Volume IV (part 2)

Dobson, Henry Austin, poet, born at Plymouth in 1840. He was educated at Beaumaris, Coventry, and Strasbourg; in 1856 obtained a clerkship under the Board of Trade, where he rose to be one of the officials known as principals. His earliest verses first appeared in book form under the title Vignettes in Rhyme and Vers de Société (1873). His other volumes of verse include: Proverbs in Porcelain (1877); Old World Idylls (1883); and At the Sign of the Lyre (1885), which The Athenæum pronounced to be "of its kind as nearly as possible perfect". Among his prose works may be mentioned his lives of Hogarth, Fielding, Steele, Goldsmith, Horace Walpole, Richardson, and Fanny Burney; Thomas Bewick and his Pupils; Four Frenchwomen, a study on Charlotte Corday, the Princesse de Lamballe, and Mesdames Roland and de Genlis; three series of Eighteenth Century Vignettes; A Paladin of Philanthropy; Sidewalk Studies; Old Kensington Palace; At Prior Park; A Bookman's Budget; and several editions of standard works. His collected poems were published in one volume in 1897. Many of Mr. Dobson's poems are written in various French forms, such as the rondeau and ballade, and all are marked by gracefulness and ease. He died in Sept., 1921.

Doce´tæ (from Gr. dokein, to seem or appear), the name given, in the earlier ages of the Church, to those who denied the reality of the human form of Christ, maintaining it to be merely a phantom or shadow. In the sense of regarding Christ's body as a heavenly and ethereal, instead of a human one, docetism had its partisans even among the orthodox.

Dock, a name applied to different plants of the genus Rumex, belonging to the rhubarb family (Polygonaceæ). These are large herbaceous plants, with stout roots, alternate and often entire leaves, and bearing panicles of small greenish flowers. They are very troublesome as weeds, but the roots of some of them are used medicinally as astringents.

Docket, or Docquet (dok´et; from dock, to shorten; Icel. dokr, stumpy tail), in law, a term variously used, as for a summary of a larger writing; a small piece of paper or parchment containing the heads of a writing; an alphabetical list of cases in a court, or a catalogue of the names of the parties who have suits depending in a court.

Docks, are artificial enclosures for the reception of shipping, for the purpose of loading, discharging, or repairs. They may be divided into four types, viz. tidal docks or basins, wet docks, dry or graving docks, and floating docks.

Tidal Docks or Basins are open permanently to the main channel or river, and the water-level therefore varies with the rise and fall of the tide. This variation of level is a serious hindrance in the work of loading or discharging cargo, unless the tidal range be small. It should be noted that this form is more properly termed a tidal basin.

Wet Docks have a water entrance normally closed by gates or caissons, which permit the water-level of the enclosed area being maintained at high-water level. This uniformity of level is of great service in dealing with cargo, but this type has the disadvantage of only permitting traffic in and out of the dock at high water. This disadvantage may be modified by the provision of a lock at the dock entrance.

Dry or Graving Docks are used for the purpose of examining and repairing ships. The entrance is controlled by either gates or caissons. The ship having entered, the gates are closed, and the water pumped out, allowing the vessel to settle down gradually upon a row of keel blocks, running up the centre line of the dock. The sides of the docks are built in the form of large continuous steps or 'altars', which support the ends of the timber shores which serve to keep the ship in an upright position. The floor is graded to channels, leading to powerful pumps, usually of the centrifugal type, and capable of emptying a large dock in one hour.

Floating Docks fulfil the same functions as dry docks. In their modern form, they consist of a hollow steel box or pontoon, carrying hollow longitudinal walls at each side. These walls contain the pumps and controlling machinery, the pontoon portion being capable of being filled with or emptied of water, thus raising or sinking the dock. This lower portion is subdivided into a great number of compartments, all of which may be filled separately, so that errors of trim can be corrected. In making use of this type the dock is lowered by flooding the lower compartments. The ship is then floated into position and shored.

The initial cost of these two latter types is in favour of the floating dock, the annual maintenance charges of which, however, may be five to ten times those of an ordinary masonry dock. The mobility of a floating dock may be considered an advantage, allowing it to be easily removed to another locality to meet changing conditions, but this adaptability should not be overvalued.

The average life of a steel dock may be assumed to be 40 years, whereas a masonry dock may be said to last indefinitely, subject only to the fact that it may outlive its usefulness.

The first wet docks constructed in England were those now called the Commercial Docks, in London, which existed in a much less extensive form so early as 1660. In 1800 the West India Docks were constructed, and were followed by the East India Docks, Millwall Docks, London Docks, the St. Katharine Docks, and the Victoria Docks, affording, together with those at Tilbury, more than 600 acres of water accommodation, besides wharf and warehouse grounds, where all kinds of appliances and machinery for the speedy and convenient transfer of goods and cargoes are in use. Some of the warehouses are extremely capacious, the tobacco warehouse of the London Docks being itself nearly 5 acres in extent. Next after the London docks come those of Liverpool, which extend more than 6 miles along the north bank of the Mersey, and cover, together with the Birkenhead docks, nearly as large a total acreage as those of London. The other important British docks are those at Southampton, Bristol, Cardiff, Hull, Great Grimbsy, Newcastle, Shields, Barrow, Leith, Glasgow, Dundee, &c. A floating dock at Hamburg has a length of 728 feet, inside width of 123 feet, and a lifting capacity of 46,000 tons.—Bibliography: W. Shields, Principles and Practice of Harbour Construction; L. V. Harcourt, Harbours and Docks; Kempe, Engineer's Year Book.

Dock-warrants, orders for goods kept in the warehouses connected with a dock. They are granted by the proper officer at the dock to the importer in favour of any one that he may name. These warrants are held to be negotiable, so that they may pass from one holder to another, the property of them being always vested in the holder.

Dock-yards, establishments supplied with all sorts of naval stores, materials and conveniences for the construction, repairs, and equipment of ships of war. In England the royal dock-yards are at Chatham, Sheerness, Portsmouth, Devonport, and Pembroke, besides the Deptford and Woolwich store-yards. There are also royal dock-yards or naval victualling yards at Haulbowline in Cork Harbour, Rosyth, Invergordon, at the Cape of Good Hope, Gibraltar, Malta, Bermuda, Bombay, Calcutta, Hong-Kong, Sydney, and Wei-hai-wei. Others in the colonies have been given up. The dock-yards are under the direct control of the Admiralty. The chief officer of the greater or home dock-yards is generally an admiral, with a considerable staff of officials under him, professional and other. Since the introduction of steam the engineering department has become an important one in such establishments.

Doctor, a term literally signifying teacher. In the Middle Ages, from the twelfth century, it came into use as a title of honour for men of great learning, such as Thomas Aquinas (Doctor Angelicus) and Duns Scotus (Doctor Subtilis). It was first made an academical title by the University of Bologna, and emperors and Popes soon afterwards assumed the right of granting universities the power of conferring the degree in law. The University of Paris followed in the footsteps of Bologna, and in 1145 the title was bestowed on Peter Lombard. The faculties of theology and medicine were soon included, but for a long time the faculty of arts retained the older title of Magister, till the German universities substituted that of Doctor. In England the Doctor's degree was introduced into the universities during the reign of John or Henry III. The title of Doctor is in some cases an honorary degree, and in other cases (as in medicine and science) conferred after examination. The title of D.C.L. (Doctor of Civil Law), for example, at the Universities of Oxford and Durham, is frequently an honorary degree, and so also are those of D.D. (Doctor of Divinity) and LL.D. (Doctor of Laws) at various universities. The Popes and the Archbishops of Canterbury exercise the right of conferring the degree of Doctor both in law and divinity. Oxford and Cambridge, and many other universities, create doctors of music (Mus.D.).

Doctors' Commons was a college founded in 1567 for the Doctors of the Civil Law in London, and was at one time the seat of the Court of Arches, the Archdeacon's Court, and the Court of Admiralty. The practitioners in these courts were called advocates and proctors. In 1857 an Act was passed empowering the college to sell its property and dissolve, and making the privileges of the proctors common to all solicitors.

Doctors of the Church, a name given to four of the Greek Fathers (Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysostom) and five of the Latin Fathers (Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and Gregory the Great). The Roman Catholic Church, however, recognizes eighteen 'Doctors of the Church', including, besides those already mentioned, Chrysologus, Leo, Isidore, Peter Damian, Anselm, Bernard of Clairvaux, Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, and Alphonsus of Liguori. The title is conferred only after death.

Doctrinaires, a section of French politicians, represented by the Duc de Broglie, Royer-Collard, Guizot, and others, who became prominent after the Restoration in 1815. They favoured a constitutional monarchy similar to that which then existed in Britain. In the Chambers they thus occupied a place between Radicals and ultra-Royalists. They received the name of doctrinaires because they were looked upon more as theoretical constitution-makers than practical politicians, and the term is now used with a wider application to political theorists generally.

Dodder, the common name of the plants of the genus Cuscŭta, a group of slender, branched, twining, leafless pink or white annual parasites, nat. ord. Convolvulaceæ. The seeds germinate on the ground, but the young plant speedily attaches itself to some other plant, from which it derives all its nourishment. Four species are common in England—C. europæa, found on nettles and vetches; C. Epithymum, on furze, thyme, and heather (these two being natives); C. trifolii, on clover; C. Epilīnum, on cultivated flax (both introduced from abroad).

Doddridge, Philip, D.D., an English Dissenting divine, born in London in 1702, died in 1751. He was an earnest pastor, and the author of many hymns and devotional treatises. The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul and The Family Expositor are amongst his best known works. Many of his hymns are still sung, such as O God of Bethel, by whose hand; and O happy day that fixed my choice.

Dodecanese (Gr., twelve islands), a name applied since the Turko-Italian War of 1912-3 to a group of islands lying off the south-west coast of Asia Minor, the base of the Italian troops. The group, consisting of the Southern Sporades, includes the Islands of Patmos, Cos, Lipsos, and others near Rhodes. Italy agreed to restore the islands to Turkey, but was prevented from carrying out the agreement by the breaking out of the Balkan War. The Treaty of Peace with Turkey (11th May, 1920) allotted these islands to Italy, who ceded them again to Greece (with the exception of Rhodes).

Dodgson, Charles Lutwidge. See Carroll, Lewis.

Dodo (Didus ineptus), an extinct genus of birds once abundant on the Island of Mauritius, and assigned by naturalists to the ord. Columbæ or pigeons, though an extreme modification of the type. It was a massive clumsy bird, larger than a swan, covered with down instead of feathers, with short ill-shaped legs, a strong bulky hooked beak, and wings and tail so short as to be useless for flight. Its extinction was due to its organization not being adapted to the new conditions which colonization and cultivation introduced. It probably became extinct soon after 1681.

Dodo´na, a celebrated locality of ancient Greece, in Epirus, where was one of the most ancient Greek oracles. It was a seat of Zeus (surnamed the Pelasgian), whose communications were announced to the priestesses in the rustling of the leaves on its oak tree, and the murmuring of water which gushed forth from the earth.

Dods, Marcus, theologian, born at Belford, Northumberland, in 1834, his father being minister of the Scottish Church there, died in 1909. He was educated in Edinburgh, where he took his M.A. degree at the age of twenty. In 1858 he was licensed as a minister of the Free Church of Scotland, and eight years afterwards was ordained to Renfield Free Church, Glasgow, where he remained until his appointment in 1889 to the chair of New Testament Exegesis in New College, Edinburgh. Of his works some of the most important are: The Prayer that Teaches to Pray (1863, 6th edition, 1889); Epistles to the Seven Churches (1865); Israel's Iron Age (1874); Mohammed, Buddha, and Christ (1877); The Book of Genesis (1882); Parables of Our Lord (1883 and 1885); How to become like Christ (1897); Forerunners of Dante (1903); The Bible: its Origin and Nature (1905); and articles in the Encyclopædia Britannica.

Dodsley, Robert, English poet, dramatist, and publisher, born in 1703, died in 1764. His first volume of verses, The Muse in Livery, appeared in 1732. The Toy Shop was performed at Covent Garden in 1735. In 1737 his King and the Miller of Mansfield was performed at Drury Lane, and met with an enthusiastic reception. He also wrote a tragedy, entitled Cleone, which had an extraordinary success on the stage. A selection of Fables in Prose, with an Essay on Fables prefixed, was one of his latest productions. He planned the Annual Register (commenced in 1758); the Collection of Old Plays (12 vols. 12mo), which now chiefly sustains his name as a publisher; and the Collection of Poems by Different Hands (6 vols. 12mo).

Doe, John, and Richard Roe, two fictitious personages of the English law who formerly appeared in a suit of ejectment. This fictitious form of procedure was abolished in 1852.

Dog (Canis familiaris), a digitigrade, carnivorous animal, forming the type of the genus Canis, which includes also the wolf, the jackal, and the fox. The origin of the dog is a much-debated question. The original stock is unknown, but various species of wolf and jackal have been suggested as ancestors. Probably a number of wild types were domesticated by prehistoric man, and there has been a good deal of crossing between these different stocks. It is generally agreed that no trace of the dog is to be found in a primitive state, the dhole of India and dingo of Australia being believed to be wild descendants from domesticated ancestors. Several attempts to make a systematic classification of the varieties of dogs have been made, but without much success, it being difficult in many cases to determine what are to be regarded as types, and what as merely mongrels and cross-breeds. Colonel Hamilton Smith divides dogs into six groups as follows: (1) Wolf-dogs, including the Newfoundland, Esquimaux, St. Bernard, shepherd's dog, &c.; (2) Watch-dogs and Cattle-dogs, including the German boar-hound, the Danish dog, the matin dog, &c.; (3) Greyhounds, the lurcher, Irish hound, &c.; (4) Hounds, the bloodhound, staghound, foxhound, setter, pointer, spaniel, cocker, poodle, &c.; (5) Terriers and their allies; (6) Mastiffs, including the different kinds of mastiffs, bull-dog, pug-dog, &c. (See the different articles.) On each side of the upper jaw are three incisors, one canine, four premolars, and three or two molars: on each side of the lower jaw the same number, except that the molars are four or three. The fore-feet have five toes, the hind-feet four or five; the claws are strong, blunt, and formed for digging, and are not retractile. The tail is generally long, and is curled upwards. The female has six to ten mammæ; she goes with young nine weeks as a rule. The young are born blind, their eyes opening in ten to twelve days; their growth ceases at two years of age. The dog commonly lives about ten or twelve years, at the most twenty. By English law it is prohibited to use dogs for purposes of draught.—Bibliography: W. Youatt, Training and Management of the Dog; R. B. Lee, A History and Description of Modern Dogs; F. T. Barton, Our Dogs and All about Them; J. S. Turner and V. Nicolas, The Kennel Encyclopædia.

Dog-days, the name applied by the ancients to a period of about forty days, the hottest season of the year, at the time of the heliacal rising of Sirius, the dog-star. The time of the rising is now, owing to the precession of the equinoxes, different from what it was to the ancients (1st July); and the dog-days are now counted from 3rd July to 11th Aug., that is, twenty days before and twenty days after the heliacal rising.

Doge (dōj: from Lat. dux, a leader, later a duke), formerly the title of the first magistrates in the Italian Republics of Venice and Genoa. The first doge of Venice elected for life was Paolo Anafesto, in 697; and in Genoa, Simone Boccanera, in 1339. In 1437 the Doge of Venice obtained from the emperor a diploma creating him 'Duke of Treviso, Feltre, Belluno, Padua, Brescia, Bergamo, &c.'. In Venice the dignity was always held for life; in Genoa, in later times, only for two years. In both cities the office was abolished by the French in 1797. The title was re-established in 1802 for the Ligurian Republic, but was abolished in 1805.

Dog-fish, a name given to several species of small shark, common around the British Isles. The rough skin of one of the species (Scyllium canicŭla), the lesser spotted dog-fish, is used by joiners and other artificers in polishing various substances, particularly wood. This species is rarely 3 feet long, S. catŭlus, the greater spotted dog-fish, is in length from 3 to 5 feet. It is blackish-brown in colour, marked with numerous small dark spots. Both species are very voracious and destructive. Their flesh is hard, dry, and unpalatable. The common or picked dog-fish (Acanthias vulgāris) is common in British and N. American seas, and is sometimes used as food. It is fierce and voracious. S. profundorum has been brought up from 816 fathoms in the North Atlantic. The tiger or zebra-shark (Stegostoma tigrinum) is a handsome dog-fish native to the Indian Ocean. It is marked with dark stripes on a yellow ground, and may attain the length of 15 feet.

Dogger, a Dutch vessel equipped with two masts and somewhat resembling a ketch. It is used particularly in the North Sea for the cod and herring fisheries.

Dogger Bank, an extensive sand-bank, near the middle of the North Sea, between Denmark on the east and England on the west, celebrated for its cod-fishery. It commences about 36 miles east of Flamborough Head and extends E.N.E. to within 60 miles of Jutland, in some places attaining a breadth of about 60 miles, though it terminates merely in a point. Where shallowest the water over it is 9 fathoms. In Oct., 1904, the Russian Baltic Squadron fired upon a British fishing-fleet on the Dogger, killing two men. The incident was settled by arbitration. During the European War a naval battle was fought off the Dogger Bank on 24th Jan., 1915, in which three powerful German cruisers were seriously injured by a British fleet under Admiral Beatty, but made their escape to Heligoland.

Doggett's Coat and Badge, the prize for a rowing-match which is held annually on the 1st Aug., the course being on the Thames from London Bridge to Chelsea. The match is open to six young watermen whose apprenticeship ends the same year, and the prize is a waterman's red coat bearing a badge which represents the white horse of Hanover. It was instituted—in celebration of the accession of George I—by the actor Thomas Doggett, born in Dublin; but though first rowed in 1716, its winners have only been recorded since 1791. The match, like other events of the same kind, suspended during the War, was held again on 3rd and 4th Aug., 1920, for the years 1915 to 1920.

Dog-gods. The dog was the first domesticated animal, and at an early period was deified. In ancient Egypt the god Anubis, who guided souls to the Otherworld, was dog-headed, as Herodotus says, or jackal-headed. Yama, the Indian god of death, has a dog form, and in the Mahábhárata, as Dhárma, god of justice (one of his forms), leads the Pandava brothers to Paradise as a dog. Indra had a dog form, and the custom still prevails among Northern Indian hill tribes of pouring hot oil in a dog's ear to bring rain; The Big Dog (Indra) is supposed to hear the howl of the tortured dog. The dog of Hades figures in Greek, Scandinavian, Celtic, and other mythologies. Cuchullin slew the dog of Hades, and was called 'Hound (cu) of Culann'. The widespread belief that dogs howl when a sudden death is about to take place has a long history. Dog ancestors figure in American, Javan, and other myths. In Japanese temples are images of 'Ama-Inu' (Heavenly Dog). Red Indian myths refer to a Dog Creator and to the eclipse-causing dog. Eskimos thrash dogs during an eclipse.

Dogma (Gr. dogma, from dokein, to seem), an article of religious belief, one of the doctrines of the Christian faith. The history of dogmas, as a branch of theology, exhibits in a historical way the origin and the changes of the various Christian systems of belief, showing what opinions were received by the various sects in different ages of Christianity, the sources of the different creeds, by what arguments they were attacked and supported, what degrees of importance were attached to them in different ages, the circumstances by which they were affected, and the mode in which the dogmas were combined into systems. Lectures on this subject are common in the German universities. In English dogma and dogmatism have come to be frequently used for assertion without proof.

Dogmat´ics, a systematic arrangement of the articles of Christian faith (dogmas), or the branch of theology that deals with them. The first attempt to furnish a complete and coherent system of Christian dogmas was made by Origen in the third century.

Dōgra. The Dōgras are a race of Indian hillmen, descended from Rajputs, who in almost prehistoric times overran the country to the east of Jammu, in Southern Kashmir, and founded principalities. They are now found in and recruited from the country comprised within a rough triangle having Jammu, Simla, and Chamba at its angles; or more generally still, between the upper waters of the Rivers Chenab and Sutlej, two of the five rivers from which the Punjab takes its name. By religion the Dōgras are, as becomes their descent, strict Hindus; indeed, their religion may be considered Hinduism in its purer and more original form, uncontaminated by outside influences. As is the case with other high-caste Hindus, the Dōgra's life is largely governed by ceremonial observances, those relating to birth, initiation, marriage, and death being the more important. He is, however, rather less fastidious about ceremonial cooking than either the sacerdotal Brahman or his distant Rajput cousin of the plains.

The Dōgra is not a big man, his average height being barely 5 feet 5 inches, but he is sturdy, and develops well with training, and, being fond of sport and games, makes an excellent soldier, especially in his native hills. Being Rajputs by descent, they are essentially a race of soldiers, and, enlisted in the Indian army, give excellent service as such, being law-abiding, hardy and enduring, and quietly courageous. It has already been said that Dōgras are not so ceremonious in their cooking arrangements as either Brahmans or down-country Rajputs, who require separate cooking-places for each man; the Dōgra, on the other hand, though remaining very particular about his drinking-water utensils, will yet agree to have his food prepared for him in messes of five to ten men; this trait makes his value on service and under service conditions considerably greater than that of either of the two above-mentioned classes. In the Indian army there are three first-line battalions of Dōgras: the 37th, 38th, and 41st. These are what are known as class regiments; that is, they consist entirely of the one class. In addition to the three regiments, Dōgras also enlist in the cavalry and in class-company regiments, i.e. regiments enlisting a variety of classes while keeping them separate inside the regiment.

Dog-rose, the Rosa canīna, or wild brier, nat. ord. Rosaceæ. It is a common British plant, growing in thickets and hedges. The fruit is known as the hip.

Dog's-mercury, Mercuriālis perennis, nat. ord. Euphorbiaceæ, a woodland herb common in Britain. It has poisonous properties, and may be made to yield a fugitive blue dye.

Dog's-tail Grass (Cynosūrus), a genus of grasses. Cynosūrus cristātus is a perennial found wild all over Great Britain in pastures, lawns, and parks. Its roots are long and wiry, and, descending deep into the ground, ensure the herbage against suffering from drought. Its stem is from 1 to 2 feet high, and its leaves are slightly hairy.

Dog's-tooth Ornament, an architectural ornament or moulding consisting usually of four leaves radiating from a raised point at the centre. It is the characteristic decorated moulding of Early English architecture, as the zigzag is of the Norman.

Dog-tooth Spar, a form of mineral calcium carbonate or calc-spar found in Derbyshire and other parts of England, and named from a supposed resemblance of its pointed crystals to a dog's tooth.

Dog-watch, a nautical term distinguishing two watches of two hours each (4 to 6 p.m. and 6 to 8 p.m.). All the other watches count four hours each, and without the introduction of the dog-watches the same hours would always fall to be kept as watch by the same portion of the crew.

Dogwood, a common name of trees of the genus Cornus, but specifically applied in Britain to C. sanguinea. It is a common shrub in copses and hedges in England; the small cream-white flowers are borne in dense roundish clusters. The branchlets and leaves become red in autumn. The wood is used for skewers and for charcoal for gunpowder.

Doit, an ancient Scottish coin, of which eight or twelve were equal to a penny sterling. In the Netherlands and Lower Germany there was a coin of similar name and value.

Dol, a town of France, department of Ille-et-Vilaine, 14 miles south-east by east of St. Malo. The old cathedral of St. Samson mostly dates back to the thirteenth century. To the north of the town stretches a salt-marsh, protected from inroads of the sea by a twelfth-century dyke, and in the centre of the marsh Mont-Dol rises to a height of 213 feet. Pop. 3540.

Dolci (dol´chē), Carlo, celebrated painter of the Florentine school, was born at Florence in 1616, and died there in 1686. His works, principally heads of madonnas and saints, have a character of sweetness and melancholy. Among his chief productions are: Archduchess Claudia, in the Uffizi (Florence); St. Cecilia at the Organ and Herodias with the Head of John the Baptist, both in the Dresden Gallery; Ecce Homo and St. Andrew in Prayer, at the Pitti Gallery; and Magdalene, at Munich.

Dolcinites, a Christian sect of Piedmont, so named from their leader Dolcino. They arose in 1304 as a protest against Papacy, but were suppressed by the troops of the Inquisition in 1307.

Dol´drums, among seamen, the parts of the ocean near the equator that abound in calms, squalls, and light baffling winds; otherwise known as the horse-latitudes.

Dôle, a town in France, Jura, 26 miles southeast of Dijon. It is of Roman origin, was long the capital of Franche Comté, and has some interesting antiquities. The manufactures are Prussian blue, hosiery, ironware, and leather. Pop. 16,294.

Dol´erite, compact rock of the Basaltic series, but crystalline throughout, composed of augite and labradorite with some titaniferous iron ore and often olivine. It makes, when unaltered, an excellent road-metal.

Dolgel´ly, a town of Wales, capital of Merionethshire, near the foot of Cader Idris. It was there that Owen Glendower held his Parliament in 1404 and signed his treaty with Charles VI of France. It has manufactories of woollens, flannels, and cloths. Pop. 2160.

Dolichocephalic (dol-i-ko-se-fal´ik), long-headed: a term used in anthropology to denote those skulls in which the diameter from side to side is less in proportion to the longitudinal diameter (i.e. from front to back) than 8 to 10.

Dol´ichos (-kos), a genus of leguminous plants, sub-ord. Papilionaceæ. They are found in the tropical and temperate regions of Asia, Africa, and America, and all produce edible legumes. D. Lablab is one of the most common kidney beans in India, and D. biflorus (horse-gram) is used as cattle-food in the same country. D. Pachyrrhizus tuberōsus of Martinique has a fleshy tuberous root which is an article of food.

Dol´ichosaurus ('long lizard'), an extinct snake-like reptile found in the English chalk, whose remains indicate a creature of aquatic habits from 2 to 3 feet in length.

Dollar, a silver or gold coin of the United States, of the value of 100 cents, or rather above 4s. sterling. The same name is also given to coins of the same general weight and value, though differing somewhat in different countries, current in Mexico, a great part of South America, Singapore, and the Philippine Islands. The name is from the Dutch (also Danish and Swedish) daler, from Ger. thaler, so named from Ger. thal, a dale, because first coined in Joachimsthal, in Bohemia, in 1518. By the Act of 14th March, 1900, the gold dollar was declared to be the standard of value in the United States, but no provision was made for the issue of a coin corresponding to the unit.

Dollar, a town and police burgh, Scotland, Clackmannanshire, 10 miles E. by N. of Stirling, noted for its academy, founded by John Macnab, who left £90,000 for this purpose. The building, a handsome structure in the Grecian style, was erected in 1819. The population of the village is 1497.

Dollart, The, a gulf of the North Sea, at the mouth of the Ems, between the Dutch province of Groningen and Hanover. It was originally dry land, and was formed by irruptions of the sea which took place in 1277 and 1530, overwhelming thirty-four large villages and numerous hamlets.

Döllinger (deul´ing-ėr), Johann Joseph Ignaz, a celebrated German theologian and leader of the Old Catholic party, was born at Bamberg, in Bavaria, in 1799, died in 1890. In 1822 he entered the Church, and soon after published The Doctrine of the Eucharist during the First Three Centuries, a work which won him the position of lecturer on Church history at the University of Munich. In later years he took an active part in the political struggles of the time as representative of the university in the Bavarian Parliament, and as delegate at the Diet of Frankfurt voted for the total separation of Church and State. In 1861 he delivered a course of lectures, in which he attacked the temporal power of the Papacy. But it was first at the Œcumenical Council of 1869-70 that Dr. Döllinger became famous over Europe by his opposition to the doctrine of Papal infallibility. In consequence of his opposition to the Vatican decrees, he was excommunicated in 1871 by the Archbishop of Munich. A few months later he was elected rector of the University of Munich, where he remained until his death. When the sentence of his excommunication was pronounced, he received honorary degrees from the Universities of Oxford and Edinburgh. Among his numerous works are: Origins of Christianity, A Sketch of Luther, The Papacy, Lectures on the Reunion of the Churches, and Papal Legends of the Middle Ages.

Dol´lond, John, an English optician of French descent, born in 1706, died in 1761. He devoted his attention to the improvement of refracting telescopes, and succeeded in constructing object-glasses in which the refrangibility of the rays of light was corrected.

Dolls, representing more or less realistically the human form, have, for more than fifty centuries, been the common playthings of children, more especially of girls, whose maternal instinct impels them to lavish upon these often crude surrogates all the affection and devotion which their elders display towards real babies. But in ancient times, and even in the ritual of many modern religions, worship is not infrequently paid to human images, which in ancient times, and among the less cultured modern peoples, are hardly distinguishable from dolls, such as children regard as playthings and their fancy endows with a crude animism. In the earliest times in which members of our own species, Homo sapiens, are known to have lived in Europe, i.e. at the latter part of the so-called Old Stone (palæolithic) Age, it was the custom to make grotesque representations of the female form as small figurines of clay or stone, which were regarded as amulets identified with the Great Mother, the giver of birth or life to mankind. As 'givers of life' such amulets were believed to be able to protect their possessors against the risk of death, because they were regarded in the most literal sense of the term as life-giving. But it was not merely against the risk of death that such amulets were believed to be potent: they could add 'vital substance' to the living and the dead, rejuvenating and reinvigorating the former, and enhancing the chances of continued existence and survival to the latter. Enormous respect was naturally paid to figurines supposed to possess such far-reaching powers; and when the Great Mother came to be identified with various animals, such as the cow, pig, &c., the amulet was identified with these 'givers of life' and sometimes represented in their shape. This is intimately associated with the origin of totemism (q.v.). It is probable that the modern doll is in part at least the survivor of these primitive images of the deities of early peoples. The fact that modern dolls are usually of the female sex may also be due to the fact of the earliest prototype of the doll being an amulet representing the Great Mother.

