Volume IV (part 3)

Dumfries (dum-frēs´), a river port, railway centre, and until 1918 a parliamentary burgh, Scotland, capital of the county of same name, and the chief place in the south of Scotland; situated on the left bank of the Nith, about 6 miles from its junction with the Solway Firth. It is connected with the suburb Maxwelltown (in Kirkcudbright) by three bridges, one dating from the thirteenth century. It is a pleasing, well-built town, with various handsome public edifices. There are iron-foundries, hosiery and tweed factories, tanneries, and coach-building works. The River Nith is navigable to the town for vessels of under 60 tons, but the port has decreased in importance since the development of the railway system. Dumfries is a place of great antiquity. The church of the Minorites which once stood here was the scene of the murder of the Red Comyn by Bruce in 1306. Burns spent his closing years here, and the street in which he lived now bears his name. His remains rest under a handsome mausoleum, and a statue of him was erected in 1882. Dumfries was the head-quarters of the Young Pretender in 1745. Until 1918 Dumfries united with Annan, Sanquhar, Lochmaben, and Kirkcudbright (the Dumfries burghs) in sending a member to Parliament. Pop. 19,076.—Dumfriesshire, the county of Dumfries, abuts on the Solway Firth, having on its borders the counties of Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk, Roxburgh, Ayr, and Kirkcudbright; area about 1100 sq. miles or 702,946 acres, of which about a third is under cultivation. The surface is irregular, but for the most part mountainous, especially in the north and north-west districts, where the hills attain a considerable elevation, some of them exceeding 2000 feet. The dales of the Nith, Annan, and Esk, the chief rivers of the county, contain fine pasture holms and good arable land. Oats, potatoes, and turnips are the most common products. Good cattle are reared, and are much in request for the English market. The sheep on the hill pastures are mostly Cheviots; on the lower and arable lands the Leicester breed prevails. The minerals most abundant are coal, lead, iron, antimony, and gypsum. Coal and lead are worked to a small extent. Limestone and freestone abound in various parts. There are no manufactures worth mentioning. The county returns one member to the House of Commons. Its principal towns are Dumfries, Annan, Sanquhar, Lockerbie, Moffat, Langholm, and Lochmaben. Pop. 72,825.

Dumont (du˙-mōn), Pierre Étienne Louis, the friend and literary assistant of Mirabeau and Jeremy Bentham, was born at Geneva in 1759, died at Milan 1829. Ordained a minister of the Protestant Church in 1781, he attached himself to the democratic party in Geneva, and when the opposite party gained the ascendency he went to St. Petersburg, in 1782, where he was appointed pastor of the French Reformed Church. Soon after he accepted an offer to act as tutor to the sons of Lord Shelburne, afterwards Marquess of Lansdowne, which brought him to London, where he became intimate with Jeremy Bentham and Sir Samuel Romilly. Visiting Paris during the first years of the Revolution, he gained the friendship of Mirabeau, whom he assisted in the composition of speeches and reports, and of whom he wrote some interesting Recollections. On his return to London he formed that connection with Bentham which fixed his career as a writer; recasting, popularizing, and editing Bentham's works in a form suitable for the reading public. He returned to Geneva in 1814 and became a Senator.

Dumont d'Urville (du˙-mōn du˙r-vēl), Jules Sebastien César, French navigator, was born in 1790, killed in a railway accident between Paris and Versailles 1842. After completing his studies at Caen, he entered the French navy, in which he ultimately rose to be rear-admiral. From 1826 to 1829 he commanded the corvette Astrolabe, which was sent to obtain tidings of La Pérouse, and to make hydrographic observations. He made surveys of the coasts of Australia and New Zealand, and found remains of the shipwreck of La Pérouse on one of the Pacific islands. The result of this voyage was the publication of Voyage de Découverte autour du Monde. In 1837 he sailed with the Astrolabe and Zélée on a voyage of Antarctic discovery, and after many dangers, and having visited many parts of Oceania, he returned in 1840. On his return he began the publication of Voyage au Pôle sud et dans l'Océanie, which was finished by one of his companions.

Dumouriez (du˙-mö-ri-ā), Charles François Duperrier, a French general of great military talent, was born at Cambrai in 1739 of a noble family of Provence, died near Henley-on-Thames 1823. He served as an officer in the Seven Years' War. In 1768 he went to Corsica as quartermaster-general of the small army which was sent for the conquest of that island, and was afterwards made colonel. In 1778 he was appointed Governor of Cherbourg. At the Revolution he joined the Jacobins, and subsequently the Girondists, and in 1792 he was Minister of Foreign Affairs. War breaking out between France and Austria, he resigned in order to take command of the army; invaded Flanders, and defeated the Austrians at Jemappes and conquered Belgium. Instead of prosecuting the war vigorously, he now entered upon measures for the overthrow of the Revolutionary Government, issued a proclamation, in which he promised the restoration of the constitutional monarchy in the person of the heir to the crown, but was attacked by the Versailles volunteers, and compelled to flee (4th April, 1793). The Convention set a price of 300,000 livres upon his head. At first he retired to Brussels, and after various wanderings found a final refuge in England. His Memoirs, written by himself, appeared in 1794; an enlarged edition in 1822. He was also the author of a large number of political pamphlets.—Bibliography: J. Holland Rose and A. M. Broadley, Dumouriez and the Defence of England against Napoleon; H. Welschinger, Le Roman de Dumouriez.

Düna (dü'na˙), or Western Dvina, a river of Russia, which rises in the government of Tver, about 15 miles W. of the source of the Volga, falls into the Gulf of Riga, has a course of about 650 miles, and waters the seven governments of Tver, Pskov, Vitebsk, Mogilev, &c., draining an area of about 65,000 sq. miles. It is navigable for a considerable distance, but is frozen for about four months each year.

Dünaburg (dü´na-bu¨rg), Dvinaburg, or Dvinsk, a fortified town in Latvia, formerly belonging to Russia, in the government of Vitebsk on the right bank of the Düna, or Dvina, 112 miles south-east of Riga. It carries on various industries, a considerable trade, and has three yearly fairs. The official name is Dvinsk, or Daugavpils. It was captured by the Germans in Feb., 1918. Pop. 110,912.

Dünamünde (dü´na-mu˙n-de; 'Dünamouth'), a fortress and port on the Gulf of Riga, at the mouth of the Düna, having a large winter harbour for the shipping of Riga. Pop. 2500.

Dunbar´, William, the most eminent of all the old Scottish poets, was born, probably in East Lothian, about 1460-5. In 1475 he went to St. Andrews, where, in 1477, he took the degree of B.A., and two years later that of M.A. After this he seems to have become a begging friar of the Franciscan order, and made journeys in England and France, but he returned to Scotland about 1490, and attached himself to the court of James IV, from whom he received a pension of £10. On the marriage of James IV to Margaret of England Dunbar celebrated the event in a poem of great beauty, entitled The Thrissil and the Rois. His pension was ultimately raised to £80 a year, and he was the recipient of various additional gratuities, though he appears frequently to have addressed both the king and the queen for a benefice, but always without success. After the defeat at Flodden his name disappears from the royal accounts, and he probably died about 1520. His works, which consist of elaborate allegories, satirical and grimly humorous pieces, and poems full of brilliant description and luxuriant imagination, first collected by David Laing (Edinburgh, 1834), were edited by John Small and Æ. J. G. Mackay, for the Scottish Text Society, between 1884 and 1893.—Cf. The Cambridge History of English Literature (vol. ii).

Dunbar´ (Gael., Castle Point), a town of Scotland; a royal and municipal (formerly parliamentary) burgh and seaport in Haddingtonshire, at the mouth of the Firth of Forth. It is a place of great antiquity, having originated in a castle, once of great strength and importance, which underwent several memorable sieges, on one occasion being successfully defended (in 1338) against the English for nineteen weeks by Black Agnes of Dunbar, Countess of March. In 1650, at the 'Race of Dunbar', Cromwell totally defeated the Scottish army under David Leslie near the town. The harbour is not very commodious, but the town is an important fishing-station. Pop. 4830.

Dunblane´, an old episcopal city, Scotland, in Perthshire, 6 miles north-east of Stirling, on the Allan. The ancient cathedral, partly in ruins, dates from the twelfth century. The nave is 130 feet by 58 feet, and the choir, now the parish church, is 80 feet by 30 feet. The building was restored in 1893. Bishop Leighton held the see from 1662 to 1670. About two miles from the town the indecisive battle of Sheriffmuir was fought in 1715, between the Royal forces under the Duke of Argyle, and the Jacobites under the Earl of Mar. Pop. 4600.

Dun´can, Adam, Viscount, a British naval officer, was born in Dundee in 1731, died 1804. He went to sea when young, and was a post-captain in 1761. In the following year he served at the taking of Havana; and in 1779 he shared in the victory of Admiral Rodney over the Spaniards. In 1789 he became rear-admiral of the blue, and in 1794 vice-admiral of the white squadron. The following year he was appointed commander of the North Sea fleet, and in Oct., 1797, won a brilliant victory over the Dutch fleet off Camperdown, for which he was rewarded with the title of Viscount Duncan of Camperdown and a pension of £2000 a year.

