become crusty all round.

Bread, Unfermented. Syn. Extemporaneous bread. Prep. 1. From Jones’s patent flour. Very wholesome and excellent; indeed, when skilfully made and baked, almost equal to French bread.

2. From Sewell’s patent flour. Slightly inferior to the last.

3. To each lb. of flour add, separately, 1⁄4 dr. of bicarbonate of soda, and 1 dr. of tartaric acid (both perfectly dry, and in very fine powder); rub them well together with the hands until thoroughly incorporated; then form the whole into a dough with water, as quickly as possible, and at once bake in a quick oven. About 8 or 9 oz. of water are required for every lb. of flour. Answers well when expertly managed.

4. Flour, 1 lb.; bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr.; mix; make a dough with water, q. s., to which 1 dr. of hydrochloric acid (commercial) has been added, and further proceed as before.

5. Whiting’s Patent bread:—This closely resembles the last. The proportions are—Flour, 7 lbs.; carbonate of soda and hydrochloric acid, of each 1 oz.; water, 2⁄4 pints. This method was suggested by Dr Henry in 1797, and was patented by Dr Whiting in 1836. If the proportions be not observed, or the mixture be not perfect, the quality of the bread suffers. The action of the acid on the soda forms common salt in the loaf.

6. Ammoni′acal bread:—Carbonate of ammonia, ⁄4 to 1 oz.; cold water, q. s.; dissolve, add of flour, 7 lbs.; and make a dough, which must be formed into loaves and baked immediately, as before.—Obs. To ensure success the carbonate should be recent, and free from bicarbonate, the presence of which is known by its being white and powdery, and of inferior pungency. If any of the last salt be present, the bread will have a yellowish colour, and a slightly alkaline or urinous flavour. The process answers best for small loaves, cakes, and fancy bread. By employing pure carbonate of ammonia instead of the commercial sesquicarbonate, the process succeeds admirably, and the resulting bread is most wholesome. A late writer recommends the use of bicarbonate of ammonia, but evidently does so in ignorance, as in practice it is inapplicable, as the author verified by numerous carefully conducted experiments.

7. It has been at various times proposed to knead the dough with water highly charged with carbonic acid, on which Dr Ure observes that “the resulting bread will be somewhat spongy.” He states that he endeavoured to make bread in this way, but never could succeed in producing a light spongy loaf. The quantity of gas in the water is much too trifling for the purpose, and the greater part of it escapes in the process of making the dough, even though all the materials be well cooled, and the operation conducted in a cold place. The only way of obviating the difficulty is to conduct the kneading in a trough under considerable atmospheric pressure, and at a very low temperature, by means of machinery, as is done by Dr Dauglish, whose method is now protected by letters patent. This method is not, however, adapted either to domestic use or the small scale.

Obs. Unfermented bread has been strongly recommended as being more wholesome, and generally better adapted to bilious and dyspeptic patients, than fermented bread. It must, however, be confessed, that the unfermented bread commonly met with has a slight ‘raw-grain’ taste, which is very disagreeable to some persons. But this taste is not necessarily present, being chiefly dependent on bad manipulation, the use of inferior flour, and insufficient baking. The process of fermentation doubtless modifies the condition of the starch and gluten of the dough, and renders them easier of digestion. This species of bread is sadly adulterated with a variety of indescribable messes. See Biscuits, Bread (antè), Flour, Gingerbread, &c.

Bread Fruit (Artocarpus incisa, nat. order Graminaceæ). The tree yielding the bread-fruit is a native of Central America, the South Sea Islands, and the Islands of the Indian Archipelago. It is principally composed of starch, sugar, and water, every 100 parts containing 80 of water. The fruit is gathered when the starch is in a mealy condition; it is then peeled, wrapped in leaves, and baked by placing it between hot stones. It then has the taste of sweetbread.

The natives of the countries where this fruit is found practise a method for preserving it, which consists in allowing the nitrogenous parts of the fruit to putrefy in water-tight pits. They thus obtain a mass resembling soft cheese in consistence, and this, when required to be eaten, is baked in the same manner as the fresh fruit.

BREAK′FAST (brĕk′-). Syn. Jentaculum L.; Déjeûner, Déjeûné, Fr.; Frühstück, Ger. The first meal of the day; or the food served at it.

The morning meal—the ‘early bit’ of the Germans—is perhaps the most important one of the day. According to Erasmus Wilson, it is usually “taken at eight or nine.” The proper time for the purpose must, however, depend upon that at which the party rises. About an hour, to an hour and a half, after leaving the bed, will generally be found the most appropriate time for breakfast, and appears to be the one pointed out by nature, and the most conducive to health. By that time the powers of the system have fully recovered from the inactivity of sleep, and the functions of the stomach and other viscera have again come into full play. The appetite is excited and seeks appeasing, and both instinct and reason direct us to the social board. If abstinence be now prolonged, the physical and mental energies, unsupported by the supply of food which indirectly gives them birth, gradually lessen, and incipient exhaustion ensues. The fluids of the stomach and the smaller intestines begin to act upon the coats of those viscera instead of on the food, and an unpleasant feeling of hunger or a loss of appetite comes on, with all its depressing consequences. When breakfast cannot be taken within a reasonable period after rising, the gap should be filled up by chewing a crust, a biscuit, or the like. A raw egg or two, sucked from the shell, or broken into a teacup and drank, will be found most valuable for this purpose. Raw milk, cheese, salted food, and other indigestible matter, should be particularly avoided at this early period of the day.

The articles of food to be chosen for the breakfast-table must depend entirely on the state of the health, the occupations, &c., of those assembled round it. Coffee appears to be, by common consent, the favourite beverage. For the delicate, the bilious, and the young, it should neither be taken too strong, nor very weak, and should be softened down with milk or cream, and well sweetened with sugar. Tea is more apt to affect the nerves and stomach than pure unchicoried coffee. Green tea, taken thus early in the day, often acts as an absolute poison, though a slow one. We have seen severe fits of vomiting and exhaustion follow its use.

The solid food for breakfast should be easy of digestion, and nutritious. Females, children, and persons leading a sedentary life, should confine themselves to a sufficient quantity of good meal-bread with only a moderate quantity of butter, to which an egg, or a small rasher of mild bacon, may be advantageously added. For very young children there is no better breakfast, where it agrees with them, than scalding-hot new-milk poured on sliced bread, with a slice or two of bread and butter to eat with it. Parties engaged in active occupations may extend their exploits somewhat farther, and add to this bill of fare a little ham or cold meat. When an undue time will elapse before the luncheon or dinner, and particularly during the colder season of the year, the broiled leg of a fowl, an under-dressed mutton chop, or a little tender beef-steak, will be found, by the parties last referred to, most useful; nay, in many cases, invaluable. But excess must be particularly avoided. The object is to take enough food to maintain the system in full energy and vigour, and particularly to avoid offending the stomach by overloading it; a misfortune easily effected at the breakfast table. Old commercial travellers—men wise in the mysteries of life and its enjoyments—are scrupulously careful to make a good, but not a heavy breakfast, before commencing the arduous duties of the day. See Déjeûner, Meals, &c.

Breakfast Pow′der. Syn. Rye′-coffee, Dillen′ius’s c., Hunt’s Econom′ical breakfast powder, &c. Rye, roasted along with a little fat, after the manner of coffee. It was once sold at 2s. 6d. the lb., and was formerly extensively used as a substitute for foreign coffee, of which it is one of the cheapest and best. Since the reduction of duty on coffee it has nearly fallen into disuse, unless it be by the grocers to adulterate that article.

BREAST (Sore). See Nipples.

Breast Pang. Syn. Angina pectoris. Symptoms.—A sudden pain occurring in the parts covered by the breast-bone and the throat, accompanied with a feeling of suffocation, and the apprehension of immediate death. The pain sometimes extends down the arms and through the back. Summon a medical man without a moment’s loss of time. Pending his speedy arrival give a drachm of ether with one third of a grain of acetate of morphia. Apply hot applications to the chest and stomach; likewise friction to the chest, back, and sides with spirits. If the relief be only partial, the dose of ether may be repeated after twenty minutes.

BREATH (Fetid). Scarcely anything is more disagreeable or disgusting than a stinking breath. Various means have been proposed to remove this annoyance, depending principally on the administration of aromatics, which by their odour smother it for a time; but these require continual repetition, and are liable to interfere with the functions of digestion. The real cause of stinking breath may generally be traced to a diseased stomach, or to decayed teeth. When the former is the case, mild aperients should be administered; and if these do not succeed, an emetic may be given, followed by an occasional dose of the Abernethy-medicines. When rotten teeth are the cause, they should be thoroughly cleansed, and then ‘stopped,’ or if this is impracticable, they should be removed. When this is impossible or inconvenient, the evil may usually be lessened by keeping them scrupulously clean. Dirty teeth also often cause the breath to smell; and hence the use of the tooth-brush should be a daily habit. Occasionally rinsing out the mouth with a little clean water to which a few drops of solution of chloride of lime, or of chloride of soda, has been added, is often an effective method. Mouth-washes of Condy’s fluid, and also of carbolic acid, both very greatly diluted, form useful remedies; as do also chlorate of potash and tannic acid in the form of mouth-washes. As a tooth-powder, fresh-burnt charcoal, and particularly areca-nut charcoal, is without comparison the best. Lozenges, such as the following, have been strongly recommended to sweeten and purify the breath:—Gum-catechu, 2 oz.; white sugar, 5 oz.; orris powder, 1 oz.; neroli, 5 or 6 drops; make them into a paste with mucilage, and divide the mass into very small lozenges. 20 or 30 drops of oil of cloves may be substituted for the orris and neroli, at will. One or two may be sucked at pleasure. When the breath of a child or infant, usually so sweet and fresh, smells unpleasantly, it indicates stomach derangement of some sort. Very frequently it is indicative of worms. See Cachou Aromatisé, Pastils, &c.

BREW′ING. The art of making beer.

The only ingredients allowed by law to enter into the composition of beer are malt, sugar, hops, or any substitute for hops, and water, together with a little yeast.

The apparatus and utensils required under the common system, in brewing beer, are—

1. A copper or boiler capable of holding fully two thirds of the quantity proposed to be brewed; with a gauge-stick to determine the number of gallons of fluid at any given depth therein; and a wooden cover to place over it before the boiling commences, or when not in use. A copper capable of holding not less than 140 galls. is a convenient size for brewing a quarter of malt, and is commonly known as a one-quarter copper.

2. A mash-tub or mash-tun capable of containing one third more than the copper.

3. One or more tuns or vessels, to ferment the beer in.

4. Three or four shallow coolers, to reduce the wort as rapidly as possible to a proper temperature for fermentation.

5. One or two copper or wooden bowls, for baling, &c.

6. A thermometer with a scale reaching from below 32° to a few degrees above the boiling-point of water (say to 225° or 230° Fahr.).

7. A saccharometer, for taking the density of worts and beer.

8. A suitable number of casks (clean and sweet), to contain the beer.

9. One or more large funnels or tunners.

10. Two or more clean pails.

11. A hand-pump of a size proportionate to the brewing.

12. A mill, for crushing the malt. Brewers, for sale, are restricted by law to the use of mills with plain metal rollers.

These articles will vary in value from £10, upwards to many hundreds, or even thousands, according to the extent of the brewing; but the whole of them necessary for a private family may be bought for less than the former amount, as the mill, pump, &c., may then be dispensed with, and the rest may be of the simplest and least expensive character possible. By proper care they will last for 30 or 40 years, and still continue in a useful state.

Preliminary proceedings:—

The malt is chosen according to the intended character of the brewing—pale, amber, roasted, or any mixture of them, as the occasion may require. It is bruised or crushed in a mill (malt-mill) before employing it in brewing, that it may be the more readily acted on by the water. It should not be ground too small, as it would then make the wort thick, and cause it to run with difficulty from the mash-tun. The crushed malt may advantageously lie for a few days in a cool situation, by which it will attract a considerable quantity of moisture from the air, and be the more easily exhausted by the water used in mashing. Pale malt may be used coarser than amber or brown malt. A bushel of good malt should measure 1⁄4 bushel when ground; and a quarter should yield between 9⁄2 and 10 bushels, the quantity slightly varying according to the degree of bruising it has undergone. On the large scale, malt is ground in crushing mills furnished with plain iron rollers; on the small scale, by wooden rollers or mills worked by hand. For private brewing, the malt is generally bought ready crushed or ground, for convenience sake.

The hops, after being taken from the ‘pockets’ or ‘bag,’ are crumbled with the hands ready to be thrown into the copper. For general purposes those grown in Kent, and of the present season, are preferred. For the finer sorts of ale, East Kent hops are commonly used; and when it is intended to keep the liquor for a long time, those known by the names of Country’s, Alton’s, or Farnham hops, are employed.

The quantity of hops required by a given measure of malt varies from 2 lbs. to 22 lbs. per quarter, according to the strength or gravity of the wort, the character of the beer intended to be brewed, and the climate which the beer may have to sustain. Export beer requires, as a rule, an exceptionally large amount of hops to enable it to bear without injury the heat of the country to which it is shipped. The following are the usual proportions:—

Table beer 2 lbs. 1 qr.

Mild ale or porter 4 ” 1 ”

Brown stout 5 ” 1 ”

Scotch ale (best) 5 ” 1 ”

Strong ale (ordinary) 5⁄2 ” 1 ”

Strong ale (keeping) 8 ” 1 ”

Bitter ale 10 to 14 ” 1 ”

East India ale (export) 12 to 22 ” 1 ”

When a strong, coarse hop is used, a less quantity suffices for the same strength brewed, but the flavour is always inferior.

The water, which should be clear, and free from all traces of decomposing animal and vegetable matter, must be provided in abundance. Of late years hard water has been preferred by many brewers, on the ground that beer brewed with it is self-fining, and hence requires no artificial clarification either in the vat or cask.

Hard water is also much to be preferred to soft in brewing stock beers; since by its rendering the albuminous matters contained in the mash insoluble, it prevents the fermentation to which these would otherwise give rise, and so assists in the preservation of the beer, and in keeping it free from acidity.

The German brewers, however, who do not brew beverages intended to be kept for any time, on the contrary, employ a soft water, by which means the albuminous substances contained in the malt are rendered soluble, and become diffused throughout the beer, and possibly add in some measure to its nutritive qualities. Hard waters are said to have the property, over soft ones, of enabling the beer to retain more saccharine matter, and hence to improve its flavour and to give it more body. The ales of Burton are pre-eminent for their excellent quality and keeping properties. In the neighbourhood of Burton there are extensive beds of new red sandstone and gypsum, by sinking wells into which the Burton brewers obtain the water from which they make their beers. From the subjoined analyses of Burton well waters it will be seen that this water is a very hard one, and contains, besides other salts, a very large quantity of sulphate of lime.

Analysis of the water used in Messrs Allsopp’s brewery (Dr Böttinger):—

Amount of ingredients
in the imperial gallon,
represented in grains.

Chloride of sodium 10·12

Sulphate of potash 7·65

Sulphate of lime 18·96

Sulphate of magnesia 9·95

Carbonate of lime 15·51

Carbonate of magnesia 1·70

Carbonate of iron 0·60

Silica 0·79

65·28

Analysis of water from a well at the brewery of Messrs Bass (Cooper):—

Carbonate of lime 9·93

Sulphate of lime 54·40

Chloride of calcium 13·38

Sulphate of magnesia 0·83

78·54

The whole of the water used in the Burton breweries is obtained from wells, and not from the river Trent, as was at one time erroneously supposed. A factitious Burton water may, it is said, be obtained by adding sulphate of lime and salt to any soft water, in the proportions stated in the above analyses.

Dr C. Graham is of opinion that, although the properties of the Burton well waters are very greatly due to the large quantity of sulphate of lime contained in them, the chlorides of sodium and calcium are also important constituents.

The yeast must be fresh and good; and all the vessels and utensils perfectly sweet and clean. If the latter be neglected, even the most skilful brewing will prove a failure.

Process of brewing:—

1. Mashing:—The ground or bruised malt placed in the mash-tun is macerated for some time in hot water, and the infusion (wort) drawn off from a hole in the bottom, over which a strainer or false bottom is placed, to prevent the malt passing out along with the liquor. During the process of mashing a peculiar principle contained in the malt, called diastase, reacts upon the starch with which it is associated, and converts it into grape-sugar. The more completely this conversion is effected the richer will be the resulting wort in sugar or “saccharine,” and the stronger and more alcoholic the beer produced by its fermentation. It is, therefore, a desideratum with the brewer to mash at the temperature which most fully promotes this important object. The best temperature for this purpose ranges between 150° and 170° Fahr. When more than one mash is made, the first should be something lower than the first-named temperature; the second may be from 175° to 185°; and the third as high as 200° Fahr.

If the first mashing has been rightly conducted, the whole of the starch will be converted into sugar, and the action of the second and third mashings is merely to wash out any of the remaining saccharine matter still existing in the crushed grain.

In practice, as soon as the water in the copper acquires the temperature of 170°, 45 galls. are run into the mash-tun, and 1 quarter of crushed malt gradually added to it. The whole is now thoroughly mixed with the mash liquor, by means of oars, or machinery, the agitation (mashing) being continued for 30 or 40 minutes, when 36 galls. more water from the copper are added, and the whole again well agitated, as before. The mash-tun is now closely covered up, and the mash allowed to repose for about two hours, in order that the diastase may exert its saccharifying power upon the unconverted starch of the malt. At the end of this time the tap is set, and the wort run into the ‘underback.’ It generally amounts to about 50 galls. The second mash is then made with about 60 galls. of water, at 185° F., and the whole process repeated as before. After an hour the liquor is drawn off, and the malt drained ready for the third mash. This time only 35 galls. of water are added at 200° F., and the whole is seldom allowed to stand longer than half an hour. It is then run off, and the malt allowed to drain as dry as possible.

In some cases the worts of the first and second mashes only are used for strong beer; that of the third mashing being kept for table beer, or as liquor to mash a fresh quantity of malt.

Pale malt and mixtures of malt and raw grain should be mashed for a longer time, and at a somewhat lower temperature than brown or high-dried malt.

Instead of making second and third mashes as above described, it has long been the practice in Scotland, and is now becoming common in England, to sprinkle the surface of the grains in the mash-tun with water, at or about the temperature of 180° Fahr., by means of a simple revolving instrument termed a ‘sparger,’ and to let the liquor drain through the goods and run off by the tap with the last portions of the first wort. By this means the whole surface of the grain is continuously and regularly sprinkled with hot water.

When sugar is used it may be either mixed with the malt in the mash-tun, at the time of mashing, or put into the underback, just before setting the taps, and the hot wort run upon it. The proportions of malt and sugar vary according to the quality of the latter, but, on an average, from 170 lbs. to 200 lbs. of good raw sugar may be taken as the equivalent of a quarter of malt.

2. Boiling:—The wort is next transferred from the underback to the copper, and heated to the boiling-point as soon as possible, the object of this expedition being to prevent the formation of acid in the wort, by exposure to the air, before undergoing the changes which take place in the copper. As soon as the boiling of the wort commences the hops are added, and the boiling is continued for about 2 or 2⁄2 hours. A longer boiling is highly objectionable, owing to the extraction of a heavy, resinous bitter from the hop, and the danger of losing the volatile oil upon which the aroma depends. For mild beers the worts are seldom boiled so long; for strong keeping ales, sometimes a little longer. The boiling is known to be completed when the liquor ‘clears,’ as it is called, and albuminous flocks sink to the bottom of the copper.

The hops, strained from each wort, are returned into the copper with the following one.

The average loss by evaporation in the process of boiling varies from ⁄6th to ⁄7th of the original bulk of the wort. The gravity increases at the same time in about the ratio of 5 to 4; so that if the gravity be, at first, say 32 lbs. per barrel, it will at the end of the operation have risen to about 40 lbs.

3. Cooling:—The wort, under the common system, is ‘run off’ from the copper into the ‘hop-back,’ through a strainer which keeps back the hops. It is then pumped into large square shallow vessels called ‘coolers,’ where it is freely exposed to a current of air to reduce its temperature as quickly as possible, in order to avoid acidity or ‘souring.’ In 6 or 7 hours, or sooner, the temperature should fall to about 60° Fahr. In warm weather the depth of the liquor in the coolers should not exceed 3 or 4 inches; and in cold weather not more than 5 or 6 inches. As soon as the temperature has fallen to about 60° the liquor is ‘tunned’ and ‘yeasted.’

The loss by evaporation and condensation in the coolers varies from 13 to 18 galls. per quarter.

4. Fermentation:—The cooled wort is next run into the fermenting tuns or vessels (gyle-tuns). In small brewings these may be casks with one of their heads removed; but under any form they must not be more than ⁄3rds filled. The yeast, previously mixed with a little wort, and kept until the whole has begun to ferment (technically termed ‘lobb’), is now added, and after agitation the vessel is covered up, and kept so, until the fermentation is well established. By this time the temperature has risen from 9° to 15°.

The quantity of yeast employed, and the temperature of the wort when it is added, differ in different breweries and for different kinds of beer. It seldom exceeds 2 lbs. per barrel unless the weather is unusually cold, or the yeast old or stale, when a larger proportion is required. The Scotch brewers generally take only 1 gall. of yeast to fully 4 hhds. of wort.

In England, the temperature at which the yeast is added varies from 55° to 65° Fahr. In Scotland, the common temperature is 51° to 52°. In cold weather the heat may be 5° or 6° higher than in mild and warm weather, and a little more yeast may also be advantageously employed. In cold weather ale is commonly tunned at 60°, porter at 64°, and weaker beers at 65° or 70° Fahr. In ‘warm weather’ strong beer should be 4° or 5°, and other beers 7° or 8° cooler than the ‘heats’ just mentioned. On the small scale, 1 to 1⁄4 pint of yeast may be used to every barrel of strong-beer wort, and ⁄4 pint to every barrel of mild-beer wort.