Dol´man, a long robe worn by the Turks as an upper garment. It is open in front, and has narrow sleeves. It has given its name to a kind of loose jacket worn by ladies, and to the jacket worn by hussars.

Dol´men, a Celtic name meaning 'table-stone'. Although some apply the name to prehistoric stone chambers covered with more than one slab (really 'corridor tombs'), the Dolmen proper, whether round or square, has a single cover-slab, and three, four, or even more stones supporting it. Some authorities consider the name dolmen as simply a French equivalent for cromlech (q.v.).

Dolomieu (dol-o-myeu), Déodat Guy Silvain Tancrède Gratet de, a French geologist and mineralogist, born in 1750 at Dolomieu (Isère), died in 1801. After some years of military service, he devoted himself to geological researches. He accompanied the French expedition to Egypt, but was shipwrecked on his return off the coast of Taranto, and imprisoned and harshly treated by the Neapolitan Government. Among his works are: Voyages aux Îles de Lipari (1783), Sur le Tremblement de Terre de la Calabre (1784), Philosophie minéralogique (1802).

Dol´omite, a mineral, the main constituent of magnesian limestone. It is composed of carbonate of calcium and carbonate of magnesium in equal molecular quantities, and varies from grey or yellowish-white to yellowish-brown. Dolomite is easily scratched with the knife, and is semi-transparent. It effervesces only slightly in cold hydrochloric acid. Its rhombohedral crystals are sometimes called bitter-spar. A variety is pearl spar, which has crystals with curvilinear faces and a pearly lustre.

Dolomites, a group of European mountains, a division of the Alps, in the Trentino, North Italy, and having the Piave and Rienz on the east, the Adige and Eisack on the west. They are named from the prevalence of the mineral dolomite, and present most interesting and picturesque scenery, the peaks being endlessly varied in form. The highest summits are Palle di San Martino (10,968 feet); Sorapiss (10,798 feet), and Monte Tofana (10,715 feet).

Dolphin (Delphīnus), a cetaceous animal, forming the type of a family (Delphinidæ) which includes also the beluga or white whale (Delphinapterus leucas), the narwhal (Monodon), porpoises (Phocæna), the ca'ing whale (Globicephalus melas), and the killer whale or grampus (Orca gladiator). Dolphins inhabit every sea from the equator to the poles; they are gregarious, and swim with extraordinary velocity. The common dolphin (D. delphis) measures from 6 to 10 feet in length, has a long, sharp snout with numerous nearly conical teeth in both jaws; its flesh is coarse, rank, and disagreeable, but is used by the Laplanders as food. It lives on fish, molluscs, &c., and often may be seen in numbers round shoals of herring. The animal has to come to the surface at short intervals to breathe. The blow-hole is of a semilunar form, with a kind of valvular apparatus, and opens on the vertex, nearly over the eyes. The structure of the ear renders the sense of hearing very acute, and the animal is observed to be attracted by regular or harmonious sounds. A single young one is produced by the female, who suckles and watches it with great care and anxiety, long after it has acquired considerable size. Dolphins are associated with many legends, and they figure in armorial bearings.—The name is also commonly but improperly given to fishes (species of Coryphæna) belonging to the mackerel family. They abound within the tropics, are about 4 or 5 feet long, very swift in swimming, and are used as food, though said sometimes to be poisonous. The corn aphis (Siphonophora granaria) is locally known as the dolphin.

Domain´, same as Demesne; also applied especially to Crown lands or Government lands.—Right of eminent domain, the dominion of the sovereign power over all the property within the State, by which it is entitled to appropriate any part necessary to the public good, compensation being given.

Dombrowski (-brov´skē), Jan Henryk, a Polish general, distinguished in the wars of Napoleon, born in 1755, died in 1818. He supported the rising of the Poles under Kosciusko in 1794. In 1796 he entered the service of France, and at the head of a Polish legion rendered signal services in Italy from 1796 to 1801. He took a distinguished part in the invasion of Russia in 1812, and also in the campaign of 1813. After Napoleon's abdication he returned to Poland, and the year following was made a Polish Senator by Alexander I.

Dome, a vaulted roof of spherical or other curvature, covering a building or part of it, and forming a common feature in Byzantine and also in Renaissance architecture. Cupola is also used as a synonym, or is applied to the interior, dome being applied to the exterior. (See Cupola.) Most modern domes are semi-elliptical in vertical section, and are constructed of timber; but the ancient domes were nearly hemispherical and constructed of stone. Of domes the finest, without any comparison, ancient or modern, is that of the Rotunda or Pantheon at Rome (142½ feet internal diameter and 143 feet internal height), erected in the reign of Augustus, and still perfect. Among others the most noteworthy are St. Sophia at Constantinople (104 × 201 feet), the cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore at Florence (139 × 310 feet), St. Peter's at Rome (139 × 330 feet), St. Paul's, London (112 × 215 feet), the Hôtel des Invalides (80 × 173 feet) and the Panthéon (formerly the church of St. Geneviève) at Paris (67 × 190 feet). The figures represent the internal diameter and height in English feet. The finest dome in America is that of the Capitol at Washington, built of cast iron.

Domenichino (dō-men-i-kē´nō) (or Domenico) Zampieri, a distinguished Italian painter, of the Lombard school, born at Bologna on 21st Oct., 1581. He studied under Annibal Carracci, and afterwards went to Rome, where he became painter to Pope Gregory XV. Among his best works are the Communion of St. Jerome in the Vatican Museum, the History of Apollo, the Martyrdom of St. Agnes, and the Triumph of David. He died at Naples, 15th April, 1641.

Domesday (or Doomsday) Book, a book containing a survey of all the lands in England, compiled in the reign and by the order of William the Conqueror. The survey was made by commissioners, who collected the information in each district from a sworn jury consisting of sheriffs, lords of manors, presbyters, bailiffs, villeins—all the classes, in short, interested in the matter. The extent, tenure, value, and proprietorship of the land in each district, the state of culture, and in some cases the number of tenants, villeins, serfs, &c., were the matters chiefly recorded. The survey was completed within a year. Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, and Westmoreland were not included in the survey, probably for the reason that William's authority was not then (1086) settled in those parts. The Domesday Book first appeared in print in 1783 in two folios. In 1816 two supplementary volumes were published. These contained four other records of the same nature. It has been twice republished, the last time (1861-5) in perfect facsimiles of the original.—Bibliography: The Victoria County History; F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond; H. Ellis, General Introduction to Domesday Book; Birch, Domesday: a Popular Account.

Dom´icile, in law, the place where a person has a home or established residence. Domicile is often an important question in determining the efficacy of legal citations, the validity of marriage, the right of succession to property, &c. For some purposes what is called a temporary domicile is sufficient, but in questions of marriage and succession it is the permanent domicile that determines the decision. A permanent domicile may be constituted by birth, by choice, or by operation of the law. To constitute a domicile by choice both actual residence and the intention to make it the permanent home are required. It is a legal principle that the wife takes the domicile of her husband. As a general rule the old domicile, and especially the domicile of origin, continues till a new one has been acquired.

Dom´inant, in music, the fifth tone of the diatonic scale. This tone assumes the character of a key-note itself when there is a modulation into the first sharp remove. Thus G is the dominant of the scale of C, and D the dominant of the scale of G.—Dominant chord, in music, that which is formed by grouping three tones, rising gradually by intervals of a third from the dominant or fifth tone of the scale. It occurs almost invariably immediately before the tonic chord which closes the perfect cadence.

Dom´inic, Saint, the founder of the order of the Dominicans, was born in 1170 at Calahorra, in Old Castile. He early distinguished himself by his zeal for the reform of canonical life and by his success as a missionary amongst the Mohammedans. His attention having been directed to the Albigenses in the south of France, he organized a mission of preachers against heresy in Languedoc. In 1215 he went to Rome to obtain the sanction of Pope Innocent III to erect the mission into a new order of preaching friars. His request was only partially granted, and it was the succeeding Pope, Honorius III, who first recognized the importance of a preaching order, and conferred full privileges on the Dominicans. He also appointed Dominic Master of the Sacred Palace or court preacher to the Vatican, an office which is still held by one of the order. Dominic died at Bologna in 1221, and was canonized in 1234 by Pope Gregory IX. St. Dominic is usually considered the founder of the Inquisition, which is supposed to have originated with his mission to the Albigenses; but his claim is denied, on the ground that two Cistercian monks were appointed inquisitors in 1198.—Cf. A. T. Drane, The Life of St. Dominic.

Dominica (dom-i-nē´ka˙), a British West India island, so named because discovered by Columbus on a Sunday (Sp. dominica), constituting a presidency of the united colony of the Leeward Islands between Martinique on the south, and Guadeloupe on the north. It is about 29 miles in length, north to south, and 12 miles in breadth, east to west; area, 186,436 acres, about 65,000 being under cultivation. It is rugged and mountainous, but it contains many fertile valleys and is well watered. The shores are but little indented, and are entirely without harbours; but on the west side there are several good anchorages and bays. The principal exports consist of sugar, molasses, cocoa, and lime-juice. The imports and exports amount to about £160,000 and £120,000 annually. Dominica was ceded by France to Great Britain in 1763. Roseau is the capital. Pop. 33,863 (including about 420 aboriginal Caribs).

Domin´ical Letter, in chronology, properly called Sunday letter, one of the seven letters of the alphabet, A B C D E F G, used in almanacs, ephemerides, &c., to mark the first seven days of the year and all consecutive sets of seven days to the end of the year, so that the letter for Sunday will always be the same. If the number of days in the year were divisible by seven without remainder, then the year would constantly begin with the same day of the week; but as it is the year begins and ends on the same day, and therefore the next year will begin on the day following, and on leap years two days following, so that the same series is not repeated till after four times seven or twenty-eight years.

Dominican Republic, or San Domingo. See Santo Domingo.

Domin´icans, called also predicants, or preaching friars (prædicatores), derived their name from their founder, St. Dominic. At their origin (1215, at Toulouse) they were governed by the rule of St. Augustine, perpetual silence, poverty, and fasting being enjoined upon them; and the principal object of their institution was to preach against heretics. Their distinctive dress consists of a white habit and scapular with a large black mantle, and hence they have been commonly known as Black Friars. They were almost from the first a mendicant order. They spread rapidly not only in Europe, but in Asia, Africa, and America. In England, where they founded their first house at Oxford, there were fifty-eight Dominican houses at the dissolution of the monasteries, and the Blackfriars locality in London took its name from one of their establishments. Four Popes, Innocent V, Benedict XI, Pius V, and Benedict XIII, were Dominicans, and the order produced some famous scholars, such as Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas. As fierce opponents and strenuous combatants against any departure from the teaching of the Catholic Church, the Dominicans were entrusted with the conduct of the Inquisition, and became formidable as managers of this ecclesiastical institution, which was committed exclusively to them in Spain, Portugal, and Italy. In 1425 they obtained permission to receive donations, and ceased to belong to the mendicant orders, paying more attention to politics and theological science. With the Franciscans, their great rivals, they divided the honour of ruling in Church and State till the sixteenth century, when the Jesuits gradually superseded them in the schools and courts. They obtained new importance in 1620 by being appointed to the censorship of books for the Church. Amongst notable Dominicans we may mention Savonarola, Las Casas, and Lacordaire, through whose efforts the order was revived in France in the nineteenth century. There are still establishments of the Dominicans both in England and Ireland, twenty-one houses for men and thirteen for women.—Bibliography: Caro, Saint Dominique et les Dominicains; A. T. Drane, The Life of St. Dominic, with a Sketch of the Dominican Order.

Dom´ino, formerly a dress worn by priests in the winter, which, reaching no lower than the shoulders, served to protect the face and head from the weather. At present it is a masquerade dress worn by gentlemen and ladies, consisting of a long silk mantle with wide sleeves and a masquing hood. The name is also given to a half-mask formerly worn on the face by ladies when travelling or at masquerades.

Dom´inoes, a game played with small flat rectangular pieces of ivory, about twice as long as they are broad. They are marked with spots varying in number. When one player leads by laying down a domino, the next must follow by placing alongside of it another which has the same number of spots on one of its sides. Thus if the first player lays down 6-4, the second may reply with 4-8, or 6-7, &c.; in the former case he must turn in the 4, placing it beside the 4 of the first domino, so that the numbers remaining out will be 6-8; in the latter case he must turn in the 6 to the 6 in like manner, leaving 4-7, to which his opponent must now respond. The player who cannot follow suit loses his turn, and the object of the game is to get rid of all the dominoes in hand, or to hold fewer spots than your opponent when the game is exhausted by neither being able to play. The game was introduced into Europe about the middle of the eighteenth century.

Domitian, or in full Titus Flavius Domitianus Augustus, Roman emperor, son of Vespasian, and younger brother of Titus, was born A.D. 51, and in 81 succeeded to the throne. At first he ruled with a show of moderation and justice, but soon returned to the cruelty and excesses for which his youth had been notorious. He was as vain as he was cruel, and after an ineffective expedition against the Catti, carried a multitude of his slaves, dressed like Germans, in triumph to the city. He executed great numbers of the chief citizens, and assumed the titles of Lord and God. He established the most stringent laws against high treason, which enabled almost anything to be construed into this crime. At length a conspiracy, in which his wife Domitia took part, was formed against him, and he was assassinated in his bedroom A.D. 96.

Domrémy la Pucelle (don˙-rė-mi la˙ pu˙-sāl), the birth-place of Joan of Arc, a small French village, department of the Vosges, 7 miles N. of Neufchâteau. The house is still shown here in which the heroine was born, and in the neighbourhood is the monument erected to her memory.

Don (ancient Tanaïs), a river of Russia, which issues from Lake Ivan-Ozero, in the government of Tula; and flows S.E. through the governments of Riazan, Tambov, Voronej, and the Don Republic, to within 37 miles of the Volga, where a railway connects the rivers. It now turns abruptly S.W. for 236 miles, and falls into the Sea of Azov; whole course nearly 900 miles. The chief tributaries are: right bank, the Donetz and Voronej; left, the Khoper and Manych. Although not admitting vessels of much draught, the Don carries a large traffic, especially during the spring-floods, and a canal connects it with the Volga system of navigation. It has productive fisheries. The principal port is Rostov.

Don, a river, Scotland, Aberdeenshire, rising near the Banffshire border. It flows tortuously east through the whole breadth of Aberdeenshire, and falls into the North Sea a little to the north of Aberdeen, after a total course of 82 miles. Its salmon fisheries are of considerable value.—Also, a river of Yorkshire, England, which rises near Cheshire, and joins the Ouse after a course of about 70 miles. It is navigable for small craft as far as Sheffield.

Don (Lat. dominus, a lord or master), a Spanish title of honour, originally given only to the highest nobility, afterwards to all the nobles, and finally used indiscriminately as a title of courtesy. It corresponds with the Portuguese Dom. During the Spanish occupation it was introduced and became naturalized in some parts of Italy, and was particularly applied to the priests.

Donaghadee (don-ah-a-dē´), a seaport and market town, Ireland, County Down, on the Irish Channel, 16 miles east by north of Belfast. Pop. 4878.

Don´aldson, Sir James, Scottish scholar, born in 1831 at Aberdeen, died in 1915. He was educated at Aberdeen University, and also at Manchester New College, London, and Berlin University. After being rector of Stirling High School, a classical master and rector of Edinburgh High School, he was appointed in 1881 to the Chair of Humanity (Latin) in Aberdeen University. In 1886 he became principal of the United College of St. Salvator and St. Leonard in St. Andrews University, and in 1890 principal of the university. He published a Modern Greek Grammar for the use of Classical Students (1853); Lyra Græca: Specimens of Greek Lyric Poets, with Introduction and Notes (1854); History of Christian Literature and Doctrine from the Death of the Apostles to the Nicene Council (1864-6); The Ante-Nicene Christian Library (24 vols., 1867-72, edited jointly with Professor A. Roberts); The Apostolical Fathers (1874); Lectures on the History of Education in Prussia and England (1874); The Westminster Confession of Faith (1905); Woman: her Position and Influence in Ancient Greece and Rome, and among the Early Christians (1907); Addresses Delivered in the University of St. Andrews from 1886 to 1910 (1911). He was knighted in 1907.

Donaldson, John William, a distinguished English philologist, was born in London in 1811, died in 1861. He studied at London University, and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected a fellow in 1835. His first work was The Theatre of the Greeks, a work showing much erudition. In 1839 he published The New Cratylus, which was amongst the earliest attempts to bring the philological literature of the Continent within the reach of the English student. In 1844 appeared the first edition of Varronianus, a work on Latin similar in scope to the Cratylus. Amongst his other writings are: Christian Orthodoxy (1855), History of the Literature of Ancient Greece, and grammars of the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages.

Donatello (properly, Donato di Betto Bardi), one of the revivers of the art of sculpture in Italy, was born at Florence between 1382 and 1387, died at Florence in 1466. His first great works in marble were statues of St. Peter and St. Mark, in the church of St. Michael in his native town, in an outside niche of which is also his famous statue of St. George. Along with his friend Brunelleschi he made a journey to Rome to study its art treasures. On his return he executed for his patrons, Cosmo and Lorenzo de' Medici, a marble monument to their father and mother, which is of high merit. Statues of St. John, St. George, Judith, David, John the Evangelist, and St. Cecilia are amongst his leading works.

Dona´ti's Comet, so called from the Italian astronomer Donati, who first observed it on 2nd June, 1858. Next to the comet of 1811 it was the most brilliant that appeared last century. It was nearest the earth on the 10th Oct., 1858, and was seen until March, 1859. See Comets.

Don´atists, one of a body of African schismatics of the fourth century, so named from their founder Donatus, Bishop of Casæ Nigræ, in Numidia, who taught that though Christ was of the same substance with the Father yet that he was less than the Father, that the Catholic Church was not infallible, but had erred in his time and become practically extinct, and that he was to be the restorer of it. All joining the sect required to be rebaptized, baptism by the impure Church being invalid.

Dona´tus, Ælius, a Roman grammarian and commentator, born A.D. 333. He was the preceptor of St. Jerome, wrote notes on Virgil and Terence, and a grammar of the Latin language so universally used in the Middle Ages that 'Donat' became a common term for grammar or primer of instruction.

Donauwörth (don´ou-veurt), a town, Bavaria, at the confluence of the Wörnitz and Danube. It was formerly a free Imperial town, and was stormed by the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years' War, 1632. Pop. 5500.

Don Beni´to, a town, Spain, province of Badajoz. It has manufactures of woollens, and a trade in cattle, grain, and melons. Pop. 19,212.

Don´caster (Danum of the Romans, and Dona Ceaster of the Saxons), a municipal borough and market town, England, West Riding of Yorkshire, on the River Don, well built, with straight, broad streets. The parish church with its tower 170 feet high, Christ Church, the town hall, the theatre, are amongst the chief public buildings. It has railway workshops, manufactures of ropes, canvas, and machinery. It has been long celebrated for its annual races, begun in 1615, and held in September. Doncaster was originally a Roman station on the line of Watling Street. Pop. 30,520. It gives its name to a parliamentary division.

Dondrah Head, the southern extremity of the Island of Ceylon. It was the site of the Singhalese capital during part of the seventh century, numerous remains of which are still to be found.

Don´egal (Dun-na-n Gal, Fort of the Stranger), a maritime county, Ireland, province of Ulster, bounded north and west by the Atlantic Ocean; area, 1,197,154 acres, of which about a fifth is under crops. The coast is indented with numerous bays; the most remarkable being Lough Swilly. It is the most mountainous county in Ireland, but has some fine fertile valleys. Mount Errigal, the loftiest summit, is about 2460 feet high. The streams and lakes are small, but numerous and abounding in fish. The climate is moist, the subsoil chiefly granite, mica-slate, and limestone, and the principal crops oats, potatoes, and flax. Agriculture generally is in a very backward state. The manufactures are limited, and consist chiefly of linen cloth, woollen stockings, and worked muslin. The fisheries are extensive and valuable, and form the chief employment of the inhabitants of the coast and islands. Grain, butter, and eggs are exported. The minerals include marble, lead, and copper, but are not wrought to advantage. Donegal returns four members to Parliament. Pop. 168,530.

Donetz´, a Russian river which rises in the government of Kursk, flows south and east, forming the boundary of several governments, and joins the Don; length, 400 miles. Its basin is rich in coal.

Don´gola, a province of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan extending on both sides of the Nile from about lat. 18° to lat. 20° N. After having belonged to Egypt, the rebellion under the Mahdi caused its evacuation by the Egyptian Government, leaving it in the hands of the dervishes, but the Anglo-Egyptian forces under Lord Kitchener again occupied it in 1896. Its chief products are dates, cotton, indigo, and maize. The population is a mixture of Arabs and indigenous Nubians. Its chief town is New Dongola, or El-Ordi, on the Nile. Pop. 20,000.

Doni, a clumsy kind of boat used on the coast of Coromandel and Ceylon; sometimes decked, and occasionally furnished with an outrigger. The donis are about 70 feet long, 20 feet broad, and 12 feet deep, have one mast and a lug-sail, and are navigated in fine weather only.

Donizet´ti, Gaetano, Italian composer, born in 1797 at Bergamo, died 8th April, 1848. He studied music at Bologna under the distinguished Abbé Mattei. His first opera, Enrico di Borgogna, was represented at Venice in 1818. In 1822 his Zoraïde di Granata gained him the honour of being crowned on the Capitol. In 1830 appeared his Anna Bolena, which first, along with Lucrezia Borgia and Lucia di Lammermoor—the latter his masterpiece—acquired for him a European fame. In 1835 Donizetti was appointed professor of counterpoint at the Royal College of Naples, but removed in 1840 to Paris, bringing with him three new operas, Les Martyrs, La Favorita, and La Fille du Régiment, of which the last two are amongst his most popular productions. Of his other operas none except Linda di Chamounix (1842) and Don Pasquale (1843) achieved any special triumph. He wrote in all as many as seventy operas.

Donjon, the principal tower of a castle, situated in the innermost court or bailey, which the garrison could make the last line of defence. Its lower part was commonly used as a prison.

Don Juan (Sp. pron. hu¨-a˙n´), the hero of a Spanish legend which seems to have had some historical basis in the history of a member of the noble family of Tenorio at Seville. According to the legend, Don Juan was a libertine of the most reckless character. An attempt to seduce the daughter of the Governor of Seville brought the indignant father and the profligate don into deadly conflict, in which the former was slain. Don Juan afterwards, in a spirit of wild mockery, goes to the grave of the murdered man and invites the statue of him erected there to a revel. To the terror of Don Juan the 'stony guest' actually appears at the table to bear him away to the infernal world. The legend has furnished the subject for many dramas and operas. The most famous of the latter is Mozart's Don Giovanni, which has made the story familiar to everybody. Amongst the former are Burlador de Sevilla by Tellez, Don Juan, ou Le Festin de Pierre by Molière (1665), and The Libertine by Shadwell. The Don Juan of Byron bears no relation to the old story but in name and in the libertine character of the hero. Among the modern authors who have made use of the theme are: Prosper Mérimée, in Les âmes du purgatoire; A. Dumas, in Don Juan de Marana; Bernard Shaw, in Man and Superman; and José Zorilla, in Don Juan Tenorio.—Cf. Gendarme de Bévotte, La Légende de Don Juan.

Donkey-engine, a small engine used in various operations where no great power is required. Thus a donkey-engine is often stationed on the deck of a ship to work a crane for loading and unloading.

Donnay, Maurice Charles, French dramatist, born in Paris in 1859. His first work, Phryné, was produced in 1891, and was followed by an adaptation of Aristophanes' Lysistrata. His later works include: Douloureuse (1897), Le Torrent (1898), L'Affranchie (1898), L'Autre Danger (1901), Le Retour de Jérusalem (1903), Le Ménage de Molière (1912). He was elected to the Académie Française in 1907.

Donne, John, a celebrated poet and dean of St. Paul's, was the son of a merchant of London, in which city he was born in 1573. He studied both at Oxford and Cambridge. In his nineteenth year he abjured the Catholic religion, and became secretary to the Lord Chancellor Ellesmere, but finally lost his office by a clandestine marriage with his patron's niece, a daughter of Sir George More. The young couple were in consequence reduced to great distress, till his father-in-law relented so far as to give his daughter a moderate portion. In 1610 he wrote for the king the Pseudo-Martyr, and in 1612 he published a philosophical poem, The Progress of the Soul. By the desire of King James, Donne took orders, and, settling in London, was made preacher of Lincoln's Inn. In 1621 he was appointed Dean of St. Paul's. He was chosen prolocutor to the Convocation from 1623-4. He died in March, 1631, and was interred in St. Paul's. As a poet, Donne stands extremely high, and may be deemed the founder of what Dr. Johnson calls the metaphysical class of poets. Abounding in thought, this school generally neglected versification, and that of Dr. Donne was peculiarly harsh and unmusical. His style is quaint and pedantic; but he displays sound learning, deep thinking, and originality of manner. A collection of his poems appeared in 1633, and they include: The Storm, The Calm, The Blossom, and Upon Parting with his Mistress. He also wrote Letters, Sermons, Essays on Divinity, and other pieces.—Cf. E. Gosse, Life and Letters of John Donne.

Donnybrook, formerly a village, Ireland, now a suburb of Dublin. Its famous fair, instituted under King John in 1204, and which seldom passed off without riot and bloodshed, was abolished in 1855.

Don Republic, a republic in south-eastern Russia, formerly a government of imperial Russia, and known as the Don Cossacks' Territory. The republic was proclaimed in Jan., 1918; its capital is Novo-Tscherkask.

Doombook, a code of laws compiled by King Alfred from the West-Saxon collection of his ancestor Ina, and comprising small portions of the Mercian laws of Offa, and of the Kentish collection of Ethelbert. The code begins with the words: "The Lord spake these words to Moses, and thus said: I am the Lord thy God".—Cf. B. Thorpe, Ancient Laws and Institutes of England.

Doon, a river in Ayrshire, Scotland, which issues from the long, narrow Loch Doon, and falls into the Firth of Clyde; length, 27 miles.

Doppler's Principle, the principle by which the motions of heavenly bodies in the line of sight can be determined spectroscopically. When the distance between a body and the observer is being diminished, the number of waves of light of any definite colour received from it per second is increased, just as a swimmer meets more waves in the same time if he swims to meet them. Each colour of light is, therefore, slightly shifted towards the violet end of the spectrum. Thus any radiation or absorption lines seen are shifted towards the violet. If the body's distance is increasing, they are shifted towards the red. By investigation of such displacements, the motions of stars, nebulæ, &c., in the line of sight can be measured, the dimensions of the orbits of double-stars gauged, the motions of gases in the solar atmosphere determined, and the rotational velocity of the sun's surface found for latitudes where sun-spots are rarely or never visible. The speed and direction of the sun's motion through space, viz. 12 miles per second towards a point in the constellation Hercules, has also been determined by this means.

Dor, or Dorr, the black-beetle, Geotrūpes stercorarius, one of the most common British beetles, of a stout form, less than 1 inch long, black with metallic reflections, not to be confounded with the cockroach, commonly but erroneously called black-beetle. It may often be heard droning through the air towards the close of the summer twilight.

Dora, the name of two rivers in Northern Italy, both tributaries of the Po. The Dora Baltea rises on the southern slopes of the Mont Blanc group, and falls, after a course of about 100 miles, into the Po below Chivasso; the Dora Riparia, about 75 miles long, rises in the Cottian Alps, and joins the Po below Turin.

Do´ran, John, English writer, born 1807, died 1878. He began writing when a mere youth, and produced a great number of books, among them being Lives of the Queens of England of the House of Hanover, Monarchs retired from Business, History of Court Fools, The Book of the Princes of Wales, Their Majesties' Servants (a history of the English stage from Betterton to Kean), Saints and Sinners, A Lady of the Last Century (Mrs. Montague), London in Jacobite Times, and Memories of Our Great Towns. In and about Drury Lane was published after his death. He was editor of Notes and Queries at the time of his death.

Dorcas Society (from Dorcas mentioned in Acts, ix, 36-42), an association generally composed of ladies for supplying clothes to the poor. Frequently the members of the society meet at stated times and work in common. Partial payment is generally required from all recipients except the very poor. Most of these societies are connected with churches of one denomination or another.

Dor´chester, a municipal borough of England, chief town of Dorsetshire, 118 miles S.W. of London. There are large cavalry and infantry barracks a little to the west of the town. The trade consists chiefly in agricultural produce. Dorchester was an important Roman station (Durnovaria), and many interesting Roman remains, such as the 'Maumbury Rings' (a Roman amphitheatre), are still to be found in the vicinity. It was a parliamentary borough till 1885, when it was merged in the county. Pop. 9842.

Dordogne (dor-dony), a department of France, which includes the greater part of the ancient province of Périgord, and small portions of Limousin, Angoumois, and Saintonge. Area, 3544 sq. miles, of which about a third is fit for the plough. The chief minerals are iron, which is abundant, slate, limestone, marble, and other stone. Mining, iron manufacture, &c., are carried on to a considerable extent, and there are a number of vineyards. The climate is mild but somewhat changeable. Pop. 396,702.—The river Dordogne, principal river of the department, rises on the flanks of the Puy-de-Sancy, flows W.S.W., and, after a course of 290 miles, unites with the Garonne in forming the Gironde.

Dordrecht. See Dort.