Duncan, Thomas, an eminent Scottish painter, was born in 1807, died at Edinburgh 1845. He studied under Sir W. Allan, and was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1843. His principal works were illustrative of Scottish history and character. Among the best known of them are: The Abdication of Mary Queen of Scots, Anne Page and Slender, Prince Charles Edward and the Highlanders entering Edinburgh after Prestonpans, Charles Edward asleep in a Cave after Culloden, and The Martyrdom of John Brown of Priesthill.

Dun´cansby Head, a promontory in Caithness-shire, Scotland, forming the N.E. extremity of the Scottish mainland, 1¾ miles E. of John o' Groat's House, and 18½ miles N. by E. of Wick. Close by the promontory are two rocks, of fantastic form and great height, called the Stacks of Duncansby, which in spring and summer are covered with sea-fowl.

Dundalk (dun-da¨k´), a seaport and former parliamentary borough, Ireland, capital of the county of Louth, on Castletown River, about 2 miles above its mouth in Dundalk Bay. It has railway workshops, tanyards, and a spinning-mill; the trade, chiefly in cattle and agricultural produce, is extensive. It was the seat of the court of Edward Bruce from 1315 to 1318. In 1649 it was captured by Cromwell. Pop. 13,128.

Dundas´ of Arniston, the name of a family several members of which held a conspicuous place in the legal and political history of Scotland.—Sir James Dundas, the first of Arniston, knighted by James VI, was the third son of George Dundas of Dundas, a descendant of the Dunbars, Earls of March.—His eldest son, Sir James, was member of Parliament for Mid-Lothian, and was appointed one of the judges of the Court of Session (1662).—His eldest son Robert was also raised to the bench of the Court of Session, and filled that station for thirty-seven years. He died in 1727.—His eldest son Robert (1685-1753) was successively Solicitor-General for Scotland, Lord-Advocate, member of Parliament for the county of Edinburgh, and Dean of the Faculty of Advocates. In 1737 he was raised to the bench, and on the death of Lord-President Forbes of Culloden, in 1748, he was appointed his successor.—His eldest son Robert (1713-87) also attained to the position of Lord-Advocate, and Lord-President of the Court of Session.—His brother Henry Dundas, Viscount Melville, distinguished statesman, was born in 1741 and died 1811. He obtained the post of Solicitor-General in 1773, that of Lord-Advocate in 1775, and was made joint keeper of the signet for Scotland in 1777. In 1782 he was appointed Treasurer of the Navy and member of the Privy Council; and from that time took a leading part in all the Pitt measures, and had supreme influence in Scotland. Among other offices he held that of First Lord of the Admiralty; and in 1805 he was impeached before the House of Lords of high crimes and misdemeanours in his former office of Treasurer of the Navy, but was finally acquitted. He was created Viscount Melville in 1801, a title still borne by his direct descendant.

Dundee´, John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount. See Graham.

Dundee (Gael. Dun Taw, fort on the Tay), a city, royal and parliamentary burgh, and seaport, Scotland, in the county of Forfar, on the north shore of the Firth of Tay, about 8 miles from the open sea, 37 miles N.N.E. of Edinburgh; in population the third town in Scotland. It stretches along the Tay, or east to west, and of late years has been greatly extended in both directions. The more recently made streets are spacious and handsome, but most of those of more ancient date are narrow, and irregularly built. The most conspicuous building is St. Mary's Tower, or the Old Steeple as it is popularly called, 156 feet high, erected in the middle of the fourteenth century. Three modern parochial churches have been built on to it in form of a cathedral, the nave, choir, and transept respectively forming a separate church. Among public buildings are: the town hall, several public halls, the high school, exchange, infirmary, lunatic asylum, Albert Institute and free library. University College, for men and women, was opened in 1883, and affiliated to the University of St. Andrews in 1897. It was founded by private munificence, receiving an endowment of £140,000, and has ten professorships. Dundee has several public parks and recreation grounds and a good supply of water. The town has long been celebrated for its textile manufactures, particularly those of the coarser descriptions of linen, and it is now the chief seat of the linen trade in Scotland and of the jute trade in Great Britain, there being a great number of mills and factories engaged in the spinning and weaving of flax, jute, and hemp. Shipbuilding is extensively carried on, and there are large engineering establishments. Another branch of business is the northern seal and whale fishery. Dundee is also famous for its marmalade and other preserves and confectionery. The shipping accommodation includes five large wet-docks, with a connected tidal harbour and graving-docks. The chief foreign trade is with the Baltic and Archangel in the importation of flax and hemp, with Norway, Sweden, and Canada in timber, and with Calcutta in jute. The railway facilities of Dundee were greatly increased in 1878 by the opening of a bridge across the Tay; but on the 28th of Dec., 1879, the bridge was destroyed by a violent storm, when about 100 people in a train in the act of crossing lost their lives. A new bridge, to replace the one destroyed, was opened for traffic in June, 1887; it is a very substantial structure about 2 miles in length. Dundee was made a royal burgh by William the Lion about 1200, was twice in the possession of the English under Edward I, and was as often retaken by Wallace and Bruce. In 1645 it was besieged, taken, and sacked by the Duke of Montrose; and six years afterwards it was stormed by Monk, when a great number of its inhabitants were put to death. Since 1868 the town has returned two members to Parliament. In 1888 it was raised by royal grant to the rank of a city. In 1914 the burgh of Broughty Ferry was annexed to Dundee, increasing its area to 5964 acres. Pop. 176,062; population in 1921, 168,217.

Dundon´ald, Thomas Cochrane, tenth Earl of, British admiral, was born in Lanarkshire 1775, died 1860. At the age of eighteen he embarked with his uncle, then Captain, and afterwards Sir Alexander Cochrane, in the Hind, of twenty-eight guns, and soon distinguished himself by his daring and gallantry. In 1800 he was appointed to the Speedy sloop-of-war of fourteen guns, and in the course of thirteen months captured over fifty vessels, but was at last captured himself. In 1805, while in command of the Pallas frigate, he took some rich prizes, and for the next four years in the Impérieuse performed remarkable exploits in cutting out vessels, storming batteries, and destroying signals. On his return to England he entered Parliament, and by his attacks on the abuses of the naval administration made himself obnoxious to the authorities. He gave further offence by charging Lord Gambier, his superior officer, with neglect of duty (which was true); by denouncing the abuses of the prize-court, and the treatment of the prisoners of war. His enemies succeeded in 1814 in convicting him on a charge—since proved to be false—of originating a rumour, for speculative purposes, that Napoleon had abdicated. He was expelled from Parliament, ignominiously ejected from the Order of the Bath, imprisoned for a year, and fined £1000. The electors of Westminster immediately paid his fine and re-elected him, but he had to remain in prison till the expiration of his sentence. In 1818 he took service in the Chilian navy, his exploits greatly aiding the national independence of that country, as well as soon after of Brazil. In 1832 he was restored to his rank in the British navy. In 1831, by the death of his father, he had succeeded to the title of Earl of Dundonald; in 1841 he became vice-admiral of the blue; in 1848 he was appointed commander-in-chief on the North America and West India station; and in 1851 and 1854 respectively he became vice-admiral of the white, and rear-admiral of the United Kingdom. He was reinstated in the Order of the Bath (G.C.B.) on 25th May, 1847. He did much to promote the adoption of steam and the screw propeller in war-ships. He wrote an autobiography, which, though left incomplete, is a most interesting work.—Cf. J. B. Atlay, The Trial of Lord Cochrane before Lord Ellenborough.

Dunedin (dun-ē´din), capital of the provincial district of Otago, New Zealand, and the most important commercial town in the colony, stands at the upper extremity of an arm of the sea, about 9 miles from its port, Port Chalmers, with which it is connected by railway. Though founded in 1848, its more rapid progress dates only from 1861, when extensive gold-fields discovered in Otago attracted a large influx of population. There are many handsome buildings, both public and private: the municipal buildings, the post office, hospital, lunatic asylum, Government offices, the university, high schools (boys' and girls'), the new museum, several banks (especially the Bank of New Zealand), the athenæum and mechanics' institute, the freemasons' hall, and two theatres. Wool is the staple export. Several woollen and other manufactories are now in existence. There is a regular line of steamers between this port and Melbourne, and communication is frequent with all parts of New Zealand. Through the opening of the new Victoria Channel from Port Chalmers vessels drawing 16 feet can now ascend to Dunedin at low water. Pop. 68,716.

Dunes, low hills of sand accumulated on the sea-coasts of Holland, Britain, Spain, and other countries, in some places encroaching on and covering what once was cultivated land, but in others serving as a natural barrier to protect the country from the destructive encroachments of the sea.

Dunferm´line, a royal and police burgh of Scotland, county of Fife, 3 miles N. of the Firth of Forth, and 13 miles north-west of Edinburgh. The streets though narrow are well built. Dunfermline was early a favourite residence of the kings of Scotland, and at it were born David II, James I, Charles I, and his sister Elizabeth. The Benedictine abbey founded by Malcolm Canmore (1070) is now represented chiefly by the Abbey Church, in which are the remains of Queen Margaret and Canmore, Alexander I and his Queen, David I, Malcolm IV, and Robert Bruce. Dunfermline was made a royal burgh in 1588. The town has greatly benefited through the munificence of the late Andrew Carnegie, a native, who, besides other benefactions, settled on it the sum of £500,000. In the manufacture of table-linen it is unrivalled by any town in the kingdom. There are collieries adjacent. The Dunfermline burghs return one member to Parliament. Pop. 28,103.

