Part III (part 2)

Lieutenant: I think the two men sent to the crossroads should have been started out before sending anyone to the Mills house as this was a more important point. The Field Service Regulations state that outguards do not patrol to the front, but what you did was entirely correct. You were securing yourself in your position and should be familiar with your immediate surroundings. You should have told the crossroads patrol to determine how much of an obstacle Sandy Creek was. I suppose you assumed the swamp was impassable.

The sentinel in this case is, I suppose, across the lane from the outguard about ten or fifteen yards in advance. After dark the double sentinel post should be posted on the pike about thirty yards in advance of the outguard.

Very frequently it would not be wise to put up your shelter tents on outguard. But here, considering the rain and the protection the trees and wall furnish, it was wise to do so.

The noncommissioned officer in charge of an outguard should be very precise in giving his orders and in making his arrangements, details, etc. The discipline must be strict; that is, the men must be kept under absolute control, so that in case of sudden attack there will be no chance of confusion and the outguard commander will have his men absolutely in hand and not permit any independent action on their part. This is often not the case, owing to the familiar relations that usually exist in our army between a corporal and the members of his squad.

We will not have time to go into the arrangements for Outguard No. 2 other than to say that the conditions there are somewhat different from those Corporal Baker has had to deal with. The outguard should be posted on the west bank of Sandy Creek and the sentinel at the southeastern end of the trestle. A skirmish trench should be dug down the western slope of the fill west of the creek, and extended across the track by throwing up a parapet about two and one-half feet high, slightly bent back towards the northeast so as to furnish cover from fire from the east bank of the creek, north of the trestle. The shelter tents could be pitched as "lean tos" against the western slope of the fill, and hidden by bushes and branches of trees.

(Note: The details of commanding this outguard, its action in case of attack, what should be done with a passing countryman, etc., can be profitably worked out in great detail.)

Problem No. 2

1078. Lieutenant (to six squads): We will take the same situation as we had in Problem 1, with squad outguards as before.

Sergeant Adams, you have command of the platoon and have sent out the two outguards. Explain your arrangements for the support.

Sergeant Adams: I have the men fall out by squads and rest on the side of the road while I look the ground over. I then tell Sergeant Barnes, "You will have immediate charge of the guard, cooking, visiting patrols, etc., here at the support. Detail three men from Corporal Evan's squad as first, second and third relief for the sentinel over the support Post your sentinel at the road fork and give him the necessary instructions as to the outguards, the adjacent support which is on this road (pointing west) on top of that ridge, etc. I will give you further instructions later." I then fall in the remainder of the support (one sergeant, one cook, four corporals and twenty-seven privates, three squads being intact and one man on duty as sentinel) and have shelter tents pitched under cover of the orchard and Mason house. While this is being completed I select a line for a trench, about thirty-five yards long, behind the fence on the east and west road and extending east of the Chester Pike about fifteen yards, slightly bent back towards the northeast. No trench in the road. I then say to Sergeant Foss, "Take Graves' squad and construct a shelter trench along this line (indicating) having the parapet concealed. Cut the fences so as to furnish easy access."

I then say to Corporal Evans, "Take three men from your squad and, as a reconnoitering patrol, cross the trestle there (pointing), and follow that road (pointing to the Boling-Salem road) into Salem, reconnoitering that village. Then take up a position on that ridge (pointing to Sandy Ridge) and remain out until dusk. Send me a message from Sandy Ridge with a sketch and description of the country."

I assume that Corporal Evans is familiar with the information about the enemy, the location of our outguards, etc.

Selecting five men from Corporal Geary's squad and the remaining man of Corporal Evans' squad (three having been detailed for sentinel duty, and three sent out on patrol duty with Corporal Evans), I turn them over to Sergeant Barnes, saying, "Here are six men to furnish three reliefs for a visiting patrol of two men. Have this patrol visit Outguard No. 2 and cross the trestle, going south down the east bank of the creek; thence recross the creek at the road bridge, visiting Outguard No. 1; thence across to the adjacent outguard of the support on our left, which is somewhere on that ridge (pointing to the Twin Hills-Lone Hill Ridge); and thence to the starting point. Have them locate that support on their first trip. You can reverse the route and make such minor changes from time to time as you think best. Report to me after they have completed the first round. Make arrangements for sending supper to the outguards. Take two men from Corporal Jackson's squad to carry it out. Be careful that the cook fire is not visible. I am going out to visit Outguard No. 1 and then No. 2. You will have charge until I return."

The men have stacked arms in front of the tents and have removed all equipment but their belts.

I would now visit the outguards, taking a man with me, and see if they are properly located. I would instruct the outguard commanders as to what to do in case of attack, in case strangers approach, point out their line of retreat in case of necessity, etc. I would make a sketch of the position and send it, with a description of my dispositions, to the commander of the outpost.

Lieutenant: Your arrangements and dispositions appear satisfactory. You should have been more prompt in sending Corporal Evans out with his patrol. Why didn't you send a patrol towards York, or south along the Chester Pike?

Sergeant Adams: I considered that the support on my right would cover that ridge (Twin Hills-Lone Hill), and that the route I laid out for Corporal Evans would cover the Chester Pike and the country east of Sandy Creek at the same time, thus avoiding the necessity for two patrols.

Lieutenant: That seems reasonable, but you should have given some specific orders about reporting on the width, depth, etc., of Sandy Creek, which might prove a very valuable or dangerous obstacle. You can readily see how quickly a command becomes broken up and depleted in strength, and how important it is to make only such detachments as are necessary. It looks as if your outguards might have been made smaller considering the size of your platoon (6 squads), but I think the squad outpost is so much better than one not composed of a complete unit, that it is correct in this case. With Corporal Evans' patrol of three men, the visiting patrol requiring six men, the sentinel post requiring three men, Sergeant Barnes, and the two outguards, you have thirty men actually on duty or detailed for duty, out of fifty-one. Of course, the men constituting the outguards, the man detailed for the visiting patrol and support sentinel, have approximately two hours on duty and four hours off duty, so they get some rest. Furthermore, you should have a three-man patrol watching the crossroads at Salem during the night, Corporal Evans' patrol having returned. This patrol should be relieved once during the night, at a previously stated hour, which means six more men who do not get a complete night's rest.

Sergeant Adams: Isn't Salem rather far to the front to send a patrol at night?

Lieutenant: Yes, it is, but unless you touch the crossroads there you would have to have two patrols out, one near Maxey's farm and one on the Chester Pike. As it is you are leaving the road from York to the crossroads in front of Outguard No. 1 uncovered, but you should find that this is covered by a patrol from the adjacent support. The cross roads in front of Outguard No. 1 is the natural place for a stationary, night patrol, but it is so close to the outguard that the benefit derived from a patrol there would be too small to justify the effort.

(Note: Further details of the duties of this support can be gone into. The messages should be written, and patrols carried through their tour of duty with the resulting situations to be dealt with; the sentinels tested as to their knowledge of their duties, etc. Also note carefully the manner in which the support commander uses his noncommissioned officers for carrying out his intentions, and thus avoids the most objectionable and inefficient practice of dealing directly with the privates.)

Problem No. 3 (Infantry)

1079. (See Fort Leavenworth map in pocket at back of book.)

Situation:

A Blue force, Companies A and B, 1st Infantry, under Captain A, in hostile country, is covering the Rock Island Bridge and camped for the night, April 20–21, on the south slope of Devin ridge (rm'). The enemy is moving northward from Kansas City (30 miles south of Leavenworth). At 3:30 P. M. Captain A receives a message from Colonel X at Beverly (2 miles east of Rock Island Bridge, (qo')), stating that two or three companies of hostile infantry are reported five miles south of Leavenworth at 2:30 P. M. No enemy is west of Leavenworth. Captain A decides to place one platoon on outpost.

Required, 1. Captain A's order.

Answer. Verbally: "Two or three Red companies were five miles south of Leavenworth at 2:30 P. M. today. No enemy is west of Leavenworth. We will camp here. 1st Platoon, 'A' company, under Sergeant A, will form the outpost, relieving the advance guard (2d Platoon Co. A). The line, Pope Hill (sm')—Rabbit Point (tn') will be held. Detached posts will be placed on Hill 880, west of Merritt Hill (rl'), and on Engineer Hill (ql'). In case of attack the outpost line will be held.

"The baggage will be at the main camp.

"Messages will reach me on Devin Ridge (rm')."

Issued verbally to officers and Sergeant A.

Required, 2. Give verbatim (word for word) the order issued by Sergeant A.

Answer. "Two companies of the enemy were five miles south of Leavenworth at 2:30 P. M. today. Our camp is to be here. This platoon will be the outpost on the line, Rabbit Point (im')—Pope Hill (sm').

"The right support, 1st section, less 1 squad, under Sergeant B, will take position north of Pope Hill and cover the following front: the ravine (XIX—Merritt Hill) west of Grant avenue to the ravine about midway between Grant Avenue and Rabbit Point (tn').

"The left support, 2d section, less 1 squad under Sergeant H, will take position on north slope of Rabbit Point and will cover the following front: The ravine midway between Grant Avenue and Rabbit Point to Missouri River.

"Corporal D, you will take the eight men of your squad and form a detached post on Engineer Hill (qk').

"Corporal E, take your squad and form a detached post on Hill 880 west of Merritt Hill (rl').

"If attacked hold your front. Each support and detached post will entrench.

"Send messages to me at right support."

The outpost moves out, each support and detached post separately, without throwing out covering patrols, because the advance guard is now holding the front. There is no reserve.

Required, 3. What does Sergeant A do now?

Required, 4. What does Sergeant B do as soon as he reaches Pope Hill?

(Note: During the remainder of the afternoon one man up in a tree on Grant Avenue will be the only observing post necessary for this support. At night an outguard would be placed on Grant Avenue with continuous patrols along the front, because the open ground furnishes easy approach to the enemy. A post of four men might also be placed on the bridge over Corral Creek (um').)

Required, 5. The location of supports and the main body of detached post on Engineer Hill.

Required, 6. What patrolling would be done from the left support?

Chapter VI

THE COMPANY ON OUTPOST

(Establishing the Outpost)

1080. We will now apply some of the general principles of outposts (see Par. 1051) to a company taking up its position on the line of outposts.

Let us suppose that our battalion has been detailed for outpost duty.

In order to understand more fully the duties and functions of the company commander, we will first consider what the major does. To begin with, he and the battalion will have been detailed for outpost duty before the march was completed, and he will have been told, amongst other things, what is known of the enemy and also what is known of other bodies of our own troops, where the main body will halt, the general position to be occupied by the outpost, and what the commander intends doing in case of attack.

The major verbally designates, say, two companies, as the reserve, and the other two companies, including our own, as the support. He places the senior officer of the reserve companies in command of the reserve and tells him where he is to go, and he indicates the general line the outpost is to occupy and assigns the amount of front each of the other companies is to cover. The limits of the sector so assigned should be marked by some distinctive features, such as trees, buildings, woods, streams, etc., as it is important that each company should know the exact limits of its frontage. He tells the company commanders what he knows of the enemy and of our own troops so far as they affect the outposts, he indicates the line of resistance and how much resistance is to be afforded in case of attack, states whether intrenchments and obstacles are to be constructed, gives instructions about lighting fires and cooking, and states where he can be found.

Upon receiving his orders from the major, the company commander, with a proper covering detachment, moves to the locality allotted him and as he arrives upon the ground he is to occupy, he sends out, as temporary security, patrols or skirmishers, or both, a short distance in front of the general position the outguards will occupy, holding the rest of the company back under cover. If practicable, the company commander should precede the company and make a rapid examination of the ground. He then sends out observation groups, varying in size from four men to a platoon, generally a squad, to watch the country in the direction of the enemy. These groups constitute the outguards, and are just sufficient in number to cover the front of the supports, and to connect where necessary with the outguards of adjoining supports.

The company commander next selects a defensive position on the general line of resistance, from which not only can he command the approaches, but where he can also give assistance to the adjoining supports; he then gives instructions in regard to the intrenchments and obstacles, after which he makes a more careful reconnaissance of the section assigned him; corrects the position, of the outguards, if necessary; gives them instructions as to their duties in case of attack or when strangers approach their posts; tells them the number (if any) of their post, the number of the outguard and support and the numbers of the adjoining outguards and supports; points out lines of retreat in case they are compelled to fall back to the support, cautioning the men not to mask the fire of the support; he tells them the names of all villages, rivers, etc., in view, and the places to which the wagon roads and the railroads lead; selects, if necessary, places for additional posts to be occupied at night and during fog; sees that suitable connections are made between him and the adjoining outguards, and between his support and the adjoining supports; and questions subordinate commanders to test their grasp of the situation and knowledge of their duties, and on returning to the support he sends a report with a sketch to the outpost commander, showing the dispositions made.

After the line of observation has been established, the support stacks arms and the men are permitted to remove their equipments, except cartridge belts. One or more sentinels are posted over these supports, and they guard the property and watch for signals from the outguards. Fires are concealed as much as possible and the messing is done by reliefs. Mounted messengers ordinarily do not unsaddle; they rest, water and feed as directed.

After the major has received reports from both company commanders, he will himself visit the outguards and supports and make such changes as he may deem necessary, immediately after which he will submit to the commander of the troops a written report, accompanied by a combined sketch showing the positions of the different parts of the outpost. The major might begin his inspection of the line of outguards before receiving the reports of the company commanders.