Doré (dō-rā), Gustave Paul, a prolific French draughtsman and painter, born at Strasbourg, 6th Jan., 1833, died 23rd June, 1883. He studied at Paris, contributing, when only sixteen years of age, comic sketches to the Journal pour Rire. He distinguished himself greatly as an illustrator of books. His illustrations of Rabelais (Rabelais Illustré), of Perrault's Tales, Sue's Wandering Jew, Dante's Divina Commedia, and Cervantes' Don Quixote displayed great fertility of invention, and the fine fantasy of his landscapes and the dramatic effectiveness of his groups acquired for him a European reputation. His illustrations of the Bible, of Ariosto's Orlando Furioso, and Milton's Paradise Lost are also of high excellence. As a painter he has grandeur of conception and a bold expressive style. Amongst his chief works are: Christ leaving the Prætorium, Paolo and Francesca di Rimini, The Flight into Egypt, and Mont Blanc. In later years Doré also won fame as a sculptor.

Dore´ma, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Umbelliferæ. D. ammoniăcum, a Persian species, yields the ammoniacum of commerce, a milky juice that exudes from punctures on the stem and dries in little 'tears'.

Doria, one of the most powerful families of Genoa, became distinguished about the beginning of the twelfth century, and shared with three other leading families, the Fieschi, Grimaldi, and Spinola, the early government of the Republic. Amongst the older heroes of this family are Oberto Doria, who in 1284 commanded the Genoese fleet which at Meloria annihilated the power of Pisa; Lamba Doria, who in 1298 defeated the Venetian Dandolo at the naval battle of Curzola; Paganino Doria, who in the middle of the fourteenth century distinguished himself by great victories over the Venetians. But the greatest name of the Dorias is that of Andrea, born at Oneglia in 1466, of a younger branch of the family. After serving some time as a condottiere with the princes of Southern Italy, he was entrusted by the Genoese with the reconstruction of their fleet. Disagreement with the Genoese factions drove him to take service with Francis I of France, in which he highly distinguished himself, and in 1527 he took Genoa in the name of the French king. But being displeased with the projects of Francis for reducing Genoa to a place of secondary importance, he went over to the service of Charles V, carrying with him the whole influence and resources of Genoa, and hastened the deliverance of Italy from French domination. He entered Genoa in 1528, re-established order, reorganized the Government, and, although refusing the title of doge, practically controlled its affairs to the end of his life. The country bestowed on him the title of Father of Peace. As Imperial Admiral he performed many services for Charles, clearing the seas of Moorish pirates and assisting the emperor in his expeditions to Tunis and Algiers. In 1547 his authority was threatened by the conspiracy of Fieschi, and he narrowly escaped assassination in the tumult. He died in 1560.

Dorians, one of the three great branches of the Greek nation who migrated from Thessaly southwards, settling for a time in the mountainous district of Doris in Northern Greece and finally in Peloponnesus. Their migration to the latter was said to have taken place in 1104 B.C.; and as among their leaders were certain men reputed to be descendants of Hercules (or Herakles), it was known as the return of the Heraclidæ. The Dorians ruled in Sparta with great renown as a strong and warlike people, though less cultivated than the other Greeks in arts and letters. Their laws were severe and rigid, as typified in the codes of the great Doric legislators Minos and Lycurgus.—The Doric dialect was characterized by its broadness and hardness, yet on account of its venerable and antique style was often used in solemn odes and choruses.

Doric Order, in architecture, is the oldest, strongest, and simplest of the three Grecian orders, and the one that is best represented among the remains of ancient Greek architecture. The Doric column is distinguished by its want of a base (in the more ancient examples, at least), by the small number of its flutings, and by its massive proportions, the true Grecian Doric having the height of its pillars six times that of the diameter. The capital was small and simple, and the architrave, frieze, and cornice were rather plain and massive.

Dorigny (do-rē-nyē), the name of several French painters and engravers. Michael, born in 1617, became professor in the Academy at Paris, and died in 1665. Louis, son of the preceding, was born in 1654, settled in Italy, and died in 1742. Sir Nicholas, brother of Louis, born in 1658 at Paris, was the most celebrated of the three. He spent eight years in engraving the famous cartoons of Raphael at Hampton Court, and was knighted by George I. He died in 1746.

Doris, anciently a small and mountainous region of Northern Greece, at one time the abode of the Dorians. It now forms an eparchy in the nomarchy of Phocis.

Dorking, a town of England, county of Surrey, 22 miles S.S.W. of London, largely consisting of villa residences. Large numbers of fowls, known as Dorkings, of an excellent breed, having five claws on the foot, are reared here, and sent to the London markets. The breed was introduced both into Gaul and Britain when those countries were subject to the Roman power. Pop. (urban district), 7850.

Dormant State, a state of torpidity in which certain animals pass a portion of the year. In cold and temperate climates this period of long sleep takes place during the winter months, and is properly called hibernation. It commences when the food of the animal begins to get scarce, continues for a longer or shorter period, and is deeper or lighter according to the habits and constitution of the animal. Bats, bears, some animals of the rodent order, such as the porcupine, the dormouse, and the squirrel, all the animals belonging to the classes of Amphibia and Reptilia, such as tortoises, lizards, and snakes (frogs, &c.), also many species of molluscs and insects, hibernate more or less completely, retiring to suitable places of concealment—the bat to dark caves, the hedgehog to fern-brakes, and snakes to holes in trees. During hibernation there is a great decrease of heat in the bodies of the animals, the temperature sometimes sinking to 40° or even 20°F., or in general to a point a little above that of the surrounding atmosphere. The respiration as well as the pulsation of the heart is exceedingly slow, and the irritability of the animal often so low that in some cases it can be awakened only by strong electric shocks. With frogs and other amphibia the dormant state is very common, and if the temperature is kept low by artificial means, they may remain dormant for years. The term æstivation has been used to describe a similar condition into which certain animals, such as serpents and crocodiles, in tropical countries pass during the hottest months of the year. Plants also present many interesting examples of the dormant state, by which unfavourable periods or conditions are tided over. A seed, for instance, contains a dormant embryo or plantlet, which resumes growth (i.e. germinates) when the temperature rises above a certain level, provided sufficient moisture and air are present. Many lower forms, notably bacteria, are able to form thick-walled cells (spores) that can retain their vitality for a considerable time.

Dormer Windows (Fr. dormir, to sleep), are windows inserted in the inclined plane of a sloping roof, on a frame rising vertically above the rafters. They are named dormer windows because they are found chiefly in attic bedrooms.

Dormouse, the popular name of small rodent mammals constituting a special family (Gliridæ or Myoxidæ) allied to rats and mice. They inhabit temperate and warm countries, and subsist entirely on vegetable food. Their pace is a kind of leap, but they have not the activity of squirrels. Whilst feeding they sit upright and carry the food to their mouths with their paws. Dormice pass the winter in a lethargic or torpid state, reviving only for a short time on a warm sunny day, when they take a little of their hoarded stores and then relapse into the dormant state. The squirrel-tailed or 'fat' dormouse (Myoxus glis) of the continent was esteemed as an article of diet by the ancient Romans. The common British dormouse (Muscardinus avellanarius) is a graceful little creature about 3 inches in length, with a tail 2½ inches long. It feeds on hazel-nuts, eggs, and insects, and constructs a spherical nest. It is not known to occur in Scotland or Ireland.

Dorn´birn, a manufacturing town in Tyrol, about 6 miles from the Lake of Constance. Pop. 28,550.

Dornick, a kind of stout figured linen fabric used for table-cloths, and generally chequered. It derives its name from Doornik, or Tournai, in the Netherlands. The manufacture was brought into Norfolk by the Dutch.

Dornoch (-noh), a seaport and royal burgh of Scotland, county of Sutherland, at the entrance of the Dornoch Firth, the seat of the extinct bishopric of Caithness. It is one of the Wick district of parliamentary burghs. Pop. 740.—The Firth runs inland for about 16 miles between Ross-shire and Sutherlandshire.

Dor´ohoi, a town of Roumania in N.W. Moldavia, near the Austrian frontier. Pop. 11,140.—The department of Dorohoi has an area of 1090 sq. miles, and a pop. of 189,789.

Dor´pat (Tartu), a town, formerly in the Russian province of Livonia, now belonging to the Republic of Esthonia. It is situated on the Embach, about 135 miles N.E. of Riga. Dorpat is chiefly remarkable for its university and other educational establishments. It is an ancient town, and was once a member of the Hanseatic Union. Captured by the Russians in 1559, it was ceded to Poland in 1582, was subsequently taken by the Swedes, and in 1704 passed to the Russians, who called it Yuryev. The town was occupied by the Germans on 18th Feb., 1918. The vernacular language is Esthonian, but the upper classes speak German. Pop. 44,140.

D'Orsay, Alfred, Count, a dilettante artist and man of fashion, born at Paris 1801, died 1852. When a young man he visited England, and became acquainted with Byron and other literary and fashionable celebrities. He married a daughter of the Earl of Blessington, but after the earl's death a separation took place, and D'Orsay became an inmate of Gore House, which the Countess of Blessington had made the centre of a famous literary coterie. A zealous Bonapartist, he followed Prince Louis Napoleon to Paris in 1849, and enjoyed his favour till his death. Disraeli has described him in his novel Henrietta Temple, under the name of 'Count Mirabel'.—Cf. Richard Madden, Life of Lady Blessington.

Dorset, Earls of. See Sackville.

Dorset, or Dorsetshire, a maritime county in the south of England, having on the south the English Channel; area, 627,265 acres, over 490,000 being under crop. The general surface of the county is undulating; its principal elevations being chalk hills known as the North and South Downs, upon which immense flocks of sheep are pastured. On the south, on the borders of Hampshire and along part of the sea-coast, is a heathy common. A great part of the county is in grass, and dairy husbandry is extensively carried on. Neither coal nor ores of any kind are found, but the quarries yield the well-known Portland stone. Pipe-clay, plastic clay, and potter's clay also abound. The principal manufactures are those of flax, canvas, duck, &c., also silk and woollens. The fish frequenting the coast are of various kinds, but mackerel is the most abundant. Near the mouth of Poole harbour is a prolific oyster bank. The principal rivers are the Stour, the Frome, and the Piddle. The county has four parliamentary divisions, with a member for each. Dorchester is the county town. Other towns are Bridport, Poole, and Weymouth. Pop. 223,274.

Dorsetshire Regiment, The, once known as the East Middlesex, dates from 1702, and is intimately associated with Gibraltar, which it twice defended during siege (1727 and 1779-82). For its services in India under Clive it bears the motto Primus in Indis. It later took part in the relief of Ladysmith, and during the European War suffered heavily on the Western front, being also represented at Kut and Ramadie.

Dorste´nia, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Moraceæ, found in tropical America. They have their naked flowers buried in a flat, fleshy, somewhat concave receptacle. D. Contrayerva and other species have a stimulant and tonic rhizome, which is used medicinally under the name of contrayerva.

Dort, or Dordrecht, a town, Holland, province of South Holland, 14 miles S.E. of Rotterdam, on the Merwede, an arm or part of the Maas, and on an island separated from the mainland by an inundation in 1421. It is an old town, founded in 1018 by Count Dietrich III of Holland, with a fine Gothic Church (Groote Kerk, 'Great Church'), a good town-house and museum. It was formerly of more importance than now, but it still carries on an extensive trade, being not only near the sea, but by the Rhine, the Maas, and other water communications, connected with an immense extent of inland territory. Pop. 47,300.

Dort, Synod of, an assembly of Protestant divines convoked at Dort on 13th Nov., 1618, dissolved on 9th May, 1619. Besides the Dutch and Walloon divines, it included representatives from England, Scotland, Switzerland, and part of Germany, in all about sixty-two native and twenty-four foreign deputies. The Synod was convoked principally for the sake of crushing the Arminian party, and extreme measures were taken to prevent that party being represented in the assembly or having a free voice there. The result was the condemnation of the Arminians and the dogmatic establishment of Calvinism in the Reformed Church. The Synod also set on foot the Dutch translation of the Bible known as the Dort Bible.

Dort´mund, a city of Prussia, province of Westphalia, on the Emscher, 47 miles N.N.E. of Cologne, starting-point of an important canal to the lower Ems. It has rapidly increased in recent years, being the centre of important railway systems, having extensive coal-mines in the vicinity, and active manufactures of iron, steel, machinery, and railway plant. There are also a number of breweries, potteries, tobacco factories, and chemical works. It was once a free Imperial Hanseatic town, and the seat of the chief tribunal of the Vehme. Pop. 214,226.

Dory, or John Dory (Zeus faber), a bony fish which is the type of a special family (Zeidæ), and is celebrated for the delicacy of its flesh. It seldom exceeds 18 inches in length, and is yellowish-green in colour with a blackish spot on each side, which, according to an old superstition, is the mark of St. Peter's forefinger and thumb; another claimant for this honour is the haddock. The dory is found on the Atlantic shores of Europe and in the Mediterranean. The name John Dory is supposed to be derived from the Fr. jaune dorée, golden yellow.

Dosith´eans, an ancient sect among the Samaritans, so called from their founder Dositheus, who was a contemporary and associate of Simon Magus, and lived in the first century of the Christian era. They rejected the authority of the prophets, believed in the divine inspiration of their founder, and had many superstitious practices.

Dosso Dossi, Giovanni di Lutero, Italian painter of the Ferrara school; born 1479, died 1542. He was much honoured by Duke Alfonso of Ferrara, and immortalized by Ariosto (whose portrait he executed in a masterly manner) in his Orlando. Modena, Ferrara, and Dresden possess most of his works. Circe in the Woods is in the Borghese Gallery, and St. Sebastian in the Brera at Milan.

Dost Mohammed Khan, born about 1790, a successful usurper who obtained possession of the throne of Afghanistan after the flight of Mahmud Shah in 1818. He ruled with very great ability, and although driven from his throne by a British army, was ultimately restored and became a steady supporter of British power in the East. He died in 1863.

Dostoiev´sky, Feodor Mikhailovitsh, a famous Russian novelist, born 1821, died 1881. After serving as an officer of engineers he devoted himself to literature, but becoming connected with the communistic schemes of Petrashevsky, he was condemned to death. At the last moment, when Dostoievsky was already on the scaffold, the sentence was commuted, and he was banished to the mines of Siberia. Pardoned by Alexander II, he returned in 1856 to resume his literary activity. His first novel, Poor People, came out in 1846. Among his works that have appeared in English are: Crime and Punishment; Injury and Insult; The Friend of the Family; The Gambler; The Idiot; Prison Life in Siberia; Uncle's Dream; The Permanent Husband; The Brothers Karamzov; Letters from the Underworld and Other Tales. There is a complete edition of his novels by C. Garnett, 1912.—Bibliography: J. A. T. Lloyd, A Great Russian Realist; J. M. Murray, F. Dostoievsky: a Critical Study.

Dot´terel (Eudromias morinellus), a species of plover which breeds in the north of Europe, and returns to the south for the winter. In Scotland it appears in April and leaves in August, the young being hatched in July, but comparatively few breed in the British Islands. It is found all over Europe and Northern Asia. The dotterel is about 8 inches long. Contrary to the general rule the hen is larger and more brightly coloured than the cock, and the latter performs most of the duties of incubation.

Douai (dö-ā), town, France, department of Nord, on the Scarpe, 18 miles south of Lille. It is one of the oldest towns in France, of which it became part by the Treaty of Utrecht. It is strongly fortified, has a fine town-house, several handsome churches, an academy of arts and law, a lyceum, museum and public library, Benedictine college, and hospital; a cannon foundry, linen manufactories, machine-works, and tanneries. There was long here a college for British Roman Catholic priests, the most celebrated of its kind, founded by Cardinal Allen in 1568. Douai was captured by the Germans during the European War, and retaken by the Allies in Oct., 1918. It received the Cross of the Legion of Honour in Sept., 1919. Pop. 36,314.

Douai Bible, the English translation of the Bible used among English-speaking Roman Catholics, and executed by divines connected with the English College at Douai. The New Testament was published in 1582 at Rheims, the Old during 1609-10 at Douai, the translation being based on the Vulgate. Various revisions have since materially altered it.

Douarnenez (du¨-a˙r-nė-nā), a seaport, France, Finistère, on a beautiful bay of the same name, 13 miles north-west of Quimper. It depends chiefly on the sardine fishery. Pop. 13,753.

Double Fertilization. See Embryo-sac.

Double-flowering, the development, often by cultivation, of the stamens and pistils of flowers into petals, by which the beauty of the flower is enhanced and its reproductive powers sacrificed.

Double-insurance, the effecting of two insurances upon the same goods. In marine insurance it is lawful for a shipper to insure his goods twice, but only to give an additional security in the event of the failure of the first underwriters. In the event of a loss it is ultimately divided among the underwriters in the ratio of the risks they have taken.

Double-stars, or Binary Stars, stars which are so close together that they appear as one to the naked eye, but are seen to be double when viewed through a telescope. One of these stars may revolve about the other, or, more accurately speaking, both revolve round the common centre of gravity.

Doublet, a close-fitting garment, covering the body from the neck to a little below the waist. It was introduced from France into England in the fourteenth century, and was worn by both sexes and all ranks until the time of Charles II, when it was superseded, as far as men were concerned, by the coat and waistcoat. The garment got its name from being originally lined or wadded for defence.

Doublet, in lapidary work, a counterfeit stone composed of two pieces of crystal, with a colour between them, so that they have the same appearance as if the whole substance of the crystal were coloured.

Double-vault, in architecture, one vault built over another so that a space is left between the two. It is used in domes or vaulted roofs when the external and internal arrangements require vaults differing in size or shape, the outer and upper vault being made to harmonize with the exterior of the building, the inner or lower with the interior.

Doubloon´, a gold coin of Spain and of the Spanish American States, originally double the value of the pistole. The doubloon of Spain was subsequently equivalent to about a guinea sterling. The doubloon of Chile was worth about 18s. 9d. sterling; that of Mexico, £3, 4s. 8d.

Doubs (dö), a department of France, having Switzerland on its eastern frontier. Its surface is traversed by four chains of the Jura. The temperature is variable, and the climate somewhat rigorous. About a third of the land is arable, but much the greater part is covered with forests. Maize, potatoes, hemp, flax are the principal crops. Much dairy produce is made into Gruyère cheese. The minerals include iron, lead, and marble. Pop. 284,975.—The River Doubs rises in the department to which it gives its name, flows first north-east, then north-west till it joins the Saône at Verdun-sur-Saône; length, 250 miles.

Douche (dösh), a jet or current of water or vapour directed upon some part of the body; employed in bathing establishments. When water is applied, it is called the liquid douche, and when a current of vapour, the vapour douche.

Douglas (dug´las), a family distinguished in the annals of Scotland. Their origin is unknown. They were already territorial magnates at the time when Bruce and Baliol were competitors for the crown. As their estates lay on the borders they early became guardians of the kingdom against the encroachments of the English, and acquired in this way power, habits, and experience which frequently made them formidable to the Crown. We notice in chronological succession the most distinguished members of the family. James, son of the William Douglas who had been a companion of Wallace, and is commonly known as the Good Sir James, early joined Bruce, and was one of his chief supporters throughout his career, and one of the most distinguished leaders at the battle of Bannockburn. He was called 'Black Douglas' from his swarthy complexion. He fell in battle with the Moors while on his way to the Holy Land with the heart of his master, in 1331.—Archibald, youngest brother of Sir James, succeeded to the regency of Scotland in the infancy of David. He was defeated and killed at Halidon Hill by Edward III in 1333.—William, son of the preceding, was created first earl in 1357. He recovered Douglasdale from the English, and was frequently engaged in wars with them. He fought at the battle of Poitiers and died in 1384.—James, the second earl, who, like his ancestors, was constantly engaged in border warfare, was killed at the battle of Otterburn in 1388. After his death the earldom passed to an illegitimate son of the Good Sir James, Archibald the Grim, Lord of Galloway.—Archibald, son of Archibald the Grim and fourth earl, was the Douglas who was defeated and taken prisoner by Percy (Hotspur) at Homildon 14th Sept., 1402. He was also taken prisoner at Shrewsbury 23rd July, 1403, and did not recover his liberty till 1407. He was killed at the battle of Verneuil, in Normandy, in 1427. Charles VII created him Duke of Touraine, which title descended to his successors. He was surnamed 'The Tyneman', or loser, on account of his many misfortunes in battle.—William, sixth earl, born 1422, together with his only brother David was assassinated by Crichton and Livingstone at a banquet to which he had been invited in the name of the king, in Edinburgh Castle, on 24th Nov., 1440. Jealousy of the great power which the Douglases had acquired from their possessions in Scotland and France was the cause of this deed.—William, the eighth earl, a descendant of the third earl, restored the power of the Douglases by a marriage with his cousin, heiress of another branch of the family; was appointed Lord-Lieutenant of the kingdom, and defeated the English at Sark. Having entered into treasonous league, he was invited by James II to Stirling and there murdered by the king's own hand, 22nd Feb., 1452.—James, the ninth and last earl, brother of the preceding, took up arms with his allies to avenge his death, but was finally driven to England, where he continued an exile for nearly thirty years. He entered Scotland on a raid in 1484, but was taken prisoner and confined in the abbey of Lindores, where he died in 1488. His estates, which had been forfeited in 1455, were bestowed on the fourth Earl of Angus, the 'Red Douglas', the representative of a younger branch of the Douglas family, which continued long after to flourish. The fifth Earl of Angus, Archibald Douglas, was the celebrated 'Bell-the-Cat', one of whose sons was Gawin Douglas the poet. He died in a monastery in 1514. Archibald, the sixth earl, married Queen Margaret, widow of James IV, attained the dignity of regent of the kingdom, and after various vicissitudes of fortune, having at one time been attainted and forced to flee from the kingdom, died about 1560. He left no son, and the title of Earl of Angus passed to his nephew David. James Douglas, brother of David, married the heiress of the Earl of Morton, which title he received on the death of his father-in-law. His nephew, Archibald, eighth Earl of Angus and Earl of Morton, died childless, and the earldom of Angus then passed to Sir William Douglas of Glenbervie, his cousin, whose son William was raised to the rank of Marquess of Douglas. Archibald, the great-grandson of William, was raised in 1703 to the dignity of Duke of Douglas, but died unmarried in 1761, when the ducal title became extinct, and the marquessate passed to the Duke of Hamilton, the descendant of a younger son of the first marquess. The line of Angus or the Red Douglas is now represented by the Houses of Hamilton and Home, who both claim the title of Earl of Angus.—Bibliography: David Hume of Godscroft, A History of the House of Douglas and Angus; Sir H. Maxwell, A History of the House of Douglas.

Douglas, Gawin, an early Scottish poet of eminence. He was the son of Archibald, fifth Earl of Angus, and was born at Brechin about 1474. He received a liberal education, commenced at home and completed at the University of Paris. On returning to Scotland he took orders in the Church, and ultimately became Bishop of Dunkeld, through the influence of his nephew, the sixth Earl of Angus, who married Queen Margaret, widow of James IV. He died of the plague in 1522 in London, where he had been obliged to take refuge on account of political commotions. He translated Virgil's Æneid into verse with much spirit and elegance, prefixing original prologues to the different books of the original. This was the first poetical translation into English of any classical author. It was written about 1512, and first published in 1553. He also wrote The Palace of Honour and King Hart, both allegorical poems.—Cf. J. H. Millar, Literary History of Scotland.

Douglas, Sir Howard, Baronet, G.C.B., a British general, born in 1776, the son of Admiral Sir Charles Douglas. He served in Spain in the Peninsular War, and acquired much reputation by his writings on military subjects, especially by his Military Bridges and the Passage of Rivers (1816), and Treatise on Naval Gunnery (1819). From 1823 to 1829 he was Governor of New Brunswick, and from 1835 to 1840 Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian Islands. He attained the rank of general in 1851, and died in Nov., 1861.

Douglas, Stephen Arnold, American politician, born in Vermont, 1813, died 1861. Having gone to Jacksonville, Illinois, he became an attorney, was appointed Attorney-General for the State, and in 1843 was elected a member of the United States House of Representatives. In 1847 he was elected to the Senate, and by re-election was a member of this body till his death. He was especially prominent in connection with the question as to the extension of slavery into new states and territories, which he maintained was a matter to be settled by the people of the respective states or territories, and not by Congress. He was a presidential candidate in 1860, when Lincoln was elected.

Douglas, Sir William Fettes, painter, born in Edinburgh 1822, died in 1891. He was educated at the High School in that city, spent ten years in a bank before finally deciding (in 1847) upon the artist's profession. In 1851 he was elected an Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy, and three years later a full member. In 1877 he became Curator of the National Gallery of Scotland, resigning the post in 1882 on his election as president of the Royal Scottish Academy. Among the finest of his early pictures are: Bibliomania (1852, in the National Gallery), The Ruby Ring (1853), The Alchemist (1855), Hudibras and Ralph visiting the Astrologer (1856), and The Rosicrucian (1856), many of these showing much of the Pre-Raphaelite spirit, with abundance of detail. After 1870 he devoted himself rather to landscape, and his Stonehaven Harbour and A Fishing Village (1874-5) are perhaps his masterpieces. He was knighted in 1882.

Douglas (dug´las), capital of the Isle of Man, is situated on the south-east coast, on a beautiful semicircular bay. It is frequented by immense numbers of visitors during the summer. Among the objects of interest are the House of Keys, the custom-house, the extensive breakwater, and the promenade. Pop. 21,192.

Douglass, Frederick, American lecturer and journalist, was born at Tuckahoe, in Maryland, about 1817. His father was a white man, but his mother being a negro slave, he was, according to the law, reared as a slave. In 1832 he was purchased by a Baltimore shipbuilder, but made his escape in 1838. As he had taught himself to read and write, and showed talent as an orator, he was employed by the Anti-slavery Society as one of their lecturers. In 1845 he published his autobiography, and afterwards made a successful lecturing tour in England. In 1870 he started a journal entitled The New National Era; in 1871 he was appointed secretary of the Commission to Santo Domingo; in 1877 Marshal for the district of Columbia, then Commissioner of Deeds, and eventually Minister to Hayti. He died in 1895.

Doulton (dōl´tun), Sir Henry, 'the greatest potter of the nineteenth century', born in Lambeth in 1820, died in 1897. On leaving University College School, in 1835, he joined his father, who had carried on a small pottery since 1815, and began by perfecting himself in all the mechanical processes then used by potters. He scored his first distinct success in 1846 with glazed drain-pipes, and in 1851 and 1862 the firm obtained medals for stoneware vessels and chemical apparatus. At the South Kensington Exhibition in 1871 a striking display was made of the new Doulton artistic ware. Doulton exhibited at Vienna in 1873, and at Paris five years later, when he was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He then established a school of artists in connection with his manufactory, with the object of promoting originality in design. He received the Albert gold medal of the Society of Arts in 1885, and was knighted at the Jubilee two years later.

Doum Palm (dōm), a palm tree, Hyphæne thebaica. It is remarkable, like the other species of the genus, for having a repeatedly branched stem. Each branch terminates in a tuft of large fan-shaped leaves. The fruit is about the size of an apple; it has a fibrous mealy rind, which tastes like gingerbread (whence the name gingerbread tree sometimes applied to this palm), and is eaten by the poorer inhabitants of Upper Egypt, where it grows. An infusion of the rind is also used as a cooling beverage in fevers. The seed is horny, and is made into small ornaments. Ropes are made of the fibres of the leaf-stalks.

Doune (dön), a police borough in W. Perthshire, Scotland, on the River Teith, 9 miles north-west of Stirling, once famous for its manufacture of Highland pistols and sporrans. The old ruined castle—an imposing structure now partially repaired—is described in Scott's Waverley. Pop. 890.

Douro (dö´rō), one of the largest rivers of the Spanish Peninsula, which, flowing west, traverses about one-half of Spain and the whole of Portugal, and, after a course of 500 miles, falls into the Atlantic 3 miles below Oporto. It is navigable for small vessels for about 70 miles.

Dove. See Turtle-dove and Pigeon.

Dove (dōv), a river, England, Derbyshire, which, after a course of 39 miles through highly picturesque scenery, falls into the Trent.

Dove-cotes. Pigeon-keeping to provide a food-supply is a practice of considerable antiquity, and dove-cotes are found in many quarters of the world. Those introduced into Britain by the Normans were modelled on the Roman columbarium, a massive circular structure, lined with nest-holes, and having a domed roof. A fine example of this type, built 1326, survives at Garway, Herefordshire. Till towards the end of the sixteenth century, these buildings, numbering some 26,000, formed items of manorial privilege in England, and were long confined to Scottish baronies. About this period square and octagonal forms became common, a fine brick specimen of the latter style remaining at Whitehall, Shrewsbury. In Scotland typical 'doo'-cots' exist in the Edinburgh suburbs of Liberton and Corstorphine. That at Liberton, a type common in Scotland but rare in England, is oblong, with lean-to roof and two compartments—probably to avoid disturbing the whole flock when 'squabs' were taken from the nests. Dove-cotes fell generally into disuse when the introduction of 'roots' insured the winter feeding of farm-stock and a consequent steady supply of fresh meat; but their antiquarian interest and frequent beauty call for the careful preservation of existing specimens.