Dungan´non, a town of Ireland, County Tyrone, 35 miles west by south of Belfast. It has manufactures of linen and earthenware. Till 1885 it returned a member to the House of Commons. Pop. 3830.

Dungarpur (dön-gar-pör´), an Indian native state in Rájputána; area, 1000 sq. miles; pop. 153,381.—Dungarpur is also the name of the chief town and residence of the Maharawal of the state.

Dungar´van, a seaport of Ireland, County Waterford, on the Bay of Dungarvan, much resorted to for sea-bathing. The harbour is shallow, and the trade depends almost entirely on agricultural produce. Till 1885 it returned a member to Parliament. Pop. 4977.

Dung Beetle, a name applied to a large number of lamellicorn beetles (in which the antennæ terminate usually in lateral leaflets) from their habit of burying their eggs in dung. The Geotrūpes stercorarius, 'dor' or 'shard-borne' beetle, and the Scarabæus sacer, or sacred beetle of the Egyptians, are examples.

Dungeness (dunj-nes´), a low headland on the S. coast of Kent, 102 miles S.E. of Rye; has a lighthouse with fixed light.

Dunkeld´, a small town of Scotland, on the Tay, about 14 miles north by west of Perth; pop. 613. It is a very ancient place, and from 850, when Kenneth I removed the remains of St. Columba from Iona to a church which he had built here, became the metropolitan see of Scotland, till supplanted by St. Andrews. The choir of the ancient cathedral is still used as the parish church. Near it is Dunkeld House, the seat of the Duke of Atholl, the grounds of which are the finest and most extensive in Scotland.

Dunkers, or Tunkers, also called Dippers, a religious sect in America, founded by Conrad Peysel, a German, in 1724, and which takes its name from the Ger. tunken, to dip, from their mode of baptizing converts. They reject infant baptism; use great plainness of dress and language; refuse to take oaths or to fight; and anoint the sick with oil in order to hasten their recovery, depending on this unction and prayer, and rejecting the use of medicine. Every brother is allowed to speak in the congregation, and their best speaker is usually set apart as their minister.

Dunkirk´ (Fr. Dunkerque), a seaport town, France, department of Nord, at the entrance of the Straits of Dover, surrounded by walls, and otherwise defended by forts and outworks. It has several fine churches, a college, a public library, and a gallery of paintings; manufactures of earthenware, leather, soap, starch, ropes; sugar-refineries, breweries, and distilleries, and a large trade. In 1658 Dunkirk was given up to the English by Turenne, and continued with them till 1662, when Charles II sold it to Louis XIV. It is one of the chief French torpedo stations, and during the European War was a British base and frequently bombed by the enemy. Pop. 38,891.

Dun´lin, a British bird (Tringa alpina), a species of sandpiper, occurring in vast flocks along sandy shores. It is about 8 inches in length from the point of the bill to the extremity of the tail, and its plumage undergoes marked variations in summer and winter, the back passing from black with reddish edges to each feather, to an ashen grey, and the breast from mottled black to pure white. During the winter it migrates to Asia, Africa, the Canaries, West Indies, and California.

Dunmow´, Great and Little, two villages, England, county of Essex. The latter is remarkable for the ancient custom, revived in 1855, of giving a flitch of bacon to any couple who, a year and a day after their marriage, could swear that they had neither quarrelled nor repented. The prize, instituted in 1244 by Robert de Fitzwalter, was first claimed in 1445.

Dun´nage, faggots, boughs, or loose wood laid in the hold of a ship to raise heavy goods above the bottom to prevent injury from water; also loose articles wedged between parts of the cargo to hold them steady.

Dunne, Finley Peter, American humorist, born in Chicago in 1867. After serving as reporter on various papers, he became editor of the Evening Journal (1897-1900). Dunne first attracted attention by a series of sketches in the Times-Herald, where he humorously commented upon all sorts of subjects in the name of one Martin Dooley, publican of Archey Road. His works include: Mr. Dooley in Peace and War (1898), Mr. Dooley's Philosophy (1900), Observations by Mr. Dooley (1902), and Mr. Dooley Says (1910).

Dunnet Head, a bold rock promontory in Caithness, with sandstone cliffs 100 to 300 feet high, the most northerly point of the mainland of Scotland, crowned by a lighthouse visible at a distance of 25 miles.

Dunnot´tar Castle, an extensive ruin on the coast of Kincardineshire, Scotland, on a precipitous rock rising from the sea. It dates from the close of the fourteenth century, and was long the stronghold of the Keiths, earls marischal. During the Commonwealth this castle was selected for the preservation of the Scottish regalia; and in 1685 it was used as a State prison for Covenanters. It was dismantled in 1720.

Dunois (du˙-nwä), Jean, Count of Orleans and of Longueville; a French hero, natural son of Louis, Duke of Orleans, born 1402, died 1468. Dunois made the name 'Bastard of Orleans' illustrious by his military exploits. He began his career with the defeat of Warwick and Suffolk, whom he pursued to Paris. Being besieged by the English, he defended Orleans until relieved by the Maid of Orleans. In 1450 he had completely freed France from the English, and was rewarded by the title of 'deliverer of his country', the county of Longueville, and the dignity of High Chamberlain of France.

Dunoon´, a town, police burgh, and watering-place of Scotland, in Argyleshire, on the shore of the Firth of Clyde, 27 miles by river from Glasgow. It extends for about 3 miles S.S.W. from the Holy Loch, and consists of Hunter's Quay to the N., Kirn and Dunoon proper to the S.; each with its separate steamboat pier. On a green rocky knoll are remains of the castle of Dunoon, once a residence of the family of Argyll. Pop. 9860.

Duns, John, commonly called Duns Scotus, an eminent scholastic divine, born 1265 or 1274, but whether in England, Scotland, or Ireland is uncertain. He was admitted when young into an institution belonging to the Franciscan friars at Newcastle, whence he was sent to Merton College, Oxford. In 1301 he was appointed divinity professor at Oxford, and the fame of his learning and talents drew crowds of scholars from all parts. In 1304 he went to Paris, and was appointed professor and regent in the theological schools, in which situation he acquired the title of Doctor Subtilis, 'the subtle doctor'. He opposed Thomas Aquinas on the subject of grace and free-will; and hence the Scotists are opposed to the Thomists. Duns Scotus was the apostle of realism, which was opposed to the systems of nominalism and conceptualism promulgated by the other sections into which the schoolmen were divided. He died, it is said, at Cologne in 1308, leaving behind him numerous works. He was a genuine scholastic philosopher, who worked out ideas taken from Aristotle, St. Augustine, and the preceding scholastics.—Bibliography: W. J. Townsend, The Great Schoolmen; C. R. Hagenbach, History of Doctrines; E. Pluzanski, Essai sur la philosophie de Duns Scot; and article in Dictionary of National Biography.

Duns, or Dunse (dunz, duns), police burgh and county town of Berwickshire, Scotland, on the Whitadder; has manufactures of linen, and paper-mills. Pop. 3040. On Duns Law (700 feet) are traces of a camp formed by Leslie's Covenanters in 1639.

Dunsin´ane, a hill in Scotland, one of the Sidlaws, 1012 feet high, about 7 miles N.E. of Perth, with vestiges of a hill-fort locally called Macbeth's Castle, and immortalized by Shakespeare in Macbeth.

Dun´stable, a town, England, county of Bedford, 32 miles north-west of London. It was an important Roman station, and had a palace and a priory founded by Henry I in 1131. Part of the latter is used as the parish church. It has a grammar school, founded in 1715. Dunstable is famous for its manufactures of straw-plait. Pop. 8057.

Dun´stan, St., an English archbishop and statesman, was born at Glastonbury in 925, died at Canterbury 988. As a youth he was remarkable for his learning and his skill in music, painting, carving, and working in metals. He entered the Benedictine order, became an anchorite at Glastonbury, and in 945 was made abbot by King Edmund. After the death of Edmund, Edred, the next king, made him his Prime Minister and principal director in civil and ecclesiastical affairs. In the reign of Edwy he was banished, but was recalled by Edgar, and made Archbishop of Canterbury. He was again deprived of power on the accession of Ethelred in 978, and devoted the last years of his life to his diocese and the literary and artistic pursuits of his earlier days. He did much to improve education and to raise the standing and character of the priesthood. The old biographies of him have all a large legendary element.—Cf. W. Stubbs (editor), Memorials of St. Dunstan (Rolls Series, 1874).

Duodecimal System, in numeration, a system of numbers the scale of which is twelve. Duodecimals is a term applied to an arithmetical method of ascertaining the number of square feet, &c., in a rectangular area or surface, whose sides are given in feet, inches, and lines. The method is similar to that of ordinary decimals, the scale being twelve instead of ten.

Duodec´imo (often contracted 12mo) is that form of volume in which each leaf forms a twelfth part of the sheet.

Duode´num (Lat. duodeni, by twelves), the commencement of the intestinal canal, the first of the smaller intestines, so called because its length is about twelve fingers' breadth.

Dupanloup (du˙-pän-lō), Félix Antoine Philibert, French prelate, born at St. Félix, in Savoy, 1802; became a French subject by naturalization in 1838; died at Paris 1878. He was ordained in 1825, appointed professor of theology at the Sorbonne in 1841, and Bishop of Orleans in 1849. From that time he took a prominent part in all the political and religious discussions in France. He belonged to the Gallican party, but submitted to the decisions of the council of the Vatican; and was a strenuous advocate of free education. He wrote: La Pacification Réligieuse, De l'éducation, and De la haute éducation.