The commencement of the fermentation is indicated by a line of small bubbles forming round the sides of the tun, and in a short time extending over the whole surface. A ‘crusty head’ soon forms, and then a ‘fine rocky head,’ followed by a ‘light frothy’ one. At length the head assumes a yeasty appearance, the colour becomes yellowish brown, and a vinous odour is developed. As soon as this last head begins to fall, the tun is skimmed every 2 or 3 hours, until no more yeast is formed. The object of this is, not only to check the violence of the fermentation, but also to remove a peculiar bitterness, with which the first portion of the yeast is impregnated. The beer is then put into casks, or ‘cleansed,’ as it is called. A minute attention to every stage of this process is necessary to secure a fine flavour and a brilliant beverage.

It may be regarded, as a rule, that the lower the temperature, and the slower, more regular, and less interrupted the process of fermentation, the better will be the quality of the brewing, and the less likely to change by age. A little more yeast is required in winter than in summer. When the fermentation becomes slack in the ‘gyle-tun,’ a little more ‘lobb’ is generally added, and the whole is well ‘roused up,’ On the contrary, if the temperature rises considerably, or the fermentation becomes too brisk, the wort is cooled a little and skimmed, or at once cleansed.

5. Cleansing:—This consists in running the beer from the gyle-tun into casks, or other vessels, set sloping, so that the yeast as it forms way work off the one side of the top, and fall into a vessel placed below to receive it. In small brewings the beer is often at once transferred from the gyle-tun to the ‘store-casks,’ which are sloped a little until the fermentation is over, when they are skimmed, filled, and bunged.

The process of cleansing is generally commenced as soon as the ‘saccharine’ in the fermenting wort falls to about 10 lbs. per barrel, a degree of attenuation which it usually reaches in about 48 hours. Some brewers add a little wheat-flour or bean-flour (about ⁄4 lb. per barrel) to the beer in the gyle-tun, shortly before cleansing, to quicken the discharge of yeast; but it is not clearly ascertained whether such a plan is advantageous, or the contrary.

6. Storing:—As soon as the fermentation is concluded, which generally takes from 6 to 8 days, or longer, the clear liquor is pumped into the store-casks or vats, which are then closely bunged, and deposited in a cool cellar, if not already there, to mature. The preference, which at present exists in most parts of the United Kingdom, is for mild, freshly-brewed malt liquors; the good old or mature-vatted beer being now seldom met with. This, of course, is a source of increased profit to the brewer, as it enables him to turn over his capital more rapidly, and saves the risk and expense attendant on long storage.

7. Ripening:—After a period varying from one to twelve months or longer, according to the nature of the brewing, and the condition of the cellar, the liquor will have become fine, and sufficiently mature for use. During this period the casks, &c., should be occasionally examined to see that there is no leakage, and to open the vent-holes, should any oozings appear at the joints. As equable a temperature as possible should be maintained in the cellar, by ventilation, on the one hand, and the employment of artificial heat on the other, as circumstances and seasonal changes may render necessary.

8. Fining or Clarifying:—Beer which has been badly brewed or badly stored, or which from other causes may be thick or muddy, requires clarifying by artificial means. For a barrel about 1 to 1⁄2 pint of brewer’s finings (isinglass or fish-gelatin dissolved in sour beer) is put into a bucket, and some of the beer being gradually added, the whole is violently agitated with a whisk until a frothy head is formed. The mixture is then thrown into the cask of beer, and well ‘rummaged up,’ after which the bung is replaced, and the liquor allowed to repose for a week or ten days.

Sometimes the above method is found to fail with weak and bad-conditioned beer. When such is the case, the addition of a teaspoonful of sulphuric acid, or a table-spoonful of powdered catechu (previously dissolved in ⁄2 a pint of boiling water), followed by agitation for a quarter of an hour, will generally cause the ‘finings’ to clarify the liquor; 2 or 3 oz. of tincture of catechu (mixed with a little water) may be used in the same way. A handful of hops, previously boiled for five minutes in a little of the beer, and then added to the barrel, and the whole allowed to stand for a few days, before proceeding to clarify it, will generally have a similar effect, and cause the ‘finings’ to act with certainty. It is the absence of the proper quantity of astringent matter in beer that usually renders them ineffective.

M. Brescius employs tannin for the clarification of beer. To 1000 litres of beer he adds 140 grains of tannin dissolved in ⁄4 of a litre of water, which is thoroughly stirred up. After three or four days he adds one litre of isinglass or two of gelatin in the proportion of 1 kilo. to 100 litres. The complete clarification requires about eight days.

Gen. commentary. The preceding is a concise account of all the essential operations of the system of brewing at present practised in this country. On the large scale, extensive and costly apparatus and machinery are employed for the purpose. On the small scale, various modifications, of a minor character, or the several processes herein detailed, are frequently adopted according to the circumstances or ingenuity of the operator. The principles and practice of brewing beer are, however, essentially the same under all the conditions here referred to. In Scotland, only one mash is made, and that at a temperature of about 180° Fahr., with one third of the quantity of the water required for the brewing. The ‘mash-tun’ is then covered up for about half an hour, when the wort is drawn off, and the operation of ‘sparging’ begun. This operation is continued until the density of the mixed worts becomes adapted to produce the quality of the ale then under process of manufacture. The ‘gyle-tun’ (fermenting-tun) is set at from 50° to 60° Fahr., the fermentation being continued slowly for fifteen to twenty days; and the ale is not ‘cleansed’ before the degree of attenuation falls to about ⁄2 lb. per day, and not more than one fourth of the original gravity of the wort remains. Scotch ale is justly celebrated for its superior quality. Its usual original gravity is from 34 to 45 lbs. per barrel.

In Bavaria, a country remarkable for the excellence of its beer, the wort is made to ferment at a low temperature, until all the substances which favour acetification have been rendered insoluble, and have separated from the liquor. The fermentation is conducted in wide, open, shallow vessels, which afford free and unlimited access to atmospheric oxygen; and this in a situation where the temperature does not exceed 45° to 60° Fahr. A separation of the nitrogenous constituents thus takes place simultaneously on the surface, and within the whole body of the liquid. The clearing of the fluid is the sign by which it is known that these matters have separated. The fermentation usually occupies three or four weeks, and is conducted during the cooler portion of the year only, and in a situation removed as much as possible from the influence of atmospherical changes of temperature. The sedimentary yeast (unterhefe), and not the surface yeast (oberhefe), of the Bavarian fermenting backs is employed.

The beers of England and France, as well as most of those of Germany, become gradually sour by contact with the air. This defect, as observed by Liebig, does not belong to the beers of Bavaria, which may be preserved, at pleasure, in half-full casks, as well as in full ones, without suffering any material alteration. This precious quality must be ascribed to the peculiar process employed for fermenting the wort, called by the German chemists ‘untergährung,’ or fermentation from below; and which “has solved one of the finest theoretical problems that had long taxed the ingenuity and patience of both the scientific and practical brewer.” (Liebig.)

The ‘Comptes Rendus,’ lxxvii, 1140-1148, contains a paper by M. Pasteur on the manufacture of an ‘unalterable beer.’ In this communication he states that the liability of beer to turn sour, ropy, &c., is due to the presence of special ferments derived from the air, and from the materials used. By boiling the infusion of malt and hops, cooling out of contact with air, and fermenting with pure yeast in vessels to which only carbonic acid or pure air is admitted, a beer is produced of superior quality, which may be preserved without trouble for any time. Even a partial adoption of these precautions is attended with valuable results. In preparing pure yeast to start with, the author makes use of the fact that oxygen favours the growth of true yeast, but hinders the propagation of the other ferments. Pure yeast being obtained, the beer is afterwards fermented in an atmosphere nearly destitute of oxygen, as its quality is thereby improved. Pure yeast when kept in pure air undergoes no change, even at summer temperature. The mycoderma vini does not, as the author once thought, become changed into beer-yeast on submersion in a nutritive fluid; under these circumstances it acts as an alcoholic ferment, but does not propagate itself.

“In the ordinary fermentation of grape-juice and worts these liquids do not furnish a quantity of alcohol equivalent to the sugar which they contain; and this because a certain portion of the sugar serves for the oxidation of the gluten, and is not transformed like the rest. But wherever the liquor has arrived at the second period of transformation, the product in alcohol ought to be equivalent to the quantity of sugar present, as actually happens in all fermentations (sedimentary) which are not accompanied with a formation, but a disappearance of the yeast. According to Dr Ure, worts furnish, in the Bavarian breweries, from 10% to 20% more alcohol than they do by the ordinary process of fermentation (obergährung), or that excited by the use of ‘oberhefe’ or top-yeast.”

East-India Ale or Pale Ale, for exportation, is brewed from worts of a sp. gr. of from 1·063 to 1·070. For the best varieties, 15 to 16 lbs. of the finest East Kent hops are used to every quarter of pure malt. The pale ale or bitter beer of the publicans is commonly a very weak liquor (mere table beer), highly bittered with the hop, and too often with quassia, wormwood, and other still more objectionable substances. The process now adopted by the great brewers of pale ale at Burton-on-Trent combines all the most admirable points of both the Bavarian and Scotch systems of brewing.

Berlin White ale or Pale beer is brewed from wheat-malt mixed with about ⁄6th part of barley-malt, the ‘wort’ being boiled with hops, ⁄2 lb. to the bushel, and slightly fermented with ‘top-yeast,’ at a rather higher temperature.

The desire of evading the duty led to the discovery of its being only necessary to employ ⁄3rd, or less, of the grain, in the form of malt; this portion being sufficient to convert into sugar, in the process of mashing, the starch of the unmalted grain forming the other part. This plan answers well when the wort is merely intended for the production of ‘grain spirit,’ but beer so made is insipid and inferior in quality to that brewed wholly of malt. Inferior kinds of beer have also been made from other ingredients than barley-malt, among which may be named the grain of the cheaper cereals, bran, potatoes, turnips, beet-root, carrots, parsnips, pea-shells, and other vegetable substances rich in starch and sugar, all of which will produce beer by being mashed with water in the common way, with about 9% or 10% of barley-malt.

One quarter of the best barley-malt yields, by skilful mashing, fully 84 lbs. of ‘saccharine,’ or soluble sweet extractive matter. This concentrated within the compass of one barrel (33 galls.) gives a sp. gr. of 1·234. In the process of mashing about ⁄7ths of this quantity of saccharine (or 48 lbs.) is generally carried off in the first wort; ⁄7ths (or 24 lbs.) in the second wort; and ⁄7th (or 12 lbs.) in the third wort; the strengths of the worts being to each other respectively as 4, 2, 1. The average gravity obtained by the common brewers from malt of current quality ranges from 80 to 81 lbs. Sugar may be used as a partial substitute for malt, with, in most cases, some degree of saving to the brewer, and without injury to the quality of the beer. The kind of sugar to be used will depend on the quality of the beer to be brewed, but it should be remembered that a bad sugar will not, any more than bad malt, yield a sound palatable beer. From 170 lbs. to 200 lbs. of good raw sugar may be taken as the average equivalent of a quarter of malt.

When the process of mashing has been properly conducted, the wort, after leaving the cooler, should not be turned blue by tincture of iodine, or by iodide of potassium mixed with a few drops of nitric acid. If it turns blue some of the starch has escaped conversion into sugar, and is dissolved in the liquor.

By multiplying the decimal part of the number representing the specific gravity of a wort by 360 (the weight in pounds of a barrel of pure water), we obtain the quantity of saccharine per barrel, corresponding to the given sp. gr.; and by dividing the joint weight of saccharine and water, per barrel, by 360, we obtain the specific gravity. Thus—

Suppose a sample of wort to have a specific gravity of 1·055, then—

Decimal of sp. gr. ·055 × 360 = 19·8 lbs. per barrel.

Again, a barrel of wort weighs 379·8 lbs., that is, 360 lbs. for the weight of a barrel of water, and 19·8 lbs. for the weight of saccharine in the water, then—

297·8 ÷ 360 = 1·055 specific gravity.

It is usually stated in works on brewing that certain temperatures must be reached by each variety of beer, during the progress of the fermentation, in order for the liquor to acquire its characteristic flavour. Thus, it is stated that mild beer begins to acquire flavour when the heat of fermentation arrives at 75° Fahr., increases at 80°, and is highest at 90°, but sometimes even reaches 100°. Old ale is said to obtain its best flavour at a temperature not exceeding 75°; and porter at 70° Fahr. In order to reach these temperatures the worts are directed to be set at from 10° to 15° lower, the rise being due to the heat generated during the fermentation. That these statements refer principally to the old methods of brewing is shown by the fact that some of the brewers of Bavaria, Scotland, and Burton-on-Trent produce rich and high-flavoured liquors at temperatures vastly below those above enumerated. Still, however, the fact must not be concealed, that since the introduction of the new German system of brewing into England the general character of its beers, as they reach the consumer, are inferior in strength and flavour to those of a former period. We may now seek almost in vain for the fine vinous, high-flavoured, invigorating old beers vended in our early days by the common publicans and tavern-keepers, of whom the larger majority were their own brewers. Under the new system of chemical brewing, as worked by those huge monopolists, the ‘great brewers,’ the only object appears to be to obtain the largest quantity possible of saccharine out of the quarter of malt, and to convert this into the largest possible quantity of beer, with little regard to flavour or quality, but an excessive one for their own profits. In due course this liquor is forced on their helpless tenants the publicans, who, in their turn, ‘reduce’ and ‘doctor’ the liquor, until, by the time it reaches the consumer, its insipidity and low strength would have led even a brewer’s drayman of the last century to cast it into the kennel.

The best times for brewing are the spring and autumn; as at those periods of the year the temperature of the air is such as to permit of the easy cooling of worts sufficiently low, without having recourse to artificial refrigeration, or to the use of machinery for the purpose. Old ale cannot be conveniently brewed in summer.

Beers are classed by the brewers into—

Small beers—made from worts not exceeding the sp. gr. 1·025, or 9 lbs. per barrel.

Middlings—made from worts of the sp. gr. 1·030 to 1·050, and averaging about 14 lbs. per barrel.

Strong beers—made from worts of the sp. gr. 1·040 to 1·080, extending from about 35 lbs. per barrel upwards.

The densities of the worts employed for different kinds of beer vary considerably, as will be seen by the following table:—

Table of the Densities of Beers.

Description. Pounds per barrel. Specific Gravity.

Burton ale, Class 1 40 to 43 1·111 to 1·120

Burton ale, Class 2 35 to 40 1·097 to 1·111

Burton ale, Class 3 28 to 33 1·077 to 1·092

Ordinary ale 25 to 27 1·070 to 1·075

Common ale 21 1·058

Scotch ale, Class 1 40 to 44 1·111 to 1·122

Scotch ale, Class 2 33 to 40 1·092 to 1·111

Porter (ordinary) 18 1·050

Porter (good) 18 to 21 1·050 to 1·058

Porter (double) {?} to 22 1·055 to 1·060

Brown stout 23 1·064

Brown stout (best) 26 1·072

Table beer 12 to 14 1·033 to 1·039

Small beer (com.) 6 1·017

Exportation of Beer:—When beer is exported from any part of the United Kingdom, either as merchandise or ships’ stores, the brewer or exporter of such beer is allowed a certain drawback of duty. The amount is proportional to the quantity of malt or sugar inferred to have been used in the brewing of the beer. Thus, if the original specific gravity of the worts from which the beer was brewed were not less than 1·040, a drawback is granted of 4s. 3d. per barrel. This is equivalent to a return of the duty on 1⁄2 bushels of malt, with an allowance of 3d. for licence duty, now charged in lieu of the abolished hop duty. For every additional 5 degrees of specific gravity, from 1040° to 1125° inclusive, a further sum of 5d. per barrel is allowed.

[For further information connected with the above subject the reader is referred to the separate articles—Ale, Beer, Dextrine, Diastase, Fermentation, Malt Liquors, Porter, Saccharometer, Specific Gravity, Wort, Yeast, &c.]

Brewing Uten′sils. The cleansing and preservation of brewing utensils, beer casks, &c., has frequently engaged the attention of practical men and brewers’ chemists. To preserve them sweet they should always be thoroughly cleaned before setting them aside. Contact with soap, or any greasy material, should be carefully avoided. A scrubbing-brush and scalding-hot water are generally sufficient to clean them. Great care should be taken to remove every particle of yeast or fur on the sides and bottom; and after being well drained they should be stowed away in some clean and cold situation, properly exposed to the fresh air. Should they become tainted or mouldy, a strong lye of pearl-ash, common salt, or quick-lime, may be spread over them, scalding hot, with a broom or scrubbing-brush. Washing them with oil of vitriol diluted with about 7 or 8 times its bulk of water, is another excellent and very effective method. Fresh-burnt charcoal has also been employed for the same purpose. In each case the vessels must be subsequently thoroughly washed out with clean water, as before. Steam, assisted by the action of a chain, has been successfully applied to clean casks in several breweries. Bisulphite of lime has, within the last few years, been highly recommended for sweetening and cleaning vats, casks, &c. It is also said to prevent beer from developing acidity. See Casks, Vats, Sporokton, &c.

BRICKS. Brick-making scarcely comes within the province of this work. In connection with hygiene, however, we may call the reader’s attention to the superior advantages of both hollow and waterproof bricks; the first, for ventilation and lightness; the last, for preserving the dryness and integrity of our homes under all the vicissitudes of climate, season, and weather, either on damp soils or dry ones. Workman’s “Patent Waterproof Bricks” received a strong commendatory notice from the Commissioners of the “Great International Exhibition” of 1851.

BRILLIANTINE. 1. Castor oil, 1 part; eau de Cologne, 4 parts. Mix. 2. Honey, 1 oz.; glycerin, ⁄2 oz.; eau de Cologne, ⁄2 oz.; spirit of wine, 2 oz. Mix.

BRINE (for Meat). Prep. 1. A nearly saturated solution of common salt, 1 lb.; and saltpetre, 1 oz.; in soft water.

2. To the last add of sugar or treacle, ⁄2 lb. Bay-salt is recommended when the meat is to be kept for a very long period. Meat preserved in brine that has been used for curing several times is said to become poisonous. See Pickling, &c.

Brine, Red-Cabbage. Red-cabbage leaves steeped in a strong solution of common salt. Used as a test for acids and alkalies.

Brine, Vi′olet. From the petals of the blue violet, as the last. Used as a test for acids.

BRIOCHE PASTE (bre-ōsh′). In cookery, a species of paste, or crust, prepared of eggs and flour, fermented with yeast, to which a little salt, a large quantity of sugar, and about half as much butter as the weight of the flour used, are afterwards added, and well worked in. Used as an addition to soup, and as a casing for lobsters, patties, eggs, &c.

BRISK′NESS. The natural briskness and sparkling of fermented liquors depends on the gradual evolution of carbonic acid gas within the body of the fluid, by the process of fermentation. See Malt Liquors, Porter, Wines, &c.

BRIS′TLES (brĭs′lz). The stiff hair of swine, &c. They are commonly stiffened by immersion for a short time in alum-water; and are dyed by steeping them for a short time in any of the common dyes used for cotton or wool.

BRITAN′NIA METAL. Syn. Tutania. A superior species of pewter, used for teapots, spoons, &c.

Prep. 1. Plate-brass, bismuth, antimony, and tin, equal parts, melted together, and the resulting alloy added at discretion to melted tin, until it acquires the proper degree of colour and hardness.

2. To the first alloy, prepared as in No. 1, add one fifth of its weight of metallic arsenic, before mixing it with the melted tin.

3. Antimony, 1 part; brass, 4 parts; tin, 5 or 6 parts; melted together. See Queen’s Metal (Alloys), Pewter, &c.

4. Tin, 150 parts; copper, 3 parts; antimony, 10 parts.

5. Tin, 46⁄2 parts; copper, 1 part; antimony, 3 parts.

Britannia Metal for Casting. a. Tin, 100 parts; hardening (see below), 5 parts; antimony, 5 parts. b. Tin, 105 parts; copper, 2 parts; antimony, 12 parts.

Britannia Metal (Best) for Handles. Tin, 140 parts; copper, 2 parts; antimony, 5 parts.

Britannia Metal, Hardening for. Tin, 1 part; copper, 2 parts.

Britannia Metal (Best) for Lamps, Pillars, and Spouts. Tin, 75 parts; copper, 1 part; antimony, 3⁄4 parts.

Britannia Metal for Registers. Tin, 25 parts; antimony, 2 parts; hardening, 2 parts.

Britannia Metal for Spinning. Tin, 25 parts; antimony, 1 part; hardening, 1 part.

Britannia Metal (Best) for Spoons. Tin, 20 parts; antimony, 2 parts; hardening, 1 part.

Britannia Metal for Spouts. Tin, 46⁄2 parts; copper, 1 part; antimony, 2 parts.

BRITANNIA SILVER. Under this name there is, or was, offered to the public at Vienna, and probably elsewhere, under the misleading recommendation that it is a perfect substitute for silver, a heterogeneous metallic composition, in the form of spoons, forks, candlesticks, cups, &c. The Britannia silver is sometimes, or always, light, silvered, Britannia metal (an alloy of 86 tin, 10 antimony, 3 zinc, 1 copper; or of 2 copper, 6 zinc, 21 antimony, 71 tin; or of 1·84 copper, 81·90 tin, 16·25 antimony, and 1 zinc). One firm announces that Britannia silver is silver-white throughout, a colour which can only be obtained in similar alloys by the addition of arsenic. Another firm sells candlesticks of inferior packfong as Britannia metal, and another actually sells tinned Bessemer steel-plate cups as guaranteed Britannia silver. (Ackerman.)

BRIT′ISH GUM. See Gum.

BRITISH WINES. See Wines.

BROC′COLI. [Eng., L., Ger.] Syn. Brocoli, Fr.; Broccolo, It. A well-known sub-variety of cauliflower. The qualities, and the mode of dressing broccoli, are similar to those of cabbages, noticed elsewhere. See Vegetables (Culinary), &c.

BROKEN KNEES (in Horses). The wound should first be thoroughly washed, and then sewn up, and fomented with tepid water. Afterwards cold-water dressings containing a little carbolic acid may be applied. Perfect rest is essential, and, where necessary, splints and slings must be had recourse to. After the wound has thoroughly healed blisters are recommended for restoring the hair.

BROKEN WIND (in Horses). Of the many remedies said to be useful in this malady few, if any, appear to exercise any permanent advantage. There is no reason, however, why a horse affected with broken wind should not be made serviceable if the precaution be taken to put him to moderately slow work, if the following precautions be followed. His food should be given him in small quantity and at frequent intervals. The oats should be bruised and the hay cut small, and both be slightly damped before he partakes of them. This dietary may be varied by small doses of carrots or turnips.