Dove Deities. The cult of the dove is of great antiquity. In Crete and at Mycenæ, and in the area of Hittite control in Asia Minor, it was connected with the Mother-goddess. The bird appears in archaic clay figurines from Phœnicia, Rhodes, Delos, Athens, and Etruria. Whether or not the dove cult originated in Crete or Asia Minor is uncertain. Some think it is of Egyptian origin, but there is no trace of a dove goddess in Nilotic art. In the love poems found in Egyptian tombs, however, the dove is referred to, being in one case addressed by a lover, who asks it if love is to be denied to her; she then tells the dove that she has found her chosen one and is happy by his side. The pigeon was protected in Egypt, and is still regarded as a 'luck bird', and it may have been connected with ancient folk religion. In Babylonia and Assyria the dove was associated with the goddess Ishtar, but not specially during the earlier periods. The Allatu bird is, however, referred to in the Gilgamesh epic, and Pinches has translated the suggestive reference in an Ishtar hymn, Like a lonely dove I rest. In another hymn the worshipper moans like a dove. According to Diodorus, the famous Assyrian Queen Semiramis, who was abandoned after birth, was protected and fed by doves. In Crete two forms of the Great Mother-goddess, who was an Aphrodite in one of her phases, were the snake goddess and the dove goddess. Two doves appear on a model of a Mycenæan shrine. The dove is associated with the Hittite goddess at Marash, Yarre, and Fraktin. It is sometimes found with the nude Syrian goddess. Lucian states, in reference to a Syrian cult, that the dove is the holiest bird (De Dea Syria, chapter liv), and that there was a golden dove in the temple, but nothing was known regarding its origin, some referring it to Dionysus, some to Deukalion, and some to Semiramis (a name said to mean mountain dove) (chapter xxxiii). Ælian tells that the dove was the sacred companion of Astarte (Hist. Nat., iv, 2). Like the Egyptians, the Semites regarded the pigeon with veneration. The Hebrews sacrificed it on special occasions (Num. vi, 10; Lev. xiv, 4, 49). Noah sent out a dove from the ark (Gen. viii, 8). A prophet mourns as a dove (Is. xxxviii, 14). The dove is 'silly' (Hos. vii, 11). Doves were sold in the temple (Mark, xi, 15). The Spirit of God appears as a dove (Matt. iii, 16). According to Herodotus, the Persians drove away white pigeons, connecting them with leprosy (Book I, 139). At Dodona, the famous sanctuary in Epirus, auguries were taken from the moaning of doves in the tree-tops, and the priestesses of Zeus were called doves (Peleiai). Doves and pigeons were mystical birds in the British Isles. In England it was believed that one could not die on a bed of pigeon feathers, and the dying person had, therefore, to be removed from one so that the suffering might not be prolonged. The early Christian saints reverenced the dove. St. Gregory the Great is shown with a dove on his shoulder, and the emblem of St. Remigius is a dove with an oil-cruse in its beak. A snow-white dove with golden bill was wont to sit on the head of St. Mungo, the patron saint of Glasgow. Stories used to be told of sick persons recovering on seeing a white dove on an altar. In the folk lore attached to the memory of Michael Scott, the dove is connected with heaven, and the raven with hell. St. Columba's name signifies 'Dove'. Dove-cotes were connected with old churches, especially in England.

Do´ver, a municipal borough of England, county of Kent, 67 miles south-east of London. It lies on the coast of the Straits of Dover, and is 21 miles distant from Calais on the French coast. It is an important railway terminus, and as a port for mail and packet service with the Continent has a large passenger traffic. Ship-building, sail-making, and fisheries are carried on. There are two docks and a tidal harbour; an outer harbour of 70 acres, enclosed by a new pier and the extended Admiralty Pier, completed in 1871. Very extensive harbour improvements, begun in 1893, were carried out in subsequent years. The celebrated castle stands on a high chalk cliff. Dover is the chief of the Cinque Ports, and has extensive barracks. A parliamentary borough till 1918, Dover now gives its name to a parliamentary division of Kent. Dover was frequently raided by German aviators during the European War. Pop. 43,645.

Dover, a city of the United States, in New Hampshire. It is situated on both sides of the Cochecho, which has here a fall of over 30 feet, affording abundant water-power for the large iron and cotton manufactories. Pop. 13,247.

Dover, Straits of, the narrow channel between Dover and Calais which separates Great Britain from the French coast. At the narrowest part it is only 21 miles wide. The depth of the channel at a medium in the highest spring-tides is about 25 fathoms. On both the French and English sides the chalky cliffs show a correspondency of strata which leaves no room for doubt that they were once united, a fact which is clearly shown by many other proofs.

Dover's Powder, a preparation frequently used in medical practice to produce perspiration. It consists of 1 grain of opium, 1 of ipecacuanha, and 8 of sulphate of potash in every 10 grains, which constitute a full dose. It is named after Thomas Dover, an English physician of the eighteenth century.

Dovre-Fjeld (dō-vre-fyel), an assemblage of mountain masses in Norway, forming the central part of the Scandinavian system, and extending as a plateau 2000 feet high E.N.E. from lat. 62° N. to lat. 63°. It is generally composed of gneiss and mica schist. One of the mountains belonging to it is Snehaetta, 7620 feet.

Dow, Gerard, an eminent painter of the Dutch school, was the son of a glazier, and born at Leyden in 1613. He studied under Rembrandt, and united his master's manner in chiaroscuro with the most minute finish and delicacy. Among his pictures, generally of small size and mostly scenes of family life, are: The Evening School, Young Mother, Woman Sick with Dropsy, and The Bible Reader. Dow died in 1675.

Dowden, Edward, English critic, historian, and educator, was born at Cork in 1843, died in 1913. He studied at Queen's College, Cork, and Trinity College, Dublin, where he gained great distinction, especially in English and Philosophy; and in 1867 he was elected to the professorship of English literature in the university. He was the first Taylorian lecturer at Oxford University in 1889, and held the Clark lecturership in English literature at Trinity College, Cambridge, from 1893 to 1896. Besides contributing to periodicals, Professor Dowden published various works on literary subjects, in particular: Shakspere: his Mind and Art (1875); Shakspere Primer; Studies in Literature; Southey; Southey's Correspondence with Caroline Bowles; Life of Shelley (2 vols., 1886), the chief authority on the poet's life, being founded on papers in the possession of the Shelley family; Wordsworth's Poetical Works (1892-3); Introduction to Shakspere (1893); New Studies in Literature (1895); The French Revolution and English Literature (lectures delivered at Princeton College, New Jersey, in 1896); History of French Literature (1897); Robert Browning (1904); Michel de Montaigne (1905); Essays, Modern and Elizabethan (1910). A volume of poems by him appeared in 1876, and his collected Poetical Works and Letters appeared in 1914.

Dower (Fr. douaire, Lat. dos, dower), in English law, is the right which a wife (not being an alien) has in the freehold lands and tenements of which her husband dies possessed and undisposed of by will. By common law this right amounts to one-third of his estate during her life; by local custom it is frequently greater. Where the custom of gavelkind prevails, the widow's share is a half, and that of free-bench gives her the whole or a portion of a copyhold, according to the custom of the manor. The term is also applied to the property which a woman brings to her husband in marriage, but this is more correctly dowry.

Dowie, John Alexander, religious impostor, born at Edinburgh in 1847, died in 1907. Educated at the university of his native town, he joined his family in Sydney, Australia, and entered the ministry as clergyman of the Congregational denomination. In 1878 he started evangelistic work, maintaining that it was wrong to take a minister's salary. In 1882 he established a tabernacle at Melbourne, and began to practise faith-healing. He then came to the United States, where he organized his own Church, establishing it in 1901 at Zion City, 42 miles from Chicago, on the shore of Lake Michigan. He styled himself 'Elijah II', and 'the First Apostle of the Lord Jesus Christ, and General Overseer of the Catholic Apostolic Church'. Suspended in 1906 by his congregation of Zion City, who accused him of tyranny, polygamy, and misuse of funds, he died shortly afterwards.

Dowlais, a town of South Wales, Glamorganshire, included in the parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydfil, from which it is distant 1½ miles north-east, with important iron- and steelworks. Pop. 18,112.

Dowlas, a kind of coarse linen formerly much used by working people for shirts; this use of it is now generally superseded by calico.—Cf. Shakespeare, 1st Henry IV, iii, 3.

Dowletabad. See Daulatabad.

Down, a county of Ireland, in Ulster, bounded on the north by Belfast Lough and on the east by the Irish Sea; area, 610,730 acres, of which over five-sixths are productive. Down is copiously watered by the Rivers Bann, Lagan, and Newry, and has numerous small lakes. The surface is very irregular, and in parts mountainous, Slieve Donard, in the Mourne Mountains, being 2796 feet high. Agriculture is in a flourishing condition, oats, wheat, flax, turnips, and potatoes being the principal crops. The native breed of sheep is small, but valued for the delicacy of its mutton and the fine texture of its wool. The principal manufactures are linen and muslin. The fisheries on the coast, principally cod, haddock, and herring, are considerable. The county has five parliamentary divisions, each returning a member. The county town is Downpatrick; others are Newry, Newtownards, Bangor, and Banbridge. Pop. 204,303.

Downing College, one of the colleges of the University of Cambridge, chartered in 1800 and opened in 1821. Its founder was Sir George Downing, a Cambridgeshire gentleman.

Downing Street, a street in London, leading from Whitehall. The name is used as a synonym for the British Government, the Foreign Office and Colonial Office being located in it. No. 10 is the official residence of the Prime Minister, and No. 11 that of the Chancellor of the Exchequer.

Downpat´rick, a market town of Ireland, county town of Down, 21 miles S.E. of Belfast. It is the seat of the diocese of Down, Connor, and Dromore, has a cathedral, and is celebrated as the supposed burial-place of St. Patrick. Pop. 3200.

Downs, a term given to undulating grassy hills or uplands, specially applied to two ranges of undulating chalk hills in England, extending through Surrey, Kent, and Hampshire, known as the North and South Downs. The word is sometimes used as equivalent to dunes or sand-hills.

Downs, The, a celebrated roadstead for ships, extending 6 miles along the east coast of Kent in England, protected on the seaward side by the Goodwin Sands.

Downton, a town of England, in Wilts., on the Avon, 6½ miles S.S.E. of Salisbury; an ancient place, with a large cruciform church in the Norman and later styles, an old earthwork mound called 'the Moat', and an agricultural college. Pop. 1933.

Doxol´ogy (from Gr. doxa, praise, glory, and logos), a set form of words giving glory to God, and especially a name given to two short hymns distinguished by the title of greater (Glory be to God on high, &c.) and lesser (Glory be to the Father, &c.). Both the doxologies have a place in the Church of England liturgy, the latter being repeated after every psalm, and the former used in the communion service.

Doyen, Eugène Louis, famous French surgeon, born at Rheims in 1859, died at Paris in 1916. He made numerous discoveries in gynæcological surgery, and in 1895 established a private clinic, where many French and foreign surgeons came to study under him. His surgical methods were adopted, although his claim to have discovered the germ of cancer has been disputed. In 1898 he received the degree of LL.D. from the University of Edinburgh, where he introduced the method of teaching surgery by means of the cinematograph. His works include: La maladie et le médecin and Le Cancer.

Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan, English novelist, a nephew of Richard Doyle, born at Edinburgh, 1859, studied medicine, and for some years practised, but gave up the profession for that of literature. In 1887 he produced A Study in Scarlet, in which he created the detective Sherlock Holmes. Among his other books are: Micah Clarke, The Sign of Four, The White Company, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, Brigadier Gerard, The Great Boer War, The Crime of the Congo, The Lost World, The Poison Belt, The British Campaign in France and Flanders, The New Revelation, and The Vital Message.

Doyle, Sir Francis Hastings Charles, English poet, born 21st Aug., 1810, died 8th June, 1888, was the son of Major-General Sir Francis Hastings Doyle, first baronet, succeeding his father in the title in 1839. Educated at Eton and Oxford, he graduated with first-class honours in classics in 1832, and held a fellowship at All Souls' from 1835 to 1844. After some years' work as a barrister, he became Receiver-General, and in 1869 Commissioner of Customs, having two years previously been elected professor of poetry at Oxford in succession to Matthew Arnold, a position to which he was re-elected for a second term five years later. He had already published Miscellaneous Verses (1840); The Two Destinies (1844); The Return of the Guards and other Poems (1866); and subsequently printed his Oxford Lectures (1869 and 1877) and Reminiscences and Opinions, 1813-85 (1886).

Doyle, Richard, an artist, born in London in 1824, died in 1883. He was long well known as a constant contributor of satirical designs to Punch, and also showed much talent in illustrations to Leigh Hunt's Jar of Honey, Thackeray's Newcomes and his Rebecca and Rowena, and Ruskin's King of the Golden River. Afterwards he devoted himself to water-colour painting.

Dozy (dō´zi), Reinhart, Dutch Orientalist and historian, born 1820, died 1883. He was thoroughly versed in most of the Semitic tongues, and spoke and wrote almost all the European languages with facility. Among his works (sometimes in Dutch, sometimes in French) are: Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne de 711-1110, Géographie d'Edrisi, De Israelieten te Mekka, Het Islamisme], Supplements aux Dictionnaires Arabes.

Draa, or Wady Draa, a river, or rather water-course, of Morocco, rising in the Atlas Mountains and flowing generally south-east, until, after penetrating the Anti-Atlas range and passing several oases, it suddenly turns westwards, and forms the shallow lagoon El Debaia. From this point until it enters the ocean it is a wady, and forms the southern boundary of Morocco.

Dracæ´na, a genus of endogenous evergreen plants, nat. ord. Liliaceæ. It includes the dragon tree of Teneriffe (D. Draco), celebrated for producing the resin called dragon's blood. Several species of Dracæna are cultivated in greenhouses for the beauty of their foliage, but many of the fine plants known by this name belong strictly to other genera.

Drachenfels (drä´hen-fels; 'dragon rock'), "the castled crag of Drachenfels", as Byron calls it, a hill in Rhenish Prussia, about 8 miles south-east of Bonn, rising 900 feet above the Rhine, and crowned by the old castle of Drachenfels.

Drachma (drak´ma), the unit of weight and of money among the ancient Greeks. It was the principal Greek coin, was made of silver, and was worth (the Attic drachma) about 9¾d. As a weight amongst the Greeks it was about 2 dwt. 7 grains troy. The monetary unit of modern Greece is also called a drachma. Since 1867 its value has been equivalent to that of the franc of the Latin Monetary Union. It is divided into 100 lepta.

Draco, a legislator of Athens, about 620 B.C., whose name has become proverbial as an inexorable and bloodthirsty lawgiver, and whose laws were said to have been written in blood, not ink. Suidas says that he met his death at Ægina, being unintentionally suffocated by the caps and cloaks thrown at him by some of his enthusiastic supporters.

Draco, the Dragon, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, consisting of a long and straggling line of stars, coiled about Ursa Minor, the Lesser Bear. The Pole of the Ecliptic, or earth's orbital plane, is in this constellation, and round that point the Pole of the Equator, at present close to α Ursæ Minoris (the 'Pole Star'), travels in a circle in about 26,000 years. Some 4000 years ago α Draconis was pole-star.

Drag, (1) a long coach or carriage, generally uncovered and seated round the sides; (2) an apparatus for retarding or stopping the rotation of one wheel or of several wheels, in carriages especially; (3) an apparatus, consisting of a frame of iron with a bag-net attached, used to recover articles lost in the water.

Drag-net, a net drawn along the bottom of a river or pond to catch fish. The use of drag-nets is usually prohibited in rivers where fish breed, as it takes all indiscriminately.

Drago Doctrine, a doctrine formulated by L. M. Drago, an Argentinian jurist and Minister for Foreign Affairs, and asserting the principle that no power had a right to impose itself by force of arms upon any of the Spanish American nationalities. Drago first advanced his doctrine in 1902, when the British, German, and Italian fleets were blockading the Venezuelan coast to compel President Castro to pay certain claims made upon his government.

Dragomirov, Mikhail Ivanovitch, Russian general, born in 1830, died in 1905. He became known as lecturer on military tactics, and was appointed chief of the Russian general staff at Kiev. During the Russo-Turkish War he distinguished himself at the crossing of the Danube at Sistova, and was wounded at the Shipka Pass. Retired from active service, he was director of the War Academy at St. Petersburg, Governor-General of Kiev from 1898 to 1902, and member of the Council of the Empire. His works include: The Austro-Prussian War, A Study on the Novel 'War and Peace', The French Soldier, War is an Inevitable Evil, and Duels.

Dragomirov, Vladimir, son of the former, was prominent as a commander during the European War, and took part in the offensive in Galicia in 1916. In 1919 he was president of General Denikin's Political Council, and Governor of Kiev.

Dragon (Gr. drakon, 'the seeing one', a serpent). This 'composite wonder beast' is prominent not only in fairy lore and mediæval romances, but in ancient religious systems. In the mythical history of the East the dragon is the symbol of anarchy and destruction, and the idea was taken over by Christianity, which looked upon the dragon as an emblem of the devil. In Ancient Egypt certain of the deities had serpentine forms, as have still some of the dragons of India, China, and Japan. The Egyptian 'fiery flying serpent' is a dragon, as is also the Apep serpent of night and death, through which the sun-barque of Ra was supposed to pass each night. Biblical references to it as the 'worm' include: "Their worm shall not die" (Is. lxvi, 24); "The worm shall eat them like wool" (Is. li, 8); "In that day the Lord, with his sore, and great, and strong sword, shall punish leviathan the piercing serpent," &c. (Is. xxvii, 1); "The great dragon was cast out, that old serpent, he that is called the Devil and Satan" (Rev. xii, 9). See also Ps. lxxxvii, 4, and lxxxix, 10; Amos, ix, 3; and Is. li, 9. Osiris, as the Nile, was a dragon on which were human heads. In the Pyramid Texts he is addressed as "the Great Green" (the Mediterranean Sea), and the one who is "round as the Great Circle (Okeanos)." On the sarcophagus of Seti I he is "Osiris encircling the Nether World." Set, who slew him, had a 'roaring serpent' form and hid in a hole; he resembled Typhon. The Babylonian dragon Tiamat was the Great Mother of all the deities, and was slain by her descendant Marduk (Merodach), who formed the earth and sky from her body; her blood ran as the flooded rivers to the sea. In India the drought-demon is a water confiner. When slain by Indra with the thunderbolt, the rainy season ensues. The Naga serpent-gods are dragons who may assume human or half-human, half-reptile forms. They guard treasure and chiefly pearls. Early pearl-fishers believed that the shark was the owner and guardian of pearls. Among the Chinese dragons is the lion-headed shark. All the Chinese dragons have pearls in their mouths, and are supposed to spit out pearls. Dragon deities are connected with the moon, which is 'the night-shining pearl,' and in Mexico 'the pearl of heaven'. The Mexican dragon resembles the Chinese, Indian, and Babylonian dragons. The Indian wonder-beast, the Makara, the vehicle of the sea-god Varuna, is similar to the dragon of the Babylonian mother-goddess Ishtar seen on the famous Ishtar gate of Babylon. Makara forms include the lion-headed dolphin, the crocodile-headed fish, and the ram-headed fish so like the 'goat fish' or 'antelope fish' of the Babylonian sea-god Ea, and resembling the Greek horse-headed, dog-headed, and man-headed fish (Tritons). Japanese dragons are serpentine 'water fathers', which are prayed to in time of drought. The Chinese dragons are rain-bringers which sleep during the winter (the season of drought) in pools and rise to fight and thunder in spring. They are hatched from stones as snakes, or from sea-plants, or are transformed fish, or are born from aged pine trees. They are coloured according to their attributes, and may assume human forms or be horse-headed with a snake's tail. That the composite dragon-god is a mixture of several ancient animal-gods is evident by the following description of one class of dragon by a Chinese writer: "His horns resemble those of a stag, his head that of a camel, his eyes those of a demon, his neck that of a snake, his belly that of a clam, his scales those of a carp, his claws those of an eagle, his soles those of a tiger, his ears those of a cow." Dragons may transform themselves into fishes, snakes, crows, dogs, rats, cows, sharks, whales, crocodiles, &c., as well as human beings. The 'will o' wisp' is the 'dragon lantern', and the dragon pearl is the 'jewel that grants all desires' in India, China, and Japan. Dragon herbs cure diseases and prolong life. Dragons carry souls to the Celestial regions, or draw vehicles in which souls stand. This Far Eastern belief existed in Ancient Crete too. On a Cretan sarcophagus is a chariot drawn by two griffins (forms of the dragon) in which stands a woman, probably a goddess, and a swathed pale figure, the deceased. Shakespeare has interesting dragon references, including:

The dragon wing of night o'erspreads the earth,...

(Troilus and Cressida, V, 8, 17.)

Swift, swift, you dragons of the night, that dawning

May bare the raven's eye.

(Cymbeline, ii, 2, 49.)

It is believed that the treasure-guarding dragon of the romances had origin in mixed memories regarding the pearl-guarding shark, the fiery flying serpent, and the ancient serpent and crocodile demons of destruction, flood, darkness, and death. The whole idea of dragons may have originated from traditions about the pterodactyls which lived in the Mesozoic period.

The dragon being a symbol of destruction and a power of evil, the slaying of a dragon was considered a great achievement of mediæval heroes, such as King Arthur, Beowulf, Siegmund, and Tristram.—Cf. G. Elliot Smith, The Evolution of the Dragon; M. W. de Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan.

Dragon, or Dragon-lizard, a name for several species of lizards inhabiting South-East Asia. The common flying lizard (Draco volans), the best type of the genus, is about 10 or 12 inches in length, the tail being extremely long in proportion to the body. The sides are furnished with peculiar extensions of the skin, resembling wings, which help to support it in the air as it springs from branch to branch. These wing-like processes are borne by prolongations of five or six of the hindermost ribs, and can be folded up. Its food consists almost exclusively of insects.

Drag´onet, the common name of small marine fishes constituting a special family (Callionymidæ). The gemmeous dragonet (Callionymus lyra) is found in the British seas. The female is dull brown and much smaller than the male, which is brilliantly coloured with spots and bars of blue on a yellow ground. His first dorsal fin is large and drawn out into a long filament.

Dragon-fly, the common name of members of a family (Odonata or Libellulidæ) of neuropterous insects. They have a large head, large eyes, and strong horny mandibles. They are beautiful in form and colour, and are of very powerful flight. The great dragon-fly (Æschna grandis) is about 4 inches long, and the largest of the British species. They live on insects, and are remarkable for their voracity. The dragon-fly deposits its eggs in the water, where the wingless nymphs live on aquatic insects. The nymph stage lasts for a year. The family is of very wide distribution. The small blue Agrion is a common European form, but the familiar Libellula is the most extensively distributed. See Demoiselle.

Dragonnades, or Dragonades, the name given to the persecutions directed against the Protestants, chiefly in the south of France, during the reign of Louis XIV, shortly before the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. Bands of soldiers, headed by priests, marched through the villages, giving the Protestant inhabitants the alternative of renouncing their faith or being given over to the extortions and violence of the soldiery. The dragoons were conspicuous in these expeditions, to which they gave their name. The Dragonnades drove thousands of French Protestants out of France.—Cf. Tylor, The Huguenots in the Seventeenth Century.

Dragon's Blood, or Gum Dragon, a resinous juice, usually obtained by incision from various tropical plants, as Calămus Draco, Dracæna Draco, Pterocarpus Draco, &c. It varies in composition, and is often much adulterated. It is opaque, of a reddish-brown colour, brittle, and has a smooth shining conchoidal fracture. It is soluble in alcohol and oil, but scarcely so in water. It is used for colouring varnishes, for staining marble, leather, and wood, and for tooth tinctures.

Dragon Tree (Dracæna Draco), a tree-like liliaceous plant, with a stem simple or divided at top, and in old age often much branched. It is a native of the Canaries, and yields the resin known as dragon's blood. It is often grown in greenhouses.

Dragoon´, a kind of mounted soldier, so called originally from his musket (dragon) having on the muzzle of it the head of a dragon. At one time dragoons served both as mounted and foot soldiers, but now only as the former. In the British army there are heavy and light dragoons. The first dragoon regiment, the Scots Greys, was formed in 1681.

Draguignan (dra˙-gē-nyän),a town of Southern France since 1793, capital of the department of Var, in a beautiful valley, 41 miles north-east of Toulon. It has some interesting buildings, and manufactures of silk, soap, and leather. Pop. 9974.

Drainage. The term comprises the drainage of areas of country by rivers and streams, the reclamation of areas from the sea, and country formerly marshy, and the provision of culverts and pipe-drains to buildings and towns.

The Fens in Lincolnshire are a notable example of a comprehensive system of drainage by means of open ditches (locally called 'drains'), into which the surplus water is lifted by means of wind- and steam-pumps.

Low-lying or flat country often requires a considerable amount of drainage, which is carried out by means of a regular system of earthenware pipes, laid 2 to 3 feet deep, and from 15 to 35 feet apart. These pipes are porous, from 2 to 3 inches in diameter, laid with butt joints, and lead into larger mains, and thence by open ditches to streams.

A method recently introduced consists in drawing a pointed cylindrical tool, 2 inches in diameter, through the ground at the required depth. This tool is dependent from a thin steel plate, which connects it with the carriage above, so that it can be drawn underground in any desired direction. This system is economical in first cost, but its useful life is considerably less than that of a piped drain, and its use is obviously confined to soils of the heavier variety.

In considering the provision of drainage to water-logged or low-lying land, every care should first be taken to improve the existing natural means of drainage, such as deepening and cleaning out streams and ditches, and removing obstructions.

It should be borne in mind that the object of land drainage is not only to remove the surplus water, but to promote a free and natural circulation of water in the soil, and to allow the mineral constituents of the water to reach the plant roots.

In the drainage of buildings, glazed socketed stoneware pipes are used, varying in diameter from 3 to 9 inches, laid straight in plan and in longitudinal section, and laid to falls, calculated to give a minimum velocity of 3 feet per second when flowing half full. These are laid in trenches, with inspection chambers at all changes in direction, and should be laid on and surrounded with concrete. In bad ground, or under dwelling houses, cast-iron pipes are employed, with special turned and bored joints. In towns these drains lead into the public sewers, which are similar stoneware pipes from 6 to 18 inches in diameter, larger sizes being constructed in brickwork or concrete, and either circular or egg-shaped form. In populous areas these sewers attain very large dimensions, the northern outfall sewers of London consisting of five parallel sewers, each 9 feet in diameter. See Draining.—Bibliography: G. S. Mitchell, Handbook of Land Drainage; Moore and Silcock, Sanitary Engineering; Gilbert Thomson, Modern Sanitary Engineering.

Drainage Tubes are fenestrated india-rubber tubes used in surgery to effect the gradual removal of the contents of a suppurating cavity. The inner end of the tube is in the cavity, and the outer end projects above the skin surface, and is usually fixed by a stitch or safety-pin, and covered with suitable dressings.

Draining, in agriculture, a method of improving the soil by withdrawing the superfluous water from it by means of channels that are generally covered over. Plants cannot thrive unless there is free circulation of air and water round their roots. The successful practice of draining in a great measure depends on a proper knowledge of the superficial strata, of their situation, relative degrees of porosity, &c. Some strata allow water to pass through them, while others more impervious force it to run or filtrate along their surfaces till it reaches more level ground below. In general, where the grounds are in a great measure flat and the soils of materials which retain the excess of moisture, they require artificial means of drainage to render them capable of yielding good crops whether of grain or grass. The wetness of land, which makes it inferior for agricultural purposes, may appear not only as surface-water but as water which flows through the lower strata, and to draw off these there are the two distinct operations of surface-draining and under-draining. The rudest form of open drains are the deep furrows lying between high-backed ridges, and meant to carry off the surplus water after the soil is completely saturated, but in doing so they generally carry off also much of the best of the soil and of the manure which has been spread upon it. The ordinary ditch is a common form of water-course useful in certain cases, as in hill pastures. But covered drains at a depth of 4 feet or so are the common forms in draining agricultural lands. They are generally either stone-drains or tile-drains. Stone-drains are either formed on the plan of open culverts of various forms, or of small stones in sufficient quantity to permit a free and speedy filtration of the water through them. The box-drain, for instance, is formed of flat stones neatly arranged in the bottom of the trench, the whole forming an open tube. In tile-drains, tiles or pipes of burnt clay are used for forming the conduits. They possess all the qualities which are required in the formation of drains, affording a free ingress to water, while they effectually exclude earth, as well as other injurious substances, and vermin. Drainage tiles and pipes have been made in a great variety of forms, the earliest of which, since the introduction of thorough draining, was the horse-shoe tile, so called from its shape. These should always rest on soles, or flats of burned clay. Pipe tiles, which combine the sole and cover in one piece, have been made of various shapes, but the best form appears to be the cylinder. An important department of draining is the draining off of the waters which are the sources of springs. The judicious application of a few simple drains, made to communicate with the watery layers, will often dry swamps of great extent, where large sums of money, expended in forming open drains in the swamp itself, would leave it but little improved. In the laying out of drains the first point to be determined is the place of outfall, which should always afford a free and clear outlet to the drains, and must necessarily be at the lowest point of the land to be drained. The next point to be determined is the position of the minor drains. In the laying out of these the surface of each field must be regarded as being made up of one or more planes, as the case may be, for each of which the drains should be laid out separately. Level lines are to be set out a little below the upper edge of each of these planes, and the drains must then be made to cross these lines at right angles. By this means the drains will run in the line of the greatest slope, no matter how distorted the surface of the field may be. All the minor drains should be made to discharge obliquely into mains or submains, and not directly into an open ditch or water-course. As a general rule, there should be a main to receive the waters of the minor drains from every 5 acres. The advantages of drainage are obvious. In the first place it brings the soil into a more suitable condition for the growth of plants, aiding in producing the finely divided and porous state which allows the roots and rootlets to spread themselves at will in order to obtain the needed supplies of food, air, and moisture. It also allows the sun's rays to produce their full effect on the soil and plants. In the presence of stagnant water a great part of this effect would be lost. See Drainage.