Dupleix (du˙-plā), Joseph, a French leader in India, born 1697, died 1763. He accumulated a fortune by commercial operations in India, and in 1742 was appointed Governor of Pondicherry for the French East India Company. He formed the project of founding a French Empire in India, and soon made himself master of the Carnatic partly by conquest and partly by political intrigue. He was opposed by Clive, and a long string of British successes caused the complete overthrow of all his plans. Recalled in 1753, he died in want and obscurity in Paris.

Dupont (du˙-pōn), Pierre, French poet and song-writer, born at Lyons 1821, died at St. Étienne (Loire) 1870. He was educated by his godfather, a priest, and began to write and compose songs at an early age. After issuing a volume of poems in 1844, he went to Paris and obtained a place in the office of the secretary of the Institute. Some of his songs, such as Song of Bread and Song of the Workers, had a Socialistic ring which proved obnoxious to the Government which came into power in Dec., 1852. He was arrested, imprisoned, and condemned to be banished for seven years; but his release was soon procured. His poems have been collected under the titles Cahiers de Chansons, La Muse Populaire, Chants et Chansons, Poésie et Musique, and Études Littéraires.

Dupont de Nemours (du˙-pōn dė nė-mör), Pierre Samuel, French political economist, born at Paris, Dec., 1739; died in America 1817. He early gained a reputation for his writings on commerce, and his exposition of the theories of the physiocrats, and was employed by Turgot and Vergennes in the public service. During the ministry of Calonne he became Councillor of State, and in 1787 was secretary to the Assembly of the Notables. He was twice president of the National Assembly. During the Revolution he opposed the extreme republicans, and narrowly escaped the guillotine at the downfall of Robespierre. From 1798 to 1802 he was in America, and on his return to France he refused all public office. He finally returned to America in 1815. Among his writings are: Philosophie de l'Univers, Vie de Turgot, and a translation of Ariosto.

Düppel (du˙p´l), a fortified village in Schleswig-Holstein, on the coast of the Little Belt. The place is of considerable strategical importance, and has been the scene of some severe struggles between the Danes, to whom it formerly belonged, and the Germans. It was captured by the Prussians in 1864, after a siege and bombardment which lasted nearly two months.

Dupuy, Charles Alexander, French statesman, born at Le Puy, Haute-Loire, in 1851. Educated at the Lycée of Le Puy and the Lycée Charlemagne in Paris, he was professor of philosophy at the colleges of Nantes and Aurillac, and afterwards vice-rector of the Corsican College at Ajaccio. He entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1885, was Minister of Public Instruction in 1889, and succeeded Ribot as Premier in 1893, but resigned and became President of the Chamber of Deputies. He was again Premier from 1894 to 1895, and from 1898 to 1899, and was elected to the Senate in 1900. He was Minister of Labour from 1912 to 1914.

Dupuytren (du˙-pu˙-i-trän), Guillaume, Baron, French surgeon and anatomist, born in 1777, died at Paris 1835. In 1812 he became professor of surgery, and in 1815 first surgeon to the Hôtel Dieu, Paris. In 1823 he was appointed first physician to Louis XVIII, and retained the same situation under Charles X. He was considered the first French surgeon of his day, made important discoveries in morbid anatomy, and invented several useful surgical instruments.

Duquesne (du˙-kān), Abraham, French admiral, born 1610, died 1688. In his seventeenth year he was in the sea-fight off Rochelle, and distinguished himself during and after the year 1637 in the war against Spain. In 1647 he commanded the expedition against Naples. In the Sicilian War he thrice defeated the combined fleets of Holland and Spain, under the renowned De Ruyter. After he had reduced Algiers and Genoa, Louis XIV conferred upon him the fine estate of Bouchet, and made it a marquisate, with the title of Duquesne. He was a Protestant, and the only person exempted from the banishment of his sect, occasioned by the repeal of the Edict of Nantes.

Dura´men, the name given by botanists to the central wood or heart-wood in a tree trunk. It is harder than the newer wood that surrounds it, and is often dark-coloured from being impregnated with tannin and other antiseptic substances.

Durance (du˙-räns), a river of France, which rises in the Cottian Alps, and, after a course of about 180 miles, joins the Rhone about 4 miles below Avignon. Marseilles is supplied with water from the Durance.

Duran´go, a town in Mexico, capital of the state of Durango, about 500 miles N.W. of Mexico, on an elevation 6845 feet above the sea. It is well built, has a cathedral, a mint, manufactures of cotton and woollen goods and leather. Pop. 34,085.—The state (area, 42,272 sq. miles) is partly mountainous and unproductive, but has valuable gold-, silver-, and iron-mines, and also fertile tracts. Pop. 436,147 (1910); estimated pop. in 1919, 509,585.

Durante (dö-ra˙n´tā), Francesco, Italian musician, born 1684, died 1755. He attained a high degree of eminence in vocal church music, and he trained the most celebrated musical masters of the eighteenth century in Naples—Pergolese, Sacchini, Piccini, Guglielmi, and Jomelli.

Durazzo (dö-rät´sō; ancient Dyrrhachium, or Epidamnus), a seaport of Albania, on the Adriatic, 50 miles south by west of Scutari. It is fortified, and has a good harbour. For four centuries the town remained under Turkish rule and lost all importance, but in 1912, during the Balkan War, it came again into prominence. It was occupied by the Serbians on 28th Nov., 1912, and in 1913 was incorporated in the newly created Principality of Albania. During the European War Durazzo was captured by the Austrians in Feb., 1916, but was reoccupied by the Italians on 14th Oct., 1918. Pop. 5000.

Dur´ban, chief port of Natal, on a land-locked bay (Port Natal). It is well laid out, has a fine town hall, handsome churches, post office, hospital, electric tramways, and parks and gardens, and is connected by railway with Maritzburg and the interior. The harbour now admits large vessels. Founded in 1834, it was named after a governor of the Cape. Pop. 48,475.

Durbar (du¨r-bär´; Pers. dar, door, and bar, court, admittance), a term signifying the court, council-chamber, or audience-room in the palaces of the native princes of India; hence, a general reception by a ruler in British India or by any officer of rank. Durbars were held on a ridge at Delhi on the proclamation of Queen Victoria (1877), of King Edward VII (1903), and of King George V (1911).

Düren (dü´ren), a town in the Rhine province, on the right bank of the Roer, 16 miles E. by N. of Aix-la-Chapelle. It has important manufactures of woollens, paper, leather, rails, and hardware, and an extensive trade. Pop. 32,511.

Dürer (dü´rėr), Albrecht, German painter, designer, sculptor, and engraver on wood and metal, born at Nürnberg 1471, died there 1528. His father was a skilful goldsmith of Hungary. In 1486 he left his father's trade and became an apprentice of Michael Wohlgemuth, then the best painter in Nürnberg. Having finished his studies, he entered upon his 'wanderjahre', the usual course of travels of a German youth. On his return to Nürnberg he married Agnes, the daughter of Hans Frey, a mechanic, who has been falsely accused for centuries of embittering his life and bringing him to his grave. In 1505 he went to Venice to improve himself in his art. His abilities excited envy and admiration. He painted the Martyrdom of Bartholomew for St. Mark's church, which painting was purchased by the Emperor Rudolph and removed to Prague. He also travelled to Bologna, to improve his knowledge of perspective. On his return to Nürnberg his fame spread far and wide. Maximilian I appointed him his court-painter, and Charles V confirmed him in this office. All the artists and learned men of his time honoured and loved him, and for many years he was one of the chief burghers of his native town. Profound application and great facility in the mechanical part of his art were the characteristics of Dürer, and enabled him to exert a great influence on German art. He was the first in Germany who taught the rules of perspective, and of the proportions of the human figure. He not only made use of the burin, like his predecessors, but was also among the first to practise etching. He also invented the method of printing woodcuts in two colours. Among his masterpieces in painting are a Crucifixion, Adam and Eve, an Adoration of the Magi, and portraits of Raphael, Erasmus, and Melanchthon, who were his friends. Among his best engravings on copper are his Fortune, Melancholy, Adam and Eve in Paradise, St. Hubert, St. Jerome, and The Smaller Passion, in sixteen plates. Among his best engravings on wood are The Greater Passion (so called), in thirteen plates; The Smaller Passion, with the frontispiece, thirtyseven pieces; The Revelation of St. John, with the frontispiece, fifteen plates; The Life of Mary, two prints, with the frontispiece. Dürer has also much merit as a writer, and published works on Human Proportion, Fortification, and the Use of the Compass and Square.—Bibliography: Thausing, Dürer, Geschichte seines Lebens und seiner Kunst (2 vols.; English translation by F. A. Eaton); L. Cust, Albrecht Dürer: a Study of his Life and Works; F. Nüchter, Life and Selection from Works.

Du´ress (Lat. duritia, severity, from durus, hard), in law, restraint or compulsion, is of two kinds: duress of imprisonment, which is imprisonment or restraint of personal liberty; and duress by menaces or threats (per minas), when a person is threatened with loss of life, or with some kind of injury. An act done under duress is voidable or excusable.