The amount of fluids should be restricted, and he should be fed and watered at least an hour before going to work. A mild physic ball should also be occasionally administered.

Dogs suffering from asthma should be subjected to the same treatment. To a full-sized dog ten drops each of ether and tincture of belladonna may be given every hour during an attack of spasm until the breathing becomes easier.

BRO′MA. Prep. 1. Pure cocoa, 1 lb.; sugar and sago-meal, of each 4 oz.; mix. British arrow-root (i. e. carefully prepared potato-starch) is often substituted for the sago.

2. As the last, but using fine wheat flour in lieu of sago-meal. Made into a beverage in a similar way to cocoa.

BRO′MAL. C2Br3HO. A colourless, oily liquid, obtained by the action of bromine on alcohol. Sp. gr. 3·34; boiling point above 212° F. Like chloral it yields a solid hydrate with water. Because of its powerful irritant properties it seems unlikely to prove useful, either as a hypnotic or as an anæsthetic.

BRO′MIDE (-mĭd). Syn. Bro′muret*, Hydrobro′mate*; Bromi′dum, Bromure′tum, Hydrobro′mas, L.; Bromide, Bromure. Fr. A chemical compound of bromine with another radical.

Prop., &c. The soluble bromides give white precipitates with nitrate of silver, acetate of lead, and protonitrate of mercury. That from the first of these is insoluble in dilute nitric acid and in ammonia water unless concentrated; and it has a slight yellowish tinge, changing to a violet on exposure to the light. A few drops of liquid chlorine poured upon a bromide, followed by agitation of the mixture with a little sulphuric ether, furnishes an ethereal solution of bromine. [For the other bromides see the respective bases.]

BRO′MINE (-mĭn), (bromos, a stink). Br. Syn. Brome*; Bro′mium, Bromin′ium, L.; Brôme, Fr. An elementary substance, discovered by M. Balard, of Montpellier, in 1826.

Prep. 1. A current of gaseous chlorine is passed through the uncrystallisable residuum of sea-water called bittern, which then assumes an orange tint, in consequence of bromine being set free from its combinations; sulphuric ether is then agitated with it, and the mixture is allowed to stand, in a close vessel, until the ethereal portion floats upon the surface. This is a solution of crude bromine, and for common purposes the ether may be at once evaporated by a very gentle heat. To render it pure, caustic potassa is added in excess to the ethereal solution, or the latter is agitated with a solution of potassa, by which means bromide and bromate of potassium are formed. The whole is evaporated to dryness, and submitted to a dull red heat. The residuum is next powdered and mixed with pure peroxide of manganese; the mixture having been placed in a retort, sulphuric acid (diluted with half its weight of water) is poured in. Red vapours immediately arise, and condense into drops of bromine, which are collected by plunging the neck of the retort nearly to the bottom of a small receiver containing a little very cold water. The bromine forms a stratum beneath the water, and may be collected and at once put into a stoppered bottle; or it may be further purified by distillation from dry chloride of calcium.

2. Leisler’s patent for a method of obtaining bromine consists in decomposing the lye containing the bromine salt by heating it with hydrochloric acid and bichromate of potash in a leaden still having an earthenware head. The volatilised bromine with the vapour of water is conducted into a receiver containing iron turnings, bromide of iron, which dissolves in the water contained in the receiver, being formed. The bromide of iron so produced is either converted into other metallic bromides by the usual processes, or the bromine is obtained in a separate state from the iodide by treatment with sulphuric acid and bichromate of potash.

3. Large quantities of bromine are extracted from the mother liquor of carnallite, a double chloride of magnesium of potassium occurring in enormous quantities in a bed of clay in the neighbourhood of Stassfurt, near Magdeburg. The mother liquid of the carnallite at 35° B. is first freed as much as possible from the chloride of calcium it contains, by means of refrigeration. It is next evaporated down until it acquires a density of 40° B. Frank says it cannot be concentrated to the above extent, because of a waste of bromine resulting from the formation of hydrobromic acid produced by the decomposition of the lye, owing to its being overheated at the bottom of the pan. Upon being cooled to 25° C. a quantity of chloride of magnesium crystallises out, whilst the remaining liquor contains from 0·3 to 0·5 of bromine as bromide of magnesium. The liquor is then put into a sandstone apparatus such as is used for the preparation of chlorine, and the requisite quantity of manganese and hydrochloric acid being added, steam is poured into the apparatus. After about a quarter of an hour the bromine is evolved in the form of vapour, which becomes condensed by being made to pass through a leaden worm cooled in water, and is finally collected as liquid bromine in Woolff’s bottles.

The crude bromine so obtained is purified by redistillation in glass retorts. It is stated that the sandstone apparatus can be charged six times in 24 hours. In order to free the bromine from the presence of any chloride it is shaken up with a solution of bromide of potassium.

The chlorine unites with the potassium, forming chloride of potassium and liberating an equivalent quantity of bromine in so doing. Dr Frank suggests the use of earthenware worms in preference to leaden ones, these latter being acted upon and corroded by liquid bromine. In Dr Frank’s bromine works at Stassfurt the distillation is conducted in cubic stoneware vessels, having a capacity of about three cubic metres. These vessels are surrounded with belts of iron, in case of the occurrence of fracture. It was found that few stones answered the purpose required of them, as by reason of their porous nature they permitted the chloride of manganese formed during the distillation to ooze through. To remedy this the stones had to be coated with tar, a process which entailed a very serious loss of bromine, from the formation of bromine compounds with the hydrocarbons of the tar, as well as a contamination of the bromine with the tar. Subsequently Dr Frank found in the neighbourhood of Porta Westphalia a stone which answered the purpose without requiring the previous objectionable and expensive preparation with tar.

It seems that the workmen discard the respirators which are provided for their use in the bromine works, and merely tie a cloth over the mouth and nose (sometimes neglecting this precaution) when decanting the bromine.

To lessen the evil effects of the vapours upon the health of the workmen under these circumstances, the building is rendered as airy as possible by being thoroughly ventilated throughout. No workmen afflicted with asthma or with any catarrhal affection are employed, whilst those engaged are strictly prohibited from taking spirituous liquids in any form, a custom which begets an irritability of the mucous membranes, which is found to be exceedingly dangerous; on the contrary, a generous diet, and one consisting of an abundant use of bacon and butter, was found very beneficial.

Bromine is sometimes contaminated with chlorine, iodine, and occasionally bromide of carbon. A small quantity of the bromine agitated with a solution of soda, in such proportion that the fluid is made very slightly alkaline, forms a colourless solution, which, if coloured by the further addition of a small quantity of the bromine, does not become blue on the subsequent addition of a cold solution of starch. This shows the absence of iodine. Chlorine may be detected by adding a small quantity of the suspected bromine to some warm solution of potash in a capsule, evaporating, drying the residue, and distilling with bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid. Bromide of carbon has a higher boiling-point than pure bromine.

Prop., &c. A dark, reddish-coloured, volatile liquid, having an odour intermediate between that of chlorine and iodine, but much more suffocating and offensive. It solidifies at about 19°, and boils at about 145° Fahr. It is slightly soluble in water, more so in alcohol, and abundantly so in ether. Its aqueous solution bleaches like chlorine, but less powerfully. With hydrogen it forms HYDROBRO′MIC ACID; and with the bases, compounds called BRO′MIDES. Its sp. gr. is 2·976; that of its vapour, 5·39.

Tests. It is readily recognised by its colour, odour, and volatility, and by the colour of its vapour; by its giving a yellowish-white precipitate with nitrate of silver, which is turned violet by the action of light; and by its solutions giving an orange or yellow colour to starch, and a red tinge to solution of chloride of gold.

Uses, &c. Bromine possesses very similar medicinal properties to iodine, and has been administered in goitre, scrofula, &c., in the form of an aqueous solution composed of 1 part of bromine to 40 of water, of which 5 or 6 drops is the dose; but it is more usually given under the form of bromide of potassium (which see). The compounds of bromine are also largely used in photography in the manufacture of certain coal-tar colours, and in scientific chemistry the solution has also been used as a lotion. Bromine is a good disinfectant. It is very poisonous; the antidotes, &c., resemble those for iodine. See Bromide, Solutions, &c.

BROMOCHLORALUM (Tilden & Co., New York), for the removal of bad smells, as a disinfectant, and antiseptic. A fluid, sp. gr. 1·43, containing 27·5 per cent. of solid matter. The latter consists of 18·5 per cent. of aluminium chloride, with chalk and a considerable quantity of alkaline salts. Free bromine is not present. (H. En{?}demann.)

BROMOFORM (CHBr3). A colourless liquid obtained by distilling bromide of calcium with alcohol. It has a sp. gr. of 2·90; and boils at 305·6° F., emitting a vapour having a density 8·632. It is somewhat similar in properties to chloroform, but much more irritating; hence it has been rarely employed medicinally.

BROMTHEE—BRAMBLE TEA (?)—is a mixture of 5 parts lime flowers cum bracteis, 5 parts senna leaves, 5 parts acacia flowers, 8 parts cort. frangulæ, and 2 parts sassafras chips. (Hager.)

BROHCHI′TIS (brŏng-kī′). [L.; prim. Gr.] In pathology, inflammation of the mucous lining of the bronchia or smaller ramifications of the windpipe. In its milder form it is popularly called a ‘cold on the chest.’

Symp. The usual symptoms are hoarseness, dry cough, and a slight degree of fever, followed by expectoration of mucus, at first thin, and afterwards thick and copious. In the severer forms there is more fever, cough, and oppression at the chest, &c.

Treatm. It generally yields to small and repeated doses of ipecacuanha and antimonial diaphoretics; a light diet and mild purgatives being at the same time adopted, but in every case it is safer to have recourse to medical aid.

Horses.—Finlay Dun prescribes the following:—Tincture of aconite, inhalation of the vapour of water, ether and belladonna, carbolic acid, sulphurous acid, mash diet, salines, chlorate of potash, the salts of ammonia, chloral hydrate, mustard externally, warm clothing, but cool air. Symptoms very similar to those of bronchitis are frequently caused in calves and young cattle by the presence in the bronchii of threadworms or filaria. The cause is generally removed by the administration of a dose or two of oil of turpentine, given at intervals of a day or two.

BRON′CHOCELE (brŏng′-ko-sēle). See Goitre.

BRONZE. [Eng., Fr., Ger.] Syn. Æs, L.; Bronzo, It. An alloy of tin and copper, remarkable for the exactness of the impressions which it takes by moulding and stamping, as well as for its great durability. It has hence been always extensively employed in the casting of buts, medals, statues, &c. In ancient times, when the manufacture of steel was ill-understood, cutting instruments were commonly made of it. It was also the general material of coins of small value; a use which, of late years, has been revived in several of the states of Europe, and still more recently in the coinage of these realms. Bell-metal, gun-metal, and speculum-metal are mere varieties of bronze.

Prep. On the small scale this alloy is prepared in crucibles; but for statues and larger works on reverberatory hearths. The fusion of the mixed metals is conducted as rapidly as possible under pounded charcoal, and the melted mass is frequently stirred together to produce a perfect mixture before casting.

The proportions of the materials so vary in different castings that it is almost impossible to say precisely what quantities are the best. The following are given as examples:—

a. For Edge-tools:—Copper, 100 parts; tin, 14 parts. When skilfully hardened and tempered this alloy is capable of receiving an edge nearly equal to that of steel.

b. For Gilding:—1. Copper, 82 parts; zinc, 18 parts; tin, 3 parts; lead, 2 parts.

2. From copper, 83 parts; zinc, 17 parts; tin, 2 parts; lead, 1 part.

c. For Medals:—1. Copper, 89 parts; tin, 8 parts; zinc, 3 parts. This alloy assumes a beautiful antique appearance by age, and takes a sharp impression by stamping.

2. (M. Chaudet.) Copper, 95 parts; tin, 4 or 5 parts. This is also excellent for any small castings.

d. For Mortars:—Copper, 93 parts; lead, 5 parts; tin, 2 parts.

e. For Statuary:—1. Copper, 88 parts; tin, 9 parts; zinc, 2 parts; lead, 1 part.

2. Copper, 82⁄2 parts; zinc, 10⁄2 parts; tin, 5 parts; lead, 2 parts. These are very nearly the proportions of the celebrated statue of Louis XV.

3. Copper, 90 parts; tin, 9 parts; lead, 1 part.

4. Copper, 91 parts; tin, 9 parts.

For a gold varnish for bronze objects refer to Brass.

Obs. Several analyses have been made of ancient cutting instruments, from which it appears that the proportion of tin varies from 4% to 15%; a fact which tends to prove that more depends upon the exact mode of tempering the alloy than on the relative proportions of the ingredients. Lead and zinc are inadmissible in bronze for this purpose. One or two per cent. of iron may, nevertheless, be added with advantage. The ancient bronze used for springs contained only 3% to 4% of tin. The edges and lips of bronze mortars must be carefully tempered by heating them to a cherry red, and then plunging them into cold water, as unless so treated they are very apt to be broken in use. See Bell-metal, Brass, Gun-metal, &c.

Bronze′-powder. Syn. Bronze. A name given to various powders having a rich metallic appearance, which they retain when applied on varnish, or when mixed with it, as in surface bronzing.

Prep. 1. Gold-coloured:—a. From Dutch-foil, reduced to an impalpable power by grinding. Cheap and looks well, and is very durable when varnished.

b. From gold-leaf, as the last.

c. Precipitated powder of gold.

d. From verdigris, 8 oz.; tutty powder, 4 oz.; borax and nitre, of each 2 oz.; bichloride of mercury, ⁄4 oz.; grind them together, make the mixture into a paste with oil, and then fuse it; when cold, roll it into thin sheets or leaves, and grind it as in No. 1.

2. Iron-coloured:—Plumbago, in fine powder.

3. Red:—Sulphate of copper, 100 parts; carbonate of soda, 60 parts; mix, and apply heat until they unite into a mass; then cool, powder, and add of copper filings, 15 parts; again well mix, and keep the compound at a white heat for about twenty minutes; lastly, when cold, reduce the ‘residuum’ to an impalpable powder, wash it in pure water, and dry it.

4. Silver:—Bismuth and tin, of each 1 oz.; melt them together, and add of quicksilver, 1 to 1⁄2 oz.; when cold, powder it.

Obs. The above are used by painters, japanners, &c. See Bisulphide of Tin (Tin), Powders, &c.

BRONZ′ING. The process of giving a bronze-like, or an antique metal appearance, to the surface of copper, brass, and other metals. The following methods are recommended for this purpose:—

1. To the surface of the article, first thoroughly cleaned and polished, evenly apply with a brush the common crocus powder (‘jewellers’ rouge’), previously made into a smooth paste with water. When dry, place it in an iron ladle, or on a common fire-shovel, and expose it over a clear fire for about one minute; lastly, when sufficiently cold, polish it with a plate-brush. This gives a very rich appearance, similar to that on tea-urns; the shade depending on the duration and the degree of heat employed.

2. As the last, but substituting finely powdered plumbago for crocus powder. Equally beautiful, but deeper coloured and more permanent than that produced by No. 1.

3. As the preceding, but employing mixtures of plumbago and crocus in various proportions according to the shade desired.

4. A dilute solution of liver of sulphur (sulphurated potash), or of hydrosulphate of ammonia is applied with a camel-hair pencil to the metal previously slightly warmed; when dry, the surface is either left rough or brushed off. If liver of sulphur has been used, it will be better to wash it first in clean hot water; but without the slightest friction. This gives the appearance of very antique bronze.

5. Verdigris, 2 oz.; and sal-ammoniac, 1 oz.; are dissolved in vinegar, 1 pint; and the mixture is diluted with water until it tastes only slightly metallic, when it is boiled for a few minutes, and filtered for use. Copper medals, &c. (thoroughly clean) are steeped in the liquor at the boiling-point until the desired effect is produced. Care must be taken not to keep them in it too long. When taken out they are carefully washed in hot water, and dried. Effect as the last.

6. Verdigris and vermilion, of each 2 oz.; alum and sal-ammonia, of each 5 oz. (all in fine powder); vinegar, q. s. to form a thin paste. This is spread over the surface of the copper, which is then uniformly warmed by the fire, and afterwards well washed and dried. The tint may be deepened by repeating the process. The addition of a little blue vitriol inclines the colour to a chestnut-brown; and a little borax to a yellowish-brown. Used by the Chinese for copper tea-urns, &c.

7. Sal-ammonia, 1 oz.; cream of tartar, 3 oz.; common salt, 3 oz.; hot water, 1 pint; dissolve; then add of nitrate of copper, 2 oz., dissolved in ⁄2 a pint of water; mix well, and with it repeatedly moisten the article (placed in a damp situation) by means of a soft brush. Produces a very antique appearance.

8. Salt of sorrel, 1 oz.; sal-ammoniac, 3 oz.; distilled vinegar, 1 quart; dissolve. As the last. Much used for bronze figures.

9. A very weak solution of bichloride of platinum, applied with a hair pencil or by immersion. Used for binding screws, holders, and other small articles of copper and brass.

10. Sulphate of iron and sulphate of copper, of each 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; dissolve; wash the surface of the articles with it; let them dry; then apply a solution of verdigris, 2 oz. dissolved in strong vinegar, ⁄4 pint; when dry, polish them with a soft brush, and either some plumbago or colcothar. Used for tin castings.

11. The articles (properly cleaned) are either immersed in, or washed over, with a solution of sulphate of copper or of verdigris. In a short time they acquire a coating of pure metallic copper, and are then washed. This only answers with iron and steel goods. It is admirably suited for iron castings.

12. An antique appearance may be given to silver by either exposing it to the fumes of hydrosulphate of ammonia, or immersing it for a very short time in a solution of hydrosulphate of ammonia, or in dilute nitric acid.

Bronzing, Sur′face. A term commonly applied to the process of imparting a bronze-like or metallic appearance to the prominent portions of the surfaces of figures made of paper, wood, plaster of Paris, &c. It is effected by first giving them a coat of oil-varnish or size, and when this is nearly dried, applying, with a ‘dabber’ of cotton, or a camel-hair pencil, any of the ordinary metallic bronze-powders before referred to. Sometimes the powder is placed in a little bag of muslin, and dusted over the surface. The articles should be afterwards varnished.

Paper is bronzed by mixing the bronze-powders up with a little weak gum-water, and burnishing the surface when dry and hard.

Electrotypes, to Bronze. Green. Steep the medal or figure in a strong solution of common salt, or sugar, or sal-ammoniac, for a few days; wash in water, and allow to dry slowly; or suspend it over a vessel containing a small quantity of bleaching powder, and cover over. The length of time it is allowed to remain will determine the depth of colour.

Brown. Add four or five drops of nitric acid to a wine-glassful of water. The object is rubbed over with this gently, and allowed to dry, and when dry subjected to a gradual and equal heat; the surface will be darkened in proportion to the heat applied.

Black. Wash the surface over with a little dilute solution of hydrosulphate of ammonia, and dry at a gentle heat.

BROOM. The common name of the plant spar′tium scopa′′rium. A useful diuretic; of great service in dropsy. See Decoction.

Broom Ashes. From broom-stalks burnt. Formerly used as a diuretic in dropsy.

Broom, Salt of. Obtained by dissolving broom ashes in water, and filtering and evaporating the solution. It consists principally of carbonate of potassa. It was formerly used in dropsy, and as an antacid, &c.

BROSSÉ DE CORAIL. [Fr.] The root of lucerne (medicago sativa), cleaned, dried, and hammered at the end. Used as a tooth-brush.

BROTH. Syn. Jus (coctis carnibus), Jus′culum, L.; Bouillon, Jus, Fr.; Fleischbrühe, Ger. In cookery, the liquor in which flesh has been boiled. Broth is distinguished from soup by its inferior strength and quantity of seasoning, &c. It contains much of the nutriment of the meat. We extract the following from Dr Letheby’s work ‘On Food’:—

“A nutritious broth, containing the albumen of the meat or chicken, may be obtained by infusing a third of a pound of minced meat or chicken in 14 oz. of cold water, to which a few drops (4 or 5) of muriatic acid and a little salt (from 10 to 18 grains) have been added. After digesting for an hour or so, it should be strained through a sieve, and the residue washed with five ounces of water, and pressed, The mixed liquids thus obtained will furnish about a pint of cold extract of meat, containing the whole of the soluble constituents of the meat (albumen, creatin, creatinin, &c.), and it may be drunk cold, or slightly warmed, the temperature not being raised above 100° F., for fear of coagulating the albumen.”

Broth, Scotch. This, which is in very general use amongst the middle and working classes of Scotland, is made as follows:—Put into a pot three quarts of cold water along with a cupful of Scotch barley, and let it boil; add two pounds of neck of mutton. Allow it to stew gently for an hour, skimming occasionally. Then add turnips cut in squares, and onions sliced, and carrots and turnips uncut. The half of a small cabbage chopped in moderately fine pieces may be put in instead of all these vegetables; and leeks may be used instead of onions. Stew the whole for an hour longer. The broth is now ready. Season with salt and serve in a tureen. The meat is served in a separate dish, with the uncut pieces of turnip and carrot and a little of the broth as gravy. Any meat may be employed in the same way. Broths and soups contain the greater part of the saline matter of the meat, the crystalline principles, viz. creatin and creatinin, some of the albumen and fat, and an amount of gelatin, dependent upon the duration of the boiling process. They also contain nearly all the odorous matters of the meat. Cold water extracts from one sixth to one fourth of the solid ingredients of meat. The presence of a large quantity of highly nitrogenous crystalline principles in broths and soups accounts for their restorative powers. These, which are the creatin and creatinin, bear a close resemblance to the thein of tea and coffee, and the theobrominæ of cocoa, in their physiological effects.

Broth is contra-indicated for children at the breast, as it not unfrequently induces sickness, disorders the bowels, and induces fever. The same applies to beef tea. When, however, broth and beef tea are used as clysters in such quantities that can be retained, they act most beneficially. See Boiling, Soup, &c.