Drain-trap, a contrivance to prevent the escape of foul air from drains, while allowing the passage of water into them. They are of various forms. In the traps represented below it will be seen that there must always be a certain quantity of water maintained to bar the way against the escape of the gas from the drain or sewer. When additional liquid is conveyed to the trap, there is, of course, an overflow into the drain. In older types of drains the gas was prevented from escaping by a metal plate thrown obliquely over the drain mouth and dipping into the water in the vessel beyond it.

Drake, Sir Francis, an English navigator, born at Tavistock, in Devonshire, in 1539, or according to some authorities in 1545. He served as a sailor in a coasting vessel, and afterwards joined Sir John Hawkins in his last expedition against the Spaniards (1567), losing nearly all he possessed in that unfortunate enterprise. Having gathered a number of adventurers round him, he contrived to fit out a vessel in which he made two successful cruises to the West Indies in 1570 and 1571. Next year, with two small ships, he again sailed for the Spanish Main, captured the cities of Nombre de Dios and Vera Cruz, and took a rich booty which he brought safely home. In 1577 Drake made another expedition to the Spanish Main, having this time command of five ships. On this the most famous of his voyages Drake passed the Straits of Magellan, plundered all along the coasts of Chile and Peru, sacked several ports, and captured a galleon laden with silver, gold, and jewels, to the value of perhaps £200,000. He then ran north as far as 48° N. lat., seeking a passage to the Atlantic, but was compelled to return to Port San Francisco on account of the cold. He then steered for the Moluccas, and holding straight across the Indian Ocean doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and arrived at Plymouth 3rd Nov., 1580, being thus the first of the English circumnavigators. As there was no war between England and Spain, the proceedings of Drake had a somewhat dubious character, but the queen maintained that they were lawful reprisals for the action of the Spaniards, and showed her favour to Drake by knighting him on board his own ship. Five years afterwards Drake was again attacking the Spaniards in the Cape Verde Islands and in the West Indies, and in 1588 particularly distinguished himself as vice-admiral in the conflict with the Spanish Armada. In 1593 he represented Plymouth in Parliament. His later expeditions, that in 1595 against the Spanish West Indies and that to Panama, were not so successful, and his death, which took place on 28th Jan., 1596, at sea off Porto Bello, was hastened by disappointment.—Bibliography: Sir J. S. Corbett, Sir Francis Drake (English Men of Action Series), and Drake and the Tudor Navy.

Drakenberg Mountains, a range of South Africa forming the western frontier of Natal, and rising to the height of 11,000 feet, a continuation of the Quathlamba range.

Drama (Gr. drama, action, from drān, to act or do), a form of art which imitates action by introducing real persons to represent the fictitious characters, and to carry on the story by means of action and dialogue.

Man is naturally an imitative animal, and some crude form of drama must have been in existence in very early times. We can see the origins of drama in many of the games played by children, where important events such as war, marriage, and sacrifice are represented in song and dance. In Greece, the cradle of drama as of everything that is good, there must have been in prehistoric times war-dances which formed the basis of tragedy, and rough vintage revel dances which formed the basis of comedy.

Greek Drama.—The Greek drama was religious in its origin. It arose from the dithyrambs or songs composed in honour of Dionysus, the god of all vegetation, though identified most closely with the vine. When vegetation died in winter, this was considered to be the death of Dionysus; when it bloomed anew in the spring, this was thought to be the god's resurrection. The one event was celebrated with gloomy song and dance, and the other with merry revels and crude indecency. The history of Greek drama is the history of the decline and fall of the chorus. At first the chorus was the whole play, and in the Supplices of Æschylus, the earliest extant tragedy, the chorus played a predominating part. According to tradition, Thespis (about 535 B.C.) introduced for the first time a masked actor, who carried on a dialogue with the leader of the chorus. Æschylus introduced a second actor, and Sophocles a third. It is thought that there never were more than three actors, but, of course, duplication of parts was permitted. There were also frequently mute characters (kōpha prosōpa) on the stage. Dialogue became more important in the later plays of Æschylus, and chorus became less important; Sophocles developed his dialogue in masterly style, though his choruses are among the most beautiful things in all Greek poetry; in Euripides the choruses, however lovely in themselves, are less an integral part of the drama than they were in the plays of his predecessors. In fact the chorus acted as a clog on the freedom of the dramatist, who wished to develop exciting situations and depict realistic characters. In comedy the same decline of the chorus is to be found; in the Acharnians, the earliest comedy, the chorus is very prominent; in the Plutus, the last comedy extant, it is comparatively unimportant. Sumptuary laws had something to do with this, and there is a vast difference between the magnificently apparelled chorus in the Birds, and the chorus in the Lysistrata, which represented elderly Athenian men and women in their everyday costume.

Greek tragedies were usually presented in the form of trilogies, that is, in sets of three plays all dealing with the same subject. To these was added, as a rule, a fourth play, known as a satyr-play. The Cyclops of Euripides is the only example extant of this kind of play. It is not very amusing, though it contains a certain amount of horse-play and high spirits. The satyr-play was intended to lighten the gloom of the three preceding tragedies. We have one complete trilogy preserved—the magnificent Oresteia of Æschylus, consisting of the Agamemnon, Choephorœ, and Eumenides—plays which are bracketed with Lear and Othello as the highest and most majestic of all tragedies. In later times the three plays of the trilogy dealt with different subjects. The tragedies to be performed were carefully selected by some of the Athenian magistrates, and at the festival prizes were given for the best tragedy, on the recommendation of a carefully chosen jury. Comedies were presented one at a time; prizes were offered for the best of them also. Greek tragic actors wore long flowing robes, and added to their height by means of the cothurnus or thick-soled boot; it is believed that they wore masks with some sort of speaking-trumpet in the mouth, so that their words would be audible to the vast audience which assembled in the theatre, a huge circular open-air amphitheatre.

Each of the three Greek tragic writers whose work has been preserved is supreme in his own way. Æschylus's lyric dramas are among the greatest writings of all time; the plays of Sophocles are masterpieces of deft construction, of well-woven plot, and ironic dialogue; and his choruses are lyrics of the greatest beauty. Æschylus is more titanic; Sophocles is more humane. Euripides, the latest of the three, is a great poet and a champion of the weak, such as women and slaves; moreover, he sees deeply into men's hearts. He is really the founder of romantic drama, through the Roman Seneca, who imitated him. Of Greek comic poets we only possess one, but he is a host in himself. Aristophanes is a Gargantuan mirth-maker; he bestrides the narrow world like a Colossus. He plays with a master's hand upon every note in the whole comic gamut. His works, owing to the conditions of the old comedy, were very frequently political and highly personal in their tone. The later plays are less so. The Birds, Clouds, and Frogs are among the very greatest comic creations; only a little less great is the Lysistrata, where a serious purpose is veiled by intense indecency. The old comedy, however, was essentially the product of its own age; it did not invite, or even permit, imitation. The new comedy, of which Philemon, Menander, and Diphilus were the principal writers, gradually supplanted it. Their plays were more or less romantic comedies with carefully constructed plots. They are all lost, but we may gain some idea of them from Plautus and Terence, and from the fragments which have been found, some of them fairly recently.

Roman Drama.—Roman drama is not intrinsically good; it is in many respects a weak imitation of Greek drama, but it has been very much more important in its influence. Early English, French, and Italian dramatists all turned to Seneca as a model for tragedy, and to Plautus and Terence as models for comedy. This was partly due to the fact that though most of them had small Latin, they had less Greek; but it was partly because the Latin writers were easier to imitate. Italy had native farces, known as Atellan Fables, which were not without their influence on the development of comedy. These plays were broadly farcical, and dealt almost entirely with country life. The two great Roman comedy writers, Plautus and Terence, based their work, however, upon the new comedy of Greece, especially upon the plays of Menander and Diphilus. Plautus is decidedly coarse at times, and sometimes his fun is too much like that of a fourth-form boy at a public school, but his work is wholesome and vigorous, and he is a more creative and virile writer than Terence. Terence's plays are somewhat weak dramatically, but are written in a style of great beauty. He was a careful literary craftsman. Seneca, the only Roman tragic writer, had an immense influence on later dramatists. It is hard to account for this. He based his work upon Euripides, but he suppressed everything that makes Euripides tender and human. Senecan tragedy abounded in bloodshed and horrors; the speeches are full of pompous rant, and their metre is most monotonous. Some of the choruses are good rhetorical writing, though scarcely great poetry. Seneca's influence pervades all our early tragedy; it is clearly seen in Gorboduc and in Jonson's Sejanus and Catiline; even Shakespeare is not without traces of it. As the Roman Empire declined so did the Roman stage; finally nothing was performed save pantomime, in the proper sense of the word, where everything was done in dumb-show. This appeared to content the populace of the Roman Empire, even as the cinema seems to satisfy the citizens of a later and perhaps greater empire.

Mediæval Drama.—There is no drama between the death of Seneca and the Renaissance, unless we except the six curious 'comedies' of the nun Hrosvitha of Gandersheim (born about A.D. 935). These plays are based upon Terence, though they do not follow their model closely. They are, of course, written in Latin. They have some vivid dramatic touches, and frequent felicities of expression. They were probably intended for recitation, not for representation on the stage. They must be regarded as an isolated phenomenon. The Church for long discouraged drama, but ended by adapting it to its own purposes. As in Greece, therefore, drama originated in England from religion. The priests impressed certain events in sacred history upon the minds of their congregation by means of dramatic performances which at first took place actually in the church. Thus the removal of the stone from the mouth of the sepulchre and the discovery of the empty tomb was performed at Easter, and the finding of the Babe in the manger by the three Magi was represented at Epiphany. It is easy to understand how performances of this sort arose from the singing of suitable anthems on festival days. The Oberammergau passion-play is a somewhat sophisticated representative of these liturgical plays; it cannot be called a survival, as it only dates back to 1633. These mystery-plays, so called because they were produced by the trade-guilds (Lat. ministerium, a trade), were eventually brought out into the market-place on wagons, and were moved round to various 'stations' in the town, different plays being performed at each station. A distinction is sometimes made between mystery- and miracle-plays, the former being defined as dealing with gospel events only, while the latter deal with incidents derived from the legends of the saints. Several collections of these plays survive—the Wakefield, Chester, and Coventry plays. They are written in a lively fashion, and are often naively humorous, the most sacred Bible characters being introduced along with English yokels and crudely comic persons. The next development of the drama was the morality play or allegory; the well-known Everyman is the most finished specimen of this kind of play which we possess. Here personifications of Virtues and Vices formed the dramatis personæ; the Devil was usually included in the cast. Moralities were in ways less crude than mysteries, as they consisted of an allegory worked out by means of a more or less continuous plot, while mysteries consisted merely of a series of isolated scenes. The interlude is another early species of drama; it marks a still further advance. Interludes were both farcical and theological in their subjects, and played an important part in the controversies at the time of the Reformation. John Heywood (1497-1580) is the most important writer of interludes, the controversial plays of John Bale (1495-1563) serving to link the interlude to the regular drama, which began gradually to spring up.

Elizabethan Drama.—The first English comedy, Ralph Roister Doister, appeared in 1551. It is by Nicolas Udall, and is based upon the Miles Gloriosus of Plautus. Gammer Gurton's Needle, a more native production, thought to have been by John Still, who was master of St. John's College, Cambridge, and Bishop of Bath and Wells, appeared about 1566. Drama now improved rapidly, and was soon to attain perfection in Shakespeare. Marlowe, Kyd, Greene, Lyly, Nash, Lodge, and Peele all helped to prepare the way. The greatest of these is Marlowe, who died at the age of twenty-nine, leaving behind him the great plays Tamburlaine (1588), Faustus, and Edward II. In his development of blank verse he contributed greatly to the success of the drama. The earliest tragedy, Gorboduc (1562), is incredibly stiff and wooden in its versification. Marlowe made of blank verse an instrument that would sound any note of pathos or sublimity. In the plays of Shakespeare (1564-1616) drama reached its greatest height. In comedy, tragedy, history, in handling dramatic situations, and in liquid perfection of verse, he is supreme. Like the very greatest masters, he founded no school, and his contemporaries owe little to him. While they are all put in the shade by his myriad-minded genius, they are all partakers with him in the glory of their age, and are all great in themselves. Jonson (1573-1637) is one of the most important, as he to some extent founded a school and exercised considerable influence over later writers. He was a scholarly and laborious playwright, who over-elaborated some of his work, but who was a masterly adept at constructing a play, and a vigorous realist. Chapman (1559-1634), Dekker (1570-1641), and Marston (1575-1634) were all good workmanlike dramatists. Beaumont and Fletcher produced between them a great body of work, some of inferior quality, but all of great power. In some respects their work is less unlike that of Shakespeare than the work of other Elizabethans. Middleton, Webster, Tourneur, Thomas Heywood, and Massinger are all excellent in their way, Massinger in particular being a master of stage-craft. Shirley and Ford conclude the list of the great Jacobean dramatists. The Puritans caused the theatres to be closed in 1642.

Spanish and French Drama.—Meanwhile a similar outburst of dramatic activity was taking place on the Continent. In Spain, Lope de Vega (1562-1634) wrote a prodigious quantity of plays, and wrote them with much brilliance. Calderon wrote some beautiful plays, several of which have been translated by Edward Fitzgerald. Cervantes, though much better known as a novelist, wrote many good plays. The Spanish school directly inspired Corneille (1606-1684) to write his play Le Cid, and so begin the great age of classical French tragedy. Racine (1639-1700) is the other great name. French classical drama, though somewhat fettered by its observance of laws that were wrongly considered essential, is extremely dignified and beautiful. In Molière (1622-73) France possesses the greatest of all writers of society comedies. He is as supreme in his kingdom as Shakespeare is in his empire. He borrowed from his predecessors with all the licence of genius, but he payed usurious interest on his borrowings.

Restoration Drama.—When the theatres were reopened after the Restoration, many dramatists began to write. Restoration comedy was largely based on Molière, who was brutalized by Wycherley, and adapted but not improved by Congreve. Congreve was, however, a master of sparkling dialogue, and in one play, The Way of the World, he has shown himself not unworthy of comparison with his master. Vanbrugh and Farquhar are the other two important writers of comedies; all their comedies are more or less disfigured by cynicism and immorality, the reaction after the Puritan restraint. Restoration tragedy is much less important than Restoration comedy. Otway, Lee, and Southerne are its chief exponents.

Eighteenth Century Drama.—Some of these dramatists bring us into the eighteenth century, which was not on the whole prolific in good plays. Fielding wrote many amusing farces, but all were more or less hack-work. At a later period Foote, Cumberland, and the two Colmans wrote good acting plays, which have not lived. The two plays of Goldsmith and several of the plays of Sheridan still hold the stage. Sheridan owed much to the Restoration dramatists, especially Vanbrugh, but as he improved his originals in many respects, and made them much more presentable in decent society, he is entitled to most of the reputation he long enjoyed.

In France, Marivaux (1678-1763) wrote sentimental comedies, while Beaumarchais, whose own life was more exciting and varied than most plays, wrote comedies with brilliant plots. In Italy, Maffei, Goldoni, and Alfieri are notable dramatists; the last named wrote propaganda in the disguise of tragedy. In Germany, Lessing by precept and example inaugurated the 'romantic movement'; Schiller and Goethe are the two greatest names associated with the stage. Wallenstein in particular is a good chronicle-play, while Faust is considered one of the greatest of all German plays.

Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Drama.—Victor Hugo led the Romantic movement in France, and wrote many great plays, such as Hernani and Ruy Blas. De Musset wrote his plays, which he called proverbes, under the same influence, and later followers of this school are Rostand and the Belgian M. Maurice Maeterlinck. The French dramatists Augier, Scribe, and Sardou had an overwhelming influence on the English stage, not altogether for its good. English drama was at a low ebb in the middle of the nineteenth century. Lytton's plays, though sometimes performed still, are extremely theatrical. Boucicault, who made a great success by dramatizing 'the pathos of Paddy', is not a great writer. H. J. Byron was an inveterate punster and writer of burlesques of no value. One of his plays, Our Boys, was acted for many years. Robertson is the most outstanding author of what is known as 'the cup and saucer' school of comedy. His plays are very much acting plays; they are not literature, and are quite removed from real life. Gilbert was a man of great gifts, but though some of his farces and comedies are good, he was not a master of drama as he was of libretti writing. He did little to improve the drama of his day. Sir A. W. Pinero began his career as a dramatist under the ægis of Robertson, but continued it under that of Ibsen. Ibsen (1828-1906) exercised a not altogether wholesome influence upon English drama for a considerable time. His plays are extremely well-constructed, and he refused to tolerate many conventions, such as asides and soliloquies. In many of his plays he adopted the retrospective method, where the plot consists not so much in anything being done as in the gradual discovery of what has been done long before the rise of the curtain. Sophocles had done this most skilfully in Œdipus Tyrannus, but Ibsen carried the method to perfection in The Wild Duck and Rosmersholm. All Ibsen's plays are more or less unpleasant, and he did not make many of his characters sympathetic. Pinero, after writing several farces, wrote The Second Mrs. Tanqueray (1893), a masterpiece after the style of Ibsen. His House in Order is a cleverly constructed example of the retrospective method. H. A. Jones (born 1851) has written many excellent and extremely powerful plays, of which the best known are The Liars and The Case of Rebellious Susan. G. Bernard Shaw (born 1856), who combines some of the qualities of a Greek sophist with some of the foibles of a modern Irishman, has written some amusing plays, though others have been spoilt by his tendency to turn them into propaganda. Galsworthy has written plays of great earnestness; in some he has neglected the Aristotelian maxim that every play must have a beginning, a middle, and an end. Sir James Barrie has accumulated a large fortune by means of his plays, and in one at least, Peter Pan, he has made a bid for immortality.

Bibliography.—S. H. Butcher, Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art; A. E. Haigh, The Attic Theatre; E. K. Chambers, The Mediæval Stage; A. W. Pollard, English Miracle Plays; F. S. Boas, Shakespeare and his Predecessors; A. C. Bradley, Shakespearean Tragedy; Sir W. Raleigh, Shakespeare (English Men of Letters Series); Sir A. W. Ward, History of English Dramatic Literature; K. Mantzius, History of Theatrical Art; A. S. Rappoport, The English Drama (Temple Primers); T. H. Dickinson, The Contemporary Drama of England; F. Brunetière, Les Époques du théâtre français 1636-1850; A. Filon, The Modern French Drama; A. d'Ancona, Origini del teatro italiano; G. H. Lewes, The Spanish Drama.

Drammen, or Dram, a seaport of Norway, in a valley on both sides of the Drammen, at its mouth in the Drammenfiord, 25 miles S.S.W. of Christiania. It has manufactures of leather, soap, ropes, sail-cloth, earthenware, and tobacco; and is the second port in the kingdom for the export of timber.

Draper, John William, American chemist and physiologist, born at Liverpool 1811, died 1882. He went to America in 1833, and was successively professor of physical science in Hampden-Sidney College, Virginia, and of natural history, chemistry, and physiology in the University of New York. He made many contributions to scientific literature, and devoted much attention to the chemical action of light, in connection with which he effected some discoveries. Among his chief works is his History of the Intellectual Development of Europe (2 vols., 1863). His son, Henry Draper (born 1837, died 1882), chemist and astronomer, made some valuable researches on the spectra of the heavenly bodies.

Draughts, a game resembling chess played on a board divided into sixty-four checkered squares. Each of the two players is provided with twelve pieces or 'men' placed on every alternate square at each end of the board. The men are moved forward diagonally to the right or left one square at a time, the object of each player being to capture all his opponent's men, or to hem them in so that they cannot move. A piece can be captured only when the square on the diagonal line behind it is unoccupied. When a player succeeds in moving a piece to the farther end of the board (the crown-head), that piece becomes a king, and has the power of moving or capturing diagonally backwards or forwards. When it so happens that neither of the players has sufficient advantage in force or position to enable him to win, the game is drawn. Checkers is the common American name of the game.

The game does not offer the same scope for brilliance and originality as the sister game of chess, but still is much more profound than is generally supposed. It has been cultivated in Britain, and especially in Scotland, certainly for over two hundred years, and has served as a field of exercise for some extremely able intellects, which but for it might hardly have been exercised at all. Among famous players are: Andrew Anderson, of Carluke, who published a celebrated work on the game in 1852; James Wyllie, the 'Herd Laddie', who travelled over the world playing exhibition matches, and was for many years world's champion; Robert Martins, English champion about 1870, who played several matches with Wyllie; R. D. Yates, a young American player, who defeated Wyllie for the championship, but shortly afterwards gave up the game; James Ferrie, of Coatbridge, who in 1894 defeated Wyllie and became champion, to be defeated in turn by Richard Jordan of Edinburgh in 1896; Robert Stewart, of Fifeshire, many times Scottish champion, and probably the strongest player now living.

The Scottish tourney, held annually in Glasgow since 1893, except for a few years on account of the War, has done much to stimulate interest in the game. The English Draughts Association also holds a biennial tourney. Several international matches have taken place between Scotland and England, the first in 1884. This, like nearly all the other matches, was won by Scotland. In 1905 a very strong British team visited America and decisively defeated a side representing the United States.—Bibliography: James Lees, A Guide to the Game of Draughts. Early works by Payne, Sturges, Drummond, Hay, Anderson, and Bowen are now very scarce. There are several periodicals devoted to the game; and some newspapers, notably The Glasgow Weekly Herald, give it a column weekly.

Drave, or Drau (drä´ve, drou), a European river which rises in Tyrol, flows E.S.E. across the north of Illyria and the south of Styria, and between Hungary on the left and Croatia and Slavonia on the right, and, after a course of nearly 400 miles, joins the Danube 14 miles east of Essek. It is navigable for about 200 miles.

Dravid´ian, a term applied to the vernacular tongues of the great majority of the inhabitants of Southern India, and to the people themselves who inhabited India previous to the advent of the Aryans. The affinities of the Dravidian languages are uncertain. The family consists of the Tamil, Telugu, Canarese, Malayâlam, Tulu, Tuda, Gond, Rajmahal, Oraon, &c. Only the first four mentioned have a literature, that of the Tamil being the oldest and the most important. Originally the word Dravidian was a purely philological term, but it is now used in an ethnological sense as well.—Cf. R. Caldwell, Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South Indian Family of Languages.

Drawback, usually a certain amount of duties or customs dues paid back or remitted to an importer when he exports goods that he has previously imported and paid duty on, as, for instance, tobacco, &c.; or a certain amount of excise paid back or allowed on the exportation of home manufactures.

Drawbridge, a bridge with a lifting floor, such as was formerly used for crossing the ditches of fortresses, or any movable bridge over a navigable channel where the height of the roadway is insufficient to allow vessels to pass underneath. Modern drawbridges across rivers, canals, the entrances of docks, &c., are generally made to open horizontally, and the movable portion is called a bascule, balance, or lifting bridge, a turning, swivel, or swing bridge, or a rolling bridge, in accordance with the mode in which it is made to open. Swing-bridges are usually divided into two parts meeting in the middle, and each moved on pivots on the opposite sides of the channel, or they may move as a whole on a pivot in the middle of the channel. Rolling bridges are suspended from a structure high above the water, and are propelled backwards and forwards by means of rollers.

Drawing is the art of representing upon a flat surface the forms of objects, and their positions in relation to each other. The idea of nearness or distance is given by the aid of perspective, foreshortening, and gradation, and in the same way the three-dimensional quality of objects is expressed. The term drawing is sometimes limited to the representing of the forms of objects in outline, with or without the shading necessary to develop roundness or modelling. But the term has a wider significance. Any arrangement of colours or tones which serve to express form, and the relation of one form to another, is really drawing; and thus a painting may show fine draughtsmanship without line being used at all. Drawing is not a matter of the medium employed, but of the manner in which it is used. It is, however, convenient to classify drawings according to mediums, each of which produces its effect in a different way. Thus drawing may be divided into (1) pen drawing; (2) chalk, pencil, or charcoal drawing; (3) crayon and pastel drawing; (4) drawing shaded with the brush; (5) architectural or mechanical drawing. Pen drawings are often confined to pure outlines; an appearance of relief or projection being given by thickening or doubling the lines on the shadow side, or they may be shaded by combination of lines. Chalk, pencil, and charcoal drawings may be in line or tone. When the chalk is powdered and rubbed in with a stump, large masses and broad effects can be produced with much rapidity. The best draughtsmen, however, rarely use a stump. In crayon and pastel drawings the colours of the objects represented are more or less completely represented in the medium. Drawings shaded with the brush are outlined with the pencil or pen, the shading being laid on or washed in with the brush in tints of Indian ink, sepia, or colour. This was the method of the early water-colour painters in England. Architectural and mechanical drawings are those in which the proportions of a building, machine, &c., are accurately set out for the guidance of the constructor; objects are, in general, delineated by geometric or orthographic projection.

The great schools of painting all show excellent drawing, though differing in character. In Italy the Florentine school combined study of the antique with anatomical research, and produced many vigorous and expressive draughtsmen, notably Michael Angelo and Leonardo da Vinci. The Roman school, under the influence of Raphael, sacrificed vigour and expressiveness to elegance and the representation of ideal form. In the Lombard school a severe style of drawing is seen through harmonious colouring, and in the Venetian school the drawing is often veiled in the richness of the colour. The German and Dutch schools excel in a careful and minute style of naturalistic drawing, combined with good colour. The French school in the time of Poussin was very accurate in its drawing; at a later period its style betrayed a tendency to mannerism. David introduced, again, a purer taste in drawing and a close study of the antique, and these are qualities which distinguish his school (the so-called Classical school), of which Ingres is the leading representative, from the Romantic and Eclectic schools of a later period. The drawing of the British school is naturalistic rather than academic, but the work of Gainsborough and Alfred Stevens is comparable with that of earlier masters.—Bibliography: Ruskin, Elements of Drawing; Spiers, Architectural Drawing; R. S. Bowers, Drawing and Design for Craftsmen; J. H. Brown, Sketching without a Master; Harold Speed, Drawing.

Drawing-room, a room appropriated for the reception of company; a room in which distinguished personages hold levees, or private persons receive parties. Court drawing-rooms are those assemblies held from time to time for the reception or presentation to the sovereign of such ladies as by custom, right, or courtesy are admissible. Receptions at which men are presented are known as levees. The sovereign sometimes deputes a member of the royal family to receive, in which case presentations are equivalent to those made to the sovereign in person.

Drawings. The term 'drawings' is usually taken to mean drawings of an architectural or engineering nature, such as the plans of a new building prepared by an architect, or the designs for engineering works, or for machinery produced by an engineer.

Three methods are commonly made use of in preparing drawings. (1) Orthographic, which represents the subject under consideration in one plane only, and from which dimensions may be scaled off, and which is the normal method of preparing an engineering drawing. (2) Perspective or radial projection is made use of by an architect for displaying the elevations of a building, and gives a truer appreciation of the actual appearance of the building than can be obtained by orthographic projection. (3) Isometric projection enables one to show the length, breadth, and thickness of an object drawn to scale on the one drawing. Such a drawing is really composed of three sets of parallel straight lines, and is not strictly a true representation of the object as it would appear to the eye. It has the great advantage, however, that measurements may be directly scaled from it, and lines which are parallel in the object are also parallel in the drawing.

Drayton, Michael, an English poet, born in 1563, is said to have studied at Oxford, and afterwards held a commission in the army. The poem by which his name is chiefly remembered is his Polyolbion (1622, reprinted in 1890), a sort of topographical description of England. It is generally extremely accurate in its details, with, at the same time, many passages of true poetic fire and beauty. Other works are his Nymphidia, the Court of Fairy; The Barons' Wars; The Legend of Great Cromwell; The Battle of Agincourt; besides numerous legends, sonnets, and other pieces. He died in 1631, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.—Cf. O. Elton, Michael Drayton: a Critical Study.

Drayton, Market, or Drayton-in-Hales, a town, England, county Salop, 18 miles northeast of Shrewsbury. It has a church, supposed to have been erected, with exception of the steeple, in the reign of William I. There are paper and hair-cloth manufactories. Pop. 5167.

Dreams, trains of ideas which present themselves to the mind during sleep. The principal feature of the state of dreaming is the absence of conscious control over the current of thought, so that all kinds of fantastic notions, which in the waking state would at once be put aside, are woven into the texture of the dream. The usual content of dreams consists of aspirations or dreads, which the dreamer had recently entertained or experienced, mixed up with incidents which excited intense emotion at some earlier period of the individual's history, and especially in early childhood. The memory of unpleasant experiences, such, for example, as the horrors of trench warfare, which is repressed in the waking state, tends to force itself on the individual's attention when the conscious control is relaxed in sleep, and to give rise to disturbing dreams which may become so intense as to interfere with sleep and cause insomnia. The only rational remedy for this distressing trouble is to discover the painful incident and persuade the patient frankly to face it and not 'try to forget'. In recent years S. Freud has placed the study of dreams upon a scientific basis. He maintains that dreams represent the fulfilment of wishes. There is usually an utter want of coherency in the images that appear before the mental eye, but this excites no surprise in the dreamer. Occasionally, however, intellectual efforts are made during sleep which would be difficult to surpass in the waking state. It is said that Condillac often brought to a conclusion in his dreams reasonings on which he had been employed during the day; and that Franklin believed that he had been often instructed in his dreams concerning the issue of events which at that time occupied his mind. Coleridge composed from 200 to 300 lines during a dream: the beautiful fragment of Kubla Khan, which was all he was able to commit to paper when he awoke, remains a specimen of that dream-poem. Dreams are subjective phenomena dependent on natural causes. They are retrospective and resultant instead of being prospective or prophetic. The latter opinion has, however, prevailed in all ages and among all nations; and hence the common practice of divination or prophesying by dreams, that is, interpreting them as presages of coming events. Some authorities declare that all our dreams take place when we are in process of going to sleep or becoming awake, and that during deep sleep the mind is totally inactive. This is denied by the majority of philosophers, and with apparent reason.—Bibliography: Havelock Ellis, The World of Dreams; S. Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams; W. H. R. Rivers, Instinct and the Unconscious.