D'Urfey (dur´fi), Thomas, an English poet and wit, the grandson of a French Protestant refugee, was born at Exeter in 1653, and died in 1723. He abandoned law for literature, and wrote a large number of comedies of a licentious character. His bombastic tragedy The Siege of Memphis appeared in 1676. D'Urfey's name is now principally remembered in connection with his Pills to Purge Melancholy, a collection of songs and ballads, partly his own, and many of them coarse or licentious. His society was generally courted by the witty, and he enjoyed the favour of four successive monarchs.

Durga (du¨r´gä), a Hindu divinity, one of the names given to the consort of Siva. She is generally represented with ten arms. In one hand she holds a spear, with which she is piercing Mahisha, the chief of the demons, the killing of whom was her most famous exploit; in another a sword; in a third the hair of the demon chief; and in others, the trident, discus, axe, club, and shield. A great festival in her honour, the Durga puja, is celebrated annually, lasting for ten days.

Durham, Simeon of, English chronicler of the twelfth century; wrote Annals of England to the Reign of Henry I, particularly valuable for events connected with the north of England. They were continued by John of Hexham.

Durham (du´ram), an ancient city, capital of the county of the same name, on the River Wear, which is crossed here by four bridges, 14 miles S. of Newcastle. The principal public buildings are the ancient castle—now appropriated to the uses of the university—the cathedral and other churches, the town hall, county prison, and grammar-school. The educational institutions comprise the university, opened in 1833, the grammar-school, a training-school for school-mistresses, and other schools. There are manufactures of carpeting and mustard. The cathedral occupies a height overlooking the Wear. The larger portion of it is Norman in style, with insertions in all the English styles. Three magnificent and elaborately ornamental towers spring up from the body of the building, one from the centre 212 feet high, and two together from the west end each 143 feet high; the entire length is 420 feet. It was founded by William de St. Carilef, assisted by Malcolm, King of Scotland, in 1093. A parliamentary borough until 1918, Durham returned two members to the House of Commons from 1673 to 1885, and one member from 1885 to 1918. Pop. 17,500.

Durham Book, a Latin text of the gospels written by Bishop Eadfrith of Lindisfarne, with an interlinear Saxon gloss, finished in the year 720; now in the British Museum.

Durham, County of, a county on the N.E. coast of England, having on the E. the North Sea, on the N. Northumberland, from which it is divided by the Rivers Tyne and Derwent, Cumberland on the W., and Yorkshire on the S., the River Tees parting the two counties. Its area is 647,592 acres, of which two-thirds are under cultivation. The western portion of the county is hilly, enclosing fertile valleys, the eastern portion is more level, and the centre contains extensive coal-fields. Durham is the chief coal county in England, and also produces fire-clay. The chief crops are wheat, oats, turnips, and potatoes. The cattle are esteemed both for the dairy and for fattening. In connection with the commerce of the county may be noticed its foundries, ironworks, potteries, glass-houses, iron-shipbuilding, engine and machine works, and chemical works. For parliamentary purposes it is divided into eleven divisions, each of which sends one member to the House of Commons. It was formerly one of the three counties called counties palatine. The chief towns besides Durham are Sunderland, Gateshead, South Shields, Stockton, Darlington, and Hartlepool. Pop. 1,369,860.— Cf. Victoria History of the County of Durham.

Durham University, founded in 1832, opened in 1833, incorporated by royal charter in 1837. It is connected with the bishopric of Durham, the office of warden being annexed to the deanery of Durham, and a canonry in the cathedral being annexed to each of the professors of divinity and classical literature. There are also professors of mathematics, Hebrew, medicine, &c. The students mostly reside within the university buildings, but in 1870 a regulation was passed dispensing with the necessity of residing in any college, hall, or house connected with the university in order to be admitted as a member. The management of the university is entrusted, under the Bishop of Durham as visitor, to the dean and chapter of the cathedral as governors, and to the warden, senate, and convocation, the last including all persons regularly admitted since the opening of the university to the degrees of Doctor in Divinity, Civil Law, and Medicine, and to the degree of Master of Arts. The academical year is divided into three terms—Michaelmas, Epiphany, and Easter. For the degree of B.A., or a licence in theology, a residence of two years (of six months each) is necessary. The M.A. degree may be obtained by a graduate who is of the standing of nine terms since taking his degree of B.A. Armstrong College, founded in 1874, and the College of Medicine, both at Newcastle-on-Tyne, form part of the University of Durham.

Durian, or Durion (Durio zibethīnus), a large and lofty tree growing in the Malayan Archipelago. The largish flowers, of a yellow-green colour, are produced on the stem or main branches, and are followed by the large fetid fruit, which is of the size of a man's head, and is a favourite food of the natives during the time (May and June) when it is in season. There is usually a second crop in November. The smell is offensive, like putrid animal matter, but with this is associated the most delicious flavour, which places it, notwithstanding the odour, in the opinion of many, in the foremost place among tropical fruits.

Dürkheim (du˙rk´hīm), an old town in Rhenish Bavaria (the Palatinate), 14 miles W.S.W. of Mannheim, well known for its mineral water. The town was destroyed by the French in 1689. Pop. 6523.

Durkheim, Émile, French philosopher and sociologist, born at Les Vosges 15th April, 1858, died in Paris 15th Nov., 1917. Educated at the École Normale Supérieure, he travelled in Germany, where he studied social conditions. In 1887 he founded the first French chair in sociology at the University of Bordeaux. Durkheim's merit consists in having separated sociology from mere psychology, and in having made a distinction between individual mental phenomena and Folk-psychology. In 1898 he founded and published annually L'Année Sociologique. His other works include: De la division du travail social (1893); Les règles de la méthode sociologique (1894); Le Suicide (1897); Les formes élémentaires de la vie réligieuse; Sociologie et sciences sociales (1910); Le système totémique en Australie (1912); La Sociologie (in La Science Française, 1915); Qui a voulu la guerre?; Les Origines de la guerre, d'après les documents diplomatiques (1915).

Durlach (du¨r´la˙h), a town in Baden, 4 miles E.S.E. of Carlsruhe, at the foot of the Turmberg, with manufactures of machinery, chemicals, and leather. Pop. 13,896.

Durmast, a species of oak, Quercus sessiliflora, or according to some, Q. pubescens, so closely allied to the common oak (Q. robur) as to be reckoned only a variety of it. Its wood is, however, darker, heavier, and more elastic, less easy to split, not so easy to break, yet not so difficult to bend. It is highly valued, therefore, by the builder and cabinet-maker.

Duroc (du˙-rok), Michel Géraud Christophe, Duke of Friuli, a distinguished general under Bonaparte, born at Pont-à-Mousson in 1772, killed, 1813, at the battle of Bautzen. He served as aide-de-camp to Napoleon in the Italian and Egyptian campaigns. In 1805 he was made grand-marshal of the palace; and was frequently employed in diplomatic missions, though he still took his full share in the wars of France till the time of his death. He was a great favourite of Napoleon, and was killed by his side.

Durra, or Dhurra, Indian millet, the seed of Sorghum vulgāre, after wheat the chief cereal crop of the Mediterranean region, and largely used in those countries by the labouring classes for food. Varieties are grown in many parts of Africa, one of them being known as Kaffir corn.

Dürrenstein (du˙r´en-stīn), a village in Lower Austria, on the Danube, 41 miles west by north of Vienna. Here are the ruins of the castle in which Leopold, Duke of Austria, imprisoned Richard Cœur-de-Lion on his return from Palestine, 1192.

Duruy (du˙-ru˙-ē), Victor, French historian and educationist, born at Paris 1811, died in 1894. His father was a workman in the Gobelins tapestry works, and the boy did not begin his education until he was grown up. He was admitted to the École Normale Supérieure in 1830, graduated in 1833, and was appointed successively teacher of history in the Lycée Henri IV, then at the Normal School and the Polytechnic School, inspector of the Academy of Paris, inspector-general of secondary education, and Minister of Public Instruction (1863-9). He is author of Géographie Politique de la République Romaine et de l'Empire, Géographie Historique du Moyen Age, Histoire Romaine, Histoire de France, Histoire Grecque, Histoire Populaire Contemporaine, &c. Some of these are simply school-books, but his Histoire des Romains (translated into English) and his Histoire de la Grèce Ancienne (translated into English) are extensive and important works, the former especially.

Duse, Eleonora, Italian actress, born at Vigevano, near Venice, in 1859. At the age of thirteen she made her first appearance on the stage, and in 1883 she acted at Rome, when she was recognized as one of the greatest Italian, and even one of the greatest living actresses. From that time her career was one of uninterrupted success, and she gained a world-wide reputation. Duse is one of the dramatic artists who discard the customary mannerisms of the stage, and all that is conventional but unreal in modern acting. Some of d'Annunzio's best plays were specially written for her. Among her most remarkable impersonations are those of Francesca da Rimini, Marguerite Gautier in La Dame aux Camélias, Magda, La Tosca, Paula in The Second Mrs. Tanqueray, and Nora in Ibsen's A Doll's House. She appeared for the first time in London in 1897.

Düsseldorf (du˙s´sel-dorf), a town of Germany, in the Rhine province, beautifully situated among villas and gardens on the right bank of the Rhine, 22 miles N.N.W. of Cologne, one of the handsomest towns in the valley of the Rhine. It is a great focus of railway and steamboat communication, and has a number of handsome public buildings, and several remarkable churches. Among the public institutions particular notice is due to the Academy of Art, founded in 1767, by the Elector Theodore, and afterwards directed by Cornelius, Schadow, and Bendemann. It has the honour of having founded a school of painting, which takes the name of Düsseldorf, and has had a large number of distinguished pupils. The industries embrace iron, machinery, railway plant, cotton, leather, chemicals, and beer, and the trade is large. Pop. 358,728.