In training and instructing the company in outpost work, it is always best to send out a few patrols and scouts an hour or two in advance, with definite instructions as to what they are to do, and have them operate against the company as hostile scouts and patrols. If the rest of the company know that patrols and scouts are operating in their front, and will try to work their way through the outpost line, they will naturally take a keener interest in their work. Exercises of this kind create a feeling of rivalry between the scouts and patrols, who, on the one hand, are trying to work their way through the line of outposts, and the outguards and patrols, who, on the other hand, are trying to prevent them from so doing. It makes the work much more human.

Chapter VII

THE COMPANY IN SCOUTING AND PATROLLING

1081. The general principles of patrolling are explained in Par. 959; so we need not repeat them here.

Many of the principles of scouting are, in reality, nothing but the fundamentals of patrolling, and the main function of scouting, reconnoitering, is also the function of a certain class of patrols. So, we see that scouting and patrolling are inseparably connected, and the importance of training the members of the company in the principles of scouting is, therefore, evident.

1082. Requisites of a good Scout. A man, to make a good scout, should possess the following qualifications:—

• Have good eyesight and hearing;
• Be active, intelligent and resourceful;
• Be confident and plucky;
• Be healthy and strong;
• Be able to swim, signal, read a map, make a rough sketch, and, of course, read and write.

1083. Eyesight and Hearing. To be able to use the eye and the ear quickly and accurately is one of the first principles of successful scouting. Quickness and accuracy of sight and hearing are to a great extent a matter of training and practice. The savage, for instance, almost invariably has quick eyesight and good hearing, simply from continual practice.

Get into the habit of seeing, observing, things—your eyesight must never be resting, but must be continually glancing around, in every direction, and seeing different objects. As you walk along through the country get into the habit of noticing hoof-prints, wheel-ruts, etc., and observing the trees, houses, streams, animals, men, etc., that you pass.

Practice looking at distant objects and discovering objects in the distance. On seeing distant signs, do not jump at a conclusion as to what they are, but watch and study them carefully first.

Get into the habit of listening for sounds and of distinguishing by what different sounds are made.

1084. Finding your Way in a strange Country. The principal means of finding one's way in a strange country are by map reading, asking the way, the points of the compass and landmarks.

Map Reading. This, of course, presupposes the possession of a map. The subject of map reading is explained in Pars. 1859 to 1877.

Asking the Way. In civilized countries one has no trouble in finding his way by asking, provided, of course, he speaks the language. If in a foreign country, learn as soon as you can the equivalent of such expressions as "What is the way to ——?" "Where is ——?" "What is the name of this place?," and a few other phrases of a similar nature. Remember, however, that the natives may sometimes deceive you in their answers.

Points of the Compass. A compass is, of course, the best, quickest and simplest way of determining the directions, except in localities where there is much iron, in which case it becomes very unreliable.

For determining the points of the compass by means of the North Star and the face of a watch, see Par. 1096.

The points of the compass can also be ascertained by facing the sun in the morning and spreading out your arms straight from the body. Before you is east; behind you, west; to your right, south; to your left, north.

The points of the compass can be determined by noting the limbs and bark of trees. The bark on the north side of trees is thicker and rougher than that on the south side, and moss is most generally found near the roots on the north side. The limbs and branches are generally longer on the south side of the trees, while the branches on the north are usually knotty, twisted and drooped. The tops of pine trees dip or trend to the north.

1085. Lost. In connection with finding your way through strange country, it may be said, should you find you have lost your way, do not lose your head. Keep cool—try not to let your brains get into your feet. By this we mean don't run around and make things worse, and play yourself out. First of all, sit down and think; cool off. Then climb a tree, or hill, and endeavor to locate some familiar object you passed, so as to retrace your steps. If it gets dark and you are not in hostile territory, build a good big fire. The chances are you have been missed by your comrades and if they see the fire, they will conclude you are there and will send out for you. Also, if not in hostile territory, distress signals may be given by firing your rifle, but don't waste all your ammunition.

If you find a stream, follow it; it will generally lead somewhere—where civilization exists.

The tendency of people who are lost is to travel in a circle uselessly.

Remember this important rule: Always notice the direction of the compass when you start out, and what changes of direction you make afterwards.

1086. Landmarks. Landmarks or prominent features of any kind are a great assistance in finding one's way in a strange country. In starting out, always notice the hills, conspicuous trees, high buildings, towers, rivers, etc. For example, if starting out on a reconnaissance you see directly to the north of you a mountain, it will act as a guide without your having to refer to your compass or the sun. If you should start from near a church, the steeple will serve as a guide or landmark when you start to make your way back.

When you pass a conspicuous object, like a broken gate, a strangely shaped rock, etc., try to remember it, so that should you desire to return that way, you can do so by following the chain of landmarks. On passing such landmarks always see what they look like from the other side; for, that will be the side from which you will first see them upon the return, trip.

The secret of never getting lost is to note carefully the original direction in which you start, and after that to note carefully all landmarks. Get in the habit of doing this in time of peace—it will then become second nature for you to do it in time of war.

It may sometimes be necessary, especially in difficult country, such as when traveling through a forest, and over broken mountains and ravines, for you to make your own landmarks for finding your way back by "blazing" (cutting pieces of bark from the trees), breaking small branches off bushes, piling up stones, making a line across a crossroad or path you did not follow, etc.

1087. Concealment and Dodging. Both in scouting and patrolling it must be remembered not only that it is important you should get information, but it is also fully as important that the enemy should not know you have the information—hence, the necessity of hiding yourself. And remember, too, if you keep yourself hidden, not only will you probably be able to see twice as much of what the enemy is doing, but it may also save you from being captured, wounded or killed.

Should you find the enemy has seen you, it is often advisable to pretend that you have not seen him, or that you have other men with you by signaling to imaginary comrades.

As far as possible, keep under cover by traveling along hedges, banks, low ground, etc. If moving over open country, make your way as quickly as possible from one clump of trees or bushes to another; or, from rocks, hollows or such other cover as may exist, to other cover. As soon as you reach new cover, look around and examine your surroundings carefully.

Do not have about you anything that glistens, and at night be careful not to wear anything that jingles or rattles. And remember that at night a lighted match can be seen as far as 900 yards and a lighted cigarette nearly 300 yards. In looking through a bush or over the top of a hill, break off a leafy branch and hold it in front of your face.

In selecting a tree, tower or top of a house or other lookout place from which to observe the enemy from concealment, always plan beforehand how you would make your escape, if discovered and pursued. A place with more than one avenue of escape should be selected, so that if cut off in one direction you can escape from the other. For example, should the enemy reach the foot of a tower in which you are, you would be completely cut off, while if he reached a house on whose roof you happened to be, you would have several avenues of escape.

Although trees make excellent lookout places, they must, for the same reasons as towers, be used with caution. In this connection it may be remarked unless one sees foot marks leading to a tree, men are apt not to look up in trees for the enemy—hence, be careful not to leave foot marks. When in a tree, either stand close against the trunk, or lie along a large branch, so that your body will look like a part of the trunk or branch.

In using a hill as a lookout place, do not make the common mistake of showing yourself on the skyline. Reach the top of the hill slowly and gradually by crouching down and crawling, and raise your head above the crest by inches. In leaving, lower your head gradually and crawl away by degrees, as any quick or sudden movement on the skyline is likely to attract attention. And, remember, just because you don't happen to see the enemy that is no sign that he is not about. At maneuvers and in exercises soldiers continually make the mistake of exposing themselves on the skyline.

At night confine yourself as much as possible to low ground, ditches, etc. This will keep you down in the dark and will enable you, in turn, to see outlined against the higher ground any enemy that may approach you.

At night especially, but also during the day, the enemy will expect you along roads and paths, as it is easier to travel along roads and paths than across country and they also serve as good guides in finding your way. As a rule, it is best to use the road until it brings you near the enemy and then leave it and travel across country. You will thus be able better to avoid the outposts and patrols that will surely be watching the roads.

Practice in time of peace the art of concealing yourself and observing passers-by. Conceal yourself near some frequented road and imagine the people traveling over it are enemies whose numbers you wish to count and whose conversation you wish to overhear. Select a spot where they are not likely to look for you, and which has one or more avenues of escape; choose a position with a background that matches your clothes in color; keep quiet, skin your eyes; stretch your ears.

A mounted scout should always have wire cutters when operating in a country where there are wire fences.

1088. Tracking. By "tracking" we mean following up footmarks. The same as the huntsman tracks his game so should we learn how to track the enemy. One of the first things to learn in tracking is the pace at which the man or horse was traveling when the track was made.

A horse walking makes pairs of footmarks, each hind foot being close to the impression of the forefoot. At a trot the tracks are similar, but the pairs of footmarks are farther apart and deeper, the toe especially being more deeply indented than at the walk. At a canter there are two single footmarks and then a pair. At a gallop the footmarks are single and deeply indented. As a rule, the hind feet are longer and narrower than the forefeet.

In case of a man walking, the whole flat of the foot comes equally on the ground, the footmarks usually about 30 inches apart. If running, the toes are more deeply indented in the ground, and the footmarks are considerably farther apart than when walking. Note the difference between footmarks made by soldier's shoes and civilian's shoes, and those made by men and those made by women and children.

Study the difference between the tracks by a gun, a carriage, an escort wagon, an automobile, a bicycle, etc., and the direction in which they were going.

In addition to being able to determine the pace of tracks, it is most important that you should be able to tell how old they are. However, ability to do this with any degree of accuracy, requires a vast amount of practice. A great deal depends on the kind and the state of the ground and the weather. For example, if on a dry, windy day you follow a certain track over varying ground, you will find that on light sandy soil, for instance, it will look old in a very short time, because any damp earth that may have been kicked up from under the surface will dry very quickly to the same color as the rest of the surface, and the edge of the footmark will soon be rounded off by the breeze blowing over the dry dust. The same track in damp ground will look much fresher, and in damp clay, in the shade of trees, a track which may be a day old will look quite fresh.

The following are clues to the age of tracks: Spots of rain having fallen on them since they were made, if, of course, you know when the rain fell; the crossing of other tracks over the original ones; the freshness or coldness of the droppings of horses and other animals (due allowance being made for the effect of the sun, rain, etc.), and, in the case of grass that has been trodden down, the extent to which it has since dried or withered.

Having learned to distinguish the pace and age of tracks, the next think to do is to learn how to follow them over all kinds of ground. This is a most difficult accomplishment and one that requires a vast amount of practice to attain even fair proficiency.

In tracking where it is difficult to see the track, such as on hard ground, or in the grass, note the direction of the last foot-print that you can see, then look on ahead of you a few yards, say, 20 or 30, in the same direction, and, in grass, you will probably see the blades bent or trodden, and, on ground, you will probably see stones displaced or scratched—or some other small sign which otherwise would not be noticed. These indistinct signs, seen one behind the other, give a track that can be followed with comparative ease.

If you should lose the track, try to find it again by placing your handkerchief, hat, or other object on the last footmark you noticed, and then work around it in a wide circle, with a radius of, say, 30, 50, or 100 yards, choosing the most favorable ground, soft ground, if possible. If with a patrol, only one or two men should try to find the onward track; for, if everyone starts in to find it, the chances are the track will be obliterated with their footmarks. In trying to find the continuation of a track this way, always place yourself in the enemy's position, look around the country, imagine what you would have done, and then move out in that direction and look for his tracks in soft ground.

Practice

In order to learn the appearance of tracks, get a suitable piece of soft ground, and across this have a man walk and then run, and have a horse walk, trot, canter and gallop. The next day make similar tracks alongside the first ones and then notice the difference between the two. Also, make tracks on ordinary ground, grass, sand, etc., and practice following them up. Finally, practice tracking men sent out for the purpose. The work will probably be very difficult, even disheartening at first, but you will gradually improve, if you persevere.

Above all things, get into the habit of seeing any tracks that may be on the ground. When out walking, when going through exercises at maneuvers, and at other times, always notice what tracks are on the ground before you, and study them.

The following exercises in scouting and patrolling afford excellent practice and training:

1089. The Mouse and Cat Contest. 1. A section of country three or four miles square, with well-defined limits, is selected. The boundaries are made known to all contestants and anyone going outside of them will be disqualified.

2. Two patrols of eight men each are sent out as "mice." They occupy any positions they may wish within the boundaries named, and conceal themselves to watch for hostile patrols.

3. Half an hour later two other squads, wearing white bands around their hats, or having other distinguishing marks, are sent out as "cats" to locate, if possible, and report upon the position of the "mice."

4. An hour is fixed when the exercise shall end, and if within the given time the "cats" have not discovered the "mice," the "mice" win.

5. The "cats" will write reports of any "mice" patrols they may see.

Rules

1. An umpire (officer or noncommissioned officer) goes with each patrol and his decisions as to capture and other matters are the orders of the company commander. The umpires must take every possible precaution to conceal themselves so as not to reveal the position of the patrols with which they are.

Each umpire will carry a watch, all watches being set with that of the company commander before the exercise commences.

2. Any "cat" patrol coming within 50 yards of a "mouse" patrol, without seeing the "mice," is considered captured.

3. When the time is up, the umpires will bring in the patrols and report to the company commander.

1090. Flag-Stealing Contest. 1. A section of country of suitable size, with well-defined limits, is selected, the boundaries being made known to the contestants.

2. The contestants are divided into two forces of about 20 men each, and each side will establish three Cossack posts along a general line designated by the company commander, the two positions being selected facing each other and being a suitable distance apart. The men not forming part of the Cossack posts will be used as reconnoitering patrols.

3. About three quarters of a mile in rear of the center of each line of outposts four flags will be planted, in line, about 30 yards apart.

4. The scouts and patrols of each force will try to locate the outposts of the other force, and then to work their way around or between them, steal the flags and bring them back to their own side. They will endeavor to prevent the enemy from doing the same.