BROWN DYE. Every shade of brown may be produced, almost at will, by mixtures of reds and yellows with blues and blacks; or directly by simple dyes. The following are examples:—

a. For Cotton:—

1. Give the goods a mixed mordant of acetate of alumina and acetate of iron, followed by a bath of madder or of madder and fustic. Excess of acetate of alumina turns it on the AMARANTH TINT; the acetate of iron darkens it.

2. First ‘gall’ the goods, then turn them for a short time through the black bath; next give them a mordant of sulphate of copper, then pass them through a decoction of fustic, afterwards through a bath of madder, and again through the solution of sulphate of copper; drain, dry, rinse well, and finish with a boil in soap and water. This gives a CHESTNUT-BROWN.

3. First give the goods a mordant of alum, then a bath of madder, and next a bath of fustic to which a little green copperas has been added. This gives a CINNAMON-BROWN.

b. For Linen:—This varies little from that commonly employed for cotton.

c. For Silk:—

1. One of the above mordants is followed by a bath made by mixing equal parts of the decoctions of logwood, fustic, and Brazil-wood. The shade may be varied by altering the proportions of the decoctions; Brazil-wood reddening, logwood darkening, and fustic yellowing, the tint.

2. Annotta, 4 oz.; and pearlash, 1 lb.; are dissolved in boiling water, q. s.; the silk is passed through it for two hours, then taken out, and squeezed dry; it is next passed through a mordant of alum, and then through a bath of Brazil-wood, followed by another of logwood to which a little green copperas has been added.

d. For Wool:—

1. Boil the cloth in a mixed mordant of alum, common salt, and water, then dye it in a bath of logwood to which a little green copperas has been added. 2 oz. of alum, and 1 oz. of salt, are required for every lb. of wool.

2. Boil the goods in a mordant of alum and sulphate of iron, then pass them through a bath of madder. The more copperas the darker will be the dye. Good proportions are 2 parts of alum and 3 of copperas.

3. Give a mordant of alum and tartar, then pass the goods through a madder bath; next run them through a bath of galls and sumach or logwood to which a little acetate or sulphate of iron has been added.

4. Mordant the cloth as last, dye in a madder bath, remove the cloth, add a little acetate or sulphate of iron, and again pass it through the bath as long as necessary.

5. Give the cloth a light blue ground with indigo, and then a mordant of alum; rinse, and lastly run it through a bath of madder.

6. A mordant of alum and tartar, followed by, first a bath of madder, and afterwards a bath of weld or fustic to which a little iron-liquor has been previously added. In this way every shade, from MORDORÉ and CINNAMON to DARK CHESTNUT, may be produced.

7. Boil fustic-chips, 1 lb., for 2 hours; pass the cloth through the bath for 1 hour; take it out and drain; add of green copperas, 1⁄4 oz.; good madder, 4 oz.; boil for a short time, and again pass the cloth through the bath, until it acquires the proper tint. Bronze-browns, and every similar shade, may be thus given by varying the proportions.

e. The following are called SUB′STANTIVE or DIRECT BROWNS:—

1. Decoction of oak-bark. It dyes wool of a fast brown of various shades, according to the quantity employed. A mordant of alum brightens it.

2. Infusion or decoction of walnut-peels. Dyes wool and silk a brown, which is brightened by alum.

3. Horse-chestnut-peels. A mordant of chloride of tin turns it on the BRONZE; and sugar of lead, on the REDDISH-BROWN.

4. Catechu or Terra Japonica. For cottons. Blue vitriol turns it on the BRONZE, and green copperas darkens it, when applied as mordants. Acetate of alumina as a mordant brightens it. The French colour, CARMELITE, is given with 1 lb. of catechu, 4 oz. of verdigris, and 5 oz. of sal-ammoniac.

5. Sulphate or chloride of manganese. Dissolved in water with a little tartaric acid, it gives the bronze tint called SOLITAIRE. The stuff, after being passed through the solution, is turned through a weak lye of potash, and afterwards through another of chloride of lime, to heighten and fix it.

6. Prussiate of copper. This gives a fine BRONZE or YELLOWISH-BROWN to silk. A mordant of blue vitriol is commonly first given, followed by a bath of prussiate of potash.

BROWN PIG′MENTS. The principal and most useful of these are—umber, terra di Sienna (both burnt and raw), Spanish brown, and some of the ochres. Brown, of almost any shade, may be made by the admixture of blacks with reds and yellows, or with greens, in different proportions. See Bistre, Black, Newcastle, Ochres, Sepia, &c.

Brown, Span′ish. See Ochres.

BROWN PINK. See Yellow Pigments.

BROWN′ING. In cookery, a fluid preparation used to colour and flavour gravies, soups, &c.

Prep. 1. Sugar, 4 oz.; and butter, 1 oz.; are melted in a frying-pan or ladle with about a tablespoonful of water, and the heat is continued until the whole has turned of a deep brown; the heat is then lowered a little, and some port wine (about 1 pint) is gradually poured in; the pan is now removed from the fire, and the mixture well stirred until the roasted sugar is entirely dissolved; it is then put into a bottle, and ⁄2 oz. each of bruised pimento and black pepper, 5 or 6 shalots (cut small), a little mace and finely grated lemon peel, and ⁄4 pint of mushroom catsup, added. The bottle is shaken daily for a week, and the clear liquid, after 5 or 6 days’ repose, decanted into another bottle. Rich flavoured, but expensive.

2. As the last, but using strong beer, or water, instead of wine. A glassful of spirit may be added after bottling it.

3. Sugar-colouring, 1 pint; salt, ⁄4 lb.; mushroom-catsup, ⁄2 pint; spice, q. s. Excellent for all ordinary purposes.

4. Lump sugar (powdered), 2⁄2 lbs.; salad oil, ⁄2 lb.; heat as before; then add, of port wine, 1 quart; Cape wine, 3 quarts; shalots, 6 oz.; mixed spice, 4 oz.; black pepper, 3 oz.; mace, 1 oz; salt, 1 lb.; lemon juice, 1 pint; catsup, 1 quart; mix well.

5. Good spirit-colouring or sugar-colouring and mushroom catsup, of each 1 gall.; Jamaica pepper, black pepper, and shalots, of each 4 oz; cloves, cassia, and mace, bruised, of each ⁄4 oz.; boil in a covered vessel for 5 minutes; digest for 14 days, and strain.

6. Colouring, 3 pints; mushroom catsup, 1 pint; common salt, ⁄4 lb.; Chili vinegar (strongest), ⁄2 pint; spice, q. s. Half a pint of British brandy or rum may be added.

Obs. The above are excellent additions to gravies, soups, &c.; and of themselves form most admirable sauces for fish, meat, and game.

Browning (for Gun-barrels). Prep. The following are current formulæ:—

1. Blue vitriol, 4 oz.; tincture of chloride of iron, 2 oz.; water, 1 quart; dissolve, and add aquafortis and sweet spirit of nitre, of each 1 oz.

2. Blue vitriol and sweet spirit of nitre, of each 1 oz.; aquafortis, ⁄2 oz.; water, 1 pint; as last.

3. Butter of antimony and sweet oil, equal parts; well shaken together. To be applied to the iron previously warmed.

Obs. The above fluids are rubbed on the barrel (previously well polished and cleaned off with whiting to remove the oil), and allowed to remain on for some hours, or until the next day, when they are rubbed off with a stiff brush. The process may be repeated, if necessary. The barrel is next washed in water in which a little pearlash or soda has been dissolved, and afterwards well rinsed in clean water; it is then polished, either with the burnisher, or with a brush and beeswax. Sometimes a coat of tough shell-lac varnish is applied.

BRUCEA (-sh′ă). False cusparia (which see).

BRUCHBALSAM—RUPTURE BALSAM (Dr Tänzer).—No. 1. Compound rosemary cerate, nutmeg cerate, red Johannis oil, yellow wax, of each 1 part; fat, 5 parts. No. 2. Mixture of nutmeg cerate, 50 parts; tallow, butter, of each 10 parts, melted and mixed with 25 parts strongest liquor potassæ. No. 3. Compound rosemary cerate, oil of bayberries, of each 2 parts; nutmeg cerate, 4 parts; red Johannis oil, 6 parts; yellow wax, 3 parts; tincture of myrrh and tincture of aloes, of each ⁄2 part; tr. opii, ⁄4 part, melted and heated until the spirit has evaporated. (Hager.)

BRUCHPFLASTER—RUPTURE PLASTER (Krüsi Altherr). A spread plaster, the mass consisting of 5 parts Bergundy pitch and 2 parts turpentine. (Walz and Hager.)

Bruchpflaster—Rupture Plaster (Caspar Menet). Machine-made paper covered with thin gauze, and thinly spread with a mass of 9 parts wax, 3 parts turpentine, and 1 part elemi. (Hager.)

BRUCHSALBE—RUPTURE CERATE (Gottlieb Sturzenegger, Herisau, Canton Appenzell). A mixture of 50 parts fat and 1 part oil of bayberries. (Hager.)

BRUCHE, ruptures cured without medicine, operation, or pain, by Lavedan, chemist. A pelotte containing in it zinc and copper plate on which a solution of the “poudre electrochimique” (common salt) is dropped. (Hager.)

BRU′CIA. C23H26N2O4. Aq. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Bru′cine; Bru′cina, L. An alkaloid discovered by Pelletier and Caventou, in the bark of bru′cia antidysenter′ica, and afterwards associated with strychnia, in nux vomica.

Prep. Ground nux vomica, or the bark of brucia antidysenterica, is boiled in dilute sulphuric acid, and the resulting decoction mixed with hydrate of lime (in excess); the crude precipitate thus obtained is boiled in alcohol (sp. gr. ·850), and the tincture filtered whilst hot. A mixture of crude strychnia and brucia is deposited as the fluid cools, and the remainder is obtained by evaporation. This is powdered and digested in cold alcohol, which dissolves out the brucia; the solution furnishes crystals on spontaneous evaporation. It may be further purified by recrystallisation from alcohol.

Prop. Soluble in 850 parts of cold, and about 500 parts of hot water; freely soluble in alcohol; added to the dilute acids until they are neutralised, it forms crystallisable salts, easily obtained by evaporation.

Tests. It is distinguished from strychnia, which in many respects it resembles, by its ready solubility in both dilute and absolute alcohol, and its insolubility in ether. With nitric acid it strikes a fine red colour, which is removed by sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid. Iodic acid, chloric acid, and chlorine, also turn it red.

Professor Sonnenschein has succeeded in converting brucia into strychnia. He says—“Brucia C23H26N2O4 and Strychnia C21H22N2O2 differ apparently considerably in their composition; but the former may easily be converted into the latter. Referring to the formulæ it will be seen that strychnia is produced by combining brucia with 4O, and eliminating 2H2O1 and 2CO2. This is effected as follows:—Brucia is moderately heated with 4 to 5 times its weight of diluted nitric acid, when a red colouration will be produced and gases evolved, which cause in a mixture of barium chloride and ammonia a white precipitate of carbonate of barium.

The red solution is concentrated in a water-bath, super-saturated with potassa, and agitated with ether, which, on spontaneous evaporation, leaves a reddish mass, containing a red colouring matter, a yellowish resin, and an alkaloid which is obtained pure by dissolving in an acid and crystallising. This base has the intensity, bitter taste, and other properties of strychnia, gives the characteristic reactions with potassium chromate, cerium oxide, and sulphuric acid, and yields with chlorine the sparingly soluble compound. The muriate crystallises in fine silky needles, from which 9·20 per cent. of chlorine was obtained.

The conversion of brucia into strychnia is not only highly interesting, but it is likewise of great importance in forensic analysis, proving again that in such cases the employment of oxidising agents is admissible only with great caution. A student who had received for analysis a mixture containing, among other substances, brucia and nitrate of lead, employed the process of Stas and Otto for the separation of the alkaloids, and found strychnia instead of brucia which had been oxidised by the liberated nitric acid.

“If strychnia is heated with a strong base like potassa, soda, or baryta, for some time, in a sealed glass tube placed in a water-bath, a body is obtained which no longer shows the reactions of strychnia, but resembles brucia in its reactions. The experiments on this decomposition, which is likewise of importance in forensic analysis, are not yet concluded.”

BRUISE (brōōze). Syn. Contu′sio, Contu′sum, L.; Contusion, Meurtrissure, Fr.; Brausche, Quetschung, &c., Ger. A contusion; but in popular language applied chiefly to cases in which there is an extravasation of blood owing to the rupture of the minute vessels, with consequent discoloration or tumefaction of the part.

Treatment.—In common cases, sufficiently serious, bruises may be rubbed with a little opodeldoc or soap-liniment; or, if the inflammation be considerable, they may be bathed with a little weak goulard water, or with vinegar and water. In more severe cases leeches may be applied. See Contusion.

Treatment for Animals.—The same as for man.

BRUNS′WICK BLACK. See Varnishes.

BRUNS′WICK GREEN. See Green Pigments.

BRUSHES. Brushes may be best washed in a moderately cold weak solution of borax. They should afterwards be rinsed in cold water and dried.

BRUSTBONBONS—PECTORAL BONBONS (Fr., Stollwerck, Cologne). Carageen, 3 parts; Iceland moss, 2 parts; red poppy petals, 1⁄2 parts; coltsfoot, 1 part; liquorice, 2 parts; marshmallow root, 2 parts; daisy (Bellis perennis), 1⁄2 parts; Souchong tea, 1 part; boiled with 24 parts of water till reduced to half, and the fluid afterwards mixed with refined sugar.

BRUSTGELEE—PECTORAL JELLY (Daubitz, Berlin). A yellowish-brown nearly clear jelly, with a sweet, weak anise, followed by a somewhat bitter taste, made of gelatin, 12 grammes; sugar, 60 grammes; and a herbal infusion, 120 grammes; the latter made from anise, star-anise, Iceland moss, &c.

BRUSTPULVER—PECTORAL POWDER (Beliol, Paris). For chronic pains in the chest. A mixture of 75 parts milk-sugar, 20 parts gum arabic, 5 parts Rochelle salt. (Mayer).

BRUSTSAFT PRAPARIRTER—PREPARED PECTORAL JUICE (Rudolph Büttner, Berlin). For coughs, hoarseness, tightness of the chest, &c. An ordinary pectoral tea made of an infusion of red poppy petals, which is boiled to a syrup with sugar (Hager).

BRUSTSYRUP WEISER MAYERSCHER—WHITE PECTORAL SYRUP (G. A. W. Mayer, Breslau). 4 parts powdered radish extracted with 5 parts water (according to others rose-water), the liquor expressed and filtered. 6 parts of the clear liquor digested with 10 parts of sugar to make a syrup. (Hager.) Frequently nothing but a simple solution of sugar.

Brustsyrup—Pectoral Syrup (Dr Moth). A mixture of syrup of marshmallow, 1000 parts; extract of horehound, 30 parts; oxymel of squills, 50 parts; aq. amygd. amar., 25 parts; aqua. foenic, 100 parts; spirit of ether, 10 parts.

BRUSTWARZEN—MITTEL ZUR HEILUNG WUNDER. Miraculous remedy for healing sore nipples. (From Paris.) A dirty brownish-yellow, somewhat turbid liquid, smelling of vinegar, and with a taste both sour and sweet. A solution of 1⁄4 parts litharge in 100 parts vinegar. (Wittstein.)

Brustwarzen—Mittel Gegen Wunde. Sore nipple preventive. (From Paris.) Acetic acid, 1 part; sugar of lead, 3 parts; camphor, 5 parts; water, 100 parts. (Terreil.)

BRUSTWARZENBALSAM, RIGAER—RIGA’S NIPPLE BALSAM. A mixture of the yolk of one egg with 10 to 12 grammes balsam of Peru.

BRY′ONIN (-nĭn). A peculiar bitter principle extracted from the root of white bryony (bryonia dioica, Jacq.). It is obtained from the dry extract of the expressed juice, by solution in alcohol, filtration, and cautious evaporation.

Prop., &c. A yellowish-white mass. It is a drastic purgative; and, in large doses, poisonous. It enters into the composition of several quack medicines.

BUBBLE-AND-SQUEAK. In cookery, a species of olla podrida variously prepared, as the materials and fancy of the maker dictate.

Prep. (Rundell.) Take slices of cold meat, fry them quickly until brown, and put them into a dish to keep them hot. Then clean the pan from the fat; put in it greens and carrots (previously boiled and chopped small); add a little butter, pepper, and salt; make them very hot, and put them round the beef with a little gravy. Cold boiled pork is a better material for bubble-and-squeak than beef. In either case the slices should be very thin and lightly fried.

BUB′BLE FEVER‡. See Pemphigus.

BU′CHU (-kū). The plant dios′ma crena′ta (which see).

BUCK′BEAN or BOG′BEAN. The menyanthes trifoliata. See Infusions.

BUCKINGHAM’S DYE for the whiskers; manufactured by R. E. Hall & Co., Nashua, N.H. This whisker dye is an ammoniacal solution of nitrate of silver, and consists of ⁄2 gramme nitrate of silver, 2⁄2 grammes solution of ammonia, and 40 grammes distilled water. (Dr Schacht).

BUCK′THORN. Syn. Rham′nus, L. The rham′nus cathar′ticus (Linn.). Berries (BAC′CÆ RHAM′NI, L.), cathartic; juice of the berries (SUC′CUS R., L.) is officinal in the B. P. See Rhamnine, Syrups, &c.

BUCK′WHEAT. See Wheat.

BUG. Syn. Ci′mex, L.; Punaisé, Fr.; Wanse, Ger. A name popularly and very loosely applied to a vast number of insects that infest houses and plants; in zoology, hemipterous insects of the genus ‘cimex,’ of which there are many hundred species; appr., the bed-bug.

Bug. Syn. Bed′-bug, House′-b., Wall-b., Wall′-louse*, &c.; Ci′mex domes′ticus, C. lectula′′rius (Linn.), L.; Punaise, Fr.; Bettwanze, Häuswanse, Ger. An insect too well known in all the larger towns of Europe and America, and in the huts of squalid poverty everywhere, to require a description here. It is almost the only species of the bug kind that has undeveloped wings. Its introduction to England is believed to have occurred soon after the great Fire of London (A.D. 1666). Human blood appears to be its favourite food; but it will also eat grain, seed, flour, dried paste, size, soft deal, beech, osier, &c. Cedar, mahogany, and the odorous and harder woods are usually avoided by this insect. Aromatics, perfumes, and strong odours generally are unfavorable to its propagation.

Exterm., &c. Various means have been adopted to prevent the accession, and to destroy or drive away, these enemies of “tired nature’s sweet restorer, balmy sleep.” Among the most certain of these is thorough cleanliness and ventilation. The furniture brokers put articles infested with these insects into a room with doors and windows fitting quite close, and subject them to the fumes of burning sulphur or chlorine gas. In the small way poisonous washes are commonly resorted to. For this purpose nothing is more effective than chloride of lime or chloride of zinc; the latter being preferable to the other on account of its being comparatively scentless.

The following mixtures are in common use, or have been recommended for this purpose:—

1. Corrosive sublimate (in powder) and hydrochloric acid, of each 1 oz.; hot water, ⁄4 pint; agitate them together until the first is completely dissolved. It is applied with a paint-brush, observing to rub it well into the cracks and joints. This is the common ‘bug-wash’ of the shops. It is a deadly poison!

2. As the last, but substituting 2 oz. of sal-ammoniac for the hydrochloric acid.

3. Oil of turpentine, 1 pint; camphor, 2 oz.; dissolve. Very cleanly and effective.

4. Tobacco-water, made by steeping 2 oz. of good shag in 1 pint of warm water for a few hours.

5. Crude pyroligneous acid.

6. Coal-tar naphtha. This, as well as No. 3 (above), should never be used by candle-light, as it is excessively inflammable. When the smell of the common naphtha is objectionable, benzol or benzine may be used instead. The celebrated nostrum vended under the name of ‘Insecticide’ is said to be nothing but benzol.

7. Sulphurated potash (in powder), 6 oz.; soft soap, ⁄2 lb.; oil of turpentine, ⁄4 pint or q. s. to make a species of soft ointment. The odour of the last three (Nos. 5, 6, 7) is rather persistent and disagreeable; but they are very effective.

8. Strong mercurial ointment, soft soap, and oil of turpentine, equal parts, triturated together. Rather greasy and dirty.

9. Scotch or Welsh snuff, mixed with twice its weight of soft soap.

10. Sulphur, or squills, in impalpable powder, blown into the cracks or joints, or scattered in a fine cloud, by means of a hollow ball or balloon of vulcanised india rubber filled with it and furnished with a small wooden jet or mouth-piece, or in any other convenient manner. Very cleanly and effective. Dumont’s ‘Patent Vermin Killer,’ as well as the whole host of imitations of it, is of this kind.

Obs. Out of the above list there is ample room for selection. The common practice is to take the bedstead or other piece of furniture to pieces before applying them.

These pests exist only in dirty houses. A careful housewife or servant will soon completely destroy them. The surest method of destruction is to catch them individually when they attack the person in bed. When their bite is felt, instantly rise and light a candle and capture them. This may be troublesome, but if there be not a great number a few nights will finish them. When there is a large number, and they have gained a lodgment in the timbers, take the bed in pieces, and fill in all the apertures and joints with a mixture of soft soap and Scotch snuff. A piece of wicker-work, called a BUG-TRAP, placed at the head of the bed, forms a receptacle for them, and then they may be daily caught till no more are left. Oil-painting a wall is a sure means of excluding and destroying them. It has been asserted that these insects are so fond of narrow-leaved dittany or pepperwort (lepidium ruderale), that if a bunch of it be suspended near their haunts they will settle in it, and may be thus easily captured. It is said to be commonly used as a bug-trap in some of our rural districts. Water, poured boiling from the spout of a kettle into the cracks and joints, is a cleanly and certain remedy, which we have often seen employed; so also is a jet of steam; they are both destructive to all insects, and will be found particularly so to beetles.

The proper time for attacking these pests is early in March, or shortly before they are revived from their dormant state by the warm weather. See Insects.

Bug, Harvest. See Acari.

BU′GLE (bu′gl). An elongated cylindrical glass bead. See Bead.