Dust, solid matter in a fine state of division. Spores of plants, bacteria, &c., are found in the atmosphere, but in general organic particles are numerous only over thickly populated districts. Inorganic particles are derived from various sources. Where the soil is dry, dust is whirled aloft by the winds, this cause giving rise to the great sand-storms of tropical desert regions. Volcanoes in eruption eject large quantities of dust. It is estimated that millions of meteors are encountered by the earth per day. Most of these are excessively minute. They are speedily disintegrated, and generally entirely reduced to dust at high levels. Evaporation is almost always proceeding over seas and oceans, and from foam thrown up and swept along by the winds the dissolved salts are liberated as solid particles. Again vast quantities of dust are produced in the consumption of fuel.

The late Dr. John Aitken, F.R.S., of Falkirk, Stirlingshire, contrived a means of gauging the dust contents of the atmosphere. This consists of a glass box about a centimetre in thickness. Two pieces of wet filter paper inside serve to keep the contained air damp. The bottom of the box is a micrometer plate, divided rectangularly in millimetres. It can be examined from above by a lens. An air-pump can withdraw definite volumes of air as desired. When the air is partially withdrawn, the expansion of the remainder produces cooling. The dust particles form nuclei for condensation of the vapour. They are thus precipitated on the plate, and counted, leaving the air dust-free. A measured quantity of the air to be tested is next drawn in and shaken up. Further operation of the air-pump causes its expansion, and the deposition of its dust particles, which can then be counted. Dr. Aitken found the proportion of dust on Ben Nevis to vary at different times from under 100 particles to over 14,000 per cubic centimetre. Over oceans the numbers were from about 500 on the Indian to 2000 on the Atlantic. But over cities 100,000 per cubic centimetre are frequently present. A puff of cigarette smoke was estimated to contain 4,000,000,000 particles.

Many phenomena are connected with the existence of dust in the atmosphere. As a result of Dr. Aitken's discoveries the belief largely prevailed that the formation of fog, of rain, and other varieties of precipitation, was necessarily dependent on dust particles as nuclei of condensation. Though they certainly function to a preponderating extent, it has been shown that gaseous particles can act similarly, particularly when air is ionized. Dust is the main cause of the scattering of the sun's rays which produces twilight, the blue of the sky, the gorgeous red and golden hues of sunrise and sunset, and the purple lights of advancing dusk. After the great Krakatoan eruptions of 1883, dust was carried in the upper atmosphere several times round the earth, and caused extraordinary colour effects. To a lesser degree similar phenomena followed the West Indian eruptions of 1902. The unusual sunlessness of the summer of 1912 was attributed to dust expelled in the preceding great eruptions at Katmai, Alaska.

Dutch Clover, Trifolium repens, commonly called white clover, a valuable pasture plant. It has a creeping stem; the leaflets are broad, obovate, with a horse-shoe mark in the centre; the white or pinkish flowers are in a globular head.

Dutch East Indies, forming a large and important colonial possession of the Netherlands Government, lie between 6° N. and 11° S., and 95° E. and 141° E. The colony includes Java and Madura, with the 'Outposts', which comprise Sumatra, the south-east and west portions of Borneo, Banca, Billiton, Celebes, the Timor and Riau-Lingga Archipelagos, the smaller Sunda Islands, and the north and west of New Guinea. The total area is about 735,000 sq. miles; the population of about 47,000,000 is composed of 46,000,000 natives of Malay race, 832,000 Arabs, Chinese, and other Orientals, and some 80,000 whites. The origin of the colony may be traced to the treaty made by the Dutch with the Sultan of Bantam in Sumatra (1595), which was followed by the formation of the Dutch East India Company (1602), the establishment of Batavia (1619) on the ruins of the native town of Jacatra, and the settlement in Sumatra (1677). The Dutch East India Company was dissolved in 1798, since which date the colony has been administered from the Netherlands by a Governor-General, who, assisted by a Council of five members nominated by the queen, has the power to pass laws, subject to the general regulations adopted in 1854. Some of the outlying islands are, however, administered by their native princes under the 'advice' of a Netherlands Resident. Batavia (population about 234,000), a town in the province of the same name on the north-west coast of Java, is the administrative capital and an important centre of trade. Java and Sumatra, containing about three-fourths of the total population of the colony, are self-supporting as regards food, besides producing for European consumption large quantities of tobacco, tea, coffee, sugar, cinchona, tin, rubber, and copra. The colonial army numbers some 1200 officers and 40,000 men; compulsory service for white men within certain age-limits was adopted in 1918. There is also a small naval force.—Bibliography: Bemmelen and Hooyer, Guide to the Dutch East Indies; W. Cool, With the Dutch in the East; J. M. Brown, The Dutch East.

Dutch Metal, an alloy containing 84.5-84.7 per cent of copper and 15.5-15.3 per cent of zinc, with a fine golden-yellow colour, ductile, malleable, and tenacious. When beaten out by a process analogous to that for gold-leaf, until the sheets are less than 1/50,000th part of an inch thick, it constitutes Dutch leaf or Dutch foil, and is used as a cheap substitute for gold-leaf for ornamental purposes.

Dutch Pink, a bright yellow colour used in distemper, for staining paper-hangings, and for other ordinary purposes. It is composed of chalk or whiting coloured with a decoction of birch leaves, French berries, and alum.

Dutch Rush, Equisētum hyemāle, one of the plants known as horse-tails, with a firm texture and so large an amount of silica in the cuticle that it is employed as a fine sand-paper for polishing delicate woodwork. The plant is found in marshes and woods in Britain, but for economic use it is imported from Holland, whence its popular name.

Dutrochet (du˙-tro-shā), René Joachim Henri, a French physiologist, born in Poitou in 1776, died at Paris in 1847. He served for some time as medical attendant to Joseph Bonaparte during the Spanish campaign 1808-9; but afterwards returned to France, and retired to the estate of Châteaurenault, where he devoted himself exclusively to physical and physiological studies. His chief works have been published in a collective form with the title Mémoires pour servir à l'Histoire Anatomique et Physiologique des Végétaux et des Animaux (1837, 2 vols.).

Dvina, Northern, a Russian river formed by the union of two small streams in the government of Vologda. It flows in a north-westerly direction, and falls by four mouths into the White Sea. At Archangel, before it divides, it is 4 miles broad. It is navigable as far as Suchona, and is connected with the Volga and Neva by canal.

Dvořák (dvor-shäk´), Anton, a Bohemian musical composer, born in 1841, died in 1904. He studied at the Prague Conservatoire, and composed several operas on national Bohemian subjects, songs, orchestral arrangements of Bohemian dances, several symphonies, a Stabat Mater, a cantata (The Spectre Bride), and an oratorio (St. Ludmila). In 1892 he was director of the New York National Conservatory, and after 1895 he lived in Prague, where he wrote, in 1889, the opera Der Teufel und die wilde Kätze.

Dwarf, a term applied to any animal or plant greatly below the usual size of its kind, particularly to a human being of small dimensions. Strictly speaking, the term should be used with reference to individuals and not to races. When a whole population consists of people of small stature, the proper term to apply to them is pigmies, not dwarfs. Accounts of pigmy tribes have been common from early times, such tribes being located especially in Africa; and it would appear from the accounts of Du Chaillu, Schweinfurth, and other travellers that there are several pigmy tribes throughout this continent. The Obongo, a race of dwarfs, are described as living in woods near the Okanda River, in wretched huts made of branches. Other races are the Mabongo, and the Akka dwarfs of Central Africa (see Akkas); and a race exists in the Congo State, not as a distinct community, however, but mixed with other tribes. Individual dwarfs occur in all races, and were formerly a fashionable appendage to the courts of princes and the families of nobles. Jeffery Hudson, the favourite dwarf of Charles I, at the age of thirty is said to have been only 18 inches high, though he afterwards grew to 3 feet 9 inches. Bébé, the celebrated dwarf of Stanislas of Poland, was 33 inches; Wybrand Lolkes, a Dutch dwarf, when sixty years of age was only 27 inches; Charles H. Stratton, 'General Tom Thumb', was 31 inches high at the age of twenty-five; Francis Flynn, 'General Mite', was only 21 inches at sixteen. In most of the extreme cases the dwarfing is the result of some defect in the ductless glands which regulate the normal growth of the body. Stories of dwarfs and brownies are to be found in the folk-lore of many tribes on earth.—Bibliography: E. J. Wood, Giants and Dwarfs; E. Tyson, Philological Essay concerning Pygmies of the Ancients.

Dwarfing, the process of training up trees or shrubs for ornament in houses so as to cause them never to reach more than a very small size, by keeping them in poor soil, giving them little water, pinching off strong shoots, &c. It is much practised among the Chinese and Japanese.

Dwight (dwīt), Timothy, American divine, born in Massachusetts 1752, died 1817. His father was Colonel Timothy Dwight, and his mother was a daughter of Jonathan Edwards. He served as chaplain in the revolutionary army, and ultimately became president of Yale College. His Theology Explained and Defended (1818) was for long a standard work both in Britain and in America.