5. One scout or patrol will not carry away more than one flag at a time, and will have to return to their side safely with the flag before they can come back and capture another.

6. Scouts may work singly or in pairs. Any scout or patrol coming within 80 yards of a stronger hostile party, or Cossack post, will be considered as captured, if seen by the enemy, and if carrying a captured flag at the time, the flag will not count as having been captured. Of course, if a scout or patrol can pass within 80 yards of the enemy without being discovered, it may do so.

7. An umpire (officer or noncommissioned officer) will be with each Cossack post, each patrol, and at the position of the flags.

8. The hour when the exercise ends will be designated in advance and at that hour the umpires will bring in the Cossack posts and patrols. The same requirements regarding watches obtains as in the Mouse and Cat Contest.

9. At the conclusion of the contest the commander of each side will hand in to the company commander all sketches and reports made by his men.

10. Points will be awarded as follows:

• Each flag captured, 5.
• For each sketch and hostile report of the position of a Cossack post, 3.
• For each report of movements of a hostile patrol, 2.

The side getting the greatest number of points will win.

11. Umpires may penalize the contestants for a violation of the rules.

The same contest may be carried out at night, substituting lighted Japanese lanterns for the flags.

Chapter VIII

NIGHT OPERATIONS

1091. Importance. Because of the long range and great accuracy of modern fire arms, there has been in recent years a marked increase in the practice of night operations, such operations being of common occurrence not only for massing troops under cover of darkness in favorable positions for further action, but also for actually assaulting positions.

Read carefully pars. 464, , , , , –590.

Training of the Company

1092. Night movements are amongst the most difficult operations of war, and, therefore require the most careful, painstaking and thorough training and instruction of troops in all matters pertaining thereto. The history of night fighting shows that in most cases defeat is due to disorganization through panic. It is said that in daylight the moral is to the physical as three is to one. That being the case, it is hard to say what the ratio is at night, when a general atmosphere of mystery, uncertainty and fear of surprise envelops the operations, and, of necessity affects the nerves of the men. The vital importance, therefore, of accustoming troops as much as we can in peace to the conditions that will obtain in night fighting, cannot be overestimated. The following outline shows the subjects in which individual and collective instruction and training should be given:

Individual Training

1093. General. The first thing to be done is to accustom the soldier to darkness and to teach him to overcome the nervousness which is natural to the average man in darkness.

The best way to do this is to begin by training him in the use of his powers of vision and hearing under conditions of darkness, which are strange to him. The company should be divided into squads for this instruction.

1094. Vision. Take several men to ground with which they are familiar. Have them notice the different appearance which objects present at night; when viewed in different degrees of light and shade; the comparative visibility of men under different conditions of dress, background, etc.; the ease with which bright objects are seen; the difference between the visibility of men standing on a skyline and those standing on a slope. Post the men in pairs at intervals along a line which the instructors will endeavor to cross without being seen. The instructors should cross from both sides, so as to compel observation in both directions. Have a man (later, several) walk away from the rest of the men and when he is about to disappear from view, halt him, and estimate the distance. Send a man (later, several) outside the field of vision, to advance on the rest of the men. Halt him when he enters the field of vision and estimate the distance. Send a number of men outside the limit of vision and then let them advance on the rest of the men, using cover and seeing how near they can approach unobserved.

1095. Hearing. Place a number of men a few yards apart and make them guess what a noise is caused by, and its approximate position. The rattle of a meat can, the movement of a patrol, the working of the bolt of a rifle, the throwing down of accouterments, low talking, etc., may be utilized. Take special pains to impress upon the men the penetrating power of the human voice, and the necessity of preserving absolute silence in night operations. Have blank cartridges fired and teach the men to judge their direction and approximate distance away.

1096. Finding Bearings. Show the men how to determine the points of the compass from the North Star. The Big Dipper constellation looks like this:

The North Star is on the prolongation of a line joining the two "pointing" stars, and at above five times the distance between the two stars. At another time have those same men individually locate the North Star. Using this star as a guide, practice the men moving in different directions, by such commands as, "Smith, move southeast." "Jones, move northwest," etc.

To test a man's ability to keep a given direction when moving in the darkness, choose a spot from which no prominent landmarks are visible, advance toward it accompanied by a man, from a distance not less than 200 paces. While advancing the soldier must take his bearings. On arriving at the spot chosen the instructor will turn the soldier around rapidly two or three times and then have him continue to advance in the same direction as before. No prominent landmarks should be visible from the starting point.

1097. Moving in the Dark. Form four or five men in line with about one pace interval, the instructor being on one of the flanks. Place some clearly visible mark, such as a lantern, for the instructor to march on. Impress upon the men the importance of lifting their feet up high and bringing them to the ground quietly and firmly, and of keeping in touch with the guide and conforming to his movements without sound or signal. The pace should be slow and frequent halts should be made to test the promptness of the men in halting and advancing together. As the line advances, each man will in turn take his place on the flank and act as guide. The light on which the men are marching should be hidden from view at intervals, in order to test the ability of the men to maintain the original direction. Later on, the number of men in a line may be increased considerably. The rougher the ground, the darker the night and the longer the line, the slower must the pace be and the more frequent the halts. After passing an obstacle men instinctively line up parallel to it, and consequently if the obstacle does not lie at right angles to the line of advance, the direction will be lost; so, be sure to guard against this.

1098. Night Fencing. Practice the men in charging in the dark against a white cloth or the dummy figure of a man. In the beginning have the figure in a fixed place, but later have the soldier charge seeking the figure, and not knowing just exactly where it is beforehand.

1099. Night Entrenching. It is frequently necessary in time of war to dig trenches at night in front of the enemy, and while this work is easy in the moonlight, it is very difficult in the dark. Bear in mind the following points:

1. The tendency is to make the trench too narrow; hence, guard against this.

2. Be careful not to throw the earth too far or too near.

3. Do not strike your neighbor's tools in working.

4. Do not use the pick unless necessary, because it makes considerable noise.

5. Do not scrape the tools together in order to get off the dirt; use a chip of wood or the toe of the shoe.

6. Make as little noise as possible in digging and handling your tools.

7. If discovered by the enemy's searchlights, do not become excited or confused; simply lie down.

8. If attacked by the enemy, do not get rattled and throw your tools away—put them in some fixed place where they can be found again.

1100. Equipment. At first the men should be taken out without arms, but later on they should be trained to work in full equipment. Teach every man what parts of his equipment are likely to make a noise under special circumstances, such as lying down, rising, crossing obstacles, etc., and instruct him how to guard against it. Bayonets should always be fixed, but in order to avoid accidents the scabbard should be left on them.

From the beginning of the training continually impress upon the men that it is absolutely criminal to fire without orders during a night operation and that the bayonet is the only weapon he can use with advantage to himself and safety to his comrades.

1101. Night Firing. As a rule men fire too high in the dark. They must, therefore, be cautioned not to raise the rifle above the horizontal, or incline the upper part of the body to the rear. When the firing is stopped be sure to turn on the safety-lock. Experience during the Russo-Japanese War taught the Japanese the kneeling position is the most suitable for horizontal firing. The following method, to be conducted in daytime, may be employed in training the soldier to hold his rifle parallel to the ground while firing in the dark:—Have each soldier, kneeling, close his eyes and bring his rifle to the position of aim, barrel parallel to the ground. With the rifle in this position, let him open his eyes and examine it. Then have this done by squad, by command. When they become proficient in this movement, have them close their eyes and while the eyes are closed, put up a target and have them practice horizontal firing, opening their eyes each time after pulling the trigger and then examining the position of the piece.

Collective Training

At first practice squads, then the platoons and later the company in simple movements, such as squads right and left, right and left oblique, etc., gradually leading up to more complicated ones in close and extended order, such as right and left front into line, advancing in platoon and squad columns, charging the enemy, etc. As far as possible the movements should be executed by simple prearranged signals from the unit commanders. The signals, which must not be visible to the enemy, may be made with a white handkerchief or a white flag, if the night be not too dark; with an electric flashlight, a dark lantern or luminous disk. The light of the flashlight or lantern must be screened, so it cannot be seen by the enemy. The following signals are suggested:

To advance: Raise vertically the lantern or other object with which the signal is made.

To halt: Lower and raise the object several times.

To lie down: Bring the object down near the ground.

To form squad columns: Move the object several times to the right and left.

To form platoon columns: Describe several circles.

As skirmishers: Move the object front to rear several times.

1102. Night Marches. In acting as an advance guard to a column, the company would send out a point a few yards ahead, which would be followed by the rest of the company. Three or four scouts should be sent out a hundred yards or so ahead of the point. They should advance at a quick pace, keeping in the shadow on the side of the road, being constantly on the alert, using their ears even more than their eyes. They will halt to listen at crossroads and suspicious places, and move on again when they hear the company approaching. Should the enemy be discovered, one of the scouts will return to warn the advance guard—the others will conceal themselves and watch. Under no circumstances must the scouts ever fire, unless it be for the purpose of warning the company and there is no other way of doing so. The diagram on the opposite page is suggested as a good formation for a company acting as advance guard at night. A company marching alone would move in the same formation as when acting as advance guard, except that it would protect its rear with a few scouts. Of course, the nature of the country and proximity and activity of the enemy, will determine the best formation to be used, but whatever the formation may be, always remember to cover well your front, rear and flanks, with scouts, whose distance away will vary with the light and nature of the country. Don't forget that protection in rear is very important.

The men must be warned against firing, smoking, talking, striking matches, making noise, etc. They should also be informed of the object in view, direction of the enemy, etc.

In night marches the rests should not exceed five minutes; otherwise, many men will fall asleep.

Outposts

Careful training in outpost duty at night is very harassing, but, in view of its importance, should not be neglected. This instruction should be given with the greatest thoroughness, strictness and attention to detail.

1103. Sentries Challenging. In challenging sentries must be careful to avoid any noise that would disclose their position. In fact, challenging by voice should be reduced to a minimum by arranging a system of signals by which the officers of the day, patrols, etc., can be recognized. The following signals, any one of which may be decided upon, which would be made first by the sentry and then answered by the approaching party, are suggested: Clap the hands together twice; strike the ground twice with the butt of the rifle; strike the butt of the rifle twice with the hand; whistle softly twice. The replying signal would be the same as the sentry's signal, except that in case of the use of the butt of the rifle, an officer would reply by striking twice on his revolver holster. After repeating the signal once, if it is not answered, the sentry will challenge with the voice, but no louder than is necessary. In case of a patrol only one man will advance to be recognized after the signal has been answered. The sentry must always allow persons to approach fairly near before challenging.

1104. Sentries Firing. Anyone who has been through a campaign knows how nervous green sentries are, and how quick they are about firing. During the beginning of the Philippine Campaign the author heard of several cases where sentries fired on fire-flies several hundred yards away. Never fire unless it be absolutely necessary to give an alarm, or unless you can clearly distinguish the enemy and are fairly certain of hitting him. In the French Army in Algeria, there is a rule that any sentry who fires at night must produce a corpse, or be able to show by blood marks that he hit the person fired at. If he can do neither, he is punished for giving a false alarm.

1105. Marking of Route from Outguards to Supports. The route from the support to the outguards, and from pickets to their sentries, should, if necessary, be clearly marked with scraps of paper, green sticks with the bark peeled off, or in any other suitable way.

1106. Readiness for Action. The supports should always be ready for action. The men must sleep with their rifles beside them and in such places that they will be able to fall in promptly in case of attack. Some men have a way of sleeping with their blankets over their heads. This should not be allowed—the ears must always be uncovered. The commander, or the second in command, with several men, should remain awake. When the commander lies down he should do so near the sentry, which is always posted over the support.

General

1107. Connections. It is of the greatest importance that proper connection be maintained between the different parts of a command engaged in night operations. It is astonishing with what facility units go astray and how difficult it is for them to find their way back where they belong.

1108. Preparation. It matters not what the nature of the night operation may be, the most careful preparation is necessary. Success often depends upon the care and thoroughness with which the plans are made.

All possible eventualities should be thought of and provided for as far as praticable. The first thing to do is to get as much information as possible about the ground to be covered and the position of the enemy, and care must be taken to see that the information is accurate. Reconnaissance must be made by night as well as by day; for, ground looks very different at night from what it does during the day.

Chapter IX

FIELD ENGINEERING

1109. The following, from the Engineer Field Manual, together with the elements of field engineering covered in Chapter XI, on Obstacles, will give the company officer a good, working knowledge of those parts of field engineering for which he is most likely to have need.

Bridges

1111. Dimensions and guard rail. A roadway 9 ft. wide in the clear should be provided to pass infantry in fours, cavalry two abreast, and military wagons in one direction; a width of 6 ft. will suffice for infantry in column of twos, cavalry in single file, and field guns passed over by hand.

The clear width of roadway of an ordinary highway bridge should not be less than 12 ft. for single track, or 20 ft. for double track.

The clear head room in ordinary military bridges should not be less than 9 ft. for wagons and cavalry; for highway bridges not less than 14 ft.

Ramps at the ends of a bridge, if intended for artillery, should not be steeper than 1 on 7. For animals, slopes steeper than 1 on 10 are inconvenient.

If the bridges are high, hand rails should be provided. A single rope may suffice, or it may have brush placed upon it to form a screen.

A guard rail should be provided along each side of the roadway, near the ends of the flooring planks. In hasty bridges it may be secured by a lashing or lashings through the planking to the stringer underneath. Otherwise it may be fastened with spikes or bolts.

1112. Spar bridges.—This name is applied to bridges built of round timbers lashed together. Intermediate points of support are provided by inclined frames acting as struts to transmit weight from the middle of the bridge to the banks. The single-lock and double-lock bridges with two and three spans of 15 ft., respectively, are the ones of most utility.