BUILDING STONES. Amongst the calcareous and magnesian stones used for building many of the fine-grained and porous varieties are liable to split into flakes after a few years’ exposure to the atmosphere, owing to the absorption by the stone of water, which, becoming frozen during severe weather, fractures the stone by its expansion. Brard invented a simple means of ascertaining whether a building stone is liable to this defect, which consists in taking a smoothly-cut block of the stone, one or two inches square, and placing it in a cold saturated solution of sodic sulphate. The temperature of the solution is gradually raised to the boiling point; it is allowed to boil for half an hour, and then the stone is left to cool in the liquid. When cold it is suspended over a dish, and once a day for a week or a fortnight plunged for a few moments into a cold saturated solution of sodic sulphate, and it is then again freely suspended in the air. The sulphate crystallises in the pores of the stone and splits off fragments of it. A similar experiment is made upon an equal-sized mass of stone which is known to be free from this defect. By the comparative weight of these fragments in the two cases the tendency of the stone to the defect in question may be estimated.

A stone that is placed in a building in a position similar to that in which it is found in the quarry, that is, with its seams lying horizontally, is found to resist the weather much more successfully than one that has not been so placed.

BUN. A well-known kind of light, sweet cake.

Prep. 1. Bath-buns:—As 6, but adding a little candied lemon and orange peel, and putting a little grated peel and a few caraway comfits on the top of each.

2. Cross-buns:—Flour, 2⁄2 lbs.; sifted sugar ⁄2 lb.; coriander seeds, cassia, and mace, of each (powdered) a sufficiency; make a paste with butter, ⁄2 lb.; (dissolved in) hot milk, ⁄2 pint; work with three table-spoonfuls of yeast; set it before the fire for an hour to rise, then make it into buns, and set them before the fire on a tin for half an hour; lastly, brush them over with warm milk, and bake them to a nice brown in a moderate oven.

3. Madeira-buns:—Butter, 8 oz.; 2 eggs; flour, 1 lb.; powdered sugar, 6 oz.; half a nutmeg (grated); powdered ginger and caraway seeds, of each ⁄2 teaspoonful; work well together, then add as much milk as required, and ferment; lastly, bake on tins in a quick oven.

4. Plain buns:—Flour, 2 lbs.; butter, ⁄4 lb.; sugar, 6 oz.; a little salt, caraway and ginger; make a paste with yeast, 4 spoonfuls, and warm milk, q. s.; as before.

5. Penny-buns:—To the last add of currants, well washed, ⁄2 lb.; and water, stained by steeping a little saffron in it, q. s., to give a light yellow tinge to them.

6. Rich buns:—Fine flour, 3 lbs; sugar, 1 lb.; butter, 2 lbs. (melted and beat with) rose water, 4 oz.; currants, 1 lb.; yeast, ⁄4 pint; as before.

Obs. The great secret in producing good buns is the use of sweet yeast and the best currants only, and thoroughly washing these last in a sieve or colander, to remove grit, before adding them to the dough.

BUNION (-yŭn). A species of corn or swelling on the ball of the great toe, resulting from pressure, and irritation by friction. The treatment recommended for corns applies also to bunions; but in consequence of the greater extension of the disease, the cure is more tedious. A bunion may often be effectually stopped and removed by poulticing it, and, at the proper time, carefully opening it with a lancet. See Corns.

BURETTE. A graduated glass vessel employed in volumetric analysis for measuring liquids.

1. The first burette was invented by Gay-Lussac, a drawing of whose instrument is given below.

It rarely, if ever, has a capacity greater than 50 cubic centimetres, and consists of a narrow tube fused on to a wider one. The larger tube is about 33 centimetres long, the graduated portion occupying about 25 centimetres, and its internal diameter measures 15 millimetres; the narrow tube has a diameter of 4 millimetres, which in the upper bent end decreases to 2 millimetres. When used the instrument should be held in the left hand, the bottom part being allowed to lean a little against the chest. The operation is aided by giving the instrument from time to time a slight turn in the direction of its longitudinal axis, thereby placing the curve of the stout alternately in a more vertical, alternately in a more horizontal position. The volume must not be read off before the surface of the liquid has attained a constant height.

2. Geissler’s burette. This instrument differs from Gay-Lussac’s in having the narrow tube inside, instead of outside the wider one. It is found very convenient in use, and is less liable to fracture than Gay-Lussac’s.

3. Mohr’s burette, which can be more easily and readily managed than either of the two preceding ones, is described and figured under Alkalimetry.

In volumetric analysis the method of taking the readings of the burette is an operation of great importance, requiring considerable method and practice.

The first proceeding is to bring the eye to a level with the fluid, and to adopt a fixed and unalterable standard of what is to be considered the surface.

If you hold a burette partly filled with water between the eye and a strongly illumined wall, the surface of the fluid presents the appearance shown in fig. a. If you hold close behind the tube a sheet of white paper with a strong light falling on it, the surface of the fluid will present an appearance similar to that shown in fig. b.

In both cases you have read off at the lower border of the dark zone, this being the most distinctly marked line. Its distinctness may be heightened by adopting Mohr’s contrivance which consists in pasting on a sheet of very white cardboard a broad strip of black paper, and when reading off holding this close behind the burette in a position to place the border line between white and black from 2 to 3 millimetres below the lower border of the dark zone as shown in figure c.

Great care must be taken to hold the paper invariably in the same position, since if it be held lower down, the lower border of the black zone will move higher up.

To test the correctness of the graduation of a burette proceed as follows:—Fill the instrument up to the highest division with water at 60·8° F., then let the cubic centimetres of the liquid flow out into an accurately weighed flask, and determine the weight of these ten cubic centimetres in the usual way; then let another quantity of ten cubic centimetres flow out, and weigh again, and repeat the operation till the contents of the burette are exhausted. If the instrument is correctly graduated, every ten cubic centimetres of water at 60·8° F. must weigh 9·990 grammes.

BURG′LARIES. The common precautions of locks and bolts, alarum-bells and fire-arms, are frequently found useless in preserving houses from burglars; but a light in the upper part of the house, or a small dog on the ground-floor, with the means of running into a place of safety from its enemies, has been seldom known to fail. A combination of the two would undoubtedly be doubly effective. The bark of the dog and the fear of detection by the approach of the light would deter the majority of rogues of common pluck and feeling. A dog out of doors, and consequently accessible, however large and fierce, is easily pacified or silenced by men of the class referred to.

BURLS, REMOVAL OF, from Cloth and Wool. Introduce the wool or the woollen goods into 100 litres of sulphuric acid at 6° B., in which 500 grams of alum and 250 grams of salt have been dissolved. Work in this bath for one or two hours, drain in the centrifugal, and hang up at 100° to 120°. Wash for an hour and a half in clear water, treat for two hours with fuller’s earth, soda and lime, and wash again for two hours. Sulphuric acid is adapted only for whites and indigo blues. For coloured goods solutions of chloride of tin, and chloride of manganese at 6° B., are recommended.

BURNS and Scalds. Treatm. When the injury is superficial and slight, a little creosote may be applied to the part. If a scald, the vesicle should be first pierced with a needle, or what is better, snipped with a pair of scissors, and the water which it contains should be then gently squeezed out. When creosote is not procurable, a liniment formed of equal parts of soft soap, basilicon ointment, oil of turpentine, and water, may be used instead. When the part feels very hot and painful, a poultice may be applied, on the surface of which a few drops of creosote, or of the liniment, should be spread with a knife. This treatment will generally succeed in allaying the pain. It may be followed by a dressing of zinc ointment, or any other like simple emollient or unctuous preparation. Creosote, contrary to what is commonly asserted, produces scarcely any smarting or pain; whilst it rapidly removes the burning sensation, and the charred surface soon assumes a dry scabby appearance, which, by dressing with simple ointment, soon comes off and leaves the part beneath in a sound and healthy state. If a poultice be applied it is best to keep it on until the next day. Plunging the part into very cold water immediately after the receipt of an injury of this kind will frequently prevent any further remedy being required. Flexible collodion painted over a burn forms a good protective envelope. In all cases cooling laxatives should be administered; and the diet should be rather low until the inflammatory symptoms subside.

Treatment for Animals. Carbolic dressing, exclusion of air, cotton wool, linseed oil and lime water.

BURNING-GLASS. See Lens.

BUTEA FRONDOSA, Roxb. (Ind. Ph.) Syn. Bengal Kino Tree. Habitat. Common all over India.—Officinal part. The inspissated juice obtained from the stem by incision (Buteæ Gummi, Kino Bengalensis, Bengal kino). It occurs in the form of irregular shining fragments, seldom as large as a pea; more or less mixed with adherent pieces of greyish bark; of an intense ruby colour and astringent taste; soluble, but not freely so, in water and in alcohol. Its astringency is due to the presence of tannic and gallic acids.—Prop. & Uses. Similar to those of kino, for which it has been found an efficient substitute.—Prep. Same as those of kino.

BUTTER. [Eng., Ger.] Syn. Buty′rum, L.; Beurre, Fr.; Buter, Butera, Sax. The fatty matter obtained from cream by churning it.

Manuf. The process of making butter by the common operation of churning is extremely simple, and is well known. The chief objects to attend to are maintaining a proper temperature, and a certain degree of exposure to the air. Extreme cleanliness must also be observed; the churn and other utensils being frequently scalded out with water. When the butter is ‘come,’ it should be put into a fresh-scalded pan, or tub, which has been standing in cold water, cold water poured on it, and after it has acquired some hardness, it should be well beaten with a flat board until not the least taste of the butter-milk remains, and the water, which must be often changed, becomes quite colourless and tasteless. A little salt may then be worked into it; after which it may be weighed and made into ‘forms,’ which should then be thrown into cold water contained in an earthen pan provided with a cover. In this way nice and cool butter may be obtained in the hottest weather.

At Dumbarton the newly separated butter is put into a clean vessel, and a corn sickle is drawn several times crosswise through it, to extract any hairs that may adhere to it. This operation is performed in very cold spring water, and is followed by thoroughly washing it therein. 10 oz. of salt are now added to every stone-weight of the butter, and well mixed in.

In Devonshire the milk is generally scalded in copper pans over a charcoal or wood fire, and the cream collected as soon as it rises, or, and more frequently, when the whole has got cold. It is then churned in the usual way. On the small scale the butter is commonly obtained from this cream by patiently working it with the hand in a shallow pan or tub. Without care the cream is apt to absorb some of the fumes from the charcoal, which impart a peculiar taste to the butter. This is the reason why some of the Devonshire butter has a slight smoky flavour. It may be removed by thorough washing in cold water. Of late years, in the large dairy-farms of Devonshire, covered flues, with openings to receive the bottoms of the pans, have superseded open fires, by which the danger of contamination from the fumes is removed.

Choice. Fresh butter has a pleasant odour and is of an equal colour throughout its substance. If it smells sour, the butter-milk has not been well washed out; and if it is streaked or veiny, it is probably mixed with stale butter or lard. A good way to try butter is to thrust a knife into it, which should not smell rancid and unpleasant when withdrawn. Rancid and stale butter, when eaten in quantity, is capable of producing dangerous symptoms.

Pur. The cheaper kinds of butter are frequently adulterated with common wheat-flour, oatmeal, pea-flour, lard, and is sometimes mixed with suet and turnips, as well as with a large quantity of salt and water. The trick is concocted between the Irish factors and the London dealers. The higher priced article is seldom mixed with anything beyond an excess of salt and water, notwithstanding the assertions of alarmists to the contrary. The presence of lard may be detected by the flavour and paleness of the colour. A little of the sample adulterated with the other substances named, if melted in a glass tube or phial, will separate into strata, which are very marked when cold.

Quantitative Analysis of Butter.—1. The following process for the analysis of butter, by Mr A. H. Allen, is extracted from the ‘Chemical News’ (xxxii, 77):—The Society of Public Analysts has adopted 80·00 per cent. as the lowest limit of fat contained in a genuine butter.

The amount of water is best ascertained by heating 5 grams of the butter in a small weighed beaker to a temperature of about 110° or 120° C. for an hour or so. Some chemists merely heat the butter on a water bath. According to the author’s experience, perfect drying is next to impossible at that temperature.

The dried butter is next treated in the beaker with anhydrous ether, or commercial benzoline. The former liquid is expensive and inconveniently volatile, while it must be used in a perfectly anhydrous condition (to avoid solution of the salt), and except when boiling has but a limited solvent power for butter, especially when adulterated. Benzoline dissolves fat more readily than ether; it does not volatilise so rapidly at ordinary temperatures, it is always anhydrous and has the advantage of low price. The “benzoline” employed by the author is made by redistilling the commercial article from a retort immersed in a bath of boiling water. About one third of the original bulk usually comes over readily at 100° C., and has a gravity of 0·689.

On warming the beaker containing the benzoline the dry butter readily dissolves. The liquid is poured on a small dry filter and washed with warm benzoline, the filtrate being collected in a small wide beaker. If the filter had been previously weighed, its increase of weight, after careful drying, will of course give the quantity of curd and salt in the 5 grams of butter taken. Except in cases in which extreme accuracy is desired, it is preferable to scrape the residue off the filter and weigh it separately.

The error (owing to imperfect removal) only amounts to one or two tenths per cent. of the butter taken. As the salt is accurately estimated afterwards, the loss falls on the curd. The salt may be determined by careful ignition of the filter and residue, the incombustible matter consisting almost wholly of common salt, while the curd is ascertained by loss of weight. This method is not to be recommended; for without great care some of the salt will be volatilised and lost, the error causing the amount of curd to appear excessive.

Ignition also renders any further examination of the curd an impossibility. A far preferable plan is to return the weighed curd and salt to the filter, and to wash them with cold water. The filtrate is made up to 100 c. c., and the salt is estimated in a half of it by titrating with decinormal nitrate of silver. The remaining portion of the solution can be employed for the estimation of sugar, if desired. This is effected by inverse titration with Fehling’s copper solution, in the same way as grape sugar. The estimation of sugar may sometimes be of interest, as a means of ascertaining whether the aqueous portion of the butter consisted of mere water or of serum of milk. In other words, the estimation of the sugar may furnish a means of ascertaining whether an excess of water in the butter is due to insufficient removal of the butter-milk, or to subsequent incorporation of water. Every 0·001 gram of milk sugar represents about 0·022 of average milk serum.

The residue insoluble in cold water usually consists almost wholly of casein. If, however, the butter has been adulterated with mashed potatoes, flour, or other starchy matters—said to be occasionally employed—they will be found here. The presence of starch in the residue will, of course, be readily indicated by treating it with hot water, and testing the cooled liquid with solution of iodine. By pressing out a small portion of the butter between two slips of glass, so as to obtain a thin film, and observing it under the microscope (or by observing the caseous residue after treatment with cold water), the nature of the starch may be ascertained.

The solution of the fatty matter in benzoline is evaporated at 100° C. till it no longer decreases in weight. The average proportion of fatty matter in butter is about 85 per cent. If less than 80 per cent. the butter must be considered adulterated. It is evident that a careful estimation of the per-centage of fatty matter would often render separate estimations of the water, curd, and salt unnecessary; for unless the sum of the three latter constituents exceeded 20 per cent. the butter could not be considered as adulterated, unless by an admixture of other fats.

An easy and rapid method of estimating the fat in the undried butter is therefore a great desideratum; but unfortunately no satisfactory method is at present known. The indirect estimation of the fat, by subtracting the sum of the per-centages of water, curd, and salt from 100·00, ought to agree with the direct estimation of fat within 0·5 per cent., and the variation is often much less.

2. Dr Dupré adopts the following method: About 5 grams of the dry filtered butter fat are weighed in a small strong flask; 25 c. c. of a normal alcoholic soda solution are added; the flask is closed by means of a well-fitting cauotchouc stopper, firmly secured by a piece of canvas and string, and heated in a water-bath for about an hour. When cool the flask is opened, the contents—which are semi-solid—carefully liquefied by heat, and washed into a flask with hot water. This flask is now heated for some time on a water-bath to expel the alcohol, some more hot water is added, and 25 c. c. of diluted sulphuric acid somewhat stronger than the alkali used, are run in. The contents are allowed to cool, and the acid aqueous solution below the cake of fatty acids is passed through a filter. The fatty acids in the flask are washed by hot water in the manner recommended by Dr Muter, i.e., each time allowed to cool; all the washings are passed through a filter.

The author uses no cambric, but passes everything through paper. With care scarcely any of the fatty acid will find its way into the filter. After the washing with water is completed and the flask drained, he washes any fatty acid that may be on the filter into the flask by means of a mixture of alcohol and ether on a water bath, and finally dries the fatty acids in the flask at a temperature of 105° C. The drying can be done readily if the melted fat is now and then shaken briskly, so as to subdivide the water as much as possible. In this way the acids when once in the flask are not taken out until their weight has been taken, thus reducing the risk of loss to a minimum. Meanwhile the acidity of the aqueous filtrate and washings is estimated by decinormal soda solution. Subtracting from the amount required to the proportion necessary to neutralise the excess of acid added in decomposing the soap, the rest represents the soluble fatty acids contained in the butter taken, and on the assumption of its being butyric acid, we can, of course, calculate the amount of this acid present. When once the equivalent of the soluble acids present in butter is fairly determined, this, of course, will have to be substituted for that of butyric acid. The results thus obtained are very accurate, and the process is very simple in execution.

The author has satisfied himself by repeated experiments that the alkalinity of the alcoholic soda solution by itself is not altered by the process. The author places no reliance on the specific gravity test, as he finds that mutton dripping, and other fats likely to be used as adulterants of butter, may acquire a specific gravity above ·911 by being strongly and repeatedly heated. He thinks, however, that any sample of butter below ·911 may safely be pronounced adulterated.

In a subsequent note Dr Dupré states that he has effected the saponification, decomposition of the soap, and the washing and drying of the fatty acids at ordinary temperature, thus still further reducing the risk of breaking up the higher into lower acids. The saponification is readily effected by using a sufficiency of alcoholic soda. Between four and five grams of the dry butter fat were shaken up for several minutes with 100 c. c. of normal alcoholic soda. The butter soon dissolves, but after a time the solution gelatinises to a clear transparent mass. (The temperature of the laboratory at the time of these experiments ranged between 22° and 50°.) This jelly is now allowed to stand over night, during which time the smell of butyric ether, very strong at first, entirely disappears. In one of the experiments the alcohol was allowed to evaporate spontaneously before the acid was added; in the other (made with a different sample of butter) the soap was dissolved in about half a litre of water, and at once decomposed by the addition of hydrochloric acid.

The fatty acids which separated in white curdy masses were thoroughly washed on a filter with cold water, about four litres, dried in vacuo over oil of vitriol, and weighed. The results of experiment show that butter fat yields the same proportion of insoluble fatty acids when saponified with or without the aid of heat.

3. Mr Gatehouse. Rapid Method of Detecting the Adulteration of Butter with other Fats. The following comparative method is based upon the insolubility of potassium stearate in alkaline solutions when the stearate has been produced at high temperatures:

Before applying the test it is essential to remove all curd, butter-milk, and salt, by washing with hot water or dissolving in ether. Twenty grains of the butter are placed in a large test-tube one third full with water boiled thoroughly and allowed to stand till the fat separates. The fat is either dissolved in ether, and after evaporation saponified, or the lower layer of the liquid is drawn off by a pipette as follows:—A thin glass tube is drawn out to a fairly fine point and bent at the top to an obtuse angle. Whilst the butter is still liquid this nozzle is inserted into the bottom of the test-tube, placing the finger over the upper end to prevent any liquid from getting in till it reaches the bottom. When fairly cold the liquid may be withdrawn by a pipette attached to the tube. This process can be repeated till the washings are free from chlorides.

The saponification is effected by heating the purified butter with ⁄3-⁄2 of its own weight of pure solid potassium hydrate (purified by alcohol) to a temperature above 420° F.; applying the heat gently at first, and when the frothing ceases, heating it more strongly, till no further apparent action occurs. The ultimate temperature during saponification must be kept above 400° for some minutes, otherwise the sterate formed will be soluble instead of insoluble in the alkaline solution.

If the butter is pure, the colour of the residue will be at the utmost light yellow, but should the butter be adulterated to any extent, it may be almost black. Too much reliance must not, however, be placed on the colour.

After allowing the tube and its contents to cool, the mass is boiled with successive portions of distilled water till 6 oz. (or 200 c. c.) altogether have been used. If the butter is pure, a portion of this solution poured into a test-tube will present only a faint opalescence; if, on the other hand, the butter is impure, a decided opacity will be perceived, the degree depending upon the amount of adulteration.

The amount of adulteration in any sample is determined by first obtaining pure butter and adding to separate portions of it known per-centages of lard, &c. Each of these can be saponified as stated above; they are then corked up in tubes of equal diameter and labelled with the per-centage of lard they contain. On comparing them it will be seen that 2 per cent. of lard can be clearly indicated.

When a butter is analysed all that is wanted is to saponify, make up to the correct strength, and after cooling pour into a test-tube and compare with the specimen tubes.

4. Dr Redwood. The Determination of the Melting Points of Butter and other Fats. The apparatus in the form best suited for general use consists of a basin, two small beakers, and a thermometer. The author uses an enamelled iron basin about six inches in diameter, and three and a half inches deep. In this is placed a beaker four and a half inches deep and three inches in diameter, and within this beaker is placed another much smaller one, supported by its projecting rim on a disk of tinplate or copper, the outer edge of which rests on the mouth of the larger beaker. Some mercury is put in the smaller beaker to the depth of about an inch, and cold water into the larger beaker, so that its surface shall be half an inch or an inch higher than that of the mercury.

A small drop of the fat which has been previously melted and heated to several degrees above its melting-point, but has been allowed to cool again to near its setting point, is put on the surface of the cold mercury. This is best done by means of a thin glass rod about one eighth of an inch in diameter, the end of which has been rounded off in the blow-pipe flame.

It is important that the drop should be very small, and its temperature when placed on the mercury not much above its melting point, for if it be too hot it will spread over the surface of the mercury, which is not desirable.

If the rounded end of the rod be slightly dipped into the melted fat, and then brought to the surface of the mercury, a small hemispherical particle will attach itself there and speedily congeal, becoming more or less opaque in doing so. The weight of one of these hemispherical masses, which should not be more than the eighth of an inch in diameter, will be from ⁄50 to ⁄10 of a grain. Having placed the drop of fat upon the mercury, the bulb of a thermometer, with sufficiently minute graduations, is introduced into the mercury and hot water poured into the basin. The heat is thus communicated to the contents of the small beaker slowly through the water in the larger beaker, and the rise of temperature in the mercury may be easily regulated, and should take place at the rate of about one degree per minute.