Dy´aks, the aborigines of Borneo, chiefly inhabiting the interior of the island. They are a finely formed race, of a yellow complexion, and are described as docile, industrious, and superior to the Malays. The more advanced of them practise agriculture and dwell in neatly-constructed and tolerably comfortable houses. In Sarawak they have made considerable advances in civilization. The practice of head-hunting (hunting their enemies to make trophies of their heads) is practised among them, but has been abolished where European influence prevails.—Cf. Hose and M‘Dougall, The Pagan Tribes of Borneo (2 vols.).

Dyaus (dyous), the god of the sky in the older mythology of the Hindus. His name is etymologically connected with that of the Greek Zeus.

Dyce (dīs), Alexander, Shakespearean editor, born at Edinburgh 30th June, 1798, died 15th May, 1869. He was educated at Edinburgh and Oxford, but in 1827 settled in London, where most of his life was passed. He first became known by his editions of Collins, Peele, Webster, Marlowe, and Skelton, accompanied by notes and biographies of the authors. His chief work was an edition of Shakespeare in six volumes, with notes (1853-8).

Dyce, William, painter, born at Aberdeen in 1806, died near London, 1864. He studied in London and Rome, and practised his art in Edinburgh. In 1840 he became director of the School of Design in London, and in 1844 was appointed professor of fine art in King's College, London. He was elected a Royal Academician in 1848. Amongst his chief works are: Francesca da Rimini (1837): Joash shooting the Arrow of Deliverance (1844); King Lear in the Storm (1851); Christabel (1855); The Good Shepherd (1856); The Baptism of Ethelbert, a large fresco for the Houses of Parliament, and a series of frescoes illustrative of the legends relating to King Arthur, for the same. He also executed for the Prince Consort, at Osborne, the fresco Neptune giving the Empire of the Sea to Britannia.

Dyeing is the art of colouring textile and other materials in such a way that the colours are not readily removed by the action of light, washing, &c. Like spinning and weaving, it was originally a home industry, as it still is in many places. The natural dyes formerly employed are now largely displaced by dyes derived from coal-tar products, the first discovery of which was made by Perkin in 1856; a few mineral colours are employed in cotton dyeing. Before dyeing, the materials have generally to be cleansed or bleached to get rid of undesirable colouring matters or impurities; and frequently a textile material is subjected to some subsidiary treatment in order to obtain special effects. For example, cotton yarn may be subjected to the action of strong caustic soda ('mercerizing' process) while in a state of great tension, in order to give it a permanent silky lustre. Dyeing is not only an art, it is also a branch of applied chemistry. One fundamental principle is, that the colouring matter and other necessary substances must be applied in a state of solution, and while in direct contact with the fibre they must be rendered insoluble, so that they are precipitated within or upon the fibre and fixed permanently. The method of effecting this varies greatly, according to the fibre and the colouring matter employed. As a rule, the vegetable and the animal fibres are dyed by very different methods. The affinity of the animal fibres for certain colouring matters is often so great that they are readily dyed by simple immersion in hot colour solutions; but this simple process is not generally sufficient. According to the method of their application in dyeing, the following groups of dye-stuffs may be distinguished: Acid Dyes, Basic Dyes, Direct Dyes, Developed Dyes, Mordant Dyes, Vat Dyes. A dye is substantive to a particular fibre when it dyes that fibre directly, and adjective when the presence of a third substance known as a mordant is necessary.

The acid dyes are so called because they are of an acid character and are applied in an acid dye-bath. As a rule, they are only suitable for dyeing the animal fibres, e.g. wool and silk, also leather, horn, feathers, &c., and they are substantive to these materials. The purple vegetable dyestuff orchil belongs to this class. The acid dyes derived from coal-tar are very numerous, and yield a great variety of hues—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, brown, and black. The basic dyes are so called because their essential constituents, to which they owe their dyeing power, are organic bases. The bases themselves are colourless and too insoluble in water to be of use, hence they are employed in the form of their soluble coloured salts, usually the hydrochlorides of the colour-bases. Their solutions are precipitated by tannic acid, because it combines with the colour-bases to form insoluble tannates. Wool, silk, and animal substances generally have a direct attraction for colour-bases, and hence these fibres are readily dyed by simple immersion in hot aqueous solutions of the basic dyes. Cotton and linen, on the other hand, are not dyed so readily; they need first to be mordanted or impregnated with the mordant tannic acid. Most of the colours of this class are fugitive to light, and all but one, viz. barberry root, are derived from coal-tar products.

The direct dyes are so called because they dye cotton without the aid of any mordanting process. The first of this class derived from coal-tar was congo red, discovered in 1884; at present this group includes a very great variety of fast colours, and forms, indeed, one of the most important and valuable series of dye-stuffs employed. Cotton, linen, and the vegetable fibres generally are dyed in the simplest possible manner by merely boiling them in a solution of the dye-stuff, with or without the addition of a little soap, carbonate or sulphate of soda, &c. Wool and silk are frequently dyed in the same manner as cotton. Very few vegetable dye-stuffs belong to the direct colours, e.g. Safflower, Turmeric, Saffron, Annatto (see the articles). They are all fugitive, and are now of little or no importance to the dyer. The coal-tar colours of this class, on the other hand, are extremely numerous. The developed dyes are formed in situ upon the fibre by the successive application of two or more substances. They include aniline black, a permanent black produced by the oxidation of aniline, and the ice colours, which are azo dyes derived from certain coal-tar products containing nitrogen.

The mordant dyes form one of the most important classes of colouring matters, for they include not only most of the vegetable dye-stuffs, e.g. madder, logwood, fustic, &c., but also many valuable fast coal-tar colours, commonly known as the alizarin dyes, after their typical representative, alizarin. These mordant dyes have by themselves very little colouring power, as a rule, and if employed alone in dyeing give little or no result. If applied, however, in conjunction with metallic salts, notably those of chromium, aluminium, iron, tin, and copper, they each yield a variety of colours, according to the metallic salt employed. In employing them two distinct operations are usually involved: first, that of applying the metallic salt or mordant, called the mordanting process; and second, that of dyeing proper, in which the mordanted material is boiled in a solution or decoction of the dye-stuff. During the dyeing operation the colouring principle of the dye-stuff combines with the metallic salt already upon the material, and the colour is thus produced and fixed upon the fibre. The method of mordanting varies with the fibre and the metallic salt employed. The vegetable dye-stuffs of this class include Madder, Sapanwood, Camwood, Barwood, Old Fustic, Young Fustic, Quercitron Bark, Persian Berries, Weld, Logwood (see these separate articles). Madder was formerly the most important and highly valued of the dye-stuffs of this class, being especially employed to produce the fine 'Turkey-red' dye; but it is now entirely superseded by the coal-tar colour alizarin. Similarly, the employment of cochineal (an insect dye) has also greatly diminished through the introduction of the cheaper colours. Camwood and barwood are almost entirely used in wool-dyeing, either in conjunction with the indigo-vat or for the purpose of dyeing various shades of brown. Old fustic is the most important of the yellow mordant dye-stuffs, and the colours are fast although not very brilliant. Quercitron bark is an excellent dye-stuff employed by wool-dyers for the production of bright orange and yellow colours. Persian berries and weld, a species of wild mignonette, are both excellent dye-stuffs, but their employment is now limited. Logwood is largely employed by wool, silk, and cotton dyers for dyeing black and dark-blues, which, although fast to washing, are only moderately so towards light. The important vegetable dye catechu (q.v.) is used in dyeing cotton and wool brown. On wool, catechu yields khaki browns in single bath by using copper sulphate as the mordant. On silk, it is largely employed for weighting purposes in the process of dyeing black. Although dyewoods are still much employed, they are being steadily replaced by coal-tar colours. The vat dyes are insoluble in water, but yield reduction products which are soluble in aqueous alkali, and can be readily reoxidized to the dye-stuff. In this class may be included the sulphur dyes, substances of uncertain composition obtained by fusing certain compounds containing nitrogen with sulphur and sodium sulphide, which are now extensively and increasingly employed, especially as direct dyes for cotton. Indigo, a typical vat dye, is prepared both artificially and from natural sources. It is a dark-blue powder quite insoluble in water, but when reduced it yields indigo-white which dissolves in aqueous alkali, the solution thus obtained being called an indigo-vat. Cotton, wool, or silk steeped for some time in the clear yellow solution of such a vat, and then exposed to the oxidizing influence of the air, is dyed a permanent blue. The indigo-white absorbed by the fibre loses its acquired hydrogen, and thus insoluble indigo-blue is regenerated within and upon the fibre.

In the classification adopted above, the following mineral colours employed in cotton dyeing belong to the group of developed dyes, since they are formed on the fibre: chrome yellow, obtained by immersing cotton successively in solutions of acetate of lead and bichromate of potash; iron buff (oxide of iron), produced by the successive application of sulphate of iron and carbonate of soda; Prussian blue, developed by passing the buff-dyed cotton through an acidified solution of potassium ferrocyanide; manganese brown (oxide of manganese), deposited similarly to iron buff. The mineral colours are very useful for certain purposes, and are very fast to light.—Bibliography: Crookes, A Practical Handbook of Dyeing and Calico-printing; W. P. Dreaper, Chemistry and Physics of Dyeing; Knecht, Rawson, and Loewenthal, Manual of Dyeing; Rawson, Gardner, and Laycock, A Dictionary of Dyes, Mordants, &c.