The first step in constructing a spar bridge is to measure the gap to be bridged and select the position of the footings on either bank. Determine the distance from each footing to the middle point of the roadway if a single-lock, or the two corresponding points of a double-lock bridge. Next determine and mark on each spar except the diagonals the places where other spars cross it. The marking may be done with chalk, or with an ax. If possible a convenient notation should be adopted. As, for example, in marking with chalk, a ring around the spar where the edge of the crossing spar will come, and a diagonal cross on the part which will be hidden by the crossing spar.

A simple way to determine the length of spars is the following: Take two small lines somewhat longer than the width of the gap, double each and lash the bights together. Stretch them tightly across the gap so that the lashing comes at the middle as at A, Fig. 8. Release one end of each and stretch it to the footing on the same side as indicated by the dotted lines. Mark each line at the footing C or C', and at the position chosen for the abutment sill, B or B'. Cut the lashing and take each piece of rope to its own side. The distances AB and AB' are the lengths between the transoms, and with 2 ft. added give the length of road bearers required. The distances AC and AC' are the lengths of struts from butt to top of transom, and with 3 ft added, give the total length of spars required.

For a double lock bridge, a piece of rope of a length equal to the length of the middle bay replaces the lashing. If the banks are not parallel, a measurement should be taken on each side of the bridge.

If desired, a section of the gap may be laid down on the ground in full size and the lengths of spars determined by laying them in place. This method, though given as standard by all authorities, requires more time and more handling of material than the other and gives no better results.

The construction of a frame is shown in Fig. 1, and the system of marking in Fig. 2. The arrangement of frames to form a single lock bridge is shown in Figs. 3 and , and a double lock bridge in Fig 6.

1113. Construction of single-lock bridges, Figs. 3, , and .—Suitable for spans of 30 ft. or less. The two frames lock together at the center of the span; their slope must not be more than 4 on 7. The bridge can be erected by two or three noncommissioned officers and 20 men, one-half on each side of the gap. Heavy spars require more men.

The footings at A and B must be firm, horizontal if possible, and at right angles to the axis of the bridge. In a masonry pier they may be cut out. In firm soil a simple trench will suffice. In yielding soil a plank or sill must be laid in the trench. The frames are made of such length as to give a slight camber to the bridge, which may be increased to allow for probable settlement of the footings. The inside dimension of one frame is made slightly greater than the outside dimension of the other, so that one frame may fall inside of the other when hauled into position. For a 9 ft. roadway the standards of the narrow (inside) frame should be 9 ft. 6 ins. apart at the transom and 10 ft. 6 ins. at the ledger, in the clear, and the other (outside) frame 1 ft. 6 ins. wider throughout.

A frame is constructed on each bank. The standards are laid on the ground in prolongation of the bridge, butts toward the bank. The ledgers are lashed on above and the transoms beneath the standards at the positions marked. The diagonal braces are lashed to the standards, two butts and one tip above the latter, and to each other. Before the braces are lashed the frame must be square by checking the measurements of the diagonals.

If necessary, pickets for the foot and guy ropes are driven, the former about 2 paces from the bank and 4 paces on each side of the axis of the bridge; the latter about 20 paces from the bank and 10 paces on each side of the axis. The foot ropes, CC, Fig. 5, are secured by timber hitches to the butts of the standards and the back and fore guys, DD and EE, to the tips the fore guys are passed across to the opposite bank. The guys of the narrow frame should be inside the guys and standards of the wide frame.

The frames are put into position one after the other, or simultaneously if there are enough men. A man is told off to each foot rope and one to each back guy to slack off as required, two turns being taken with each of these ropes around their respective pickets. The other men raise the frame and launch it forward, assisted by the men at the fore guys, until the frame is balanced on the edge of the bank. The frame is then tilted until the butts rest on the footing, by slacking off the foot ropes and hauling on the fore guys, Fig. 5. After the head of the frame has been hauled over beyond the perpendicular, it is lowered nearly into its final position by slacking off the back guys. When the two frames are in this position opposite each other, the narrow frame is further lowered until its standards rest upon the transom of the other. The wider (outer) frame is then lowered until the two lock into each other, the standards of each resting upon the transom of the other.

The center or fork transom, Figs. 3 and , is then passed from shore and placed in the fork between the two frames. This forms the central support to receive a floor system of two bays, built as already described.

The estimated time for construction of such a bridge is about one hour if the material is available and in position on both sides of the stream. The construction of the roadway requires about twenty minutes; forming footings in masonry about one hour.

1114. Construction of double-lock bridge, Fig. 6.—Suitable for spans not exceeding 45 ft., and consisting of two inclined frames which lock into a connecting horizontal frame of two or more distance pieces, with cross transoms, dividing the gap to be bridged into three equal bays of about 15 ft. The force required is two or three noncommissioned officers and 25 to 50 men; the time for construction, except roadway, about two and one-half hours; extra time to be allowed for difficult footings.

The width of gap is measured, the position of footings determined, and the length of standards from butt to transom determined and marked as before.

The inclined frames in this case are built of equal widths, launched as before, and held by guys just above their final position. Two stringers are launched out from each bank to the main transom. The distance pieces, Fig. 6, are put into position inside the standards, using tackle if necessary, and the road transoms are placed and lashed to the distance pieces at the places marked. Both frames are now lowered until they jam.

1115. Roadway of spar bridge.—For infantry in fours crowded the transoms should have a diam. of not less than 9 ins. for a span of 15 ft. Five stringers 2 ft. 3 ins. c. to c., and 6 ins. diam. at the tip will suffice. If the sticks vary in size, the larger ones should be notched down on the transom so as to bring the tops in the same plane. The stringers should be long enough to overlap the transoms, and should be lashed together at each tip. The floor is held down by side rails over the outside stringers and lashed to them. If lumber can not be obtained, a floor may be made, of small spars, the interstices filled with brush, and the whole covered with loam or clay; Figs. 7 and .

Corduroy Roads

1116. Corduroying is done by laying logs crosswise of the road and touching each other. The result will be better if the logs are nearly of the same size. The butts and tips should alternate. If the logs are large the spaces may be filled with smaller poles. The bottom tier of logs should be evenly bedded and should have a firm bearing at the ends and not ride on the middle. The filling poles, if used, should be cut and trimmed to lie close, packing them about the ends if necessary. If the soil is only moderately soft the logs need be no longer than the width of the road. In soft marsh it may be necessary to make them longer.

The logs may be utilized as the wearing surface. In fact this is usually the case. They make a rough surface, uncomfortable for passengers and hard on wagons and loads, but the resistance to traction is much less than would be expected, and the roughness and slightly yielding surface make excellent footing for animals. Surface corduroy is perishable and can last but a short time. In marshes, where the logs can be placed below the ground-water level, they are preserved from decay, and if any suitable material can be found, to put a thin embankment over them, a good permanent road may be made.

Any tough, fibrous material may be used to temporarily harden the surface of a road. Hay or straw, tall weeds, corn and cane stalks have been used to good advantage. Such materials should be laid with the fibers crosswise of the road, and covered with a thin layer of earth, thrown on from the sides; except in sand, when it is better to dig a shallow trench across the road, fill it with the material and then dig another trench just in front of and in contact with the first and throw the sand from it back onto the material in the first trench, etc.

Brush work

1117. A fascine is a cylindrical bundle of brush, closely bound. The usual length is 18 ft. and the diam. 9 ins. when compressed. Lengths of 9 and 6 ft., which are sometimes used, are most conveniently obtained by sawing a standard fascine into 2 or 3 pieces. The weight of a fascine of partially seasoned material will average 140 lbs.

Fascines are made in a cradle which consists of five trestles. A trestle is made of two sticks about 61/2 ft. long and 3 ins. in diam, driven into the ground and lashed at the intersection as shown in Fig. 10. In making a cradle, plant the end trestles 16 ft. apart and parallel. Stretch a line from one to the other over the intersection, place the others 4 ft. apart and lash them so that each intersection comes fairly to the line.

To build a fascine, straight pieces of brush, 1 or 2 ins. at the butt, are laid on, the butts projecting at the end 1 ft. beyond the trestle. Leaves should be stripped and unruly branches cut off, or partially cut through, so that they will lie close. The larger straighter brush should be laid on the outside, butts alternating in direction, and smaller stuff in the center. The general object is to so dispose the brush as to make the fascine of uniform size, strength, and stiffness from end to end.

When the cradle is nearly filled, the fascine is compressed or choked by the fascine choker, Fig. 11, which consists of 2 bars 4 ft. long, joined at 18 ins. from the ends by a chain 4 ft. long. The chain is marked at 14 ins. each way from the middle by inserting a ring or special link. To use, two men standing on opposite sides pass the chain under the brush, place the short ends of the handles on top and pass the bars, short end first, across to each other. They then bear down on the long ends until the marks on the chain come together. Chokers may be improvised from sticks and rope or wire.

Binding will be done with a double turn of wire or tarred rope. It should be done in 12 places, 18 ins. apart, the end binders 3 ins. outside the end trestles. To bind a fascine will require 66 ft. of wire.

Improvised binders may be made from rods of live brush, hickory or hazel is the best. Place the butt under the foot and twist the rod to partially separate the fibers and make it flexible. A rod so prepared is called a withe. To use a withe, make a half turn and twist at the smaller end, Fig. 12; pass the withe around the brush and the large end through the eye. Draw taut and double the large end back, taking 2 half-hitches over its own standing part, Fig. 13.

When the fascine is choked and bound, saw the ends off square, 9 ins. outside the end binders. After a cradle is made, 4 men can make 1 fascine per hour, with wire binding. Withes require 1 man more.

A fascine revetment is made by placing the fascines as shown in Fig. 14. The use of headers and anchors is absolutely necessary in loose soils only, but they greatly strengthen the revetment in any case. A fascine revetment must always be crowned with sods or bags.

1118. In all brush weaving the following terms have been adopted and are convenient to use:

Randing.—Weaving a single rod in and out between pickets.

Slewing.—Weaving two or more rods together in the same way.

Pairing.—Carrying two rods together, crossing each other in and out at each picket.

Wattling.—A general term applied to the woven part of brush construction.

1119. A hurdle is a basket work made of brushwood. If made in pieces, the usual size is 2 ft. 9 ins. by 6 ft., though the width may be varied so that it will cover the desired height of slope.

A hurdle is made by describing on the ground an arc of a circle of 8 ft. radius and on the arc driving 10 pickets, 8 ins. apart, covering 6 ft. out to out, Fig. 15. Brush is then woven in and out and well compacted. The concave side of a hurdle should be placed next the earth. It wraps less than if made flat.

In weaving the hurdle, begin randing at the middle space at the bottom. Reaching the end, twist the rod as described for a withe, but at one point only, bend it around the end picket and work back. Start a second rod before the first one is quite out, slewing the two for a short distance. Hammer the wattling down snug on the pickets with a block of wood and continue until the top is reached. It improves the hurdle to finish the edges with two selected rods paired, Fig. 16. A pairing may be introduced in the middle, if desired, to give the hurdle extra endurance if it is to be used as a pavement or floor. If the hurdle is not to be used at once, or if it is to be transported, it must be sewed. The sewing is done with wire, twine, or withes at each end and in the middle, with stitches about 6 ins. long, as shown in Fig. 16. About 40 ft. of wire is required to sew one hurdle. No. 14 is about the right size, and a coil of 100 lbs. will sew 40 hurdles. Three men should make a hurdle in 2 hours, 2 wattling and the third preparing the rods.

1120. Continuous hurdle.—If conditions permit the revetment to be built in place, the hurdle is made continuous for considerable lengths. The pickets may be larger; they are driven farther apart, 12 or 18 ins., and the brush may be heavier. The construction is more rapid. The pickets are driven with a little more slant than is intended and must be anchored to the parapet. A line of poles with wire attached at intervals of 2 or 3 pickets will answer. The wires should be made fast to the pickets after the wattling is done. They will interfere with the wearing if fastened sooner. Two men should make 4 yds. of continuous hurdle of ordinary height in one hour.

1121. Brush revetment.—Pickets may be set as above described and the brush laid inside of them without weaving, being held in place by bringing the earth up with it. In this case the anchors must be fastened before the brush laying begins. The wires are not much in the way in this operation.

1122. Gabion making.—A gabion is a cylindrical basket with open ends, made of brush woven on pickets or stakes as described for hurdles. The usual size is 2 ft. outside diam. and 2 ft. 9 ins. height of wattling. On account of the sharp curvature somewhat better brush is required for gabions than will do for hurdles.

The gabion form, Fig. 17, is of wood, 21 ins. diam., with equidistant notches around the circumference, equal in number to the number of pickets to be used, usually 8 to 14, less if the brush is large and stiff, more if it is small and pliable. The notches should be of such depth that the pickets will project to 1 in. outside the circle. The pickets should be 11/4 to 13/4 ins. diam., 3 ft. 6 ins. long and sharpened, half at the small and half at the large end.

To make a gabion, the form is placed on the ground, level or nearly so, and the pickets are driven vertically in the notches, large and small ends down, alternately. The form is then raised a foot and held by placing a lashing around outside the pickets, tightened with a rack stick, Fig. 18. The wattling is randed or slewed from the form up. The form is then dropped down, the gabion inverted and the wattling completed. If the brush is small, uniform, and pliable, pairing will make a better wattling than randing. If not for immediate use, the gabion must be sewed as described for hurdles, the same quantity of wire being required.