Dredging, a term applied to the operation of removing mud, silt, and other deposits from the bottom of harbours, canals, rivers, docks, &c. The most simple dredging apparatus is the spoon apparatus, which consists of a strong iron ring or hoop, properly formed for making an impression upon the soft matter at the bottom, so as to scoop it into a large leather bag attached to the ring and perforated with a number of small holes. The means for working it is a long handle, a suspending rope, and a crane or sweep-pole planted in a boat. Much more effective is the steam dredging-machine now in common use. It has a succession of strong iron buckets on an endless chain, which travels on a frame whose lower end is vertically adjustable so as to regulate the depth at which it works. It is worked by steam, and the buckets tear up the matter at the bottom, raise it, and discharge it into punts or hoppers close to the dredging vessel. Various forms of steam-pump dredgers, in which suction-pipes are the chief features, are also used. The River Clyde, from being a shallow stream, has been converted, mainly by dredging, into a waterway carrying large vessels up to Glasgow. Dredging rivers for gold is now largely carried on; and the gold-dredge may even be floated in water artificially supplied. The operation of dragging the bottom of the sea for molluscs, plants, and other objects, usually for scientific observation, is also called dredging. The oyster-dredge is a light iron frame with a scraper like a narrow hoe on one side, and a bag attached to receive the oysters. The dredges used by naturalists are mostly modifications of or somewhat similar to the oyster-dredge. Scientific dredging has of late assumed great importance as making us acquainted with the life of deep-sea areas.

Dreisenssia, a genus of bivalve mollusc allied to the mussels. One species (D. polymorpha) is a native of the streams which flow into the Caspian, but has been accidentally introduced into most rivers and estuaries of Europe, including those of Britain, where it is now abundant.

Drelincourt (drė-lan˙-kör), Charles, a French Calvinistic minister, born at Sedan 1595, died at Paris 1669. He was the author of many controversial works, and of Consolations against the fear of Death. To promote the sale of the English translation of this work, De Foe wrote his Apparition of Mrs. Veal.

Drenthe (dren´te), a province of Holland, bounded by Hanover, Overijssel, Friesland, and Groningen; area, 948 sq. miles. It is in general more elevated than the surrounding provinces, especially in the centre. The soil is generally poor, and the surface largely consists of heath and morass, but the province is famed for its horses and cattle. Drenthe is remarkable for the great number of so-called 'giants' graves' or barrows scattered over the country. Its capital is Assen. Pop. 200,951.

Dres´den, the capital of the Republic (former kingdom) of Saxony, is situated in a beautiful valley on both sides of the River Elbe, which is here spanned by four stone bridges and an iron railway bridge. It is first mentioned in history in 1206, and has been the residence of the sovereigns since 1485; was greatly extended and embellished by Augustus the Strong (1694-1736), and rapidly increased during the nineteenth century. Among the chief sights are the museum (joined on to an older range of buildings called the Zwinger), a beautiful building containing a famous picture-gallery and other treasures; the Japanese palace (Augusteum), containing the royal library (founded by the Elector Augustus in the sixteenth century) of 570,000 volumes, besides a rich collection of manuscripts; the Johanneum, containing the collection of porcelain and the historical museum, a valuable collection of arms, armour, and domestic utensils, belonging to the Middle Ages. The palace, built about 1530, restored and remodelled externally between 1890 and 1902, and until 1918 the residence of the kings of Saxony, has also a fine interior, and contains (in what is called the Green Vault) a valuable collection of curiosities, jewels, trinkets, and works of art. The theatre is one of the finest structures of the kind in the world. The city is distinguished for its excellent educational, literary, and artistic institutions, among which are the Technical High School, much on the plan and scale of a university; the Conservatory and School of Music; and the Academy of Fine Arts. The manufactures are not unimportant, and are various in character; the china, however, for which the city is famed, is made chiefly at Meissen, 14 miles distant. The commerce is considerable, and has greatly increased since the development of the railway system. The chief glory of Dresden is the gallery of pictures, one of the finest in the world, which first became of importance under Augustus II, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, but owes its most valuable treasures to Augustus III, who purchased the greater portion of the gallery of the Duke of Modena for £180,000. The pictures number about 3000, and in particular comprise many fine specimens of the Italian, Dutch, and Flemish schools. Besides this fine collection the museum contains also engravings and drawings amounting to upwards of 350,000. There is also a sculpture-gallery, the Albertinum, where by casts and otherwise the progress of sculpture is exemplified from the earliest times, all the most important antiques being shown. Dresden, being thus rich in treasures of art and favoured by a beautiful natural situation, is the summer resort of many foreigners. It suffered severely in the Thirty Years' War, and also in 1813, when it was the head-quarters of Napoleon's army. It was occupied by the Prussians in 1866, but was evacuated in the following spring. Pop. 548,308.

Dresden, Battle of, a battle fought in 1813 (26-27th Aug.), between the French under Napoleon and the Allies under Schwarzenberg. Napoleon had come to the relief of the city, which was occupied by the French. The Allies assaulted and bombarded the city, and soon after a great pitched battle was fought (27th Aug.), the Allies being defeated.

Dresden China, a delicate, semi-transparent, highly finished china made at Meissen, 14 miles from Dresden. The manufacture resulted from an accidental discovery made by Böttger, a young chemist, in 1710, and the vases, statuettes, groups of figures, candelabra, and clocks, manufactured during the eighteenth century are highly prized.

Dreux (dreu; Durocassis or Drocæ of the Romans), a French town, department of Eure-et-Loir, on the Blaise, near to where it joins the Eure, 20 miles N.N.W. of Chartres. It is built at the foot of a hill crowned by a dilapidated castle, which contains a chapel, founded in 1142; to which has been added the costly mausoleum of the Orleans family. A battle took place near the town in 1562 between the Royalists under Montmorency and the Huguenots under Condé, in which the latter were defeated. Pop. 10,692.

Dreyfus, Alfred, captain of artillery and general staff-officer in the French army, was born of a Jewish family in Mulhouse, Alsace, in 1859. In Oct., 1894, he was arrested on a charge of communicating military documents to a foreign Government, supposed to be Germany; and at a secret court-martial, which sat in December, he was condemned to public degradation and lifelong imprisonment. Early in 1895 he was sent to the Île du Diable (Devil's Island), near Cayenne, to undergo his sentence. About the middle of the same year Colonel Picquart became head of the Intelligence Department, and in the course of his official duties discovered various circumstances tending to throw doubt on the correctness of the court-martial's decision, and pointing to another officer, of the name of Esterhazy, as the real traitor. Picquart was superseded by a Colonel Henry in Nov., 1897, and in the following January Esterhazy, charged by a brother of the condemned man with having written the bordereau, or memorandum, which was the chief document relied on by the prosecutors of Dreyfus, was acquitted by a court-martial. Two days later M. Zola, the eminent novelist, in a letter headed J'accuse published in the Aurore, made serious charges against the general staff and the Government in connection with the Esterhazy court-martial. He was prosecuted, and condemned to pay a heavy fine and undergo a term of imprisonment. In June, 1898, M. Brisson succeeded M. Méline as Prime Minister, and next month M. Cavaignac, his War Minister, read to the Chamber several documents which he regarded as conclusive proof of the guilt of Dreyfus. The chief of these was soon admitted by Colonel Henry to have been forged by him, and M. Cavaignac at once resigned. In June, 1899, the Cour de Cassation ordered a fresh court-martial. The court-martial, which sat at Rennes, found Dreyfus guilty with extenuating circumstances. He was sentenced to ten years' imprisonment, but was pardoned by President Loubet almost immediately. In 1906, when Clemenceau was Prime Minister, the sentence was annulled, and Dreyfus was reinstated in the army (as major). He was shot at by a reactionary journalist in 1908, but escaped without serious injury. In Sept., 1919, Lieutenant-Colonel Dreyfus was publicly presented with the insignia of an officer of the Legion of Honour. Several times during the progress of the case France seemed on the verge of revolution.—Cf. J. Reinach, Histoire de l'affaire Dreyfus.

Driffield, Great, a town, England, Yorkshire, at the head of a navigable canal communicating with the Humber at Hull. It lies in a fertile district, has an ancient parish church, and manufactures linseed-cake and manures. Pop. 5676.

Drift, in geology, a term applied to earth and rocks which have been conveyed by flood-action, glaciers, or floating ice and deposited over the surface of a country. It is sometimes used in a wider sense to denote all post-Pliocene sands, gravels, and clays, such as the superficial deposits shown on the 'drift' maps of the Geological Survey.

Drift, in mining, a horizontal tunnel or passage excavated underground that follows the course of a vein or stratum. Drift, in musketry, is the lateral deviation of the bullet after it has left the barrel of the rifle; it is due to the spin of the bullet and the resistance of the air.

Drift Sand, sand thrown up by the waves of the sea, and blown when dry some distance inland until arrested by obstacles, round which it gradually accumulates until the heaps attain considerable dimensions, often forming dunes or sand-hills. Coast-land sometimes requires artificial protection from encroachment by drift-sand.

Drill, a tool used for boring holes in wood, metal, stone, ivory, &c. It consists of a sharp spindle to which a circular motion is communicated by various contrivances. Drills are of various designs. For rock-boring the diamond rock-drill, an instrument with cutting edges made of bort or black diamond, is now generally adopted. See Boring.—Cf. Dana and Saunders, Rock Drilling.

Drill is the A B C of all military movements. In the Training Manuals of the British army the word is defined as "the training of the soldier to perform certain movements as a second nature". It follows, therefore, that drill is an essential part of the training of every soldier, more especially in the early days of his training, in that without it, and without the power of movement in obedience to the expressed will of a superior given by it, a body of soldiers would be merely a collection of armed men who, however willing individually, would be incapable of carrying out collectively an order given for the general good. In the early days of our history, when fighting was largely individual, and the whole duty of a soldier was 'to do unto the other fellow as he would do unto you—and do it first' (with a club), drill, as we know it, was unknown; each man armed himself as he thought fit, and, beyond getting into some formation for the actual purpose of the assault, a battle was largely a go-as-you-please affair. In Saxon days the normal formation for the battle was the wedge; that is two men at the point followed by three, and so on till the available number was used up. This, of course, formed a solid pointed mass with considerable weight, and was used both for attack and defence. But once this formation was broken it was next to impossible to reform it. An instance of this weakness occurred at the battle of Hastings. The English were in this one and only wedge formation, officers and the better armed men at the point, and the less skilful and more indifferently armed at the base. Doubtless the troops had been got into this formation after much exertion in the way of pushing and vituperation, and, once in it, had been told on no account to break it. At a certain stage in the battle the heavily armoured Normans pretended flight; this was too much for the English, who broke their ranks and gave chase, each after his own particular source of ransom. This ended the battle; the Normans turned, and, owing to the entire inability of the English to re-form their ranks, the wedge, and with it the English army, ceased to exist: the result of want of discipline and absence of drill.

Drill and discipline are complementary to each other. In one of the battles of the Peninsular War, the 28th (now the Gloucestershire Regiment) were being hotly attacked in front by a French column. The regiment was firing in two ranks—the front rank kneeling and the rear rank standing—when suddenly a fresh attack developed from the rear. It was a matter of seconds for the commanding officer of the 28th to order the rear rank to turn about; drill and discipline did the rest, and the rear rank turned round, knelt down, and beat off the new attack. Since then the 28th has worn its badges both front and rear of its head-dresses.

Drill is an aid to discipline in that it teaches men that there is a right and a wrong way of doing a thing. Drill and the spirit arising from it has a great steadying effect on the nerves, as when in the European War the Guards Division, after being almost decimated during a German 'push', was brought out of the line and kept to steady drill for a week. To those who did not understand this appeared harsh and futile; to those who did it appeared, as it was, the best means of steadying men tried beyond endurance, and of preparing them for further efforts. Our English drill has passed through many phases in its time; but from the days when large bodies of men performed complicated manœuvres at the executive command of one man, through the times when drill, perhaps, was considered to be the be-all and end-all of the soldier, to modern days when it is recognized as a means to an end, the guiding principle remains the same, viz. that one of the first essentials for a soldier is that he shall be so trained by drill that he shall know instinctively how to do the right thing at the right time and in the right way. Even now, when drill movements are no longer performed in face of an enemy, accuracy and attention to detail are insisted on in all parade-ground movements as part of the education of the soldier and as an aid to discipline. Drill for the soldier takes the place of the five-finger exercises for the musician. Neither of them, in itself, is of any particular value, but each adds to the efficiency of those who practise it.

Drill (Papio leucophæus), a large variety of baboon, smaller and less fierce than the mandrill, and like it a native of the coast of Guinea. The face and ears are bare and of a glossy black colour, the palms of the hands and soles of the feet are also naked and of a deep copper colour.

Drilling, the plan of sowing in parallel rows as distinguished from sowing broadcast. It was introduced into England by Jethro Tull, who invented the first implement for drilling, and published a work on the subject in 1731. The crops which are now generally drilled are turnips and flax. The first form of drill was of very simple construction, and was only adapted for potatoes, beans, peas, carrots, clover, cereals, sowing one row at a time, but now a great variety of improved implements is in use, some of which distribute artificial manure with the seed. Among the principal advantages of drilling over broadcast sowing we may mention that a considerable saving of seed is effected in the sowing of grain crops, but the great advantage is that in the case of green crops it enables the farmer more readily to clean the land both by the hand- and by the horse-hoe. To keep the soil stirred and pulverized, which can only be properly done when the crops have been drilled, favours the retention and absorption of the moisture.

Dripstone, a projecting tablet or moulding over the head of a Gothic doorway, window, archway, or niche to throw off the rain. It is also called a weather moulding, and label when it is turned square. It is of various forms; sometimes a head is used as a termination or support, in others an ornament or simple moulding is adopted.

Driver, Rev. Samuel Rolles, D.D., professor of Hebrew and Biblical critic, born at Southampton 2nd Oct., 1846, died in 1914. He was educated at Winchester and at New College, Oxford, where he graduated with first-class honours in classics in 1869. In 1866 he gained the Pusey and Ellerton Hebrew Scholarship, and the Kennicott Scholarship (also for Hebrew) four years later, besides prizes for Septuagint Greek and Syriac. He was for some years a fellow and tutor of his college, and from 1876 to 1884 a member of the Old Testament Revision Committee. In 1883, on the death of Dr. Pusey, he became Regius professor of Hebrew at Oxford and (ipso facto) a Canon of Christ Church. Of his numerous works we may mention: A Treatise on the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew (1874); Isaiah: his Life and Times (1888); Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (1891), a work suited for popular reading, which has passed through many editions; Sermons on Subjects connected with the Old Testament (1892); The Parallel Psalter (1904); Commentaries on various books of the Bible; and articles in Bible Dictionaries and in periodicals. He was a joint editor of the new Hebrew-English Lexicon of the Old Testament published by the Clarendon Press.

Drogheda (droh´e-da), an ancient town and seaport, formerly a parliamentary borough, Ireland, in the county of Louth, on both sides of the Boyne, about 4 miles from the sea, 26 miles north of Dublin. The Boyne is here crossed by a railway viaduct of 18 arches and 95 feet high. Flax- and cotton-spinning are carried on; there are also salt-works, breweries, and tanneries; and the fisheries are increasing. There is a good export trade in cattle, sheep, grain, butter, and eggs. In 1412 a Parliament assembled here which enacted Poynings' Law. The town was for a long time strongly fortified, and was taken by Cromwell with great slaughter in 1649; it surrendered to William III immediately after the battle of the Boyne. Pop. 12,500.

Drohobycz (dro´ho-bich), a Polish town in Galicia, formerly belonging to Austria, 41 miles S.S.W. of Lemberg. Its Catholic church is one of the handsomest in the country. It has an important trade, particularly in salt, obtained from springs in the vicinity. Pop. 40,000.

Droit d'Aubaine (drwä-dō-bān), an old rule in some European countries, by which the property of a foreigner who died was claimed by the State, unless the person had a special exemption. In France, where it was not abolished till 1819, the Scots, Savoyards, Swiss, and Portuguese were exempted.

Droitwich (droit´ich), a town of England, in the county and 6 miles N.N.E. of Worcester, on the Salwarp. It is famous for its brine springs, from which salt has been manufactured for more than 1000 years. Pop. 4146.

Drôme, a south-east department of France, covered almost throughout by ramifications of the Alps, the average height of which, however, does not exceed 4000 feet; area, 2508 sq. miles, of which about one-fourth is waste, one-third under wood, and a great part of the remainder under tillage and pasture. A considerable extent of the area is occupied by vineyards, and several of the wines produced have a high reputation, especially Hermitage. Olives, chestnuts, and silks are staple productions. Valence is the capital. Pop. 263,509.

Dromedary. See Camel.

Dromore´, an episcopal city, Ireland, County Down, on the Lagan, here crossed by two bridges, 16 miles south-west of Belfast. Its cathedral contains the tomb of Jeremy Taylor. Pop. 2307.

Dropsy (Œdema) is a condition usually marked by enlargement and swelling of the affected parts, and due to an accumulation of serous fluid in the tissue spaces and cavities of the body. Different names are given to such accumulations in particular areas, thus anasarca refers to accumulations in the limbs and body generally; ascites to an accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity (abdomen); hydrothorax to an accumulation in the pleural cavity (lungs); hydrocephalus to an accumulation in the brain. The commonest cause of dropsy is heart disease, where first the lower limbs, and then the trunk, are affected. It also appears in diseases of the kidneys and liver, and it may be produced in a limb by any obstruction of the veins of the part.

Drop-wort (from the small tubers on the fibrous roots), Spiræa filipendŭla, nat. ord. Rosaceæ, a British plant of the same genus as queen-of-the-meadow, found in dry pastures. The hemlock drop-wort, or water drop-wort, is Œnanthe fistulōsa.

Drosera´ceæ, a nat. ord. of polypetalous Dicotyledons, consisting of insectivorous marsh herbs, whose leaves are usually covered with glands or glandular hairs. It contains six genera, including the sundew (Drosĕra), and Venus's fly-trap (Dionæa). (See Sundew and Dionæa.) They have no known qualities except that they are slightly bitter. The leaves are generally circinate in the bud, as in ferns.

Droshky, a kind of light, four-wheeled carriage used by the Russians. It is not covered, and in some types there is in the middle a sort of bench placed lengthways on which the passengers ride as on a saddle; but the name is now applied to various kinds of vehicles, as to the common cabs plying in the streets of German cities.

Drouais (drö-ā), Jean Germain, French historical painter of considerable repute, born at Paris in 1763, died at Rome 1788. His chief pictures are: The Canaanitish Woman at the Feet of Jesus, Dying Gladiator, and Marius at Minturno.

Drouet (drö-ā), Jean Baptiste, Comte d'Erlon, French general, born 1765, died 1844. He served in the campaigns of the Moselle, Meuse, and Sambre (1793-6), in the Peninsula, and at Waterloo, where he commanded the first corps d'armée. In 1834-5 he was Governor-General of Algeria, and in 1843 was made a marshal.

Drouyn de Lhuys (drö-an˙ dė lwēs), Édouard, French statesman and diplomatist, born 1805, died 1881. He entered the diplomatic service in 1831, and was chargé d'affaires at the Hague during the events which led to the separation of Belgium from Holland. In 1840 he was head of the commercial department under the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Opposition to Guizot caused his dismissal in 1845. He became Minister for Foreign Affairs in 1848, Ambassador to London in 1849; and again Foreign Minister in 1851, and in 1863. On the fall of the empire he fled to Jersey, but subsequently returned to France.

Drowning means death by the air being prevented from entering the lungs owing to the mouth and nostrils being immersed in a liquid, the liquid being commonly water. Death may, therefore, occur by drowning in a small quantity of water. Thus a child may fall head downwards into a tub and be drowned, though the tub is not half full of water, sufficient to cover the mouth and nostrils being all that is necessary, and a man overcome by a fit or by drunkenness may fall on a road with his head in a ditch or pool of water, and thus meet death. Death is thus due to suffocation, to the stoppage of breathing, and to the entrance of water into the lungs. When death has been caused by drowning, the skin presents the appearance called goose-skin (cutis anserīna), the face and surface of the body generally are usually pale, a frothy liquid is found in the lungs and air-passages, and about the lips and nostrils; water may be found in the stomach, and clenched fingers, holding substances grasped at, may serve to show that a struggle has taken place in the water, and that the body was alive at the time of immersion. Complete insensibility arises, it is probable, in from one or two minutes after submersion, recovery, however, being still possible, and death occurs in from two to five minutes. So long as the heart continues to beat, recovery is possible; after it has ceased it is impossible. Newly-born children and young puppies stand submersion longer than the more fully grown.

For the restoration of the apparently drowned several methods are suggested. Those of Dr. Silvester, recommended by the English Humane Society, and Dr. Benjamin Howard, of New York, will be described.

Whichever method is adopted, the following steps must first and immediately be taken: Pull the body up on to dry ground. Send immediately for medical assistance, warm blankets, dry clothing, brandy and hot water, if any one is at hand to send. No delay must be permitted, however, in treating the drowned, so that if only one person is on the spot he must begin to treat the victim instantly, without seeking assistance. Remove all clothing from the neck and chest. Fold the articles of dress removed so as to make a firm pillow, which is to be placed under the shoulders, so that the upper part of the body is slightly raised and the head slightly thrown back. Cleanse the mouth and nostrils, open the mouth and pull forward the tongue. If natural efforts to breathe are made, try to stimulate them by brisk rubbing of the sides of the chest and of the face. If no effort to breathe is made, proceed to produce the entrance and outflow of air from the lungs by Silvester's or Howard's method.

Silvester's method: Stand or kneel behind the person's head, grasp each arm at the elbow, draw both arms simultaneously upwards till they are extended in line with the body, as a man places them when he stretches himself. Let this movement occupy about two seconds. This enlarges the chest and causes the entrance of air to the lungs. Without a pause carry the arms down to the sides, making them overlap the chest a little, and firmly press them on the chest. This movement should occupy other two seconds. It expels air from the lungs. Repeat the movements, and maintain them steadily and patiently at the rate of fifteen times a minute, until breathing has been fully restored, or until medical aid arrives, or until death is certain. An hour is not too long a time to persist, and so long as there seems the least effort to breathe the movements must be persevered in.

Howard's method: Place the body on its face, with the roll of clothing under the stomach; the head being supported on the hand as shown in fig. 1. Pull the body over the roll of clothing to expel water from the chest. Then turn the body on the back, the shoulders being supported as shown in fig. 2. Kneel over the body. Place both hands on the lower part of the chest, so that the thumbs hook in under the lowest ribs and the fingers are spread out on the chest. Steadily press forwards, raising the ribs, your own body being thus thrown leaning forward. This enlarges the cavity of the chest and causes air to enter. When the ribs have been raised to the utmost extent, with a slight effort push yourself back to the more erect position, allowing the ribs to recoil to their former position. This expels the air. Repeat the process fifteen times a minute. One person will find it more easy to maintain this method for a prolonged period than Silvester's, especially if the patient be big and heavy.

Meanwhile, if other persons are present they should be occupied rubbing the body and limbs (always upwards) with hands or warm flannel, applying hot flannels, bottles, &c., to the limbs, feet, arm-pits, &c. As soon as the person is sufficiently restored to be able to swallow, give small quantities of hot brandy and water, hot wine and water, hot coffee, &c., and use every effort to restore and maintain warmth.

Drowning was formerly a mode of capital punishment in Europe. The last person executed by drowning in Scotland suffered death in 1685. It survived in Switzerland until 1652, and in Austria until 1776. In Russia the punishment was abolished early in the eighteenth century.

Droylsden, a town of England, Lancashire, 3½ miles E. of Manchester, of which it is practically a suburb. Pop. 13,259.

Droz (drō), François Xavier Joseph, French moralist and historian, born at Besançon 1773, died 1850. In 1806 he published an Essai sur l'Art d'être Heureux, which was very popular; and in 1823 De la Philosophie Morale, ou des Différents Systèmes sur la Science de la Vie, which procured his admission into the Academy. His reputation is, however, founded chiefly on his Histoire du Règne de Louis XVI.

Drugget, a coarse kind of woollen felt or cloth, formerly used by the lower classes for purposes of clothing, but now chiefly used as a covering for carpets.

Druids, the priests of the Celts of Gaul and Britain. According to Julius Cæsar they possessed the greatest authority among the Celtic nations. They had some knowledge of geometry, natural philosophy, &c., superintended the affairs of religion and morality, and performed the office of judges. They were also well versed in the knowledge of the mysterious powers of plants and animals, and were adepts in the magic arts. They venerated the mistletoe when growing on the oak, a tree which they likewise esteemed sacred. They had a common superior, who was elected by a majority of votes from their own number, and who was appointed for life. They took unusual care to fence themselves round with mysteries, and it is probable that they cherished doctrines unknown to the common people; but that they had a great secret philosophy which was handed down by oral tradition is very unlikely. Of their religious doctrines little is known.—Bibliography: J. Rhys, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by Celtic Heathenism; D'Arbois de Jubainville, Les Druides et les dieux celtiques à forme d'animaux.

Druids, Order of, a secret organization, founded in London in 1781, for the purpose of mutual aid and protection. Their rites somewhat resemble those of freemasons; their lodges are known as 'groves'.

Drum, a musical instrument of percussion, of Eastern origin, either cylindrical or hemispherical in shape, with the end or ends covered with tightened parchment, which is stretched or slackened at pleasure by means of cords with sliding knots or screws. Drums are of three kinds: (1) the long or bass drum played with stuffed-nob drumsticks, and used only in large orchestras or military bands; (2) the side-drum, having two heads, the upper one only being played upon by two sticks of wood; (3) the kettle-drum, a hemisphere of brass or copper, the end of which is covered with parchment, always used in pairs, one drum being tuned to the key-note, and the other to the fifth of the key, the compass of the two together being an octave. The use of drums was introduced into Europe either by the Moors or the Crusaders.

Drumclog´, a moorland tract in Lanarkshire, Scotland, 6 miles S.W. of Strathaven, the scene of a skirmish between Claverhouse and the Covenanters, in which the former was defeated (1679). A graphic description of the battle is given by Scott in his Old Mortality.

Drum-fish, or Drum, Pogonias chromis, and other species of the same genus, fishes found on the Atlantic coast of N. America, and so named from the deep drumming sound they make, by means of the swim-bladder and its muscles, during the spawning season in April. It is the most powerful sound-producing apparatus known among fishes. They often weigh about 20 lb.

Drum-major, in the British army, a warrant or non-commissioned officer whose duty it is to teach and direct the drummers. He marches at the head of the band carrying the regimental baton.

Drum´mond, Professor Henry, was born at Stirling in 1851, died in 1897. Educated at the Universities of Edinburgh and Tübingen, he entered the ministry of the Free Church, and having devoted much attention to science, in 1877 was appointed lecturer on natural science in the Free Church College (or divinity hall), Glasgow, becoming professor in 1884. He travelled much, and wrote a popular book on Tropical Africa (1888). His most remarkable work is Natural Law in the Spiritual World (1883), which has passed through many editions and been translated into various languages. He is author, also, of Travel Sketches in Our New Protectorate, The Greatest Thing in the World, and The Ascent of Man (1894).

Drummond, Rev. James, Unitarian theologian, was born at Dublin in 1835, died 13th June, 1918. After receiving his early education at a private school, he entered Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated and obtained the first gold medal for classics in 1855. In 1859 he became colleague of the Rev. W. Gaskell in Cross Street Chapel, Manchester, and ten years later was appointed professor of theology at Manchester New College, London, of which institution (now known, since its removal to Oxford in 1889, simply as Manchester College) he was principal from 1885 to 1906, when he retired from his post. His works include: Spiritual Religion: Sermons on Christian Faith and Life (1870); The Jewish Messiah: a Critical History of the Messianic Idea among the Jews (1877); Introduction to the Study of Theology (1884); Philo-Judæus (2 vols., 1888); Via, Veritas, Vita (the Hibbert lectures for 1894); The Pauline Benediction (1897); The Epistles to the Thessalonians, &c. (International Handbooks, 1899); Some Thoughts on Christology (1902); The Character and Authorship of the Fourth Gospel (1904); Johannine Thoughts (1909); Paul: his Life and Teaching (1911).

Drummond, William, of Hawthornden, a Scottish poet distinguished for the elegance and tenderness of his verses, was born at Hawthornden House, 7 miles from Edinburgh, 1585, died 1649. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh; after which he spent four years in foreign travels, residing for a part of the time at Bourges, to study the civil law. On his return to Scotland he retired to Hawthornden and gave himself up to the cultivation of poetry and polite literature, and here he spent the most of his life. He entertained Ben Jonson on the occasion of a visit which the English dramatist made to Scotland in the winter of 1618-9, and took notes of Jonson's conversation, first published in entirety in 1842 (Notes of Ben Jonson's Conversations with William Drummond). He was the first Scottish writer to abandon the native dialect for the language raised to supremacy by the Elizabethan writers. His chief productions are: The Cypress Grove, in prose, containing reflections upon death; Flowers of Zion, or Spiritual Poems; Tears on the Death of Mœliades (that is, Prince Henry); Poems, Amorous, Funeral, Divine, Pastoral, in Sonnets, Songs, Sextains, Madrigals; The River Forth Feasting (on King James's visit to Scotland in 1617); Polemo-Middinia, or the Battle of the Dunghill: a Macaronic Poem; and History of the Lives and Reigns of the Five Jameses, Kings of Scotland. As an historian he is chiefly remarkable for an ornate style, and a strong attachment to the High Church principles of the Jacobites.