Dyer, John, English poet, born in Carmarthenshire about 1700, died in 1758. Educated at Westminster School, he became a painter, but, not succeeding in that vocation, took orders and was appointed to a small living. In 1727 he published his poem of Grongar Hill, in 1740 The Ruins of Rome, and in 1757 The Fleece, a didactic poem in five books.

Dyer's-broom, a European and now also N. American shrub (Genista tinctoria), formerly used with woad for dyeing green.

Dyer's-weed, Resēda Luteŏla, a British plant of the same genus as mignonette, otherwise called Yellow-weed, Weld, or Woad, nat. ord. Resedaceæ. This plant grows in waste ground; it affords a beautiful yellow dye, and is cultivated for that purpose.—Dyer's Greenweed is Genista tinctoria.

Dying Declaration, a deposition made by one who is in prospect of death. Such declarations are as a general rule admissible as evidence only in criminal and not in civil cases, and must be made, according to English, though not Scottish law, in the full consciousness of the danger of death.

Dynam´ics is the science which deals with the laws of force in their relation to matter at rest or in motion, and as such it is differentiated from kinematics, which considers motion mathematically, and apart from the forces producing it. Dynamics is divided into two great branches: statics, which treats of solid bodies at rest under the action of forces; and kinetics, which treats of the action of forces in producing motion in solid bodies. Formerly the latter alone was called dynamics, and to this, in conjunction with statics, the general name mechanics was given. In the wide sense dynamics includes also hydrodynamics. It is to Newton that we owe the clear statement of the three primary laws of force on which the science of dynamics is based. These are: (1) that every body remains in a state of rest, or of uniform motion along a straight line, unless it is compelled by force to change that state; (2) that rate of change of momentum is in proportion to the force employed, and occurs along the straight line in which the force acts; (3) that, as the result of every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction. These laws, which were formulated from experiment, involve the conception of force as a primary influence or action expressed in terms of space, time, and matter. Now, in dealing with the laws of force, a standard of measurement is required which shall be applicable to all forces at all times, and we therefore require to begin by establishing units of space, time, and mass. There are two systems of units in use, the one British, the other French. In the British system the foot is taken as the unit of length, and the second as the unit of time. In the French the centimetre is the unit of length, the second the unit of time; the unit velocity in the one case being that of one foot per second, in the other one centimetre per second. The British unit of mass is the pound (the mass of a certain lump of platinum deposited in the Exchequer Office, London); the French the gramme; and accordingly the French units of space, mass, and time are commonly known as the C.G.S. (centimetre, gramme, second) units. As the weight of a pound (or a gramme) is not the same at all parts of the earth's surface, it cannot give us of itself an absolute or dynamical unit of force, that is, an invariable unit; but taking it in conjunction with unit time and unit velocity, we do obtain such a unit. Two absolute units of force are in common use in dynamics, the poundal and the dyne, the latter being the absolute unit in the C.G.S. system. The former is that force which, acting on the mass of one pound for one second, generates in that mass a velocity of one foot per second. The latter is that force which, acting on the mass of one gramme for one second, generates in that mass a velocity of one centimetre per second. It is important in dynamics to distinguish between mass and weight. The mass of one pound is the quantity of matter equal to a certain standard quantity (a certain lump of metal) and is quite independent of force. The weight of one pound is the force with which the mass of one pound is attracted to the earth's surface by the force of gravity. Another important term is momentum: the momentum of a body in motion at any instant is the product of the mass of the body and the velocity at that instant. See Couple; Elasticity; Energy; Force; Hydrodynamics; Kinematics; Kinetics; Statics; Thermodynamics; Waves.—Bibliography: Kelvin and Tait, Natural Philosophy; A. Gray, Dynamics; P. G. Tait, Dynamics; S. L. Loney, Mechanics and Hydrostatics for Beginners.

Dyn´amite. See Explosives.

Dy´namo. See Generator.

Dynamom´eter, an apparatus for measuring the power or rate of working of a machine. There are two types, the transmission dynamometer, which measures the power of the machine without sensibly diminishing it; and the absorption dynamometer, which measures the power by using it all. The instrument is generally employed to determine the horse-power transmitted by a shaft or by belting.—Cf. Aspinall Parr's Electrical Engineering Testing.

Dyrrhachium. See Durazzo.

Dy´sart, a royal and municipal burgh of Scotland, in Fife, on the Firth of Forth. It is an old place, and is a member of the Kirkcaldy district of parliamentary burghs. Pop. of royal burgh, 4197.

Dys´entery is a disease of an acute type, due to the action of a bacillus, characterized by pain and frequent passage of blood and mucus. Owing to improved sanitation, dysentery has become less frequent. In temperate countries sporadic cases occur from time to time, and occasional epidemics break out, but in the tropics widespread epidemics occur, and the disease is a serious menace. It is a very frequent camp disease, and has been the scourge of all armies in tropical and semi-tropical regions. The bacilli are widely spread by the fæces of infected persons, and usually the infection takes place by the mouth. The onset is rapid, and marked by fever, pain in the abdomen, and frequent stools. At first mucus only is seen in the stools, but soon blood appears. In very acute cases the patient is seriously ill in forty-eight hours, and may die on the third or fourth day. Moderate cases may go on for several weeks, with resulting convalescence. Some cases become chronic in type, and a person may have chronic dysentery for years. Bismuth in large doses is given, and morphia is a most useful drug to relieve the pain and quieten the bowel. Normal saline solution is given by rectum after the acute stage, whenever possible. Chronic dysentery requires dietetic treatment for the persistent dyspepsia and irritability of the bowel. Amœbic dysentery, due to the Amœba dysenteriæ, is a distinct disease.

Dys´odile, a yellowish or greenish foliated carbonaceous substance found in Sicily originally, and derived from the decay of minute organisms. When ignited, it burns and emits a very unpleasant smell.

Dyson, Sir Frank Watson, F.R.S., LL.D.(Edin.), British astronomer, born at Ashby 8th Jan., 1868, the son of a Baptist minister. Educated at Bradford Grammar School and Trinity College, Cambridge, he became chief assistant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in 1894, and secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1899. Astronomer Royal for Scotland in 1905, he was appointed Astronomer Royal for England in 1910. He was knighted in 1915.

Dyspep´sia, or Gastritis, may be either acute or chronic. Acute dyspepsia may follow when more food is taken than the stomach can digest, or when unsuitable articles are taken. The symptoms are headache, depression, nausea, vomiting, with pain, varying from a feeling of discomfort in the abdomen to marked tenderness. The tongue is furred, and usually there is diarrhœa, while in the more severe attacks the onset is marked by chill and a rise of temperature. An attack may last from one day to four days. Treatment for mild cases is simply a dose of castor-oil (children) or blue pill (adults), but in severe cases vomiting should be promoted by warm water, or the stomach tube if necessary, and a dose of calomel (3 grains), followed by salts, should be given. Absolute rest to the stomach is necessary, and only small quantities of water allowed. Repeated attacks lead to the establishment of the chronic form. Chronic dyspepsia is a condition of disturbed digestion due to the prolonged use of unsuitable, or improperly prepared, foods. Hot cakes, excess of tea, coffee, or alcohol, rapid and irregular meals are all common causes. It may also arise in the course of diseases like anæmia, chronic tuberculosis, gout, Bright's disease, chronic heart disease, cirrhosis, and in diseases of the stomach itself, as cancer, gastric ulcer, and gastric dilatation. The most common symptoms are a feeling of oppression after food, tenderness over the stomach, headache, nausea, flatulence, constipation, and occasionally vomiting. Treatment consists of dietetic measures, regulated exercises, change of air and surroundings, and avoidance of depression. Milk should be used freely, and in severe cases should be given alone till improvement sets in. Fats and greasy dishes should be avoided. Fruits are sometimes well borne, and at other times the reverse. Drugs do not play so important a rôle, but bitter tonics, like nux vomica, quassia, gentian, &c., are the best. Constipation should be treated when necessary.

Dyspho´nia is difficulty in speaking, and is the result of some forms of laryngitis. The condition is aggravated by attempts to use the voice, and complete rest is necessary to bring about an early and satisfactory recovery. Tonics, moderate exercise, and a holiday hasten recovery.

Dyspnœa (dis-pnē´a) is difficult or laboured breathing. It is a symptom of diseases of the heart or lungs, and is produced by any condition which interferes with normal respiration. It is sometimes present in nervous disturbances.

Dze´ren, or Dze´ron, the Chinese antelope, a remarkably swift species of antelope (Procapra gutturōsa) inhabiting the dry arid deserts of Central Asia, Tibet, China, and Southern Siberia. It is nearly 4½ feet in length, and 2½ feet high at the shoulder.

Dzig´getai, or Kiang (Equus hemiŏnus), a species of wild ass native to Central Asia, allied both to the horse and ass. Its head is large like that of the ass, but in form resembles that of the horse. The ears also resemble those of the horse. It runs with a rapidity exceeding that of the best Arabian horses.

Dzoungaria, or Sungaria, a Chinese territory in Central Asia, stretching from about 43° to 48° N. lat. and from about 82° to 86° E. long. It has an area of 147,950 sq. miles, and pop. 600,000. It is administratively connected with Kuldja, and since the surrender of Kuldja by the Russians in 1880 is again under Chinese rule. Dzoungaria, once the centre of an independent empire, was first conquered by the Chinese in 1757.