The gabion, when wattled and sewed, is completed by cutting off the tops of the pickets 1 in. from the web, the bottom 3 ins., the latter sharpened after cutting, and driving a carrying picket through the middle of its length and a little on side of the axis. See that the middle of this picket is smooth. Three men should make a gabion in an hour.

Gabions may be made without the forms, but the work is slower and not so good. The circle is struck on the ground and the pickets driven at the proper points. The weaving is done from the ground up and the entire time of one man is required to keep the pickets in proper position.

If brush is scarce, gabions may be made with 6 ins. of wattling at each end, the middle left open. In filling, the open part may be lined with straw, grass, brush cuttings, or grain sacks, to keep the earth from running out.

1123. Gabion revetment.—The use of gabions in revetments is illustrated in Fig. 20. If more than two tiers are used, the separating fascines should be anchored back. Gabion revetments should be crowned with sods or bags.

The advantages of the gabion revetment are very great. It can be put in place without extra labor and faster and with less exposure than any other. It is self-supporting and gives cover from view and partial cover from fire quicker than any other form.

Several forms of gabions of other material than brush have been used. Sheet iron and iron and paper hoops are some of them. The iron splinters badly, is heavy, and has not given satisfaction. If any special materials are supplied the method of using them will, in view of the foregoing explanation, be obvious.

1124. Timber or pole revetment.—Poles too large for use in any other way may be cut to length and stood on end to form a revetment. The lower ends should be in a small trench and have a waling piece in front of them. There must also be a waling piece or cap at or near the top, anchored back. Fig. 21 shows this form.

1125. Miscellaneous revetments.—Any receptacles for earth which will make a stable, compact pile, as boxes, baskets, oil or other cans, may be used for a revetment. Barrels may be used for gabions. Canvas stretched behind pickets is well thought of in a foreign service. If the soil will make adobe, or sun-dried bricks, an excellent revetment may be made of them, but it will not stand wet weather.

Knots

1126. Square or reef knot, Fig. 22, commonly used for joining two ropes of the same size. The standing and running parts of each rope must pass through the loop of the other in the same direction, i. e., from above down ward or vice versa; otherwise a granny, is made, which is a useless knot that will not hold. The reef knot can be upset by taking one end of the rope and its standing part and pulling them in opposite directions. With dry rope a reef knot is as strong as the rope; with wet rope it slips before the rope breaks, while a double sheet bend is found to hold.

1127. Two half hitches, Fig. 23, especially useful for belaying, or making fast the end of a rope round its own standing part. The end may be lashed down or seized to the standing part with a piece of spun yarn; this adds to its security and prevents slipping.

This knot should never be used for hoisting a spar.

1128. Clove hitch, Fig. 24, generally used for fastening a rope at right angles to a spar or at the commencement of a lashing. If the end of the spar is free, the hitch is made by first forming two loops, as in Fig. 26, placing the right-hand loop over the other one and slipping the double loop (Fig. 27) over the end of the spar. If this can not be done, pass the end of the rope round the spar, bring it up to the right of the standing part, cross over the latter, make another turn round the spar, and bring up the end between the spar, the last turn, and the standing part, Fig. 25. When used for securing guys to sheer legs, etc., the knot should be made with a long end, which is formed into two half hitches round the standing part and secured to it with spun yarn.

1129. Timber hitch, Fig. 28, used for hauling and lifting spars. It can easily be loosed when the strain is taken off, but will not slip under a pull. When used for hauling spars, a half hitch is added near the end of the spar, Fig. 29.

1130. Bowline, Fig. 30, forms a loop that will not slip. Make loop with the standing part of the rope underneath, pass the end from below through the loop, over the part round the standing part of the rope, and then down through the loop c. The length of bight depends upon the purpose for which the knot is required.

1131. Bowline on a bight, Fig. 31. The first part is made like the above, with the double part of a rope; then the bight a is pulled through sufficiently to allow it to be bent past d and come up in the position shown. It makes a more comfortable sling for a man than a single bight.

1132. Sheep shank, Fig. 32, used for shortening a rope or to pass by a weak spot; a half hitch is taken with the standing parts around the bights.

1133. Short splice. To make a short splice, Figs. 33, , , unlay the strands of each rope for a convenient length. Bring the rope ends together so that each strand of one rope lies between the two consecutive strands of the other rope. Draw the strands of the first rope along the second and grasp with one hand. Then work a free strand of the second rope over the nearest strand of the first rope and under the second strand, working in a direction opposite to the twist of the rope. The same operation applied to all the strands will give the result shown by Fig. 34. The splicing may be continued in the same manner to any extent (Fig. 35) and the free ends of the strands may be cut off when desired. The splice may be neatly tapered by cutting out a few fibers from each strand each time it is passed through the rope. Rolling under a board or the foot will make the splice compact.

1134. Long splice (Figs. 36, ).—Unlay the strands of each rope for a convenient length and bring together as for a short splice. Unlay to any desired length a strand, d, of one rope, laying in its place the nearest strand, a, of the other rope. Repeat the operation in the opposite direction with two other strands, c and f. Fig. 37 shows strands c and f secured by tying together. Strands b and e are shown secured by unlaying half of each for a suitable length and laying half of the other in place of the unlayed portions, the loose ends being passed through the rope. This splice is used when the rope is to run through a block. The diameter of the rope is not enlarged at the splice. The ends of the strands should not be trimmed off close until the splice has been thoroughly stretched by work.

1135. Eye splice (Figs. 38, , , ).—Unlay a convenient length of rope. Pass one loose strand, a, under one strand of the rope, as shown in fig. 38, forming an eye of the proper size. Pass a second loose strand, b, under the strand of the rope next to the strand which secures a, Fig. 39. Pass the third strand, c, under the strand next to that which secures b, fig. 40. Draw all taut and continue and complete as for a short splice.

Lashings

1136. To lash a transom to an upright spar, Fig. 42, transom in front of upright.—A clove hitch is made round the upright a few inches below the transom. The lashing is brought under the transom, up in front of it, horizontally behind the upright, down in front of the transom, and back behind the upright at the level of the bottom of the transom and above the clove hitch. The following turns are kept outside the previous ones on one spar and inside on the other, not riding over the turns already made. Four turns or more are required. A couple of frapping turns are then taken between the spars, around the lashing, and the lashing is finished off either round one of the spars or any part of the lashing through which the rope can be passed. The final clove hitch should never be made around the spar on the side toward which the stress is to come, as it may jam and be difficult to remove. The lashing must be well beaten with handspike or pick handle to tighten it up. This is called a square shears are laid alongside of each other with their butts on the ground, lashing.

1137. Lashing for a pair of shears, Fig. 43.—The two spars for the points below where the lashing is to be resting on a skid. A clove hitch is made round one spar and the lashing taken loosely eight or nine times about the two spars above it without riding. A couple of frapping turns are then taken between the spars and the lashing is finished off with a clove hitch above the turns on one of the spars. The butts of the spars are then opened out and a sling passed over the fork, to which the block is hooked or lashed, and fore and back guys are made fast with clove hitches to the bottom and top spars, respectively, just above the each spar the distance from the butt to the center of the lashing. Lay two of the spars parallel to each other with an interval a little greater fork, Fig. 44.

1138. To lash three spars together as for a gin or tripod.—Mark on than the diameter. Rest their tips on a skid and lay the third spar between them with its butt in the opposite direction so that the marks on the three spars will be in line. Make a clove hitch on one of the outer spars below the lashing and take eight or nine loose turns around the three, as shown in Fig. 45. Take a couple of frapping turns between each pair of spars in succession and finish with a clove hitch on the central spar above the lashing. Pass a sling over the lashing and the tripod is ready for raising.

1139. Holdfasts.—To prepare a fastening in the ground for the attachment of guys or purchases, stout pickets are driven into the ground one behind the other, in the line of pull. The head of each picket except the last is secured by a lashing to the foot of the picket next behind, Fig. 46. The lashings are tightened by rack sticks, the points of which are driven into the ground to hold them in position. The distance between the stakes should be several times the height of the stake above the ground.

Another form requiring more labor but having much greater strength is called a "deadman," and consists of a log laid in a transverse trench with an inclined trench intersecting it at its middle point. The cable is passed down the inclined trench, takes several round turns on the log, and is fastened to it by half hitches and marlin stopping, Figs. 47, , . If the cable is to lead horizontally or inclined downward, it should pass over a log at the outlet of the inclined trench, Fig. 48. If the cable is to lead upward, this log is not necessary, but the anchor log must be buried deeper.

Chapter X

FIELD FORTIFICATIONS

1140. Object. The object of field fortifications is two-fold.

1. To increase the fighting power of troops by enabling the soldier to use his weapons with the greatest possible effect.

2. To protect the soldier against the enemy's fire.

1141. How these objects are accomplished.

These objects are accomplished:

1. By means of shelters—trenches, redoubts, splinterproofs, etc., which protect the soldier from the enemy's fire.

2. By means of obstacles—wire entanglements, abatis, pits, etc., which delay the advance of the enemy.

1142. Classification. Field fortifications are usually divided into three classes, hasty intrenchments, deliberate intrenchments and siege works.

Nomenclature of the Trench. The following illustration shows the names of the various parts of the trench.

1143. Hasty intrenchments include trenches dug by troops upon the battlefield to increase their fighting power. They are usually constructed in the presence of the enemy and in haste and embrace three forms viz:—the lying trench, the kneeling trench, and the standing trench.

1144. Lying trench. (Fig. 2.) This trench gives cover to a man lying down. When intrenching under fire the rifle trench can be constructed by a man lying down. He can mask himself from view in about 10 to 12 minutes and can complete the trench in 40 to 45 minutes. A good method is to dig a trench 18 inches wide back to his knees, roll into it and dig 12 inches wide alongside of it and down to the feet, then roll into the second cut and extend the first one back. Conditions may require men to work in pairs, one firing while the other uses his intrenching tool. Duties are exchanged from time to time until the trench is completed.

The height of the parapet should not exceed 1 foot. This trench affords limited protection against rifle fire and less against shrapnel.

1145. Kneeling trench. (Fig. 3.) Time permitting the lying trench may be enlarged and deepened until the kneeling trench has been constructed. The width of the bottom should be 21/2 feet—preferably 3 feet—and the relief (distance from bottom of trench to top of parapet) is 3 feet—the proper height for firing over in a kneeling position.

1146. Standing trench (Fig. 4) has a bottom width of 3 to 31/2 feet and a relief of 41/2 feet which is the proper firing height for men of average stature. As this trench does not give complete cover to men standing in it a passage way should be constructed in rear of it not less than 6 feet below the interior crest. This forms the complete trench (Fig. 5). Figures 6–– show simple standing trenches used in the European War.

1147. Deliberate intrenchments comprise trenches and works constructed by troops not in line of battle and are usually intended to enable a small force to resist a much larger one. It frequently happens that hasty intrenchments are developed into deliberate intrenchments and from this stage pass into the domain of siege works.

1148. Fire trenches,—the trenches which shelter the firing line,—are of different types. No fixed type can be prescribed. The type must be selected with due regard to the terrain, enemy, time, tools, soil, etc., but all should conform to the requirements of a good field of fire, and protection for the troops behind a vertical wall, preferably with some head or over head cover.

The simplest form of fire trench is deep and narrow and has a flat concealed parapet (Fig. 9). When time will permit the simple trench should be planned with a view to developing it into a more complete form (Figs. 10 and ). In all trenches as soon as practicable a passage way—2 feet wide at the bottom—should be provided, in rear of the firing step, for the men carrying supplies, ammunition, etc., and for the removal of the wounded.

When the excavated earth is easily removed a fire trench without parapet may be the one best suited to the soil and other conditions affecting the conditions of profile (Fig. 12). The enemy's infantry as well as artillery will generally have great difficulty in seeing this trench. Fig. 13 shows a squad trench. Fig. 14 shows a fire trench provided with protection against shrapnel. This trench is used in the European War.

In the European War the aim in constructing fire trenches seems to be to minimize and localize artillery effect as far as possible. The main excavation along the front is a continuous, very deep, communication, not in itself prepared for active defense. The actual firing is done from banquettes or firing steps just to the front of the passage or from trenches dug as far as 5 or 10 feet in front of the main excavation and reached by short passages. Figs 15 and show the type of this construction. Fig. 17 shows a fire trench with parades and shelter.

1149. Traverses. Fire trenches are divided into sections or bays by means of traverses which intercept side or enfilade fire and limit the effect of shells, bombs or grenades, which burst inside of the trench. The traverses should be wide enough to screen the full width of the trench with a little to spare. The thickness of the traverse varies from 3 to 6 feet or more. Six feet is the dimension generally found in the traverses in the trenches on the European battle fronts.

1150. Trench recesses; sortie steps. It will be noted that in some of the diagrams of the trenches now being used in the European War the berm has been eliminated entirely. The object being to bring the firer closer to the vertical wall thus giving him better protection from shrapnel fire. There have also been added to the trench, recesses for hand grenades. These recesses are similar to recesses dug in the front wall of the trench for ammunition. One form of recess is shown in (Fig. 18). In order to provide facilities for rapidly mounting from the trench to charge, sortie steps and stakes have been provided in some trenches as shown in (Fig. 16).

1151. Parados. Instead of shrapnel, explosive shell is most frequently used in the European War. This necessitates the addition of a parados to the fire trench to protect against the back blast of high explosives. This is shown in (Figs. 8 and ).

An interesting development in cover for the firing line is shown in dugouts constructed in the fire trenches in the European war. These dugouts are deep underground and shelter from 3 to 8 men each (Fig. 19). These dugouts will be discussed more in length under cover trenches.