The mercury, by virtue of its comparatively good conducting power, acquires a uniform temperature throughout, which is indicated by the thermometer, and at the same time communicated to the fat. The fat when the temperature approaches its melting point becomes partially transparent, and if the stem or elongated bulb of the thermometer be now brought up against it, the moment fusion takes place the liquid fat will run into the channel formed by the repulsion of the mercury and the outside of the thermometer tube. This process presents the following advantages:—

1. The heat-conducting power of the mercury, on which the fat is placed, ensures the equalisation of the temperature as indicated by the thermometer, and at the same time communicated to the fat.

2. The direct contact of the fat with the mercury, without the intervention of a bad conducting medium, such as glass, ensures a more immediate and correct indication of the temperature at which liquefaction takes place than would otherwise occur.

3. The minuteness of the quantity of fat operated upon reduces to a minimum the time occupied in its melting, and thus facilitates the determination with exactness of its melting point.

4. The time occupied in preparing small tubes and charging them with the fat is saved, and several experiments in succession may be easily and rapidly made with the same apparatus. The author observed that in butter as well as other fats, such as tallows, there were at least two melting points, dependent upon the way in which the fat had been previously subjected to the action of heat, and that they may differ in butter to the extent of 3° or 4° F.; the low melting point being that of the fat after it has been heated to several degrees above its first melting point, and the higher melting point being that of fat which has been previously melted to the lowest possible temperature, and then immediately allowed to congeal.

5. Professor Wanklyn carefully weighs one gram of butter, and heats it in a platinum dish of the size shown in the accompanying figure, from four to six hours or even more—in short, until it ceases to lose weight. The loss of weight is the water, which should be calculated and expressed in per-centages.

Fat. The dried butter is now to be heated with ether (the ether should be made to boil by floating the dish in hot water). Several successive portions should be taken, the whole passed through a filter, the filter well washed with ether, and the filtrate evaporated to dryness and weighed.

Caseine and Ash. The residue from which the fat and water have been extracted is now to be taken, carefully weighed, then burned down to a low red heat; the residue remaining is the ash, the loss the caseine.

The amount of ash, practically speaking, is the salt, but if there be any doubt as to its composition, the chlorine maybe estimated by a volumetric solution of nitrate of silver, and further examined.

The following table shows the composition of a few genuine and other butters, examined according to the same, or at least to a similar process to the one described:—

Fat. Ash, principally Salt. Water. Caseine. Quality.

Fresh Devonshire butter. 82·7 1·1 16·2 16·2 Good. Wanklyn.

Normandy butter. 82·1 1·8 16·1 16·1 ” ”

Jersey butter. 78·491 8·528 10·445 2·536 ” Angell and Hehner.

Normandy butter. 82·643 2·915 9·305 5·137 ”

Butter from Ventnor. 86·280 6·600 3·831 3·289 Found to be adulterated with foreign fat. ”

Butter from London. 87·50 1·559 23·981 6·880 Adulterated with water. ”

” 47·119 2·689 42·358 7·834 Adulterated with water, and contains an excess of curd. ”

6. A Method of Detecting Meat Fats in Butter. Mr Horsley, writing to the ‘Chemical News,’ September, 1874, says:—“My starting point is, that fresh butter is permanently soluble in methylated ether, sp. gr. 0·730 at the temperature of 65° Fahr. But with the view of seeing if any other substance it may contain could be precipitated from it, I took, say, 20 or 25 grains of fresh butter, placed it in a small test-tube, and poured over it one drachm of methylated ether, and on corking the tube it readily dissolved after a few minutes’ agitation. I then added 30 drops of methylated alcohol, 63° o. p., and agitated again, but nothing was precipitated. I, therefore, made another experiment with 15 grains of butter and 10 grains of prepared mutton fat, dissolved them in 1 drachm of ether first, and added 30 drops of alcohol, when in less than half an hour the fat was precipitated in a room heated to 68° Fahr. Next, in order to see the effects upon mixtures of known fats, such as lard, beef, mutton, and tallow fats properly melted together in proportions of 60 grains of butter and 40 of fat, and stirring till cold, I found that each of them could, by a similar procedure, be precipitated in a few minutes. In one case, that of mutton, I filtered off the ethereal liquid, and collected the residue, and obtained as much as 30 per cent. of what had been used; so that there is no longer any doubt about easily detecting fatty adulterations in butter. Lastly, I would observe that crystallisation of butter, out of the ethereal solution at a lower temperature than 65°, must not be mistaken for the fats precipitated by alcohol alluded to, as the butter, besides being so much lighter, occupies the upper layer, and is different in character and easily remelted by the application of the warm hand for a minute or so.

“Further experiments have proved that half an hour suffices to effect the full precipitation of fats from the ethereal solutions by the addition of 20 drops or so of alcohol to the drachm of ether, containing not more than 25 grains of the adulterated butter; after which the tube should be agitated and its contents projected on to a small double filter, washed with a little alcohol, and the residue whilst moist scraped off, and transferred to a watch-glass to dry. In this way loss by melting and absorption into the paper is obviated.

“The following were the proportions of fats I recovered, viz.—

Lard 60 per cent.

Mutton fat 75 ”

Beef fat 95 ”

The precipitated mutton fat is powdery, and white as snow. Lard and beef are more adherent and greasy; for that reason mutton makes the firmest compound.”

7. On the Cooling of Fats. At a meeting of the University of Edinburgh Chemical Society, held on March 13th, 1878, a paper on the above subject was read by Mr Treharne, M.B.C.M., wherein the author states:—“If equal bulks of the fats of mutton, beef, pork, and butter, and palm oil be heated to 100° C. in small flasks fitted with a thermometer through the cork, and then allowed to cool by radiation under the same conditions for each, temperature is found to fall regularly to a certain point (which is different for each of the facts above named) and then to rise to a certain turning point. These turning points are approximately as follows:—

For Mutton fat 40° C.

” Beef ” 28·5° C.

” Pork ” 26·5° ”

” Butter ” 23·5° ”

” Palm oil 21·0° ”

The extent of the rise in temperature is different in each fat, being greatest in that of mutton, and least in that of butter and palm oil. The extent of the rise is also greater within certain limits the greater the quantity of fat employed; but as a rule the turning point is pretty constant for the same fat. There is also a little difference in the turning points and the extent of rise according to the part of the carcase from which the fat has been taken. If temperature and time be taken as co-ordinates, and the rate of cooling be represented by curves, these latter will be characteristic of the respective fats. A mixture of equal parts of mutton and butter fats does not give a curve intermediate between those of its two components; but is such as to indicate that less heat is given out on cooling (to 20° C say) than in the case of butter, which, compared with mutton fat, gives off very little heat.”

For further information on the subject of ‘Butter’ the reader is referred to a Report by Mr Bell—the principal of the Chemical Laboratory at Somerset House—to the Board of Inland Revenue, included in a return made to the House of Commons in 1876.

Preservation. 1. Melt the butter in a stoneware or a well-glazed earthen pan set in a water bath at a heat not exceeding 180° Fahr., and keep it heated, skimming it from time to time until it becomes quite transparent; then pour off the clear portion into another vessel, and cool it as quickly as possible by placing the vessel in very cold water or ice. This is the method employed by the Tartars who supply the Constantinople market. In this state it may be preserved perfectly fresh for 6 or 9 months, if kept in a close vessel and a cool place. This is the plan so strongly recommended by M. Thénard. Mr Eaton states that butter melted by the Tartarian method, and then salted by ours, will keep good and fine-tasted for two years.

2. Saltpetre and white sugar, of each 1 oz.; best Spanish great-salt (or Cheshire large-grained salt), 2 oz.; all in very fine powder; mix thoroughly, and add 1 oz. of this mixture to every lb. of butter, and thoroughly incorporate them together. The butter thus prepared is then to be tightly pressed into clean glazed earthenware vessels (or well-seasoned casks), so as to leave no vacuities. This plan is recommended by Dr Anderson, who declares that “butter so prepared will keep in a cool place for years; and will bear a voyage to the East Indies, if packed (stowed) so as not to melt.” It does not taste well before it has stood for three or four weeks, after which it acquires a rich marrow-like flavour, which no other butter ever possesses. A good method to preserve the butter from the air is to fill the pots to within an inch of the top, then to lay on it some coarse-grained salt to the depth of a ⁄4 to ⁄2 an inch, and lastly to cover each pot with a slate, plate, or other flat article. The salt by long keeping runs to brine, which forms an air-tight layer on the top of the butter, and may at any time be very easily removed by turning the pot on one side.

3. Fresh butter, 21 lbs.; salt, 1 lb.; saltpetre, 1 oz. These are the common proportions for the best salt butter of the shops.

4. Fresh butter, 18 lbs.; salt, 1 lb.; saltpetre, 1⁄2 oz.; honey or fine brown sugar, 2 oz. Superior to No. 3.

Concl. Remarks. It may be useful to know that rancid butter may be restored, or, in all cases, greatly improved, by melting it in a water bath with some fresh-burnt and coarsely powdered animal charcoal (which has been thoroughly freed from dust by sifting), and straining it through clean flannel. A better and less troublesome method is to well wash the butter first with some good new milk, and next with cold spring water. Butyric acid, on the presence of which rancidity depends, is freely soluble in fresh milk.

The turnip-flavour arising from the cows being fed on turnips or cabbages is said to be removed by one or other of the following methods:—1. When the milk is strained into the pans put to every 6 galls. 1 gal. of boiling water.—2. Dissolve 1 oz. of nitre in a pint of spring water, and put a ⁄4 pint of the solution to every 15 galls. of milk.—3. Keep back a ⁄4 pint of the sour cream when you churn, and put it into a well-scalded pot, into which you are to gather the next cream; stir that well, and do so with every fresh addition. Each of these methods come on good authority, but we are bound to say that our own experience does not confirm their constant success. We have found that the addition of a handful of salt to the water used to wash the butter is as good a plan as any.

Butter, Ancho′vy. From anchovies (boned and beaten to a paste), 1 part; butter, 2 parts; spice, q. s.

Butter-colouring (from Paris). A mixture of 40 per cent. of chrome yellow with some fat coloured with annatto. (Flückiger and Weil.)

Butter, Clar′ified. Fresh butter melted in a water bath, allowed to settle, and the clear portion poured into an earthenware basin or pot, set in cold water, so as to cool it as quickly as possible, without allowing it to crystallise. It keeps a long time without becoming rank. See Butter, No. 1 (antè).

Butter, Hon′ey. Fine Narbonne honey, 2 to 4 oz.; mixed with good butter, 1 lb. Used as a delicacy for children, and by the sick and aged.

Butter, Lem′on. See Butter, Orange.

Butter, Melt′ed. This well-known sauce may be prepared of excellent quality as follows:—Beat up about 1 oz. of fine flour with 4 oz. of butter, in the cold, until they are evenly and thoroughly mixed, then add 4 or 5 table-spoonfuls of hot milk, put the whole into a small saucepan, and continue shaking it, all in one direction, until it simmers very gently; lastly, remove it from the fire, and pour it into the butter-boats for use. These last should be filled with hot water, and then emptied and wiped dry, before putting the melted butter into them. See Sauces.

Butter, Or′ange. Prep. 1. From 6 eggs, 2 oz. of powdered sugar, and 4 oz. of butter, well beaten together with a little orange-flower water. Sometimes 1 or 2 oz. of blanched almonds, or of almond-paste, is added.

2. Butter, 1 lb.; syrup of orange peel, 4 oz. Both are eaten as a delicacy. Lemon butter, is made in a similar manner.

Butter of An′timony*‡. Trichloride of antimony.

Butter of Caca′o. See Co′coa, and Co′coa-nut Oil.

Butter of Nut′megs. Collected from the surface of the water in the still, after the distillation of the essential oil of nutmegs.

Butter of Ro′ses. Obtained by distilling damask roses. It separates slowly from the water in the receiver. It has little smell, and is hence used to dilute the odour of musk, ambergris, and civet.

Butter of Wax. Prepared by distilling bees′-wax. A factitious kind is also made.

Butter of Zinc*‡. Chloride of zinc.

Butter Powder (from the Adler-Apotheke Emmerich on the Rhine). Bicarbonate of soda. (Dr U. Kreusler.)

Butter Powder (Lemmel, Schleswig-Holstein). An impure bicarbonate of soda, coloured with turmeric. (Hirschberg.)

Butter Powder, Schuhrer’s (Emil Schührer, Mutzschen, Saxony). This, it is claimed, will considerably increase the yield of butter, shorten the process of churning, and yield a product which will be firm even in the height of summer, well-flavoured, of a handsome colour, and of excellent commercial value. It consists of a tolerably pure commercial bicarbonate of soda, with ⁄2 per cent. of powdered turmeric. (Dr Peters.)

Butter Powder, Tomlinson’s (Tomlinson & Co., Lincoln, England). Ordinary bicarbonate of soda, coloured with ⁄4 per cent. of annatto. (Dr Karmrodt.)

Butter-preservative Paste (from Spaa). Consists of common salt, 52 parts; nitre, 23 parts; syrup, 5 parts. (Wittstein.)

BUTTERINE. A substance known under this name, and intended as a substitute for butter, is imported into this country from New York.

Of butterine Dr Campbell Brown remarks:—“In general appearance, taste, and consistence, it is very similar to ordinary butter; but notwithstanding that its solidifying point is lower than that of some butters, it retains much of the peculiar crumbly texture and fracture of dripping.

“It softens at 78° F., and melts at 86°. When heated and slowly cooled it obscures the thermometer at 62° and solidifies at 60°. It contains—

Water 11·25 to 8·5

Salt 1·03 ” 5·5

Curd 0·57 ” 0·6

Fat 87·15 ” 85·4

100·00 100·00

“The fat consists of oleine, palmitine, margarine, a trace of stearine, and about 5 or 6 per cent. of butter. When dissolved in about four times its weight of ether, and allowed to evaporate spontaneously, it does not deposit any fat until more than half of the ether has passed off, and if the temperature is not below 60° the deposit is not solid.

“The first deposit when dried fuses at 108°; the second deposit fuses at 88°, and solidifies at 64°.

“Under the microscope butterine does not appear to consist of acicular crystals of fat, but of irregular masses, containing a few butter globules, particles of curd, and crystals of salt. With polarised light the irregular crystalline structure is beautifully seen, and is clearly distinguishable from butter which has been melted and recongealed. When old and rancid it acquires the odour and taste of dripping, but it keeps longer undecomposed than butter. When fresh it is a wholesome substitute for real butter. No one can reasonably take exception to its sale.

“Butterine may be detected by the following characters:—

“1. Its crumbly fracture.

“2. Its loss of colour when kept melted for a short time at 212°.

“3. The behaviour of its ethereal solution.

“4. Its action on polarised light.”

The ‘American Chemist’ for 1876 contains an interesting paper by Mr Henry Mott on the manufacture of artificial butter, which is too lengthy for insertion here.

BUTTER-MILK. The liquid that remains after the butter is separated from the cream.

Qual., &c. Butter-milk left from the churning of sweet cream is not only very delicious, but exceedingly wholesome and nutritious. It is eaten with fruit, puddings, and cakes, and is said to possess the property of allaying the nervous irritability induced by excessive tea-drinking. It is an admirable beverage in rickets, diabetes, and many stomach affections. An American physician has recently asserted that it induces longevity. See Milk.

BUTTONS. See Brass, Gilding, &c.

BU′TYRATE. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Bu′tyras, L. A salt in which the hydrogen of butyric acid is replaced by a basic radical.

Butyrate of Barium. Prep. Saponify butter with a boiling solution of caustic alkali, and decompose the resulting soap by adding a solution of tartaric acid; filter and distil; neutralise the distillate with hydrate of barium, and evaporate; the first crystals that form are caprate of barium; the next, caproate of barium; and the last, butyrate of barium. This salt is very soluble in water, and hence is easily separated from the others.—Use. Chiefly for making butyric acid.

BUTYRIC (-tĭr′-). Syn. Butyr′icus, L.; Butyrique, Fr. Of or from butter.

BUTYRIC ACID. HC4H7O2. Syn. Acidum Buty̆̆r′icum, L.; Acide butyrique, Fr.; Buttersäure, Ger. An oily acid, first obtained by Chevreul from butter.

Prep. From butyrate of barium or magnesium, by adding sulphuric acid in quantity not quite sufficient to decompose the whole of the salt; the clear liquid, filtered and distilled, yields butyric acid, from which the water may be removed by digestion with chloride of calcium.

Prop. A thin colourless liquid, of pungent rancid odour, and sour taste, miscible with water and alcohol. It boils and distils unchanged at 327° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·963. See Ethers.

BU′TYRIN (-in). [Eng., Fr.] An oily substance existing in butter, and of which it forms the characteristic portion. It was discovered by Chevreul.

Prep. Keep clarified butter in a porcelain vessel, at a heat of 66°, for some days; carefully collect the oily portion which separates, mix it with an equal weight of alcohol of the sp. gr. ·796, and agitate it frequently for 24 hours; after repose pour off the clear portion, and evaporate it; treat the oily residuum with a little carbonate of magnesium, to remove free acid, and wash off the butyrate of magnesium, thus formed, with water; lastly, heat the remaining fatty matter in alcohol, filter, and evaporate, by a gentle heat; the residuum is butyrin.

BUXINE (-ĭn). A substance detected by M. Faure in bux′us semper′virens, or the common box-tree.

CABBAGE. Syn. Bras′sica, L.; Chou, Fr.; Kohl, Ger. This common esculent, and all its numerous varieties, are merely cultivated specimens of the wild sea-cabbage of our coasts (bras′sica olera′cea, Linn.), one of an extensive and valuable genus of plants belonging to the nat. ord. Cruciferæ. After the potato, the cabbage is doubtless more extensively used by the masses of the people than any other fresh vegetable. When young, and properly dressed, it forms an agreeable and wholesome addition to animal food, the grossness of which, it is said, it tends to correct. It should be eaten only when fresh gathered and fresh cooked; and the unconsumed portion, as well as the water in which it has been boiled, should be at once thrown away. Persons troubled with a weak digestion, or who have a tendency to flatulence, diarrhœa, or worms, would do well to avoid them. Their use is particularly serviceable in scurvy, and in numerous skin diseases.

It has been asserted that cabbages, cauliflowers, broccoli, celery, and several other culinary vegetables, may be preserved in a fresh state for some time, by cutting them so that they may have about two inches of stem left below the leaves, scooping out the pith as far down as a small knife will reach, and then suspending them perpendicularly by means of a cord, in an inverted position, in some cool situation, and daily filling up the bottom part of the stem with clean cold water. In this way it is stated that a supply of green vegetables may be readily obtained during a severe winter, and on ship-board. Other methods, including those usually adopted with the same object, are noticed under Vegetables (Culinary).

Cabbages, broccoli, &c., are dressed by simply throwing them into boiling water, and simmering them until tender. A few minutes is sufficient for this purpose. A pinch of salt of tartar, or of carbonate of soda, is commonly added to the water, to preserve the green colour of the vegetables.

CACHOU AROMATISE (kăshoo ărŏmătēzā). [Fr.] A mouth-lozenge intended to sweeten and perfume the breath. Preparations of this description are much used by smokers and bacchanals. The form under which they are generally prepared for sale is that of 1⁄2 to 2 gr. pills, neatly silvered. Originally they were composed chiefly of catechu and sugar, flavoured and perfumed with the stronger aromatics; but at the present day the catechu, from which they derive their name, is not unfrequently omitted. Their preparation is described elsewhere. See Breath, Lozenges, Pastils, &c.

CAD′MIUM. Cd. [Eng., L.] Syn. Klapro′thium. A metal discovered by Stromeyer and Hermann, in the ores of zinc.

Prep. 1. (Stromeyer.) The cadmo-zincic ore is dissolved in an excess of dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid by heat; a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through the solution, the resulting precipitate (sulphide of cadmium) dissolved in nitric acid, and the solution evaporated to dryness; the residuum is dissolved in water, the solution precipitated with carbonate of ammonium in excess, and the precipitate (carbonate of cadmium) collected, mixed with charcoal, and heated to redness in a crucible apparatus so arranged as to condense the fumes; the cadmium sublimes.

2. (Wollaston.) A solution of the ore obtained as above is placed in a platinum capsule, and a piece of metallic zinc is plunged into it. In a short time the cadmium is precipitated, and attaches itself to the sides of the capsule, when it is collected, washed, and dried.

3. (Herapath.) When zinc is obtained by distilling its ores, per descensum, the first portion of the metallic fumes evolved burn with a brownish flame, and deposit oxide of cadmium, which is subsequently reduced by distillation with charcoal. Thousands of pounds of cadmium are yearly wasted at the zinc works which might be easily collected in a similar manner.

Prop., &c. Resembles tin in most of its physical properties, being white, soft, and malleable. Sp. gr. 8·61. Stromeyer gives its melting point as 442° Fahr., but Dr Wood, an American chemist, states that the metal requires for its fusion nearly the same heat as lead, and gives it as about 600° Fahr. It volatilises at a somewhat higher temperature, giving off orange-coloured, suffocating fumes, which, when inhaled too freely, leave a disagreeable, sweetish, styptic sensation upon the lips, and a persistent brassy taste in the mouth, with constriction of the throat, heaviness in the head, and nausea. The alloys of cadmium are said to be brittle by almost all who have treated of them, but Wood found that many were extremely tenacious, as, for instance, the combination of 2 parts of silver and 1 part of cadmium, which is perfectly malleable and very strong. The amalgam of equal parts of cadmium and mercury is also highly malleable. Like bismuth, cadmium has the property of promoting fusibility in certain alloys; thus, a remarkable fusible metal may be formed by melting together cadmium 1 to 2 parts, lead 2 parts, and tin 4 parts.