Drumont, Édouard, French journalist and anti-Semitic agitator, born at Paris in 1844, died there in 1917. His work Mon vieux Paris (1879) was crowned by the Académie Française. In 1886 he published La France Juive devant l'opinion. He thus began a violent campaign against the Jews which he continued until his death, especially in his organ La Libre Parole, founded in 1892. In 1898 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, retaining his seat till 1902. His other works include: La fin d'un monde (1888), Testament d'un Anti-Sémite (1891), De l'or et de la boue du Sang (1896), and Les Juifs et l'affaire Dreyfus (1899).

Drunkards, Habitual. The Habitual Drunkards Act of 1879 provided for the licensing of retreats for receiving habitual drunkards, and for the regular inspection of such retreats. An habitual drunkard desiring admission to a retreat had to make a written application, accompanied by a declaration of two persons that the applicant was an habitual drunkard, and attested by two justices of the peace. No patient in a retreat was permitted to leave before the expiration of the term stated in the application, such term not to exceed one year. This Act was to expire in ten years; but another Act, passed in 1888, made it permanent, with some modifications. The Inebriates Act of 1898 introduced several important changes. It transferred the licensing power in counties from justices of the peace to County Councils and their committees, and in boroughs from magistrates to town councillors or police commissioners. The maximum period of detention was extended to two years, and the attestation of one justice was made sufficient for a valid application. It also gave power to the Secretary of State to establish State inebriate reformatories, or to grant certificates to reformatories suitable for such a purpose. If an habitual drunkard, when drunk, commit an offence punishable by imprisonment or penal servitude, the court may, in addition to, or in substitution for, the ordinary sentence, order him to be detained three years in a State or certified inebriate reformatory. The proof that the accused is an habitual drunkard may consist either in his own admission or in the jury's verdict after inquiry. The Inebriates' Act of 1899 was very short, and made no important change in the law. In Scotland habitual drunkenness is now a ground justifying judicial separation of spouses, while under the Matrimonial Causes Bill, 1920, it is proposed that in England, where one spouse has been granted a temporary separation order on the ground of the incurable habitual drunkenness of the other, and such order has been in force for at least three years, a divorce should be granted.

Drunkenness, the state of being drunk or overpowered by alcoholic liquor, or the habit of indulging in intoxication. A similar condition may be produced by numerous agents, but the term is always applied to the act or habit of drinking alcoholics to excess. By the law of Britain drunkenness is an offence against the public economy, and those found drunk are liable to fine or imprisonment. Drunkenness is no excuse for any crime, but it renders a contract invalid if either of the parties was in a state of complete drunkenness when the contract was signed.

Drunken Parliament, in Scottish history, a name given to the Privy Council who, under their powers as representing the estates between sessions, met at Glasgow and passed an Act (1st Oct., 1662) to remove the recusant ministers from their parishes within a month. All the members were said to have been drunk except Lockhart of Lee, who opposed the measure.

Drupe, in botany, a stone fruit; a fruit in which the outer part of the pericarp becomes fleshy or softens like a berry while the inner hardens like a nut, forming a stone with a kernel, as the plum, cherry, apricot, and peach. The stone enclosing the kernel is called the endocarp, while the pulpy or succulent part is called the mesocarp. In some fruits, as those of the almond, the horse-chestnut, and coco-nut, the mesocarp is not succulent, yet, from their possessing the other qualities of the drupe, they receive the name. See Berry.

Drury Lane Theatre, one of the principal theatres in London, was established by Thomas Killigrew in the reign of James I. In 1671 it was burned down, and was rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren between 1672 and 1674, but again destroyed by fire in 1809. On this occasion it was rebuilt by B. Wyatt, and was reopened on 10th Oct., 1812, with an address composed by Lord Byron. It was in connection with this opening that James and Horace Smith wrote the Rejected Addresses. Nearly all the great English actors from Betterton and Garrick have been more or less connected with Drury Lane.—Cf. J. Doran, In and About Drury Lane.

Druses, a curious people of mixed Syrian and Arabian origin, inhabiting the mountains of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, and also the Hauran (south-west of Damascus). In their faith are combined certain Jewish, Christian, and Mohammedan doctrines. They describe themselves as followers of Khalif Hakim Biamr-Allah, whom they regard as an incarnation of deity, the last prophet, and the founder of the true religion. They are nearly all taught to read and write. They maintain a semi-independence, and between 1840 and 1860 they engaged in bloody conflicts with their neighbours the Maronites. Their total number is estimated at 100,000. They are very friendly to the English, and some of them have been converted to Christianity. Cf. E. Sell, The Druses.

Drusus, the name of several distinguished Romans, among whom were: Marcus Livius, orator and politician; became tribune of the people in 122 B.C. He opposed the policy of Gaius Gracchus, and became popular by planting colonies.—Marcus Livius, son of the above, was early a strong champion of the senate or aristocratic party, but showed great skill in manipulating the mob. He rose to be tribune of the people, and was assassinated 91 B.C.—Nero Claudius, brother of the Emperor Tiberius, born 38 B.C. By a series of brilliant campaigns he extended the Roman Empire to the German Ocean and the River Elbe, and was hence called Germanicus. By his wife Antonia, daughter of Mark Antony, he had a daughter, Livia, and two sons, Germanicus and Claudius, the latter of whom afterwards became emperor. He died in 9 B.C.

Dry´ads, wood nymphs, in the Greek mythology; supposed to be the tutelar deities of trees. Each particular tree or wood was the habitation of its own special dryad.

Dryas. See Mountain Avens.

Dry´burgh Abbey, a monastic ruin in Scotland, consisting of the nave's western gable, the gable of the south transept, and a fragment of choir and north transept of an abbey founded in 1150 on the banks of the Tweed, about 5 miles E.S.E. of Melrose. It is celebrated as the burial-place of Sir Walter Scott and his family.

Dry Cell, originally a cell of the Leclanché type, in which the solution of sal-ammoniac was replaced by a paste containing this substance. The formulæ or recipes from which dry cells are now made up are numerous, although the electrodes, as a rule, remain the same as in the Leclanché cell. The E.M.F. of the cell is about 1.5 volts, and three dry cells are used to light up a small 'flash' lamp. A battery of dry cells forms a convenient and portable means of supplying a small current at voltages up to 100.

Dry´den, John, English poet, was descended from an ancient family, his grandfather being Sir Erasmus Dryden of Canons Ashby, Northamptonshire. Born near Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire, in 1631, he was admitted a King's scholar at Westminster under the celebrated Dr. Busby, whence he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, being elected to a scholarship there. After leaving the university, he went to London, where he acted as secretary to his cousin Sir Gilbert Pickering, a favourite of Cromwell; and on the death of the Protector he wrote his Heroic Stanzas on that event. At the Restoration, however, he hailed the return of Charles II in Astræa Redux, and from that time his devotion to the Stuarts knew no decay. In 1661 he produced his first play, The Duke of Guise; but the first that was performed was The Wild Gallant, which appeared in 1663 and was not a success. This was followed by The Rival Ladies, and The Indian Queen, a tragedy on Montezuma in heroic verse, written in collaboration with Sir Robert Howard, whose sister, Lady Elizabeth Howard, Dryden married in 1663. He followed up The Indian Queen with The Indian Emperor, which at once raised Dryden to the highest pitch of public estimation, an elevation which he retained till his death. The great fire of London put a stop for some time to theatrical exhibitions. In the interval Dryden published the Annus Mirabilis, an historical account of the events of the year 1666, one of the most elaborate of his productions. In 1668 he also published his celebrated Essay on Dramatic Poesy—the first attempt to regulate dramatic writing. In 1668 The Maiden Queen, a tragi-comedy, was represented. This was followed in 1670 by The Tempest, an alteration from Shakespeare, in which he was assisted by Sir William Davenant. It was received with general applause, notwithstanding the very questionable taste and propriety of the added characters. Dryden was shortly afterwards appointed to the offices of Historiographer Royal and Poet Laureate, with a salary of £200 a year. He now became professionally a writer for the stage, and produced many pieces, some of which have been strongly censured for their licentiousness and want of good taste. The first of his political and poetical satires, Absalom and Achitophel (Monmouth and Shaftesbury), was produced in 1681, and was followed by The Medal, a satire against sedition; and Mac Flecknoe, a satire on the poet Shadwell. In 1682 he published a poem called Religio Laici, wherein he maintained the doctrines of the Church of England. On the accession of James in 1685 Dryden became a Roman Catholic, a conversion the sincerity of which has been not unreasonably regarded with suspicion, considering the time at which it occurred. At court the new convert was received with open arms, a considerable addition was made to his pension, and he defended his new religion at the expense of the old one in a poem, The Hind and the Panther. Among his other services to the new king were a savage reply to an attack by Stillingfleet, and panegyrics on Charles and James under the title of Britannia Rediviva. At the Revolution Dryden was deprived of the offices of Poet Laureate and Historiographer, and of the certain income which these offices secured him. During the remaining ten years of his life he produced some of his best work, including his admirable translations from the classics. He published, in conjunction with Congreve, Creech, and others, a translation of Juvenal, and one of Persius entirely by himself. About a third part of Juvenal was translated by Dryden, who wrote an essay on satire which was prefixed to the whole. His poetic translation of Virgil appeared in 1697, and, soon after, the well-known lyric Alexander's Feast, and his Fables. He died 1st May, 1700, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Dryden is unequalled as a satirist among English poets, and the best of his tragedies are unsurpassed by any since written. His poetry as a whole is more remarkable for vigour and energy than beauty, but he did much to improve English verse. He was also an admirable prose writer. Personally he was modest and kindly. The whole of his works, edited by Sir W. Scott, were published in 1818 (18 vols. 8vo); they were republished with additional notes, &c., by Professor Saintsbury (1882-93).—Bibliography: R. Garnett, Age of Dryden; Sir A. W. Ward, History of English Dramatic Literature; Cambridge History of English Literature (vol. viii).

Drying-machine, a machine consisting of any number of steam-heated cylinders up to thirty or even more, each about 22 inches in diameter, and used in bleachworks, dye-houses, and in cloth-finishing departments; used as a separate machine to dry fabrics which contain a certain amount of moisture left in at some previous operation, but often used in conjunction with a starching-mangle or similar apparatus. All the cylinders are in a horizontal plane, and usually in two rows, but such rows may be disposed either in horizontal or vertical frames. Floor-space is economized in the latter arrangement, and two or more groups of two rows per group may be provided for. Each cylinder is provided with some type of safety air-valve, which yields to allow air to enter in proportion as the steam is condensed in the cylinder, and so prevents the latter from collapsing. The condensed steam is withdrawn either by means of siphons or revolving scoops, so that the interior may be as dry as possible. The long length of cloth, either from the squeezing-rollers of the starch-mangle or from a loose or rolled state of cloth from some other machine, is conducted over guide-rollers, then under and over the two rows of steam-heated cylinders, and finally led from the last cylinder to the roller of a plaiting-down apparatus, or otherwise delivered. Both sides of the cloth thus come into direct contact with half the number of cylinders as it is drawn through the machine, and the dried cloth is ultimately delivered by the plaiting-down apparatus in folds ready for the subsequent operations.

Drying-oils, linseed and other oils, which are the bases of many paints and varnishes. When exposed to the air, they absorb oxygen, and are converted into a transparent, tough, dry mass or varnish.

Dry-point, a method of engraving generally regarded as part of etching, but more closely allied to line engraving. Instead of the copper being covered with etching ground and the lines bitten with acid, a pointed instrument is drawn across it, which incises a fine line with a more distinct burr on each side than that raised by a graver. This burr helps to give a characteristic quality to the line, but is rapidly worn away by printings. Dry-point may be used by itself, but is frequently combined with etching proper.

Dry-rot, a well-known disease affecting timber, occasioned by various species of Fungi, the mycelium of which penetrates the timber, destroying it. Merulius lacrymans, which is found chiefly in fir-wood, is the most common and most formidable dry-rot fungus in Britain; while Polypŏrus destructor is equally destructive in Germany. P. vaporarius may also cause dry-rot. Damp, unventilated situations are most favourable to the development of dry-rot Fungi. Various methods have been proposed for the prevention of dry-rot; that most in favour is thoroughly saturating the wood with creosote, which makes the wood unfit for vegetation, but proper ventilation is the surest safeguard.

Dual, in grammar, that number which is used, in some languages, to designate two things, whilst another number (the plural) exists to express many. The Greek, Sanskrit, and Gothic among ancient languages, and the Lithuanian and Arabic among modern, possess forms of the verb and noun in which two persons or things are denoted, called the dual numbers.

Du´alism, the philosophical exposition of the nature of things by the hypothesis of two dissimilar primitive principles not derived from each other. Dualism in religion is chiefly confined to the adoption of a belief in two fundamental beings, a good and an evil one, as is done in some Oriental religions, especially that of Zoroaster. In metaphysics, dualism is the doctrine of those who maintain the existence of matter and form, or mind and matter, as distinct substances, in opposition to idealism, which maintains that we have no knowledge or assurance of the existence of anything but our own ideas or sensations. Dualism may correspond with realism in maintaining that our ideas of things are true transcripts of the originals, or rather of the qualities inherent in them, the spirit acting as a mirror and reflecting their true images; or it may hold that, although produced by outward objects, we have no assurance that in reality these at all correspond to our ideas of them, or even that they produce the same idea in two different minds. Among modern philosophers Professor W. M‘Dougall and Bergson have defended the doctrine of dualism. See Monism.—Bibliography: J. Ward, The Realm of Ends; W. James, Essays in Radical Empiricism; H. Bergson, Matter and Memory.

Dubail, Augustin Edmond, French general, born at Belfort 15th April, 1851. He served in the Franco-Prussian War, and was for many years colonel of a Zouave regiment in Algeria. Chief of the Staff of the French army in 1914, he commanded the First Army operating in Alsace-Lorraine, and successfully defended Nancy. Appointed Military Governor of Paris in 1915, he held this post until June, 1918.

Du Barry, Marie Jeanne Bécu, Comtesse, mistress of Louis XV, was born at Vaucouleurs in 1743. She came young to Paris, and was presented to the king in 1769, who had her married for form's sake to the Comte du Barry. She exercised a powerful influence at court, and with some of her confidants completely ruled the king. Important offices and privileges were in her gift, and the courtiers abased themselves before her. After the death of Louis she was dismissed from court and sent to live in a convent near Meaux. She received a pension from Louis XVI. During the reign of terror she was arrested as a Royalist and executed, Nov., 1793.—Cf. N. Williams, Madame du Barry.

Dubit´za, a fortified town of Bosnia, in Yugo-Slavia, on the right bank of the Unna, about 10 miles from its confluence with the Save. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries it was a frequent point of contention between Austria and Turkey. In 1878, with the rest of Bosnia, it passed under Austrian administration. Pop. 3260.—Dubitza, in Croatia, on the opposite bank of the Unna, has 6660 inhabitants.

Dub´lin, the metropolis of Ireland, is situated in County Dublin, on the east coast of the island, at the mouth of the Liffey, the banks of which for more than 2 miles from the sea are lined with quays. The river, which divides the city into two unequal parts, is crossed by numerous bridges. In the old part of the city the streets are irregular, narrow, and filthy; in the more modern and aristocratic quarters there are fine streets, squares, and terraces, but with little pretension to architectural merit. The public buildings, however, are especially numerous and handsome. The main thoroughfare, east to west, is by the magnificent quays along the Liffey. The principal street at right angles to the river is Sackville Street, a splendid street 650 yards long and 40 yards wide, forming a thoroughfare which is continued across the river by O'Connell Bridge, a magnificent structure the same width as Sackville Street. The principal public secular buildings are the castle, the official residence of the viceroy; the Bank of Ireland, formerly the Irish Parliament House; Trinity College; the custom-house, destroyed in 1921; the King's Inns; the post office; rotunda; corn exchange; commercial buildings; the mansion house; and the city hall or corporation buildings. The most important literary and scientific institutions are Trinity College (Dublin University); the National University of Ireland; the Royal College of Science; the Catholic University; the College of Surgeons; the Royal Dublin Society; the Royal Hibernian Academy of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture; the Royal Irish Academy for Promoting the Study of Science, Literature, and Antiquities; the Archæological Society; and the Royal Zoological Society. Dublin contains two Protestant Episcopal cathedrals—St. Patrick's Cathedral, erected in 1190, and thoroughly restored between 1860 and 1865, through the munificence of Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness; and Christ's Church, built in 1038 and restored between 1870 and 1877, the restoration being carried out at the expense of Henry Roe. The Roman Catholic Cathedral is a very large edifice. The charitable institutions are numerous, and some of them possess splendid buildings. There are several extensive military and constabulary barracks in the city and vicinity. A little north-west of the city, up the Liffey, is the Phœnix Park, with an area of 1759 acres. In it are the Viceregal Lodge, the usual residence of the King's representative; the Chief Secretary's and Under-Secretary's official residences; the Royal Hibernian Military School; and the depot of the Royal Irish Constabulary; as also the gardens of the Royal Zoological Society. The manufactures carried on are of little note: poplins, for which Dublin has been long celebrated, are still in some request, and brewing and distilling are largely carried on. Since 1918 Dublin returns seven members to the House of Commons. The Sinn Fein members, however, elected in 1918, never attended the Imperial Parliament. Serious risings occurred in Dublin at Easter 1916, in 1919, and 1920, and there were also disorders in May 1921. Dublin is an ancient town, but its early history is obscure. It was held by the Danes for more than three centuries from 836. Pop. 399,000 (1919). The county, which is in the province of Leinster, on the east coast of the island, has an area of 218,873 acres, about a third of it under crops of various kinds, chiefly grass and clover. The surface on the whole is flat, but the ground rises at its southern boundary into a range of hills, the highest of which—Kippure—is 2473 feet above the sea. There is about 70 miles of sea-coast, the chief indentation being Dublin Bay. The principal stream is the Liffey, which intersects the county west to east. Important water communications are the Royal and the Grand Canals, both centering in Dublin, and uniting the Liffey with the Shannon. The manufactures are unimportant, but the fisheries are extensive. Since 1918 the county returns four members to the House of Commons. Pop. 172,394; Dublin (county borough), 304,802.—Cf. D. A. Chart, The Story of Dublin.

Dublin, University of, an institution founded in 1591, when a charter, or letters-patent, was granted by Queen Elizabeth for the incorporation of the "College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity", the University and Trinity College being practically the same. The corporation now consists of a provost, seven senior fellows, twenty-six junior fellows, and seventy foundation scholars. The Senate of the university consists of "the chancellor of the university, or in his absence, of the vice-chancellor, and such doctors or masters of the university as shall have and keep their names on the books of Trinity College". The Senate possesses the right of electing the chancellor of the university; it is also the body which grants degrees. The fellows are appointed for life, after an examination. The scholars are chosen from among the undergraduates, after an examination in mathematics and logic, or in Greek, Latin, and logic. The scholarships are tenable for five years, or till the degree of M.A. is attained. The course of general instruction extends over four years. The academical year is divided into three terms—Michaelmas, Hilary, and Trinity—and every student must keep at least two terms in each year in order to obtain a degree. The system of instruction is superintended by the fellows, both junior and senior, together with a large staff of professors in the various departments of science and literature. Eighteen of the junior fellows act as tutors, and every student must place himself under one of these on entering the college. The B.A. degree is given after examination in the usual subjects, and may be a pass or honours degree; the M.A., as at Oxford and Cambridge, is gained by the payment of a fee after a certain time has elapsed. There are also a law school, a medical school, and a school of engineering, and degrees are granted in these subjects, as well as in arts and divinity. The college possesses a library of about 285,000 printed volumes and 1700 manuscripts. It has also a botanic garden and museum. In 1613 James I granted to the university the right of returning two members to Parliament. One was taken away at the Union, but was restored by the Reform Bill of 1832. The number of students in 1920 was 1350.—Cf. Dublin University Calendar.

Dubno, a town of the Ukraine, government of Volhynia. It was a place of some importance before the annexation of Western Poland by Russia. During the European War it was recaptured in the Russian advance in June, 1916. Pop. 14,000.

Dubois (du˙-bwä), Guillaume, a French cardinal, was the son of an apothecary, born in 1656, died 1723. He became tutor to the Duke of Chartres, afterwards Duke of Orleans and Regent, and maintained his influence by pandering to the vices of his pupil. He became Privy Councillor and overseer of the duke's household, and Minister for Foreign Affairs under the regency. The archbishopric of Cambrai having become vacant, Dubois ventured to request it of the regent, although he was not even a priest. The regent was astonished at his boldness; but he obtained the post, having in one morning received all the clerical orders, and, a few days after, the archbishopric. By his consummate address he obtained a cardinal's hat, and in 1721 was appointed Prime Minister. Dubois was an avaricious, lying, licentious creature, yet clever and industrious, and able to make himself very agreeable where it suited his interest.

Dubois (du˙-bwä), Paul, French sculptor, born 1829, died in 1905. He first studied law, but from 1856 to 1858 gave himself up to sculpture under Toussaint at Paris, and then went to Italy, where the sculptors of the early Renaissance, Donatello and Luca Della Robbia, had a decided influence upon him. Among his works are a St. John, a Narcissus, a Madonna and Child, Eve Awakening to Life, a figure of Song for the opera-house at Paris, and numerous busts; but his greatest work is the monument of General Lamoricière in the Cathedral of Nantes, with figures of Military Courage, Charity, Faith, and Meditation, which rank among the best products of French plastic art. He is also distinguished as a painter of portraits. He was director of the École des Beaux Arts from 1878 until his death, and received the grand cross of the Legion of Honour.

Du Bois-Reymond (du˙ bwä-rā-mōn˙), Emil, German physiologist, and an especial authority on animal electricity, born at Berlin 1818, died in 1896. He studied theology, geology, and afterwards anatomy and physiology, and became professor of physiology in the University of Berlin in 1858. His principal publication is Researches in Animal Electricity.

Dubov´ka, a town of South Russia, government of Saratov, on the Volga; it has an extensive river trade in wool, iron, oil, and grain. Pop. 16,530.

Dubuque (du-būk´), a city of Iowa, United States, on the right bank of the Mississippi. It occupies an important commercial position as a railway centre and entrepôt for the agricultural and mineral products of the northern half of Iowa, and the timber of Wisconsin, and also from the valuable lead-mines in its vicinity. Pop. 39,428.

Ducange (du˙-känzh), Charles Dufresne, Sieur, a French historian and linguist, was born in 1610 near Amiens, died at Paris 1688. He studied in the Jesuits' College at Amiens, afterwards at Orleans and Paris. At this last place he became Parliamentary Advocate in 1631, and in 1645 Royal Treasurer at Amiens, from which place he was driven by a pestilence, in 1668, to Paris. Here he devoted himself entirely to literature, and published his great works, viz. his Glossaries of the Greek and Latin peculiar to the Middle Ages and the Moderns, his Historia Byzantina, the Annals of Zonaras, the Numismatics of the Middle Ages, and other important works.

Ducas, Michael, Byzantine historian, flourished in the fifteenth century. His Historia Byzantina, which contains a reliable account of the siege and sack of Constantinople, was largely used by Gibbon.

Duc´at (Lat. ducātus, a duchy), a coin formerly common in several European states. They were either of silver or gold: value of the former, 3s. to 4s., of the latter about 9s. 4d. They were named from being first coined in one of the Italian duchies.

Ducatoon´, formerly a Dutch silver coin worth 3 gulden 3 stivers, or 5s. 3d. sterling. There were coins of the same name in Italy. In Tuscany its value was about 5s. 5d., in Savoy slightly more, and in Venice about 4s. 9d.

Du Chaillu (du˙-shā-yü), Paul Belloni, traveller, born in Paris 1835, died 1903. He spent his youth in the French settlement at the Gaboon, on the west coast of Africa, where his father was a merchant. In 1852 he went to the United States, of which he afterwards became a naturalized citizen. In 1855 he began his first journey through Western Africa, and stayed till 1859 alone among the different tribes, travelling on foot upwards of 8000 miles. He collected several gorillas, never before hunted, and rarely, if ever, before seen by any European. An account of this journey, Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa, was published in 1861. A second expedition was made in 1863, an account of which, under the title A Journey to Ashango Land, appeared in 1867. The Land of the Midnight Sun, an account of a tour in Northern Europe (1881), had a considerable success. He published a number of books intended for boys, and based on his travels. One of his works is The Viking Age (1889), on the ancestors of the English-speaking peoples.

Duchesne, or Du Chesne (du˙-shān), André, French historian, born in 1584, died in 1640. His most important works are his collection of French historians—Historiæ Francorum Scriptores; Historiæ Normanorum Scriptores 838-1220; Histoire d'Angleterre, d'Écosse, et d'Irlande; Histoire des Papes.

Ducis (dü-sēs), Jean François, French dramatic writer, born at Versailles 1733, died 1816. Of his original works, the tragedy Abufar was much admired; but he is now best known for his adaptations of Shakespeare to the Parisian stage.

Duck, the name given to web-footed birds constituting the sub-family Anatinæ of the family Anatidæ, which also includes swans and geese. The ducks are very numerous as species, and are met with all over the world. They are often migratory, going northward in summer to their breeding-places. Their food is partly vegetable, partly animal. The common mallard or wild-duck (Anas boschas) is the original of the domestic duck. In its wild state the male is characterized by the deep green of the plumage of the head and neck, by a white collar separating the green from the dark chestnut of the lower part of the neck, and by having the four middle feathers of the tail recurved. The wild-duck is taken in large quantities by decoys and other means. Some tame ducks have nearly the same plumage as the wild ones; others vary greatly, being generally duller or pure white, but all the males have the four recurved tail-feathers. There are several favourite varieties of the domestic duck, those of Normandy and Picardy in France, and the Aylesbury ducks in England, being remarkable for their great size and delicacy of flesh. Other species of the sub-family are: shoveller (Spatula clypeata), garganey (Querquedula circia), pintail or sea-pheasant (Dafila acuta), teal (Nettion crecca), widgeon (Mareca penelope), gadwall (Chaulelasmus streperus), sheldrake (Tadorna cornuta), tree-ducks (species of Dendrocygna). In a wider sense the name 'duck' is applied to species of other sub-families of the Anatidæ as follows: Merganettinæ: blue duck (Hymenolæmus malacorhynchus) of New Zealand. Erismaturinæ: musk duck (Biziura lobata) of Tasmania and Australia. Lake ducks (species of Erismatura). Fuligulinæ: eider duck (Somateria mollissima), q.v.; scoter or black duck (Œdemia nigra); harlequin duck (Cosmonetta histrionica); logger-head or steamer duck (Tachyeres cinereus) of South America: scaup (Fuligula marila); canvas back (F. vallisneria), q.v.; pochard (Nyroca ferina). Plectopterinæ: summer duck (Aix sponsa) of N. America and Cuba; mandarin duck (A. galericulata) of E. Asia; Muscovy or musk duck (Cairina moschata), ranging from Mexico to the Argentine.—Bibliography: Nourse, Turkeys, Ducks, and Geese; Rankin, Natural and Artificial Duck Culture; J. G. Millais, British Diving Ducks.

Ducking-stool, a stool or chair in which common scolds were formerly tied and plunged into water. They were of different forms, but that most commonly in use consisted of an upright post and a transverse movable beam on which the seat was fitted or from which it was suspended by a chain. The ducking-stool is mentioned in Domesday Book (Chester): it was extensively in use throughout the country from the fifteenth till the beginning of the eighteenth century, and in one case—at Leominster—was used as late as 1809.

Duckweed, the popular name of several species of Lemna, nat. ord. Lemnaceæ, plants growing in ditches and shallow water, floating on the surface, and serving as food for ducks and geese. Five species are known in Britain, and others are common in America. They consist of small fronds bearing naked unisexual flowers.

Duckworth, Sir John Thomas, a British admiral, born in 1748, died 1817. He joined the navy when eleven years of age; and was post-captain in 1780. In 1793, on the breaking out of the French war, he was appointed to the command of the Orion, 74, forming part of the Channel fleet under Lord Howe, and distinguished himself in 1794 in the great naval victory on 1st June. In 1798 he aided in the capture of Minorca. From 1800 to 1806 he rendered important services on the West India station, in particular gaining a complete victory over a French squadron, for which he received a pension of £1000 a year and the thanks of both Houses of Parliament. In 1807, having been ordered to Constantinople, he forced the passage of the Dardanelles, but suffered severely from the Turkish batteries in returning. From 1810 to 1814 he commanded the Newfoundland fleet, and in 1817 he was appointed to the chief command at Plymouth. In 1813 he was created a baronet.

Duclos (du˙-klō), Charles Pinot, a French novelist, writer of memoirs, and grammarian, born in 1704 at Dinant, died at Paris 1772. He became secretary of the French Academy, and on the resignation of Voltaire he was appointed to the office of historiographer of France. His writings are lively and satirical. Among the best are: Confessions du Comte de * * * (1741), Considérations sur les Mœurs de ce Siècle, Mémoires secrets sur les Règnes de Louis XIV et XV, and Remarques sur la Grammaire générale de Port-Royal.