1152. Head cover is the term applied to any horizontal cover which may be provided above the plane of fire. It is obtained by notching or loop-holing the top of the parapet so that the bottoms of the notches or loopholes are in the desired plane of fire. The extra height of parapet may be 12 to 18 inches and the loopholes may be 3 to 31/2 feet center to center.

Head cover is of limited utility. It increases the visibility of the parapet and restricts the field of fire. At close range the loopholes serve as aiming points to steady the enemy's fire and may do more harm than good at longer ranges. This is especially the case if the enemy can see any light through the loophole. He waits for the light to be obscured, when he fires, knowing there is a man's head behind the loophole. A background must be provided or a removable screen arranged so that there will be no difference in the appearance of the loophole whether a man is looking through it or not. Head cover is advantageous only when the conditions of the foreground are such that the enemy can not get close up.

1153. Notches and loopholes, Figs. 20–22, are alike in all respects, except that the latter have a roof or top and the former have not. The bottom, also called floor or sole, is a part of the original superior slope. The sides, sometimes called cheeks, are vertical or nearly so. The plan depends upon local conditions. There is always a narrow part, called the throat, which is just large enough to take the rifle and permit sighting. From the throat the sides diverge at an angle, called the splay, which depends upon the field of fire necessary.

The position of the throat may vary. If on the outside, it is less conspicuous but more easily obstructed by injury to the parapet and more difficult to use, since in changing aim laterally the man must move around a pivot in the plane of the throat. If the material of which the loophole is constructed presents hard surfaces, the throat should be outside, notwithstanding the disadvantages of that position, or else the sides must be stepped as in Fig. 22. In some cases it may be best to adopt a compromise position and put the throat in the middle, Fig. 22. Figs. 23 to 26 show details and dimensions of a loophole of sand bags.

A serviceable form of loophole consists of a pyramidal box of plank with a steel plate spiked across the small end and pierced for fire. Fig. 27 shows a section of such a construction. It is commonly known as the hopper loophole. The plate should be 3/8 in. thick, if of special steel; or 1/2 in., if ordinary metal. Fig. 28 shows the opening used by the Japanese in Manchuria and Fig. 29 that used by the Russians.

The construction of a notch requires only the introduction of some available rigid material to form the sides; by adding a cover the notch becomes a loophole. Where the fire involves a wide lateral and small vertical angle, loopholes may take the form of a long slit. Such a form will result from laying logs or fascines lengthwise on the parapet, supported at intervals by sods or other material, Fig. 31, or small poles covered with earth may be used, Fig. 30.

1154. Overhead cover. This usually consists of a raised platform of some kind covered with earth. It is frequently combined with horizontal cover in a single structure, which protects the top and exposed side. The supporting platform will almost always be of wood and may vary from brushwood or light poles to heavy timbers and plank. It is better, especially with brush or poles, to place a layer of sods, grass down, or straw, or grain sacks over the platform before putting on the earth, to prevent the latter from sifting through.

The thickness of overhead cover depends upon the class of fire against which protection is desired, and is sometimes limited by the vertical space available, since it must afford headroom beneath, and generally should not project above the nearest natural or artificial horizontal cover. For splinter proofs a layer of earth 6 to 8 ins. thick on a support of brush or poles strong enough to hold it up will suffice if the structure is horizontal. If the front is higher than the rear, less thickness is necessary; if the rear is higher than the front, more is required. For bombproofs a minimum thickness of 6 ins. of timber and 3 ft. of earth is necessary against field and siege guns, or 12 ins. timber and 6 ft. of earth against the howitzers and mortars of a heavy siege train, not exceeding 6 inches in caliber.

In determining the area of overhead cover to be provided, allow 6 sq. ft. per man for occupancy while on duty only, or 12 sq. ft. per man for continuous occupancy not of long duration. For long occupation 18 to 20 sq. ft. per man should be provided.

It is not practicable to give complete cover to rifle positions that will successfully withstand the heavy artillery of today. The use of overhead cover is usually limited to that sufficient for protection against rifle fire, machine gun fire, and shrapnel.

1155. Cover trenches are constructed to provide safe cover for the supports or reinforcements of the fire trenches or to provide cooking and resting facilities for the garrison of the neighboring fire trenches. The important point in cover trenches is safety. They vary in design from the simple rectangular trenches to elaborately constructed trenches having overhead cover, kitchens, shelters, latrines, dressing stations, etc. Cover trenches must not be mistaken for a secondary position, they are cover for the firing line, supports and reserves until they are required in the fire trenches. The cover trench requires a depth of at least 6 feet to protect men standing. Greater depths may be used when necessary. Fig. 36 is a section of an open cover trench and Fig. 37 of a closed one. This section may be used for a communicating trench. Fig. 38 shows a cover trench close to a fire trench. The character of overhead cover for trenches is shown in the diagrams under overhead cover. The distance of the cover trenches varies with the situation. The experience of the European war places the cover trenches from 15 to 50 yards in rear of the fire trenches. These trenches furnish shelter for at least 2/3 of the firing line and supports.

The reserves are furnished yet more elaborate shelter, with plenty of room for the men to lie down and rest and when practicable, bathing facilities are provided.

1156. Dugouts. An elaborate system of dugouts has developed along the lines occupied by the troops in the European war. These dugouts are located from 14 to 40 feet below the ground and are reached by stairs in timbered passage ways. At the foot of the stairs a tunnel or corridor runs forward and on either side or at the end, rooms have been dug out varying in size. Most of these rooms have been timbered and lined. Many are electrically lighted. In some of these underground shelters, accommodations for several hundred men have been prepared with all of the necessary facilities for making them comfortable. It must be understood that such elaborate preparations can only be made when troops face each other in trenches where operations have developed into practically a siege.

1157. Communicating trenches. These trenches as the name implies are for the purpose of providing safe communication between the cover and fire trenches. They may be also constructed just in rear of a series of fire trenches to provide a means of communication from one to the other. Communicating trenches also extend to the rear of the cover trenches and provide safe passage to fresh troops or supplies. These trenches are usually laid out in zig zag or curved lines (Fig. 39), to prevent enfilade fire from sweeping them. As a general rule excavated earth is placed on both sides of the trench to afford protection, the depth is usually from 6 to 7 feet. (Fig. 15) shows a typical communicating trench.

1158. Lookouts. To enable the garrison of a trench to get the greatest amount of comfort and rest, a lookout should be constructed and a sentinel stationed therein.

The simplest form would consist of two sandbags placed on the parapet and splayed so as to give the required view, and carefully concealed.

Better forms may be constructed, with one side resting on the berm by using short uprights with overhead cover, a slit on all sides being provided for observation.

At night, lookouts are usually posted at listening points located in or beyond the line of obstacles. These will be discussed under obstacles.

1159. Supporting Points. In some cases small supporting points may have to be established close behind the general line of trenches for the purpose of breaking up a successful attack on the trenches and to aid in delivering a counter attack. These points are strongly entrenched and have all around wire entanglements and are garrisoned by from 20 to 40 picked men or by larger forces if the situation demand it. In some cases machine guns are added to the force in the supporting point.

1160. Example of trench system. Having discussed trenches and obstacles somewhat in detail, let us take a combination of the whole showing a complete system such as is used today. (Fig. 40) is a good example.

Beginning at the front we have the line of wire entanglements or obstacles with their listening posts X, for guarding them. Connecting the listening posts to the fire trenches are the communicating trenches. The fire trenches are shown by the heavy black line running about 60 feet in rear of the obstacles. Note the many traverses shown by the indentations in the line. Points marked M with arrows projecting to the flanks are machine guns, so located as to sweep the front of the position with a cross fire. Points marked S are underground shelters for from 3 to 6 men. Points marked S' are shelters for 30 men. In rear of the firing trenches at a distance varying from 100 to 200 feet is the line of cover trenches. This line is connected with the fire trenches by the zig zagged line of communicating trenches. Note that the latrines (L) and first aid stations (F) are just off from the communicating trenches, while the larger shelter for men (S') are near the cover trenches. As the note on the diagram shows, the trench requires 250 men to occupy it with double that number in support. The trench has 108 loopholes with spaces between provided with a higher banquette so that the whole parapet may be manned for firing.

On the battlefields of Europe today there are generally three lines of fire trenches. This permits the defender to fall back to a 2nd or 3rd prepared position in case he is driven out of his first trench. On a hill we find a fire trench near the foot of the slope, one just forward of the military crest, and the third on the reverse slope of the hill.

In many instances the first line trenches consist of as many as four or five lines of trenches running in a general lateral direction and connected by deep narrow communicating trenches. The depth between the first and last of these trenches is, in some instances, not over a hundred yards. Sign boards are necessary at short intervals to prevent the soldiers from getting lost. The effect of having so many alternative firing trenches is to make it extremely difficult for an enemy to advance from, or even to hold one of them, even when he gains a footing, as he would be swept by fire from the supporting trenches in rear and also by flanking fire from the adjacent trenches.

1161. Location. There are two things to be considered in locating trenches: (1) The tactical situation, and (2) the nature of the ground. The first consideration requires that the trenches be so located as to give the best field of fire. Locating near the base of hills possesses the advantage of horizontal fire, but, as a rule, it is difficult to support trenches so located and to retreat therefrom in case of necessity. While location near the crest of hills—on the "military crest"—does not possess the advantage of horizontal fire, it is easier to support trenches so located and to retreat therefrom. Depending upon circumstances, there are times when it will be better to intrench near the base of hills and there are other times when it will be better to intrench on the "military crest," which is always in front of the natural crest. The construction of trenches along the "military crest" does not give any "dead space"—that is, any space to the front that can not be reached by the fire of the men in the trenches.

Whether we should construct our trenches on high or low ground is a matter that should always be carefully considered under the particular conditions that happen to exist at that particular time, and the matter may be summarized as follows:

The advantages of the high ground are:—

1. We can generally see better what is going on to our front and flanks; and the men have a feeling of security that they do not enjoy on low ground.

2. We can usually reënforce the firing line better and the dead and wounded can be removed more easily.

3. The line of retreat is better.

The disadvantages are:—

1. The plunging fire of a high position is not as effective as a sweeping fire of a low one.

2. It is not as easy to conceal our position.

The advantages of low ground, are:—

1. The low, sweeping fire that we get, especially when the ground in front is fairly flat and the view over the greater part of it is uninterrupted, is the most effective kind of fire.

2. As a rule it is easier to conceal trenches on low ground, especially from artillery fire.

3. If our trenches are on low ground, our artillery will be able to find good positions on the hill behind us without interfering with the infantry defense.

The disadvantages are:—

1. As a rule it will be more difficult to reënforce the firing line and to remove the dead and wounded from the trenches.

2. On a low position there will usually be an increase of dead space in our front.

3. The average soldier acting on the defensive dreads that the enemy may turn his flank, and this feeling is much more pronounced on low ground than on high ground. Should the enemy succeed in getting a footing on our flank with our trenches on top of the hill, it would be bad enough, but it would certainly be far worse if he got a footing on top of the hill, on the flank and rear, with our company on low ground in front. We, therefore, see there are things to be said for and against both high and low ground, and the most that can be said without examining a particular piece of ground is: Our natural inclination is to select high ground, but, as a rule, this choice will reduce our fire effect, and if there is a covered approach to our fire trenches and very little dead ground in front of it, with an extensive field of fire, there is no doubt the lower ground is better. However, if these conditions do not exist to a considerable degree, the moral advantage of the higher ground must be given great weight, especially in a close country.

The experience of the European war emphasizes the fact that the location of rifle trenches is today, just as much as ever, a matter of compromise to be determined by sound judgment on the part of the responsible officers. The siting of trenches so that they are not under artillery observation is a matter of great importance, but, it has yet to be proven that this requirement is more important than an extensive field of fire. There are many instances where to escape observation and fire from the artillery, trenches were located on the reverse slopes, giving only a limited field of fire. This restricted field of fire permitted the enemy to approach within a few hundred yards of the trench and robbed them of the concealment they had hoped to gain. The choice between a site in front, and one in rear of a crest, is influenced by local conditions which govern the effectiveness of our own and the enemy's fire. In general, the best location for effective fire trenches, lies between the military crest of rising ground and the lowest line from which the foreground is visible. If the position on the military crest is conspicuous, it is inadvisable.

With regard to the nature of the ground, trenches should, if practicable, be so located as to avoid stony ground, because of the difficult work entailed and of the danger of flying fragments, should the parapet be struck by an artillery projectile.

To locate the trace of the trenches, lie on the ground at intervals and select the best field of fire consistent with the requirements of the situation.

Trenches should be laid out in company lengths, if possible, and adjoining trenches should afford each other mutual support. The flanks and important gaps in the line should be protected by fire trenches echeloned in rear.

1162. Concealment of trenches. Owing to the facilities for observation that the aeroplanes and other air craft afford, and to the accuracy and effect of modern artillery fire, every possible means should be taken to conceal trenches, gun implacements, and other works. The aim should be to alter the natural surface of the ground as little as possible and to present a target of the smallest possible dimensions. Covering the parapet with brush or grass will afford temporary concealment. If the new earth can be sodded it aids greatly in concealing the trench. In some cases troops have gone to the extent of painting canvas to resemble the ground and have placed it over trenches, guns, etc. Straw and grass placed in the bottom of trenches make them less conspicuous to air scouts. When trenches are dug on a fairly steep slope care must be used to conceal the back of the trench, which, being higher than the parapet, will stand out as a scar on the hillside. Grass or brush may be used to conceal the back of the trench.

1163. Dummy trenches. May be constructed which attract the enemy's attention and draw his fire, or at least a part of it. The extent to which this method may be used may include the construction of dummy obstacles and guns, and even hats may be placed on the parapets.