Tests. Its ores and salts are recognised as follows:—1. Mixed with carbonate of sodium, and exposed on a charcoal support to the reducing flame of the blowpipe, the charcoal becomes almost instantly covered with a reddish-yellow incrustation of oxide of cadmium, commonly forming a circle or zone.—2. Caustic soda and potassa give a white precipitate (hydrated oxide) in solutions containing cadmium, insoluble in excess of the precipitant.—3. Ammonia gives a similar white precipitate, freely soluble in excess.—4. The alkaline carbonates give white precipitates (carbonate of cadmium), insoluble in excess.—5. Sulphuretted hydrogen, and sulphydrate of ammonium, give a bright yellow precipitate (sulphide of cadmium), which is insoluble in dilute acid, alkalies, sulphides, and cyanide of potassium, but readily soluble in both hydrochloric acid and nitric acid, especially with heat.—6. The salts of cadmium are readily distinguished from those of arsenic, by the precipitated sulphide being insoluble in ammonia, and soluble in hydrochloric acid, and being capable of sustaining a white heat without subliming.

Cadmium, Car′bonate of. CdCO3. Syn. Cad′mii car′bonas, L. From a solution of sulphate or chloride of cadmium, and an alkaline carbonate; the precipitate being collected, washed, and dried by a gentle heat. A white powder.

Cadmium, Chlo′′ride of. CdCl2. Syn. Hydrochlo′′rate of cadmium, Mu′′riate of cadmium; Cad′mii chlori′dum, Cad′mii hydrochlo′′ras, L. Prep. 1. (Pure.) By dissolving carbonate or oxide of cadmium in hydrochloric acid, and crystallising by gentle evaporation. Prismatic crystals; very soluble in water.

2. (Turner.) By exposing the product of the last process to heat. Amorphous.

3. From crude cadmium or its oxide, and hydrochloric acid, as last.

Cadmium, I′odide of. CdI2. Syn. Hydri′odate of cadmium; Cad′′mii iodi′dum, C. hydrio′das, L.

Prep. (Crookes.) Cadmium in filings 1 part, pure iodine 2 parts, are to be placed together in a capacious flask, with alcohol sufficient to cover them. Action commences at once, attended with considerable evolution of heat; when it ceases, heat the mixture till it is colourless; then filter from a few grains of cadmium which will remain undissolved, evaporate and crystallise.

Uses. In photography this salt has lately been employed with great success for iodizing collodion. Being very stable, it is not decomposed, and the collodion iodized with it preserves its sensitiveness undiminished during many months. (See Collodion.) In medicine it is used occasionally as a substitute for iodide of lead.

Cadmium, Ox′ide of. CdO. Syn. Protox′ide of cadmium; Cad′mii oxy′dum, L. Prep. 1. (Hydrated.) From sulphate or chloride of cadmium, and a solution of caustic alkali; observing to well wash and dry the precipitate. A white powder, freely soluble in acids.

2. (Anhydrous.) By igniting the hydrated oxide, or the carbonate or nitrate of cadmium. That from the first two has a pale brown colour; that from the nitrate has a dark brown tint and a semi-crystalline appearance. The former has been proposed to be used as a pigment.

Cadmium, Sul′phate of. CdSO4. Syn. Cad′mii sul′phas, Cad′mium sulphu′ricum, Klapro′thrium sulphu′ricum, L. Prep. 1. From carbonate or oxide of cadmium and dilute sulphuric acid, as the chloride.

2. (Cottereau.) Oxide of cadmium, 1 oz.; sulphuric acid, q. s.; dissolve, evaporate, and crystallise.

3. (Pereira.) Sulphuric acid, 6⁄2 parts; water, 15 parts; mix; add cadmium, 7 parts; dissolve, evaporate to dryness, redissolve in water, filter, and evaporate by a gentle heat, so that crystals may form.

Prop., &c. Efflorescent, rectangular, prismatic crystals; very soluble in water; tastes astringent. It is about 4 times as strong as sulphate of zinc, and is used in similar cases. Dose, 3 to 10 gr. Externally (⁄2 to 3 or 4 gr. to water, 1 oz.); in specks of the eye, opacity of the cornea, chronic ophthalmia, &c. As an ointment, 10 to 12 gr. to lard, 1 oz.

Cadmium, Sul′phide of. CdS. Syn. Cadmium yellow. This occurs native as Greenock′ite. It may be prepared artificially, either by fusing its elements together, or by passing a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen through a solution of the chloride, nitrate, or sulphate. When prepared artificially, it is of a bright yellow or orange colour, and is of great value to the artist. It has been used in making fireworks. See Fires, Coloured.

Cadmium, Yellow. See Cadmium, Sulphide of (above), and Yellow Pigments.

CÆSALPINA (GUILANDINA) BONDUCELLA. (Ind. Ph.) Habitat. Tropical portions of both hemispheres.—Officinal part. The seeds (Bonducellæ semina, Bonduc seeds); of a somewhat irregular sub-spherical or ovoid form, usually from ⁄8 to ⁄8 of an inch in diameter, smooth, hard, and lead-coloured, and contain an amylaceous white nucleus, having a bitter taste. They contain a fixed oil, resin, and a bitter principle.—Properties. Tonic and antiperiodic.—Therapeutic uses. In intermittent fevers; also in debility, and other cases requiring tonics.—Dose, 10 to 15 grains twice daily.

Compound Powder of Bonduc (Pulvis Bonducellæ compositus). Take of bonduc seeds, deprived of their shells and powdered, 1 oz.; black pepper, powdered, 1 oz. Mix thoroughly, and keep in a well-stoppered bottle.—Dose, 15 to 30 gr., three times a day.

CÆSIUM. [Eng., L.] Cæ. A metal belonging to the alkaline group, discovered by Bunsen in the mineral water of Durckheim by means of SPECTRUM ANALYSIS (which see), and so named by him from cæsius, greyish-blue, the colour of its characteristic ray.

CAFFE′IC ACID. Syn. Chloroge′nic acid. A white powder, discovered by Runge in coffee, in which it exists in combination with potassium (caffeiate of potassium), and caffeine, and is then very soluble in alcohol. Pfaff states that the aroma of coffee is dependent on the volatilisation, or, rather, the decomposition of this acid.

CAFFE′INE. C8H10N4O2. Syn. Caffe′ina, Théine, Guaranine. A peculiar nitrogenised principle, discovered by Robiquet in coffee. It is, moreover, the essential principle of tea, of Paraguay tea, and of Guarana, infusions of which are used as beverages in different parts of the world. The proportion of caffeine to the pound was found by Liebig to be as stated below in the six descriptions of coffee named:—

Martinique 32 grains.

Alexandrian 22 ”

Java 22 ”

Mocha 20 ”

Cayenne 19 ”

St Dominique 16 ”

In Hyson tea it exists in the proportion of from 2·5 to 3·4 per cent.; and in gunpowder tea from 2·2 to 4·1. In Paraguay tea, or maté as it is called in Brazil, and in Guarana, it exists in the proportion of ·13 per cent.

Prep. 1. Coarsely powdered raw or unroasted coffee is boiled in water, and subacetate of lead added to the filtered decoction to throw down the extractive and colouring matter; the excess of lead is next precipitated with sulphuretted hydrogen, and the liquid filtered and evaporated by a gentle heat; the residuum is dissolved in boiling water, the solution agitated with freshly burnt animal charcoal, filtered, evaporated, and crystallised. By redissolving the product in hot alcohol, it may be obtained in white, shining, silky filaments, as the solution cools.

2. (H. J. Versman.) Quick-lime, 2 lbs.; water, q. s. to form a hydrate; raw coffee (bruised), 10 lbs.; mix, put it into a displacement apparatus, and cause alcohol of 80% to percolate through the mixture, until the fluid obtained no longer contains caffeine; the mass in the percolator is then roughly ground to powder, mixed with a fresh quantity of quick-lime, and the process of percolation repeated with fresh alcohol, as before. The spirit is next distilled from the mixed tinctures in a retort, and the residuum washed with a little warm water to remove the oil; the evaporation is then gently conducted until a crystalline mass is obtained, which is further freed from adhering oil by pressure between folds of blotting paper. It is purified by redissolving it in boiling water or hot alcohol, &c., as before.

3. (A. Vogel.) An extract of powdered coffee is made with commercial benzol; this being distilled off, leaves an oil and caffeine behind; the oil is then removed by a little ether or by hot water, from which latter liquid the alkaloid crystallises on cooling.

4. From a hot infusion of tea-leaves by treatment with subacetate of lead and sulphuretted hydrogen, as in process 1 (above).

5. (F. V. Greene.) Powdered guarana is intimately mixed with three times its weight of finely divided litharge, and the mixture boiled in distilled water, the ebullition being continued until, on allowing the temperature to fall below the boiling point, the insoluble portion is found to subside rapidly, leaving the supernatant liquid clear, bright, and without colour. The quantity of distilled water required will be found to be about a pint for every fifteen grams of the guarana used in the experiment, and as the boiling has to be continued for several hours before the desired and all essential separation mentioned above takes place, water must be added from time to time to supply the place of that lost by evaporation. When cool, the clear liquid is decanted upon a filter, and when it has passed through, which it will be found to do with facility, the precipitate is to be transferred to the filter, and washed with boiling water, the washing to be continued as long as yellowish precipitates are produced with either phosphomolybdic acid solution, auric, or platinic chloride. A stream of sulphuretted hydrogen gas is now passed through the filtrate to remove the small quantity of lead that has been dissolved, and the sulphide thus formed separated by filtration. The solution is evaporated on a water bath to expel the excess of sulphuretted hydrogen, filtered to remove a trace of sulphur, finally evaporated to the crystallising point, and the caffeine which crystallises out in cooling removed from the mother liquor and pressed between folds of bibulous paper. After being thus treated the crystals will be found to be perfectly white. On diluting the mother liquor with distilled water, filtering, and evaporating, a second crop of crystals are obtained, which are also perfectly white, after being pressed as above. The crystals are now dissolved in boiling dilute alcohol, filtered, and the solution set aside to crystallise by spontaneous evaporation. The resulting crystals of caffeine are perfectly pure and colourless.

6. (O. Caillol and P. Cazeneuve.) The following is a process for the rapid preparation of caffeine:—Black tea is thoroughly softened with four times its weight of hot water; a quantity of calcium hydrate equal to that of tea used is then added, and the whole evaporated on a water-bath to perfect dryness. The dry residue is exhausted with chloroform in a displacement apparatus, and the chloroform recovered from the percolate by distillation. The residue left in the retort is a mixture of caffeine and a resinous substance containing chlorophyll. On treating it with hot water, filtering and evaporating the filtrate on a water bath, the caffeine is obtained in perfectly white crystals.

Prop., &c. Soluble in 100 parts of cold water; freely soluble in hot water and in water acidulated with an acid; slightly soluble in cold alcohol; it fuses at 352° Fahr., tastes slightly bitter, and possesses feeble basic properties. With the sulphuric and hydrochloric acids it forms crystallisable compounds. The salts of caffeine may be made by dissolving it to saturation in the dilute acid, and evaporating the solution by a very gentle heat. It forms splendid double salts with bichloride of platinum and terchloride of gold.

Uses. Caffeine has been recommended in those pains that affect only one side of the head (hemicrania); in doses of 1 to 3 gr. Its physiological action is very trifling, notwithstanding all that has been said to the contrary. Mr Cooley took 20 gr. daily of pure caffeine, for above a month, without experiencing any other effect than a very slight elevation of spirits after each dose, similar to that produced by a small quantity of spirits of sal volatile. It has been used lately with doubtful success as an antidote to the poisonous effects of opium. See Coffee, Tea, &c.

CAFFE′ONE. A brown, aromatic oil, formed during the roasting of coffee.

CAJ′EPUT OIL. See Oils (Volatile).

CAKES. A species of fancy bread or trifle familiar to every one.

Before proceeding to the actual operation of cake-making, the various materials which are to enter into their composition undergo a certain amount of preparation. For this purpose every article is got ready about an hour previously to its being wanted, and is placed before the fire, or upon a stove, that it may become gently heated. Without these precautions it is impossible to produce good cakes. The flour is thoroughly dried, and warmed. The currants are nicely washed in a hair sieve, wiped dry in a cloth, and then set before the fire. Before use they are dusted over with a little flour. The sugar is rubbed to a fine powder, and passed through a sieve. The eggs are well beaten in a basin, and strained. The butter is melted by being placed in a basin set in hot water, and is afterwards well beaten up with a little warm milk. The lemon peel is cut very thin, and beaten in a mortar to a paste or powder, with lump sugar; or for common purposes, it is grated. The caraways, ginger, and other flavouring ingredients are preferred in the form of fine powder, or are made into an essence, by digesting them in spirit of wine; the first is the most common method. The milk and water is made lukewarm. When all these things are ready and have stood a sufficient time, they are put into a pan, one after another, in the proper order, and well beaten together, by which the lightness of the cakes is considerably increased.

In plum cakes, as well as in some other varieties, a little yeast may be added after the butter, and the mass allowed to rise a little, and then again well kneaded, by which not only less butter and eggs may be used, but the products will be both lighter and more wholesome. Good stale bread, well soaked in hot milk or water, and then beaten to a paste, and passed through a fine sieve, forms an excellent thing to mix up the ingredients with, and produces a very light and nutritious cake. Cakes “wetted up” with milk are richer, but do not keep so well as those without it; they get stale sooner, and then in that state are far from agreeable to the palate. A kind of flour prepared from maize or Indian corn has been recently introduced to the notice of cooks, but it is better adapted for puddings than for cakes. See Corn-flour.

Cakes are preferably baked on flat tins or in little “tin shapes,” which should be first well buttered.

Cakes should be kept for store in tin canisters; wooden boxes, unless very well seasoned, are apt to give them an unpleasant taste. Brown-paper linings and wrappers should be avoided for the same reason. See Biscuits, Bread, Bun, Icing, Stains, &c.

Cakes, Al′mond. Prep. 1. From sweet almonds (blanched and beaten to a smooth paste), flour and powdered sugar, of each ⁄2 lb.; 7 eggs, and the outside peel of 4 lemons (shredded small). The almonds, sugar, lemon peel, and eggs, are beaten together, until as white as sponge paste; the flour next worked in, and the paste put into buttered moulds, and baked in a slack oven, with 8 or 10 thicknesses of white paper under them and one or two over them.

2. Almonds, 1 lb.; sugar, ⁄2 lb.; rose water or orange-flower water, ⁄4 pint; flour, ⁄4 lb.; 3 eggs; as above. Some persons ice these cakes.

Cakes, Ban′bury. Prep. From butter and dough fermented for white bread, of each 1 lb., as in making puff paste, then rolled out very thin, and cut into oval or triangular pieces, or other shapes. On these are placed a mixture of currants and moist sugar, equal parts, wetted with a little wine or brandy, and the paste being closed up, they are placed on a tin with the closed side downwards, and baked. A little powdered sugar, flavoured with candied peel (grated), or essence of lemon, is sifted over them as soon as they come out of the oven. In the common cakes of the shops the brandy is omitted, and lard is used for butter, but less of it.

Cakes, Bath. Prep. From butter, ⁄2 lb., flour, 1 lb., 5 eggs, and a cupful of yeast; when risen, add powdered sugar, 4 oz., and caraways, 1 oz. Bake them on tins.

Cakes, Cheese. Prep. 1. Curdle some warm new milk with rennet, drain the curd in a linen bag, and add ⁄4 of its weight, each, of sugar and butter, 6 eggs, some grated nutmeg, and a little orange flower or rose water.

2. (Almond Cheese Cakes.) To the above add as much blanched almonds, beaten to a smooth paste, as there is butter, and an equal weight of macaroni.

3. (Lemon Cheese Cakes.) To the first form add lemon peel (grated fine), or essence of lemon, q. s.

Cakes, Di′et. Syn. Diet bread. Prep. 1. Dissolve sugar, 1 lb., in milk, ⁄2 pint; add 6 eggs, and whisk the mixture to a full froth, then cautiously stir in flour, 1 lb., beat it for ⁄4 hour, and immediately bake it in a quick oven. It may be baked whole or divided into small cakes.

2. From fine flour and powdered sugar, equal parts; 6 eggs; and the juice and rind (grated) of 1 lemon.

Cakes, Drop. Prep. Eggs, 1 dozen; rosewater, 1 table-spoonful; powdered sugar, ⁄2 lb.; fine flour, ⁄2 lb.; and caraways, ⁄2 oz. Drop it on wafer paper, and bake as before.

Cakes, Gin′ger. Prep. Sugar, 1 lb.; powdered ginger, 4 oz.; flour, 2 lbs.; water, 1 pint; butter, ⁄2 lb.; candied orange peel, 8 caps (grated).

Cakes, Lem′on. Prep. Flour and sugar, of each 1 lb.; eggs, 1 dozen; grated peel and juice of 4 lemons; whisk the eggs to a bright froth; then gradually add the rest.

Cakes, Marl′borough. Prep. Beat 8 eggs and 1 lb. of pounded sugar ⁄4 hour; then add fine flour, 1 lb.; and caraway seeds, 2 oz.

Cakes, Plain. Prep. 1. From flour, 4 lbs.; currants, 2 lbs.; butter, ⁄2 lb.; caraway seeds, ⁄4 oz.; candied lemon peel (grated), 1 oz.; yeast, ⁄4 pint; milk, q. s. Let it rise well before baking.

2. Baker’s dough, 2 lbs.; currants, 1 lb.; butter, ⁄4 lb.; 3 eggs; milk (hot), ⁄4 pint.

3. (Rundell.) Baker’s dough, 4 lbs.; butter and moist sugar, of each ⁄4 lb.; caraway seeds, a small handful. Well work it together, pull it into pieces the size of a golden pippin, and work it together again. This must be done three times, or it will be in lumps, and heavy when baked.

4. (Rich) Equal weights of flour, butter, sultana raisins, eggs, currants, and brown sugar, mixed up with milk, and seasoned with candied peel, nutmeg, &c., and baked in a quick oven. This resembles “pound cake.”

Cakes, Plum. Prep. 1. (Good.) From butter, ⁄2 lb.; dry flour, 3 lbs.; Lisbon sugar, 8 oz.; plums and currants, of each ⁄4 lb.; and some pimento, finely powdered; to be “wetted up” with 3 spoonfuls of yeast, and a Winchester pint of new milk (warmed); bake on a floured tin half an hour.

2. (Excellent.) From fresh butter, sifted sugar, flour, and currants, of each 1 lb.; 18 eggs; powdered spices, 2 oz. (viz. cloves, mace, cinnamon, nutmeg, and allspice); sliced almonds, 4 oz.; raisins (stoned and chopped), ⁄2 lb.; and a large glass of brandy; bake in a hot oven. When sufficiently baked let the oven cool, and afterwards put in the cake and allow it to remain for several hours to dry. (Rundell.)

3. (Rich.) Take fresh butter and sugar, of each 1 lb.; flour, 1⁄2 lb.; currants, 2 lbs.; a glass of brandy; sweetmeats and peels, 1 lb.; sweet almonds, 2 oz.; 10 eggs; allspice and cinnamon, of each ⁄4 oz.; bake in a tin hoop in a hot oven for 3 hours, and put 12 sheets of paper under it to keep it from burning. (Mackenzie.)

Cakes, Port′ugal. Prep. From flour, powdered sugar, and fresh butter, of each 1 lb.; 10 eggs; currants, ⁄2 lb.; and a little white wine; bake in small tins only half filled.

Cake, Potato. A pound of cold potatoes, a quarter of a pound of flour or oatmeal, half a gill of warm milk (with a quarter of an ounce of yeast dissolved in it), a little salt and butter. Mash the potatoes, add the other ingredients, roll out the paste an inch and a half or two inches thick, place it in a greased tin, and bake it.

Cakes, Pound. Prep. 1. As plum cake; but using 1 lb. each of all the ingredients except the spices.

2. Using equal parts of sugar, flour, currants, and sultana raisins, and half that quantity each of butter, brandy, and candied peel, with spices as required.

Cakes, Queen. Prep. From about 1 lb. each of dried flour, sifted sugar, washed currants, and butter, with 8 eggs; the whole beaten for an hour, made into a batter, and baked in little tins, teacups, or saucers, only half filled. A little fine sugar is frequently sifted over them. Nutmeg, mace, and cinnamon are also sometimes added.

Cakes, Rat′ifia. Prep. Beat ⁄2 lb. of sweet and 1 oz. of bitter almonds, in fine orange, rose, or ratifia water; mix in ⁄2 lb. of pounded sugar; add the whites of 4 eggs (well beaten); set it over a moderate fire in a preserving-pan; stir it one way until it is pretty hot, and when a little cool form it into small rolls, and cut it into thin cakes; shake some flour lightly on them, give each a light tap, put them on sugar papers, sift a little sugar on them, and put them into a very slack oven.

Cakes, Rout. Prep. From flour, 2 lbs.; butter, sugar, and currants, of each 1 lb.; 3 eggs; ⁄2 pint of milk; 2 glasses of white wine; and 1 glass of brandy; drop them on a tin plate, and bake them.

Cakes, Savoy. Prep. From flour and sifted sugar, of each 1 lb.; 10 eggs; and the rind of a lemon (grated); form a batter by degrees, put it into moulds, and bake in a slack oven.

Cake, Seed. Prep. 1. (Plain.) From flour, ⁄4 peck; sugar, ⁄2 lb.; allspice, ⁄4 oz.; melted butter, ⁄2 lb.; a little ginger; milk, ⁄2 pint; yeast, ⁄4 pint; add seeds or currants; and bake an hour and a half.

2. (Good.) To the preceding add of butter and sugar, of each ⁄2 lb., and wet it up with milk previously mixed with 6 eggs.

3. (Rich.) Take of flour, 1⁄2 lb.; butter and sugar, of each ⁄2 lb.; 8 eggs; 2 oz. of caraway seeds, 1 grated nutmeg, and its weight in cinnamon. Bake 2 hours in a quick oven.

4. (Scotch.) Nine eggs; sugar and butter, of each ⁄2 lb.; mix well together, then add a little cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves; ⁄4 oz. of caraway seeds; ⁄2 lb. of candied citron; ⁄4 lb. of candied orange peel; ⁄2 lb. of blanched almonds (pounded fine); flour, 3 lbs.; and brandy, ⁄4 pint.

Cakes, Shrews′bury. Prep. From flour, 3 lbs.; sugar, 1 lb.; a little cinnamon and nutmeg; 3 eggs; a little rose water; and melted butter enough to make it into a dough.