Ductil´ity, the property of solid bodies, particularly metals, which renders them capable of being extended by drawing, while their thickness or diameter is diminished, without any actual fracture or separation of their parts. The following is nearly the order of ductility of the metals which possess the property in the highest degree, that of the first mentioned being the greatest: gold, silver, platinum, iron, copper, nickel, palladium, cadmium, zinc, tin, lead. Dr. Wollaston succeeded in obtaining a wire of platinum only /30000th of an inch in diameter. The ductility of glass at high temperatures seems to be unlimited, while its flexibility increases in proportion to the fineness to which its threads are drawn.

Duddon, an English river which flows 20 miles along the boundaries of Cumberland and Lancashire to the Irish Sea, and is the subject of a series of sonnets by Wordsworth, written in 1820.

Du Deffand, Madame. See Deffand.

Duderstadt (dö´dėr-sta˙t), an old German town, province of Hanover, 10 miles east of Göttingen, formerly a member of the Hanseatic League and a place of some importance. Pop. 5380.

Dudevant, Madame. See Sand, George.

Dud´ley, Sir Edmund, born 1462, executed 1510, noted in English history as an instrument of Henry VII in the arbitrary acts of extortion by the revival of obsolete statutes and other unjust measures practised during the latter years of his reign. On the accession of Henry VIII he was arrested for high treason, and perished on the scaffold with his associate Sir Richard Empson.

Dudley, Lord Guildford, son of John, Duke of Northumberland, was married in 1553 to Lady Jane Grey, whose claim to the throne the duke intended to assert on the death of Edward VI. On the failure of the plot Lord Guildford was condemned to death, but the sentence was not carried into effect till the insurrection of Wyatt induced Mary to order his immediate execution (1554).

Dudley, John, Duke of Northumberland, son of Sir Edmund Dudley, minister of Henry VII, was born in 1502, beheaded 1553. He was left by Henry VIII one of the executors named in his will, as a kind of joint-regent during the minority of Edward VI. Under that prince he manifested the most insatiable ambition, and obtained vast accessions of honours, power, and emoluments. The illness of the king, over whom he had gained complete ascendency, aroused his fears, and he endeavoured to strengthen his interest by marrying his son Lord Guildford Dudley to Lady Jane Grey, descended from the younger sister of Henry VIII, and persuaded Edward to settle the crown on his kinswoman by will, to the exclusion of his two sisters, the Princesses Mary and Elizabeth. The attempt to place Lady Jane Grey on the throne failed, and many of the conspirators were executed.

Dudley, Robert, Earl of Leicester. See Leicester.

Dudley, a town and parliamentary borough of England, in an isolated part of Worcestershire enclosed by Staffordshire, 8 miles west by north of Birmingham. It is situated in the midst of the 'black country', and has extensive coal-mines, iron-mines, ironworks, and limestone quarries. It produces nails, chain-cables, anchors, vices, boilers, fire-irons, and has also glassworks, brickworks, and brass-foundries. There are the remains of a castle, said to have been founded in the eighth century by a Saxon prince called Dud, who has given the town its name. Dudley returns one member to Parliament. Pop. of municipal borough, 51,079.

Dudley Limestone, a highly fossiliferous limestone belonging to the Silurian system, occurring near Dudley, and equivalent to the Wenlock limestone. It abounds in beautiful masses of coral, shells, and trilobites.

Duel (Lat. duellum, from duo, two), a premeditated and prearranged combat between two persons with deadly weapons, for the purpose of deciding some private difference or quarrel. The combat generally takes place in the presence of witnesses called seconds, who make arrangements as to the mode of fighting, place the weapons in the hands of the combatants, and see that the laws they have laid down are carried out. The origin of the practice of duelling is referred to the trial by 'wager of battle' which obtained in early ages. This form of duel arose among the Germanic peoples, and a judicial combat of the kind was authorized by Gundebald, King of the Burgundians, as early as A.D. 501. When the judicial combat declined, the modern duel arose, being probably to some extent an independent outcome of the spirit and institutions of chivalry. France was the country in which it arose, the sixteenth century being the time at which it first became common, especially after the challenge of Francis I to Charles V in 1528. Upon every insult or injury which seemed to touch his honour, a gentleman thought himself entitled to draw his sword, and to call on his adversary to give him satisfaction, and it is calculated that 6000 persons fell in duels during ten years of the reign of Henri IV. His minister, Sully, remonstrated against the practice; but the king connived at it, supposing that it tended to maintain a military spirit among his people. In 1602, however, he issued a decree against it, and declared it to be punishable with death. Many subsequent prohibitions were issued, but they were all powerless to stop the practice. During the minority of Louis XIV, more than 4000 nobles are said to have lost their lives in duels. The practice of duelling was introduced into England from France in the reign of James I; but it was never so common as in the latter country. Cromwell was an enemy of the duel, and during the Protectorate there was a cessation of the practice. It came again into vogue, however, after the Restoration, thanks chiefly to the French ideas that then inundated the court. As society became more polished duels became more frequent, and they were never more numerous than in the reign of George III. Among the principals in the chief duels of this period were Charles James Fox, Sheridan, Pitt, Canning, Castlereagh, the Duke of York, the Duke of Richmond, and Lord Camelford. The last mentioned was the most notorious duellist of his time, and was himself killed in a duel in 1804. A duel was fought between the Duke of Wellington and Lord Winchelsea in 1829, but the practice was dying out. It lasted longest in the army. By English law fatal duelling is considered murder, no matter how fair the combat may have been, and the seconds are liable to the same penalty as the principals. In 1813 the principal and seconds in a fatal duel were sentenced to death, though afterwards pardoned. An officer in the army having anything to do with a duel renders himself liable to be cashiered. In France duelling still prevails to a certain extent; but the combats are usually very bloodless and ridiculous affairs. In the German army until 1918 it was common, and was recognized by law. The duels of German students, so often spoken of, seldom cause serious bloodshed.—Bibliography: Millingen, History of Duelling; Steinmetz, Romance of Duelling; G. Letainturier-Fradin, Le duel à travers les âges; C. A. Thimm, Bibliography of Fencing and Duelling; A. Hutton, The Sword and the Centuries.

Duen´na, the chief lady-in-waiting on the Queen of Spain. In a more general sense, an elderly woman holding a middle station between a governess and companion, appointed to take charge of the young daughters of Spanish and Portuguese families.

Dufaure (du˙-fōr), Jules Armand Stanislas, French orator and statesman, born 1798, died 1881. He practised law at Bordeaux; entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1834, and became an influential leader of the Liberal party. Under the Republic he was Minister of the Interior, but was driven from the public service by the coup d'état of 1851, and for the next twenty years devoted himself closely to his Bar practice and pamphlet writing. Under the Government of Thiers he acted as Minister of Justice; and in 1876, and again from 1877 to 1879, he was head of the Cabinet.

Duff, Alexander, Scottish missionary, born 1806, died 1878. Educated at St. Andrews University, in 1829 he set out for India as the first Church of Scotland missionary to that country, and reached Calcutta after being twice shipwrecked. He opened a school in which he taught successfully the doctrines of Christianity, as well as general knowledge, but on his secession (along with the other missionaries of the Church) from the Church of Scotland in 1843, he had to give up the school and begin again. In 1849 he visited Scotland, where he remained until 1856. He assisted in founding the University of Calcutta, and, having been obliged to return home for reasons of health, he raised £10,000 to endow a missionary chair in the New College, Edinburgh, becoming himself its first occupant. His chief writings are: The Church of Scotland's India Mission (1835); Vindication of the Church of Scotland's India Mission (1837); India and India Missions (1840); The Jesuits (1845); and The Indian Mutiny: its Causes and Results (a series of letters published in 1858).

Duff, Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant, writer on political and other subjects, born in Aberdeenshire in 1829, died in 1906. He was educated at Edinburgh Academy, The Grange, Bishop Wearmouth, and Balliol College, Oxford, was called to the Bar at the Inner Temple in 1854, and in 1857 entered the House of Commons as Liberal member for the Elgin Burghs, which constituency he continued to represent until 1881. He was Under-Secretary for India in W. E. Gladstone's ministry from 1868 to 1874, and Under-Secretary for the Colonies from 1880 to 1881, in which latter year he was appointed Governor of Madras. His Indian administration was most successful, and on his retirement in 1886 he was made a G.C.S.I. He was president of the Royal Geographical Society from 1889 to 1893, and of the Royal Historical Society from 1892 to 1899, and was also a trustee of the British Museum. His published works include: Studies in European Politics (1866); A Political Survey (1868); Elgin Speeches (1871); Notes of an Indian Journey (1876); Miscellanies, Political and Literary (1879); Memoir of Sir H. S. Maine (1892); Ernest Renan (1893); and Notes from a Diary (7 vols., 1897-1905).

Duff´erin and Ava, Frederick Temple Hamilton-Blackwood, Marquess of, British statesman and author, son of the fourth Baron Dufferin and a granddaughter of R. B. Sheridan, born at Florence 1826, died in 1902. He began his public services in 1855, when he was attached to Earl Russell's mission to Vienna. Subsequently he was sent as Commissioner to Syria in connection with the massacre of the Christians (1860); was Under-Secretary of State for India (1864-6); Under-Secretary for War (1866); Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (1868-72); Governor-General of Canada (1872-78); Ambassador at St. Petersburg (1879-81); at Constantinople (1882); sent to Cairo to settle the affairs of the country after Arabi Pasha's rebellion (1882-3); Viceroy of India (1884-8); Ambassador to Italy (1889-91); to France (1891-96). He was elected president of the Royal Geographical Society in 1878, and Lord Rector of Glasgow University in 1891. Besides being a noted diplomatist, he was also a popular author. In 1847 he published Narrative of a Journey from Oxford to Skibbereen during the year of the Irish Famine; in 1860, Letters from High Latitudes; also various pamphlets on Irish questions. In 1888 he was made Marquess of Dufferin and Ava.—Cf. Sir A. Lyall, Life of the Marquess of Dufferin and Ava.

Dufrénoy (du˙-frė-nwä) Pierre Armand, French geologist and mineralogist, born in 1792, died in 1857. He became director of the school of mines, and published a great variety of papers on geology and mineralogy. In 1841 he published, in collaboration with Élie de Beaumont, a great geological map of France with three volumes of text, and this was followed by his Traité de Minéralogie. He introduced a new classification of minerals, based on crystallography.

Dufresny (du˙-frā-nē), Charles Rivière, a French comic poet, born in 1648, died in 1724. He was clever and versatile, and had great skill as a landscape-gardener and an architectural designer. Among his dramatic pieces may be mentioned L'Esprit de Contradiction, Le Mariage Fait et Rompu, and Le Double Veuvage. He also wrote Amusements sérieux et comiques d'un Siamois, which suggested to Montesquieu his Lettres Persanes.

Dug´dale, Sir William, an English antiquary, born in 1605 of a good family in Warwickshire, died 1686. He was made Chester herald in 1644; accompanied Charles I through the civil war; and after the Restoration received knighthood, and was appointed garter king-at-arms. In concert with Roger Dodsworth he produced an important work on English monasteries entitled Monasticon Anglicanum. Among his other works are: Antiquities of Warwickshire; The Baronage or Peerage of England; Origines Judiciales, or Historical Memoirs of the English Law, Courts of Justice, &c.; a History of St. Paul's Cathedral; and various minor writings. He also completed and published the second volume of Spelman's Concilia.

Du´gong, a herbivorous mammal, the Halicŏrē dugong, belonging to the ord. Sirenia, which also includes the manatees. It is a native of the Indian and Australian seas; possesses a tapering body ending in a crescent-shaped fin, and is said sometimes to attain a length of 20 feet, though generally it is about 7 or 8 feet in length. The fore-limbs are in the form of flippers; hind-limbs are absent. The skin is thick and smooth, with a few scattered bristles; the colour bluish above and white beneath. Its food consists of marine plants; it yields little or no oil, but is hunted by the Malays for its flesh, which resembles veal, and is tender and palatable. It has been suggested that the appearance of this animal has given rise to the legends of mermaids and mermen.

Duguay-Trouin (dü-gā-trö-an), René, a distinguished French seaman, born at St. Malo in 1673, died at Paris 1736. As commander of a privateer he took many prizes from the British between 1690 and 1697. He then entered the royal marine as a captain, and signalized himself so much in the Spanish War that the king granted him letters of nobility, in which it was stated that he had captured more than 300 merchant ships and twenty ships of war. By the capture of Rio de Janeiro (1711) he brought the Crown more than 25,000,000 francs. Under Louis XV he rendered important services in the Levant and the Mediterranean.

Du Guesclin (dü-gā-klan), Bertrand, Constable of France, born about 1314, died 1380. Mainly to him must be attributed the expulsion of the English from Normandy, Guienne, and Poitou. He was captured by Chandos at the battle of Auray in 1364, and ransomed for 100,000 francs. While serving in Spain against Peter the Cruel, he was made prisoner by the English Black Prince, but was soon liberated. For his services in Spain he was made Constable of Castile, Count of Trastamare, and Duke of Molinas; and in 1370 he was made Constable of France.

Duikerbok, species of Cephalophus, small South African antelopes with short horns (none in the female), and a tuft of stiff hairs between them.

Duisburg (dö´is-bu¨rh), a flourishing town in Rhenish Prussia, 13 miles north of Düsseldorf. It is an ancient place, believed to be of Roman origin. It early rose to be a free town, and became a member of the Hanseatic League. It possesses a beautiful church of the fifteenth century, and has iron manufactories, engineering works, chemical works, and cotton and woollen mills; and a large trade greatly facilitated by a canal communicating with the Rhine, which is about 2 miles distant. Pop. 229,483.

Dujardin (du˙-zha˙r-dan˙), Karel, a Dutch artist, who excelled in painting landscapes, animals, and scenes in low life, born in 1640 at Amsterdam, died at Venice 1678. His paintings are rare, and command high prices. His masterpiece, The Charlatans (1657), is in the Louvre.

Duke (Fr. duc, Sp. duque, It. duca, all from Lat. dux, leader, commander), a title belonging originally to a military leader. In Britain it is the highest rank in the peerage. Royal dukes have a special status and precedence. The first hereditary duke in England was the Black Prince, created by his father, Edward III, in 1336. The duchy of Cornwall was bestowed upon him, and was thenceforward attached to the eldest son of the king, who is considered a duke by birth. The duchy of Lancaster was soon after conferred on Edward's third son, John of Gaunt, and hence arose the special privileges which these two duchies still in part retain. A duke in the British peerage, not of royal rank, is styled 'your grace', or 'my Lord Duke'; his wife is a duchess. (See Address, Forms of.) The coronet consists of a richly-chased gold circle, having on its upper edge eight golden leaves of a conventional type called strawberry leaves; the cap of crimson velvet is closed at the top with a gold tassel, lined with sarsenet, and turned up with ermine. (See Coronet.) At various periods and in different continental countries the title duke (Herzog in Germany) was given to the actual sovereigns of small states. The titles 'grand-duke' and 'grand-duchess', 'archduke' and 'archduchess', were in use also on the European continent, especially in Russia and Austria until 1918. In the Bible the word dukes is used (Gen. xxxvi) for the duces of the Vulgate.

Dukhoborzi (du¨h-o-bor´tsē), a Russian sect of religious mystics which arose in the eighteenth century. The name means 'spirit-fighters', as the sect was accused by the orthodox priests of fighting against the spirit of God. They reject the doctrine of the Trinity, of the deity of Christ, hold property in common, and refuse oaths and military service, thus resembling Quakers. In 1899 a body of several thousands emigrated to Canada, where they received territory in Assiniboia and Saskatchewan.

Dukinfield, or Duckinfield, a municipal borough, England, county Cheshire, separated by the Tame from Ashton-under-Lyne, and mostly within Stalybridge parliamentary borough. Collieries, cotton-factories, brickworks, and tileworks give employment to the population. Pop. (municipal borough), 19,426.

Dulce (du¨l´sā), a lake of Guatemala, on the east coast, communicating with the Gulf of Honduras by the lakelet el Golfete. It is about 30 miles long by 12 broad, and affords profitable turtle hunting.

Dulcigno (du¨l-chēn´yō), a small seaport town, formerly in Albania, now in Montenegro, on the Adriatic, the seat of a Roman Catholic Bishop. It was captured by the Austrians in 1916, and retaken by Italian troops in 1918. Pop. 5000.

Dul´cimer, one of the most ancient musical instruments, used in almost all parts of the world. The modern instrument consists of a shallow trapezium-shaped box without a top, across which runs a series of wires, tuned by pegs at the sides, and played on by being struck by two cork-headed hammers. It is in much less common use in Europe now than it was a century or two ago, and is interesting chiefly as being the prototype of the piano. It is still, however, occasionally to be met with on the Continent at fairs in the country, and in England in the hands of street musicians. It was known in Persia and Arabia under the name of santir, and was introduced into Europe by the Crusaders. The Hebrew psaltery is supposed to have been a variety of the dulcimer.

Dul´cinists, followers of Dulcinus, a layman of Lombardy, in the fourteenth century, who preached the reign of the Holy Ghost, affirming that the Father had reigned till Christ's incarnation, and that the Son's reign terminated in 1300. He was followed by a great many people to the Alps, where he and his wife were taken and burned by order of Clement IV.

Dulcitol, or Dulcite, is an alcohol closely allied to the sugars. It is found in Madagascar manna, from which it is extracted by boiling water.

Duli´a (Gr. douleia, service, from doulos, a slave), an inferior kind of worship or adoration, as that paid to saints and angels in the Roman Catholic Church. The Catholics recognize different degrees of worship. The lowest degree is the dulia, which is given to saints and angels. Hyperdulia is reserved for the Virgin alone; and latria is given to God and to each person of the Trinity.

Dulse, a red sea-weed, the Rhodymenia palmāta, used in some parts of Scotland as an edible. It has a reddish-brown, or purple, leathery, veinless frond, several inches long, and is found at low water adhering to the rocks. It is an important plant to the Icelanders, and is stored by them in casks to be eaten with fish. In Kamchatka a fermented liquor is made from it. In the south of England the name is given to the Iridæa edūlis, also an edible red sea-weed.

Duluth (du-luth´), a town of the United States, capital of St. Louis county, Minnesota, at the south-west extremity of Lake Superior. The Northern Pacific and Lake Superior and Mississippi railways terminate here; and extensive docks and other works have been constructed, affording a convenient outlet for the surrounding wheat region. Pop. 97,077.

Dulwich (dul´ich), a suburb of London, in County Surrey, about 5 miles south of London Bridge, giving name to a parliamentary division of the borough of Camberwell; noticeable on account of its school, Dulwich College, called the 'College of God's Gift,' founded as a charitable institution in 1619 by the actor Edward Allen or Alleyn. Four parishes were benefited by the charity: St. Luke's, Middlesex; St. Botolph's, Bishopsgate; St. Saviour's, Southwark; and St. Giles', Camberwell. Having outlived its usefulness, in 1857 an Act was passed by which the college was reconstituted. It now consists of two branches, the educational and the eleemosynary, between which the surplus revenue is divided in the proportion of three-fourths to the former and one-fourth to the latter. The educational branch comprises two schools, the upper and the lower; the former giving boys a high-class education (lower fees for those of the privileged parishes), and having a number of scholarships and exhibitions. The eleemosynary branch maintains a certain number of resident and non-resident poor people. The original revenues were only £800, but now amount to £20,000. Dulwich College is celebrated for its pictures, many of which were bequeathed by the founder; but the greater and more valuable portion of them was the bequest of Sir Francis Bourgeois, a landscape-painter, who died in 1810. The collection includes many fine pictures of the Dutch school.

Duma, or Douma, the Lower House of the former Russian Parliament, the Upper House being the Council of the Empire. In 1905 Tsar Nicholas II granted his country a Constitution, promising that responsible Government would be established, and that no law would be made effective without the consent of the Duma. The first Duma accordingly met in 1906, and was to have had the power of a Parliament in Constitutional countries. The Legislative Assembly could make new laws, modify existing ones, issue the national Budget, &c., but had no right to alter the fundamental laws of the empire. In spite of the promises, however, given by the Tsar, the Imperial Government paid no attention to the demands of the Assembly, and when the criticisms of the Deputies became too loud, the first Duma was dissolved. A second Duma assembled the next year, but its members, in consequence of governmental restrictions on elections, were mostly Conservatives. In the opinion of the Government, however, even the second Duma was too Liberal in its tendencies, and it was promptly dissolved. The third Duma, which met in 1907, and whose members were mostly landed proprietors, retired officers, and priests, was absolutely subservient to the autocratic Government, and, from that date to the outbreak of the Russian Revolution in 1917, the power and influence of the Russian Duma were almost nil. The Duma ceased to exist on 7th Nov., 1917, when the Bolsheviks came into power, and the Government of Commissaries of the People was set up.

Dumas (du˙-mä), Alexandre (called Dumas Père), French novelist and dramatist, born at Villers-Cotterets 1803, died at Puys, near Dieppe, 1870. He was the son of a republican general, and grandson of the Marquis de la Pailleterie and a negress, Tiennette Dumas. In 1823 he went to Paris, and obtained an assistant-secretaryship from the Duke of Orleans, afterwards Louis Philippe. He soon began to write for the stage, and in 1829 scored his first success with his drama Henri III et sa cour. It was produced when the battle between the Romanticists and the Classicists was at its height, and hailed as a triumph by the former school. The same year appeared his Christine, and in quick succession Antony, Richard d'Arlington, Térésa, La Tour de Nesle, Catharine Howard, and Mlle de Belle-Isle. Dumas had now become a noted Parisian character. The critics fought over the merits of his pieces, and the scandal-mongers over his prodigality and galanteries. Turning his attention to romance, he produced a series of historical romances, among which may be mentioned: Le bâtard de Mauléon; Isabelle de Bavière; Les Deux Dianes; La Reine Margot; Les Trois Mousquetaires, with its continuations Vingt Ans Après and the later Vicomte de Bragelonne. His Monte-Cristo and several others are also well known to English readers through translations. Several historical works were also written by him: Louis XIV et son Siècle, Le Regent et Louis XV, Le Drame de '93, Florence et les Médicis, &c. The works which bear his name amount to some 1200 volumes, including about 60 dramas; but the only claim he could lay to a great number of the productions issued under his name was that he either sketched the plot or revised them before going to press. He earned vast sums of money, but his recklessness and extravagance eventually reduced him to the adoption of a shifty, scheming mode of living. His Mémoires, begun in 1852, present interesting sketches of literary life during the Restoration, but display intense egotism. In 1860 he accompanied Garibaldi in the expedition which freed Naples from the Bourbons. He died at the residence of his son, and was buried in Villers-Cotterets in 1872. Dumas was remarkable for his creative rather than for his artistic genius, and although he frequently squandered his gifts, he was admired even by the highly cultured, such as Thackeray and others.—Bibliography: H. Blaze de Bury, Alexandre Dumas: sa vie, son temps, son œuvre; A. B. Davidson, Alexandre Dumas père: his Life and Works.

Dumas, Alexandre, son of the above, born 1824, died in 1895, novelist and dramatist. His works treat mostly of the relations between vice and morals. His first novels, La Dame aux Camélias and Diane de Lys, were very successful, as were also the plays which were founded on them. His dramas, which are much superior to his novels, deal satirically with the characters, follies, and manners of French society. He was thus a pioneer in the 'comedy of manners'. His plays, besides his dramatized novel La Dame aux Camélias, which marked a date in the history of the French stage, and which supplied Verdi with the plot for La Traviata, are: Le demi-monde, Le fils naturel, L'Ami des femmes, La princesse Georges, and L'Étrangère.

Dumas, Matthieu, French soldier and military writer, born in 1753, died in Paris 1837. He early entered the French cavalry, took part in the War of American Independence, and was employed in the Levant and in Holland. At the commencement of the Revolution he assisted Lafayette in organizing the National Guard. On the triumph of the extreme party in 1797 Dumas was proscribed, but made his escape to Holstein, where he wrote the first part of his Précis des Événements Militaires, a valuable source for the history of the period of which it treats (1798-1807). He was recalled from exile by Napoleon, who had become First Consul. His first employment was to organize the reserve for the army of Italy. In 1802 he was appointed State Councillor; in 1805 he became general of division, and was shortly afterwards Neapolitan minister in the service of Joseph Bonaparte. In 1808 he was actively employed in the arrangements for the war against Austria, fought in the battles of Essling and Wagram, and arranged the terms of the armistice of Znaim. He held the office of General Intendant of the army in the campaign of 1812. After the Restoration Louis XVIII appointed him Councillor of State, and gave him several important appointments connected with the army. In 1830 he aided in bringing on the revolution of July, and after the fall of Charles X he obtained the chief command of all the national guards of France, together with a peerage. He published a translation of Napier's History of the Peninsular War.

Du Maurier (du˙-mō´ri-ā), George Louis Palmella Busson, artist and writer, was born in Paris 1834, died in 1896. He was the son of an English mother and a Frenchman who had been naturalized as a British subject. At the age of seventeen he took up the study of chemistry in London, but soon adopted art as a profession. After studying in Belgium and France, he returned to London, and soon began to contribute drawings to Punch, Once a Week, Cornhill Magazine, &c. He succeeded Leech on Punch, and became famous chiefly through his drawings for that publication. He also illustrated various books, and wrote three novels, Trilby, Peter Ibbetson, and The Martian. His elder son, Guy Du Maurier, born in 1865, killed in France in 1915, was the author of An Englishman's Home (1909).

Dumba, Konstantin Theodor, Austro-Hungarian diplomatist, who became conspicuous as an agent of German propaganda in the United States during the European War. He went as Ambassador to the United States in 1913, and at the outbreak of the war endeavoured to organize a vast conspiracy there, with a view to hampering the productions of munitions for the Allies. Abusing his position of Ambassador, he planned explosions and strikes in American factories. On 1st Sept., 1915, J. F. J. Archibald, an American newspaper correspondent, was arrested at Falmouth, and among the papers found upon him was a letter from Dr. Dumba to Baron Burian, Austrian Minister for Foreign Affairs, wherein the former suggested a plan of crippling the munition factories in America by creating strikes. President Wilson then demanded his recall, and he left the United States in Oct., 1915, Great Britain granting him a safe conduct.

Dumbar´ton, a royal and parliamentary burgh and seaport, Scotland, chief town of Dumbarton county, stands on the Leven near its junction with the Clyde, 16 miles W.N.W. of Glasgow. Shipbuilding is carried on to a great extent, and there are foundries and engine-works. Dumbarton unites with Port-Glasgow, Renfrew, Rutherglen, and Kilmarnock in sending a member to Parliament. Originally it was called Alcluyd, and it was the chief town of Cumbria or Strathclyde. Pop. 21,989. A little to the south is the famous rock and castle of Dumbarton, rising above the Clyde. The rock, which is of basalt, is 240 feet in height, and about 1 mile in circumference at the base. It is one of the fortresses stipulated to be kept in repair by the Act of Union, and the barracks contain accommodation for 150 men. There has been a stronghold here from the earliest times, and the fortress of Dumbarton occupied an important place in Scottish history.—Dumbartonshire, the county of Dumbarton, is partly maritime, partly inland, consisting of two detached portions, the larger and most westerly lying between the Clyde, Loch Long, and Loch Lomond, and the far smaller portion being about 4 miles east of the former, and comprising only two parishes. More than half the area of the county is occupied by mountains, some of them attaining a height of upwards of 3000 feet. The lower lands are fertile, and in general well cultivated. More than one-half of Loch Lomond and fully two-thirds of the islands in it belong to Dumbartonshire. The Gareloch, an arm of the Firth of Clyde, forms a part of the county into a peninsula. The principal rivers are the Leven, from Loch Lomond, and the Kelvin, both belonging to the Clyde system. The chief minerals are coal, limestone, ironstone, and slate, all of which are wrought more or less. On the banks of the Leven and elsewhere are extensive cotton printing and bleaching establishments; and there are extensive shipbuilding yards along the Clyde. Besides Dumbarton, the chief town, the county contains the towns of Helensburgh and Kirkintilloch, and the manufacturing villages of Alexandria, Renton, and Bonhill. Vestiges of the Roman wall of Antoninus still exist. The county returns one member to the House of Commons. Pop. 139,831.

Dumb-cane, a plant of the ord. Araceæ, the Dieffenbachia seguina, of the West Indies, so called from its acridity causing swelling of the tongue when chewed, and destroying the power of speech.

Dumdum, a military village and extensive cantonment, Hindustan, province of Bengal, 4½ miles E.N.E. of Calcutta. The village is famous as being the scene of the first open manifestation of the sepoys against the greased cartridges, which led to the mutiny of 1857. Pop. 12,000.

Dumdum Bullet (so called from the arsenal at Dumdum, a small village 4½ miles from Calcutta), a hollow-nosed bullet which expands on impact, and so causes an ugly wound. It was used in Indian frontier fighting to stop the rushes of fanatical tribesmen. While the term 'Dumdum' bullet should strictly only be applied to hollow-nosed bullets, it is popularly applied to any kind of expanding bullet. Ordinary bullets can be converted into expanding ones by means of filing the cupro-nickel envelope until the lead core is exposed, by means of slitting the envelope at the shoulders, or simply by reversing the bullet in its socket. Expanding bullets are considered legitimate in big-game shooting, but in the Declaration signed at the Hague, 29th July, 1899, Germany expressly promised not to use such bullets in warfare. In spite of this the Germans freely used bullets of this kind in the European War.