1164. Length of trench. The usual minimum allowance of trench space is one yard per man, although in some tests, two feet was found sufficient for men to fire satisfactorily. Ordinarily one squad will occupy the space between two traverses which experience has shown should be about 15 feet apart.

1165. Preparation of the foreground. One of the first principles in improving the foreground is that an enemy attacking the trenches shall be continually exposed to fire especially in the last 400 or 500 yards. This requires a clearing of the foreground and a filling in of depressions or leveling of cover. Dead space may be swept by fire of trenches specially located for that purpose. Those features of the ground which obstruct the field of fire, restrict the view, or favor or the enemy's approach, should be removed as far as possible. On the other hand, features which favor the concealment of the trenches or increase the difficulty of the attack would better be left standing, especially when it is possible to fire through or over them.

1166. Revetments. By a revetment we mean a facing placed against the front or back wall of a trench to keep the earth in place.

When trenches are to be occupied for any length of time, they must be revetted. There are many forms of revetments. Sod revetments, stakes with brush behind them, stakes with planks, boards, or poles behind them and a common form seen in the trenches in Europe chicken wire with brush or canvas behind it.

1167. Drainage. All trenches should be dug so as to drain in case of rain. In favorable locations the trench may be constructed to drain automatically, by constructing it with an incline to one end. Under ordinary circumstances dry standing has to be provided in trenches by raising the foot level by the use of brush, boards, poles, etc. Bailing will have to be resorted to in most cases to drain the trench.

1168. Water Supply. At least 1/2 a gallon of water per man per day should be supplied. The supply is almost invariably liable to be contaminated, therefore, it should be sterilized by boiling or by treating. These are usually located just off from the communicating trenches. Some form of receptacle should be used and all deposits covered with chemicals.

1169. Latrines. Numerous latrines must be constructed in the trenches' earth. These receptacles are removed from time to time and emptied in pits dug for that purpose. Urinal cans must also be provided and cared for in a similar manner.

1170. Illumination of the Foreground. Battlefield illumination is a necessity where night attacks may be expected, and also as a protection to the line of obstacles. Portable searchlights have become an accepted part of every army. In addition to these, trenches must be supplied with reflector lights, star bombs, rockets and flares, arranged so that they can be put into action instantaneously when the enemy approaches.

The foreground should be entirely illuminated, leaving the defenders in the shadow. If the light is too close to the defenders parapet, they are illuminated and become a good target. Some flares will burn for 20 minutes and may be thrown to the front as grenades, fired as rockets, shot from small mortars, or placed well to the front to be set off by trip wires close to the ground. The best light devised is one that can be fired well to the front from a small mortar and then hung suspended from an open parachute above the enemy. Bonfires can be laid ready for lighting when no other means is at hand. Whatever form of illumination is adopted, it should withstand bad weather conditions and prolonged bombardment.

1171. Telephones. When armies have been forced to trench warfare and time has permitted an elaborate system of trenches to be constructed, telephone communication is established as soon as possible. The central station, with the switch-board is located in a shelter in rear of the cover trenches and lines are run to all trenches, lookout stations and listening points.

1172. Siege works. Comprise devices used by besiegers and besieged in attack and defense of strong fortifications and especially those devices enable troops to advance under continuous cover.

Chapter XI

OBSTACLES

1173. Object. The main objects in placing obstacles in front of the trenches are, to protect them from surprise, and to stop the enemy's advance or to delay him while under the defender's fire.

1174. Necessity for obstacles. It is evident that the present tendency is to reduce the number of men assigned to constant occupancy of the first line trenches. This is due to the effectiveness of rifle fire at close range, the destructive effect of shell and shrapnel, the infrequency of daylight attack on intrenched positions, and the severe strain on the men. The aim seems to be the placing here and there of a lookout or trench guards, who, when necessity demands can call help from the near by splinterproofs, dugouts, etc., before the enemy can make his way through the obstacles. It has been found from experience in the European war that as long as shells are directed at the trenches no danger of attack is feared but, when the shells are concentrated against the obstacles the trenches are manned and preparations are made to resist an assault.

1175. Location. Obstacles must be so located that they will be exposed to the defenders' fire, and should be sheltered as far as possible from the enemy's artillery fire. They should be difficult to remove or destroy, should afford no cover for the enemy, and should not obstruct counter attacks. No obstacle should be more than 100 yards from the defender's trench. Care must be taken not to place them so close to the trench that hand grenades can be thrown into the trench from beyond the obstacle. Obstacles may be placed in one, two or three lines. As far as possible they should be concealed so that they will not betray the location of the trench.

1176. Kinds of Obstacles. The following are the most common kinds of obstacles:—

Abatis consisting of trees lying parallel to each other with the branches pointing in the general direction of approach and interlaced. All leaves and small twigs should be removed and the stiff ends of branches pointed.

Abatis on open ground is most conveniently made of branches about 15 feet long. The branches are staked or tied down and the butts anchored by covering them with earth. Barbed wire may be interlaced among the branches. Successive rows are placed, the branches of one extending over the trunks of the one in front, so as to make the abatis 5 feet high and as wide as desired. It is better to place the abatis in a natural depression or a ditch, for concealment and protection from fire. If exposed to artillery, an abatis must be protected either as above or else by raising a glacis in front of it. Fig. 1 shows a typical form of abatis with a glacis in front. An abatis formed by felling trees toward the enemy, leaving the butt hanging to the stump, the branches prepared as before, is called a slashing, Fig. 2. It gives cover, and should be well flanked.

1177. A palisade is a man-tight fence of posts. Round poles 4 to 6 inches in diameter at the large end are best. If the sticks run 5 to 8 inches, they may be split. If defended from the rear, palisades give some shelter from fire and the openings should be made as large as possible without letting men through. If defended from the flank, they may be closer, say 3 to 4 inches apart. The top should be pointed. A strand or two of barbed wire run along the top and stapled to each post is a valuable addition.

Palisading is best made up in panels of 6 or 8 feet length, connected by a waling piece, preferably of plank, otherwise of split stuff. If the tops are free, two wales should be used, both underground. If the tops are connected by wires, one will do.

Palisades should be planted to incline slightly to the front. As little earth should be disturbed in digging as possible, and one side of the trench should be kept in the desired plane of the palisade. If stones can be had to fit between the posts and the top of the trench, they will increase the stiffness of the structure and save time in ramming, or a small log may be laid in the trench along the outside of the posts. Figs. 3 and show the construction and placing of palisades.

1178. A fraise is a palisade horizontal, or nearly so, projecting from the scarp or counterscarp. A modern and better form consists of supports at 3 or 4 feet interval, connected by barbed wire, forming a horizontal wire fence. Fig. 5.

1179. Cheveaux de frise are obstacles of the form shown in Fig. 6. They are usually made in sections of manageable length chained together at the ends. They are most useful in closing roads or other narrow passages, as they can be quickly opened for friendly troops. The lances may be of iron instead of wood and rectangular instead of round; the axial beam may be solid or composite. Figs. 8 and show methods of constructing cheveaux de frise with dimension stuff.

1180. A formidable obstacle against cavalry consists of railroad ties planted at intervals of 10 feet with the tops 41/2 feet above the ground, and connected by a line of rails spiked securely to each, Fig. 7. The rail ends should be connected by fish plates and bolted, with the ends of the bolts riveted down on the ends.

Figs. 10 and show forms of heavy obstacles employed in Manchuria by the Russians and Japanese, respectively. The former is composed of timber trestles, made in rear and carried out at night. The latter appears to have been planted in place.

1181. A wire entanglement is composed of stakes driven in the ground and connected by wire, barbed is the best, passing horizontally or diagonally, or both. The stakes are roughly in rectangular or quincunx order, but slight irregularities, both of position and height should be introduced.

In the high entanglement the stakes average 4 feet from the ground, and the wiring is horizontal and diagonal, Fig. 12.

The low wire entanglement has stakes averaging 18 inches above the ground and the wire is horizontal only. This form is especially effective if concealed in high grass. In both kinds the wires should be wound around the stakes and stapled and passed loosely from one stake to the next. When two or more wires cross they should be tied together. Barbed wire is more difficult to string but better when done. The most practicable form results from the use of barbed wire for the horizontal strands and smooth wire for the rest.

This is the most generally, useful of all obstacles because of the rapidity of construction, the difficulty of removal, the comparatively slight injury from artillery fire, and its independence of local material supplies.

1182. Time and materials. One man can make 10 sq. yds. of low and 3 sq. yds. of high entanglement per hour. The low form requires 10 feet of wire per sq. yd. and the high 30 feet. No. 14 is a suitable size. The smooth wire runs 58.9 ft. to the lb. A 100-lb. coil will make 600 sq. yds. of low or 200 sq. yds. of high entanglement. If barbed wire is used, the weight will be about 21/2 times as much.

1183. Wire fence. An ordinary barbed-wire fence is a considerable obstacle if well swept by fire. It becomes more formidable if a ditch is dug on one or both sides to obstruct the passage of wheels after the fence has been cut. The fence is much more difficult to get through if provided with an apron on one or both sides, inclined at an angle of about 45°, as indicated in Figs. 13 and . This form was much used in South Africa for connecting lines between blockhouses. When used in this way the lines of fence may be 300 to 600 yds. long, in plan like a worm fence, with the blockhouse at the reëntrant angles. Fixed rests for rifles, giving them the proper aim to enfilade the fence, were prepared at the blockhouses for use at night.

Such a fence may be arranged in many ways to give an automatic alarm either mechanically or electrically. The mechanical forms mostly depend on one or more single wires which are smooth, and are tightly stretched through staples on the posts which hold them loosely, permitting them to slip when cut and drop a counterweight at the blockhouse, which in falling explodes a cap or pulls the trigger of a rifle.

1184. Military pits or trous de loup are excavations in the shape of an inverted cone or pyramid, with a pointed stake in the bottom. They should not be so deep as to afford cover to the skirmisher. Two and one-half feet or less is a suitable depth. Fig. 15 shows a plan and section of such pits.

They are usually dug in 3 or 5 rows and the earth thrown to the front to form a glacis. The rear row is dug first and then the next in front, and so on, so that no earth is cast over the finished pits.

An excellent arrangement is to dig the pits in a checkerboard plan, leaving alternate squares and placing a stake in each of them to form a wire entanglement, Fig. 16. One man can make 5 pits on a 2-hour relief.

1185. Miscellaneous barricades. Anything rigid in form and movable may be used to give cover from view and fire and to obstruct the advance of an assailant. Boxes, bales and sacks of goods, furniture, books, etc., have been so used. The principles above stated for other obstacles should be followed, so far as the character of the materials will permit. The rest ingenuity must supply. Such devices are usually called barricades and are useful in blocking the streets of towns and cities.

1186. Inundations. Backing up the water of a stream so that it overflows a considerable area forms a good obstacle even though of fordable depth. If shallow, the difficulty of fording may be increased by irregular holes or ditches dug before the water comes up or by driving stakes or making entanglements. Fords have frequently been obstructed by ordinary harrows laid on the bottom with the teeth up.

The unusual natural conditions necessary to a successful inundation and the extent and character of the work required to construct the dams make this defense of exceptional use. It may be attempted with advantage when the drainage of a considerable flat area passes through a restricted opening, as a natural gorge, a culvert, or a bridge.

Open cribs filled with stones, or tighter ones with gravel or earth may form the basis of the obstruction to the flow of water. The usual method of tightening cracks or spaces between cribs is by throwing in earth or alternate layers of straw, hay, grass, earth, or sacks of clay. Unless the flow is enough to allow considerable leakage, the operation will not be practicable with field resources.

When the local conditions permit water to be run into the ditch of a parapet it should always be done.

1187. Obstacles in front of outguards should be low so they cannot be seen at night. A very simple and effective obstacle can be made by fastening a single strand of wire to the top of stout stakes about a foot high, and then placing another wire a little higher and parallel to, and about one yard in rear of, the first. The wires must be drawn tight, and securely fastened, and the stakes fairly close together, so that if the wire is cut between any two stakes the remainder will not be cut loose. Any one approaching the enemy will trip over the first wire, and before he can recover himself he will be brought down by the second. In the absence of wire, small sapplings may be used instead. Of course, they are not as good as wire, but it does not take much to trip up a man in the dark.

Lessons from the European War

What follows is based on reports from the battle fronts in Europe.

1188. Wire entanglements. The war in Europe has proven that the wire entanglements are the most important and effective obstacle yet devised. Owing to the intensity of the opposing fire and in many cases to the short distance between the opposing trenches, it has become necessary to construct all forms of obstacles in portable sections which are carried or rolled quickly into place, either by soldiers rushing out in day light and quickly staking the obstacles down or by placing the obstacles quietly at night.

For placing wire entanglements at night, an iron post has been devised about 1/4 of an inch in diameter, with eyelets for attaching the wire. The lower 18 inches is made as an auger, so that the posts can be quietly screwed into the ground at night and the wire attached. Another method of placing wire entanglements is to make them in sections and roll them up. These sections are usually about 20 feet long, the wire firmly fastened to the sharpened stakes. At a favorable moment the soldiers rush out, unrolling the sections as they go and with mauls quickly drive the stakes. Loose ends of wire enable the sections to be bound together as placed.

Another form of wire entanglement is shown in (Fig. 18). Triangular pyramids 3 feet 6 inches high are made of poles or timber. The pyramids are usually arranged in pairs with the wire on three faces so that, no matter if the obstacle is rolled over, a wire fence is presented. These obstacles are carried out and placed so as to break joints and are staked down as soon as possible.