Cakes, So′da. Prep. 1. From flour, 1 lb.; bicarbonate of soda, ⁄4 oz.; sugar and butter, of each ⁄2 lb.; make a paste with milk, and add candied orange, lemon, or citron peel, or the fresh peels grated, q. s. to flavour.

2. To flour, 1 lb.; sugar and butter, of each 2 oz.; candied peel, ⁄2 oz.; sesquicarbonate of soda, 3 dr.; milk, q. s.

Obs. An equal weight of carbonate of magnesia, used instead of the soda, also makes good cakes. Both are suitable to delicate stomachs, especially in dyspepsia, with acidity.

Cakes, Sponge. Prep. From 8 eggs; lump sugar, ⁄4 lb.; flour, ⁄2 lb.; water, ⁄4 pint; the yellow peel of a lemon; mix as follows:—Put the lemon peel into the water; when about to make the cake, put the sugar into a saucepan, pour the water and peel on it, and let it stand by the fire to get hot. Break the eggs into a deep earthen vessel that has been made quite hot; remove from the heat, whisk for a few minutes; make the sugar and water boil up, and pour it very gradually boiling-hot over the eggs; continue to whisk them briskly until they become thick and white; add the flour (quite warm), stir it lightly in, put the paste into tins lined with white paper, and bake them immediately in a moderately hot oven.

Cakes, Tea. Syn. Benton Cakes. Prep. From flour, 1 lb.; butter, 4 oz.; and milk, q. s.; bake on a hot hearth or slow oven plate.

2. To the last add 2 table-spoonfuls of yeast.

Cakes, Tip′sy. Prep. Small sponge cakes steeped in brandy, and then covered with grated almonds and candied peel; or almonds (cut into spikes) are stuck in them. They are commonly piled on a dish, surrounded with a custard, and covered with preserves drained as dry as possible.

Cakes, Wigg. Prep. From ⁄2 pint of warm milk; ⁄4 lb. of fine flour; and 2 or 3 spoonfuls of light yeast. Afterwards work in 4 oz. each of sugar and butter; make it into cakes, or wiggs, with as little flour as possible, add a few caraway seeds, and bake them quickly.

Cakes. (In medicine.) Cakes have been used as a form of administering medicinal substances to children, but have not been extensively employed in this country for the purpose, unless by quacks and in domestic practice. In preparing them the active ingredients are added in such proportions to the common materials of a sweet cake that one or two, as the case may be, are sufficient for a dose. See Gingerbread, Worm-cakes, &c.

CALA′BAR BEAN. Syn. Physostigmatis Faba. The seed of Physostigma venenosum. The plant is a native of Western Africa, where the bean is used as an ordeal poison. The bean itself is about the size of a large horse-bean, with a very firm, hard, brittle, shining coat of a brownish-red, pale chocolate, or ash-grey colour. It has an irregular kidney shape, with flat surfaces and a rounded border, which is for the most part boldly curved, and there marked with a broad furrow, with the central raised raphe in the centre, and ending at one extremity in the microphyle. The kernel consists of two cotyledons. It yields its properties to alcohol, and imperfectly to water. Calabar bean has been used in cases of strychnia poisoning and tetanus, as well as in epilepsy and St. Vitus’s dance. The dose of the powdered bean, according to Royle, is one to four grains. Locally applied it produces contraction of the pupil.

Until the researches of Harnack and Witkowsky the Calabar bean was supposed to owe its activity, when internally administered, to the presence of a powerful alkaloid called esernia or physostigma. These chemists, however, have lately succeeded in discovering in the bean, in addition to eserina, another very potent alkaloid, to which they have given the name calabaria or calabarine.

Calabarine appears to exert a physiological action antagonistic to that of eserine, and since the commercial preparations of the drug consist, according to the above chemists, of mixtures of the two alkaloids in varying proportions, the discordant effects frequently observed to follow the administration of any of the various preparations of the bean, admit of ready explanation. Wherever eserine predominated it appeared to suppress the effects of calabarine; on the other hand, if this latter preponderated, the paralysing effect on the spinal cord otherwise exercised by eserine would fail to be produced.

The necessity of having preparations of calabar free from calabarine, in cases where the drug is administered for tetanus, will be apparent when it is stated that calabarine itself induces the disease.

We quote the following from ‘New Remedies’ for June, 1877:—

“The well-known manufacturing chemist, E. Merk, in Darmstadt, has heretofore prepared and sold a substance which was supposed to be the only active principle of calabar, and which he called calabarine, but which was really eserine or physostigmine. He now accepts and confirms the results of Harnack’s and Witkowsky’s researches, and has put both of the active principles upon the market labelled with their correct name, viz. ‘Physostigmin’ (or eserine, being the same substance which he formerly sold as calabarine), and ‘Calabarin,’ distinguished by the addition of Harnack’s name (Harnack’s ‘Calabarine’). The attention of physicians and pharmacists is particularly directed to the change of appellations.”

Calabar bean is a powerful poison. The antidotes are:—Diffusible stimulants; the hypodermic injection of the ⁄50th of a grain of sulphate of atropia, to be repeated if necessary at the end of two hours; and artificial respiration. See Eserine.

CAL′AMINE. See Zinc (Carbonate of).

CALCINA′TION. The operation of burning or roasting any solid body to expel its more volatile parts, as the conversion of chalk into lime by the expulsion of carbonic anhydride. The roasting of the ores in the first stage of the Welsh process of copper smelting and in the Silesian mode of extracting zinc is technically termed CALCINATION.

The method of conducting the process of calcination depends on the nature of the body operated on. Many substances, for delicate experiments, are calcined over a spirit lamp in a platinum spoon or crucible; others, in iron vessels or earthen crucibles, placed in a common furnace. When the action of the air proves injurious, as in the manufacture of charcoal, the process is performed in close vessels or chambers. In some cases the fuel is mixed with the articles, and they are both burnt together, as in the manufacture of lime, the roasting of ores, &c. The process of drying salts, or driving off their water of crystallisation by heat, is also frequently called CALCINATION; thus we have calcined copperas, alum, &c.

CAL′′CINER. A reverberatory furnace used for the calcination of metallic ores, particularly those of COPPER and ZINC (which see).

CAL′CIUM. [Eng., L.] Ca. The metal of which LIME is an oxide. Though it is a chemical curiosity when isolated, it is one of the most abundant substances in nature, forming a very large portion of the crust of the earth. It occurs in combination with fluorine as fluor-spar; with oxygen and carbonic acid as chalk, limestone, and marble; and with oxygen and sulphuric acid as gypsum. The metal was first obtained from lime by Sir H. Davy in 1808; but little was known of its properties until Dr Matthiessen formed it by the electrolytic decomposition of the chloride of calcium.

Prep. 1. By the action of a powerful voltaic current upon a paste of pure lime in contact with mercury, as in the original method of preparing barium.

2. By the electrolysis of chloride of calcium in a state of fusion.

3. (Caron.) Fused chloride of calcium in powder, 300 parts; distilled zinc, finely granulated, 400 parts; sodium, in small pieces, 100 parts; the whole placed in a crucible and heated to redness in an ordinary furnace. The action is very feeble at first, but after some time zinc flames arise. The heat must now be moderated to prevent the volatilisation of the zinc, but at the same time it must be maintained as high as possible. When the crucible has remained in this state for about a quarter of an hour it may be withdrawn. On cooling, a metallic button will be found at the bottom. This alloy of zinc and calcium, which generally contains from 10 to 15% of the latter metal, must be placed in a coke crucible and heated until the whole of the zinc is driven off. The alloy should be in pieces as large as possible. When proper precautions have been observed a button of CALCIUM is obtained, only contaminated with the foreign metals contained in the zinc.

Prop., &c. The metal belongs to the group which includes BARIUM, STRONTIUM, and MAGNESIUM; it is of a light yellow colour; is rather harder than lead, and very malleable. It melts at a red heat. It tarnishes in a day or two, even in dry air, and in contact with moist air it breaks up like ordinary lime. Its sp. gr. is 1·55.

Tests. Salts of calcium in solution produce a white precipitate with carbonate of ammonium; it becomes far less voluminous on heating the solution, and dissolves very readily in hydrochloric acid. Sulphuric acid, when added to concentrated solutions, gives an immediate white precipitate; if the solution is not concentrated, the precipitate may separate gradually, in minute crystals; and if it is very dilute, no precipitation will take place, because sulphate of lime is soluble in about 500 times its weight of water. With neutral solutions, even when very dilute, oxalate of ammonium gives a copious white precipitate, soluble in most dilute acids.

Calcium, Acetate of. Add prepared chalk to acetic (or purified pyroligneous) acid till fully saturated; filter and evaporate, that crystals may form. Diuretic. Dose, 10 to 20 grains.

Calcium, Acid Phosphate of. Syn. Superphosphate of lime, Soluble Acid Phosphate. CaH4,2PO4. This may be procured by treating bone-earth with two thirds of its weight of oil of vitriol, as in the preliminary stage of the extraction of phosphorus. It is extensively used as a manure for turnips.

Calcium, Bibasic Phosphate. Ca2H2P2O8 + 3H2O. Dissolve 608 grams of crystallised calcium chloride in 1000 grams of distilled water, and add gradually to this solution 1000 grams of sodium phosphate, dissolved in 10,000 grams of water. Allow the precipitate to deposit, and wash it five or six times with 10 litres of water each time; drain the precipitate on a moistened cloth. As soon as its consistence permits, detach from it irregular pieces, and place them to dry in the open air upon filtering paper; the spontaneous desiccation is sufficiently rapid.

From ‘Formulæ for New Medicaments adopted by the Paris Pharmaceutical Society.’

Calcium, Bro′mide of. CaBr2. Syn. Cal′cii bromi′dum, L. Prep. (Magendie.) To a solution of bromide of iron add hydrate of calcium in slight excess; filter, evaporate to dryness, redissolve in water, and again filter, and evaporate.

Calcium, Carbonate of. See Chalk.

Calcium, Chlo′′ride of. CaCl2. Syn. Cal′cii chlori′dum (B. P.). Prep. Hydrochloric acid and water, of each 10 fl. oz.; chalk, 5 oz.; evaporate the solution until the salt becomes solid, and dry the residue at about 400° F.

It is obtained in solution as a residuum in making several preparations of ammonia, as the liquor and carbonate, and in making carbonic acid by the action of hydrochloric acid on marble. The residuum is concentrated and set aside to crystallise, or evaporated to dryness.

Prop., Uses, &c. This salt crystallises in colourless, striated, hexagonal prisms, terminated by very acute points. It is very soluble in alcohol and water, the latter even at 32° dissolving more than its own weight, and at 60° three or four times its weight of this salt. When heated, the crystals undergo watery fusion. When dissolved in water, they produce great cold; and hence are frequently employed as an ingredient in FREEZING MIXTURES. These crystals contain nearly half their weight of water. They are very deliquescent, passing readily into the liquid state, and forming what used to be called oleum calcis, or oil of lime. The anhydrous chloride is hard and friable; slightly translucent; totally and readily soluble in water, and, like the crystallised salt, very deliquescent. In the laboratory chloride of calcium, either fused or merely dried, is continually used for drying gases and for absorbing the water from ethereal and oily liquids in organic analysis. The unfused is now generally preferred for this purpose, as it is more porous than the fused. The salt is also used in the rectification of alcohol, and to form a bath for heating stoneware stills and other apparatus liable to be cracked on the sand bath. As a chemical reagent it is employed chiefly in detecting certain organic acids. As a medicine it has been given in some scrofulous and glandular diseases. Dose, 10 to 20 gr. See Solutions.

Calcium, Flu′oride of. CaF2. Syn. Hydroflu′orate of lime. This occurs native as the mineral called fluor-spar. It is found in beautiful crystals in the lead mines of Alston Moor and Derbyshire, and in the concretionary crystalline masses known as Blue John or Derbyshire spar at Castleton. It may be prepared by the action of hydrofluoric acid upon lime, as directed under Barium, Fluoride of.

Calcium Hypophosphite. CaP2H4O4. Mix milk of lime (1 in 5) in porcelain capsule placed in a sand bath, with half its weight of phosphorus in small pieces, and heat it to ebullition, operating in the open air or under a chimney with a good draught. Spontaneously inflammable phosphuretted hydrogen is given off, the vapour of which should be avoided. Add from time to time a little warm water, to replace that which has evaporated. Discontinue the heat when the phosphorus has disappeared—that is, when inflammable bubbles cease to be produced. If the phosphorus remain in excess, add more milk of lime, and continue the heat until the complete disappearance of the metalloid. Allow the liquor to cool and then filter; then saturate it with a current of carbonic acid gas to eliminate any excess of lime remaining uncombined. Filter again, and concentrate the liquor in a water bath to dryness, keeping the temperature below 100° C., to avoid detonations. Preserve the salt from the air in well-closed bottles.

From ‘Formulæ for New Medicaments adopted by the Paris Pharmaceutical Society.’

Calcium, I′odide of. CaI2. Syn. Hydri′odate of lime; Cal′cii iodi′dum, Calcis hydrio′das, L. Prep. 1. (Magendie.) From a solution of protiodide of iron and hydrate of calcium, as directed under iodide of barium.

2. Dissolve lime or carbonate of lime in hydriodic acid.

Prop., Uses, &c. It is a deliquescent salt, easily soluble in water, and has a bitterish taste. It has been used in scrofulous affections, internally, in doses ranging from ⁄8 to 2 gr., thrice daily, and externally in ointments containing 2 dr. or less to the oz.

Calcium, Lactophosphate. This product ought not to be employed except in the state of solution in water or in syrup. In the pasty or solid state its solubility varies, and it is always an indefinite compound.

Solution. Bibasic phosphate of lime, 17 grams; concentrated lactic acid, as little as possible; distilled water, 964 grams. Suspend the phosphate carefully in the distilled water, add the lactic acid, allow solution to go on for some minutes, and filter.

From ‘Formulæ for New Medicaments adopted by the Paris Pharmaceutical Society.’

Calcium, Oxide of. See Lime.

Calcium, Phosphate of. Syn. Calcis phosphas (Ph. B.). Digest bone-ash, 4 oz., in hydrochloric acid, 6 fl. oz., diluted with a pint of water, until it is dissolved.

Filter the solution, if necessary; add water, 1 pint, and afterwards solution of ammonia (Ph. B.), 12 fl. oz., or a sufficient quantity, until the mixture acquires an alkaline reaction, and having collected the precipitate on a calico filter, wash it with boiling distilled water as long as the liquid which passes through occasions a precipitate when dropped into solution of nitrate of silver acidulated with nitric acid. Dry the washed product at a temperature not exceeding 212° F.

Calcium, Phos′phide of. Syn. Phosphu′ret of lime; Cal′cii phosphure′tum, C. phosphi′dum, L. Prep. By passing the vapour of phosphorus over lime (in small fragments) heated to redness in a porcelain tube. A brownish substance, supposed to be a mere mechanical mixture of phosphide and phosphate of calcium. Thrown into water, it suffers instant decomposition, and phosphuretted hydrogen gas escapes.

Calcium, Sulphides of. Calcium forms with sulphur at least three different compounds:—

1. Calcium, Protosul′phide of. CaS. Prep.—a. From sulphate of lime, exposed at a high temperature to a stream of hydrogen gas.—b. From dried gypsum, 25 parts; lampblack or finely powdered charcoal, 4 parts; calcined together at a strong heat in a covered crucible.

2. Calcium, Bisulphide of. CaS2. Prep. From sulphur and quick-lime, equal parts; water, q. s.; slake the lime, add the sulphur, and boil until a solution is obtained, which on cooling deposits crystals.

3. Calcium, Pentasulphide of. CaS5. Prep. As the last, but increasing the quantity of sulphur, and continuing the boiling for a longer period. Little is known about it.

4. Calcium, Sulphate of. See Gypsum.

5. Calcium, Commercial Sulphuret of. Syn. Commercial sulphide of calcium. Prep.—a. As 1, b (above).

b. Sulphur, 1 part; hydrate of lime, 3 parts; water, 2⁄2 pints; boil it until it solidifies on cooling, then pour it out on a cold marble slab, and when solid break it into pieces and preserve it in a well-corked bottle.

c. (Guibourt.) Quick-lime, 7 parts; sulphur, 4 parts; mix, and heat the compound for about 2 hours in a covered crucible.

d. (Cottereau.) Quick-lime, 2 parts; sulphur, 1 part; water, 5 parts; as 4, b (above).

Obs. The precise composition of the last three preparations is uncertain. They are acrid, caustic, stimulant, and diaphoretic. Dose, 1 to 3 gr. Sulphide of calcium has been used as a depilatory by applying it made into a paste with water, and washing it off in about ⁄4 of an hour. Made into an embrocation, it has been strongly recommended in gout, scabies, &c. Its solution yields pure sulphur on the addition of hydrochloric acid.

CALCULA′TIONS (Useful). 1. To find the Value of a Dozen Articles. Take the price in pence as shillings, and if there are any farthings in the price, add threepence for each. Thus 2s. 8d., or 32 pence per yard, is £1 12s. per dozen.

2. To find the Value of One Hundred Articles. For every farthing take as many pence and twice as many shillings. Thus, 1⁄4d. each is—5d., and 10s. = 10s. 5d. per hundred.

3. To find the Value of a Pound at any price per Ounce. Take the price in farthings as shillings, and divide by three. Thus, 5⁄4d. per ounce is 21 farthings; taken as shillings, 21 ÷ 3 = 7s. per pound.

4. To find the Value of an Ounce at any price per Pound. Take the shillings as farthings, and multiply by three. Thus, at 6s.—6 × 3 = 18 farthings, or 4⁄2d. per ounce.

Obs. By reversing Nos. 1 and 2, the price of a single article or pound may be found from the price per dozen or hundred. For several other calculations, useful in domestic economy, chemistry, &c., see Brewing, Decimals, Equivalents, Measures, Per-centage, Weights.

CAL′CULUS. Syn. Stone. In medicine, a hard concretion formed within the animal body by the deposition of matters which usually remain in solution. The concretions most commonly found are those formed in the kidneys or bladder, and termed urinary calculi, and those formed in the gall-bladder or biliary ducts, which are called biliary calculi. Urinary calculi are in most cases composed of substances which are constituents of healthy urine, such as uric acid, urate of ammonia, and the phosphates of lime and magnesia; they are, however, sometimes composed of substances which are met with in unhealthy urine, such as oxalate of lime, cystine, &c.

Biliary calculi, or gall-stones, usually contain from 50 to 80 per cent. of cholesterin, a crystallisable fatty body, constituting a never failing ingredient in healthy bile, the rest of the concretion being made up of biliary resin and colouring matter, with a small quantity of inorganic salts.

Calculus or stone in the bladder, which is a prevalent disease in Norfolk, both among men and sheep, has been attributed to the use of the hard water of the district.

Both of these give rise to very painful symptoms, and may even threaten life. See Cholesterin.

CALEFACIENTS. Applications that excite warmth.

CAL′ENDAR. Syn. Calenda′rium, L.; Calen′drier, Fr. A table of all the days of the year, arranged in the order of days and weeks, to which are generally added certain astronomical indications and dates of great civil and religious events. The most remarkable calendars are the Hebrew calendar, the calendar of the Greeks, the Roman, or Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar (now adopted by all Christian peoples except the Greeks and Russians), and the French Republican calendar, which, having remained in force about thirteen years, was abolished by Napoleon I on the 1st of January, 1806.

Calendar, Perpet′ual. A table which furnishes the general indications necessary to construct a calendar for any year, and to resolve, without error, many difficulties connected with the verification of dates.

CAL′ENDERING. The process of finishing by pressure the surface of linen or cotton goods. It is usually performed by passing the fabric between cylinders pressed together with great force. It is necessary that one of the cylinders, at least, shall be of a material combining considerable hardness with a slight degree of elasticity; for this purpose the paper cylinder is used. It is made by forcibly compressing a number of circular discs of thick pasteboard, each with a square hole in the centre, upon an iron axis, so as to form a solid cylinder, which is turned perfectly smooth and true in a lathe. The paper cylinder usually works against a hollow roller of copper or iron, heated by steam or metallic heaters. Before the final rolling in the calendering machine the fabric is lightly smoothed by passing over warm cylinders. Cotton goods are starched, and a fictitious appearance of stoutness is sometimes given to them by employing starch thickened with plaster of Paris, porcelain clay, or a mixture of these. Watering is a beautiful effect, produced by means of a hot cylinder with a pattern raised upon it. Glazing is produced by combined rubbing and pressure, the rollers being made to move with unequal velocities, so that one side of the fabric is rubbed as well as pressed by the roller whose surface moves with the greater speed. A copper cylinder is preferred for glazing, and is made so hot that if the machine stops it burns the goods. The old method of glazing consisted in burnishing the surface of the fabric with a polished flint.

CAL′ICO. See Cotton.

Cal′ico Printing. The art of producing figured patterns upon calico by means of dyes and mordants topically applied by wooden blocks, copper plates, or engraved cylinders. The goods are either directly printed in colour, or receive their patterns by being run through a colouring matter or mordant, when the dye is only produced upon that portion of the ground previously prepared for it. Of late this system of dyeing has been extended to silk and woollens.

The mordants are thickened with some glutinous substance, as flour, starch, or gum, to render them adhesive and to prevent their spreading.

The following are the principal styles of calico-printing, each requiring a different method of manipulation:—

In the madder, fast colour, or chintz style, the mordants are applied to the white cloth, and the colours are brought out in the dye bath. This is the method commonly followed for “permanent prints.”

In the padding or plaquage style, the whole cloth is passed through a bath of some particular mordant, and different mordants are afterwards printed on it before submitting it to the dye bath. By this means the colour of the ground and pattern is varied. Like the last, it is much used for gown pieces, &c.

In the reserve or resist-paste style, white or coloured figures are produced by covering those parts with a composition which resists the general dye afterwards applied to form the ground of the pattern. In this style the dye bath is indigo, or some other substantive colour.

The discharge, or rongeant style, is the reverse of the preceding; it exhibits bright figures on a dark ground, which are produced by printing with acidulous or discharge mordants after the cloth has been passed through the colouring bath.