The wire used for entanglements is found more convenient to handle when wound on a stake a yard in length, in a sort of figure eight winding. Special barbed wire of heavier material and barbs placed close together has been found much more effective than the commercial barbed wire.

In some localities electrified wire has been used. In such cases the obstacle is charged in sections, so that, if one section is grounded it will not affect the others.

1189. Wire cheveaux de frise. Two forms of this obstacle have appeared. Both are portable. They consist of two or more wooden crosses fastened at their centers to a long pole and connected with each other by barbed wire. This obstacle retains its effectiveness when rolled over. (Figs. 19 and ) give an idea of their construction. The form shown in (Fig. 19) is often made small enough for individuals to carry. These are prepared in the trenches and used for throwing into one's own entanglements to make them more complex or may be carried when making an assault and thrown into the enemy's trenches to prevent movements from one part of the trench to another. The long stick projects out of the end to be used as a handle.

1190. Guarding obstacles. It has been found necessary to keep a constant watch over obstacles after they have been placed.

1191. Listening posts. One of the best methods is to post one or more men in listening posts in or beyond the line of obstacles. These listening posts are rifle pits with over head cover, fully protected from fire from the rear as well as front, and loop holes for observation and fire. They are connected with the fire trenches by means of a covered communication or even tunnels in some cases and are provided with some form of prompt communication with the firing trenches by telephone, bell or other means. The communicating trench or tunnel is provided with a strong door which may be closed to prevent an enemy from securing access to the fire trench, in case the lookout is surprised. Pits with trap doors are also used to prevent an enemy from creeping up the tunnel to the fire trench.

These lookouts can give early warning of the approach of an enemy, either for the purpose of assault or cutting through the obstacles. In many instances they have detected mining operations of the enemy by hearing the blows of picks under ground.

1192. Automatic alarms. Many automatic alarms have been used to give warning of attack on the obstacles. These vary from the simple setting of a pistol or rifle, which is fired when the enemy attempts to cut through the entanglement, to intricate electrical alarms.

1193. Searchlights. Searchlights have been provided so that, the instant an alarm is given the obstacles are flooded by a brilliant light and the enemy exposed to fire.

Chapter XII

TRENCH AND MINE WARFARE

1194. Asphyxiating gases. The asphyxiating gases employed may be divided into three general classes, viz:

Suffocating gases, the most common of which are carbonic and nitrogen.

Poisonous gases, under which head come carbon monoxide and cyanogen.

Gases which affect the throat and bronchial tubes, such as chlorine and bromine. The latter class is most commonly employed.

The methods usually employed for liberating these gases are to have a plant some distance in rear of the trenches where the gas is stored under pressure and carried to the trenches through pipes, where it can be liberated towards the enemy's trenches when there is a favorable wind to carry it along; or, the gas may be carried in cylinders or other containers and liberated at the desired points. Hand grenades or bombs are also employed which, upon bursting, liberate the gas or in some cases scatter acids or caustic soda. Some of these bombs contain a chemical which when liberated affects the eyes, causing impaired vision. The Germans employ several kinds of shell containing gases of different densities, one of heavy gas fired as a curtain to the rear to permit reinforcement of the trenches and another of lighter gas to demolish the trenches and destroy the firing line. As a general rule these gases are employed when the fire trenches of the opposing forces are close together though the shell containers may be used at long ranges. All of these gases being heavier than air lie close to the ground and flow over and down into the trenches.

1195. Protection against gases. The best protection against these gases, is a mask of some kind. The commonest form employed is a flexible mask that conforms to the head, is fitted with glass for seeing through, and has an arrangement of tubes and valves which require the wearer to inhale through his nose and exhale through his mouth.

These masks have an absorbent composed of hyposulphite of sodium or of 72 per cent of the nitrous thiosulphate and 28 per cent of bicarbonate of soda. This absorbent placed so that air must be breathed through it, neutralizes the acids in the gases. Soldiers are provided with these masks, sometimes with two of them, and are required to have them renewed every three months.

Trench sprays may be used to spray neutralizing liquid in the trenches to kill the gases.

The favorable conditions for the employment of gases are wind blowing toward the enemy's trenches and warm weather. Unfavorable conditions are rain, cold, and adverse winds.

In some localities weather vanes placed in the direction of the enemy's trenches and arranged so that they may be watched at night give an indication of favorable winds and enable the defender to prepare for a gas attack.

Before the masks were provided bonfires were prepared of oil soaked materials which; when ignited, produced an intense heat and the resulting column of air diverted the gas clouds.

1196. Liquid fire. By use of hand or motor driven pumps, and a light grade of petroleum, columns of liquid fire may be squirted into the opposing trenches. If the oil should fail to remain lighted it may be fired by bursting hand grenades or throwing fire balls into the trenches. This means of attack is employed when opposing trenches are close together.

As a defense measure ditches may be dug in front of the trenches and filled with a porous material which is then soaked with oil. Heavy oils, being hard to ignite, are not dangerous to the defense, and will remain with little loss for a long time. To make sure of prompt ignition gas lines are laid in the ditches. When turned on the gas readily ignites and the resulting fire produces great heat. Wire or barbed wire looped in the ditches and staked down makes this a formidable obstacle.

1197. Grenades and bombs are containers, designed to be thrown by hand, by a sling, fired as a rocket or from specially constructed mortars, or dropped from aerial craft. They burst by time or percussion fuses and may be improvised in a variety of forms and are most useful in close attack or defense. Their effect is local but they are very demoralizing to men's nerves.

1198. Hand grenades are designed to be thrown by the hand and vary greatly in construction. In general, however, they consist of a container filled with bullets or pieces of iron or other metal in the center of which is a charge of high explosive which scatters the bullets or fragments with deadly effect. The three methods of discharging a hand grenade are:

By time fuse which is lighted by hand. About 5 to 9 seconds is the time from ignition until the grenade bursts. This does not give the defender time to pick up the bomb and throw it out of the trench.

By friction primer and fuse. In this form of hand grenade a strap on the wrist with a short line attached with a hook on the end of it serves, when the hook is engaged in the ring of the grenade, to jerk the primer when the grenade is thrown. This automatically ignites the fuse which bursts the grenade in from 4 to 5 seconds.

By percussion. In this form of grenade the charge is fired when the grenade strikes the ground or object at which it is thrown. In this form of grenade a safety pin holds the plunger from the cap. When the grenade is to be thrown the safety pin is withdrawn.

As a general rule fuse burns at the rate of 1 inch in 1 and 1/4 seconds; however each lot of fuse should be tested.

Figs. 1 and show two forms of improvised grenades. Common cans, such as preserved fruits and vegetables are shipped in commercially, make good containers. The usual weight of a hand grenade is about 11/2 pounds.

1199. Other methods of throwing grenades. Many grenades have been designed to be fired from the ordinary rifle. This grenade has a rod which is inserted in the barrel of the rifle. A special charge of powder is used in the cartridge from which the bullet has been withdrawn.

Common slings, catapults, and other devises have been frequently used.

1200. Aerial mines. (Fig. 3.) This form of grenade is very heavy, often weighing 200 pounds and is fired from a trench mortar.

1201. Winged torpedo. (Fig. 4.) This projectile is fitted with three winged vanes which steady its flight and greatly increase the accuracy. A rod fitted into its base enables it to be fired from a comparatively small trench, mortar. The torpedo weighs about 40 pounds and the mortar 200 pounds. The mortar, being light, can be carried from one part of the trench to another by two men.

The aerial mine and winged torpedo may be used effectively to beat down the enemy's defenses, destroying his sand bags and trenches, and cutting away wire entanglements and other obstacles. The winged torpedo having a greater range (500 yards) and being more accurate, is the more effective.

1202. Bombs from air-craft are some form of high explosive bomb which burst on striking. Another type of bomb used by aeroplanes consists of a container filled with steel darts. The bursting charge is fired by a fuse. The operator usually cuts the fuse so that the bomb will burst at a considerable altitude. The steel darts are scattered in all directions and have sufficient velocity to pass through a man or horse.

1203. Protection against hand grenades. (Fig. 5.) For protection against hand grenades and bombs a screen of wire netting may be erected in front of the trenches and arranged at such a slope that most of the grenades passing over the screen will clear the trench while those striking the netting will roll away from the trench. This protection is very satisfactory for communications, machine gun emplacements, etc., but, is of doubtful value in fire trenches as it does not permit an easy offensive by the defenders.

1204. Tanks. The so-called "tanks," first used by the British armies in the battle of the Somme in September, 1916, are in reality armored caterpillar tractors carrying machine guns and capable of traversing rough ground, smashing down trees and entanglements, and passing across the ground between the opposing trenches over the shell holes made by the opposing artillery.

The machinery, guns and crew are contained in an armored body and the two tractor belts extend to full length on either side, being so arranged that the tank can climb a steep slope. From the meager data obtainable it would appear that the tanks carry from 4 to 6 machine guns in armored projections built out from the sides. These are provided with revolving shields permitting two guns to fire in any direction at one time.

The principle of the tractor is similar to that of those manufactured in the United States and used commercially in reclamation work. The addition of the armored body and guns makes the "military tank."

These "tanks" have proven of great value in village fighting, by smashing down barricades and driving machine guns from their positions in cellars and houses. They have also been used with some success in destroying obstacles.

The power of these new engines may be judged from their ability to smash down trees six inches in diameter and by means of cables to uproot trees as large as 15 inches in diameter.

These "tanks" are proof against rifle and machine gun fire, but are unable to withstand even light artillery.

1205. Helmets. Steel helmets made their appearance in the European war in 1915, as a protection to the soldier's head against rifle, machine gun and shrapnel fire. So successful were they that they are being furnished to all troops on the battlefield. Already several millions have been supplied. Where heretofore head wounds accounted for over 20 per cent of the casualties in trench warfare, the percentage has been reduced by the wearing of helmets to about one half per cent. While the helmet does not afford complete protection against rifle and shrapnel fire, it has been found that hits result only in severe concussion, where before fatal wound resulted. These helmets are painted khaki color.

1206. Masks. Steel masks for sentinels and snipers have been adopted by the Germans. This mask covers the head and face with curved surfaces which deflect bullets. Small eye holes permit a clear view of the target and a small section is omitted in the lower right side to permit bringing the rifle against the cheek in firing.

1207. Periscopes. Periscopes have been universally adopted in trench warfare for observing the enemy while keeping completely under cover. It is a simple arrangement of two mirrors in a vertical tube. The upper reflects the image of the object to the lower mirror which in turn reflects it to the eye of the observer. By raising the top of the periscope above the parapet the soldier can watch the foreground while at the same time remaining completely concealed himself.

A more elaborate periscope for the control of artillery fire has a collapsible tube which may be extended and elevated to a height of 75 feet.

1208. Sniperscope. This is a combination of the periscope and rifle by means of which a soldier can aim and fire his piece at an object without exposing himself above the parapet.

1209. Aids to firing. Rifles laid in notched boards placed in the parapet may be sighted and prepared for night firing, or a wire stretched just outside of the loophole on which the barrel of the rifle can rest when in the proper firing position to cover certain points, enables the soldier to fire effectively at night when it is too dark to aim.

1210. Mining. Military mining consists of digging communications and chambers underground and placing therein charges of explosives and firing such charges. Mining is slow and restricted in its application and therefore this method of attack is used against very strong points of the enemy's line,—a salient, a building, or other point,—held in great force. The aim in mine warfare is to make a sudden breach in the enemy's trench, destroy the flanking supports which could be used to stop this breach and then to take the trench by assault and organize it for defense before the enemy's forces, disorganized from the explosion, can recover.

Sometimes mines are placed in front of the trenches and exploded electrically when the enemy reaches them in attempting an assault.

1211. Countermining. The enemy, when mining operations are suspected, runs out tunnels to meet the opposing mine. Sometimes listening galleries are driven underground and men posted to detect the sound of mining operations. Once the direction of the opposing tunnel is discovered a charge of explosive is laid across its approach and fired at a moment when it will cause the most damage.

Chapter XIII

MARCHES

(Based on Infantry Drill Regulations and Field Service Regulations)

1212. Marching principal occupation of troops in campaign. Marching constitutes the principal occupation of troops in campaign and is one of the causes of heaviest loss. This loss, however, may be materially reduced by proper training and by carrying out strictly the rules regulating the conduct of marches, especially the rules of march discipline.

1213. Physical training; hardening new troops. By systematic and progressive physical exercises and actual marching, Infantry can be accustomed to the fatigue of bearing arms and equipment.

With new or untrained troops, the process of hardening the men to this work must be gradual. It should begin with ten-minute periods of vigorous setting-up exercises three times a day to loosen and develop the muscles. One march should be made each day with full equipment, beginning with a distance of 2 or 3 miles and increasing the distance daily as the troops become hardened, until a full day's march under full equipment may be made without exhaustion.

1214. Long march not to be made with untrained troops. A long march should not be made with untrained troops. If a long distance must be covered in a few days, the first march should be short, the length being increased each succeeding day.

1215. A successful march. A successful march, whether in peace or war, is one that places the troops at their destination at the proper time and in the best possible physical condition. Therefore, every possible effort, by exercising care and judgment, and by enforcing march discipline, must be made by all officers and noncommissioned officers to have the troops reach their destination in good physical condition,—"ready for business."

Preparation

1216. The commander. The commander must give such instructions as will insure that the necessary preparations are made,—that the men and animals are in fit condition and that the men are properly equipped; that provision has been made for rations and ammunition; that the wagons are properly loaded; that the necessary arrangements have been made for caring for the sick, etc.

1217. Organization commanders. Every organization commander is responsible that such of the above requirements as apply to his organization are complied with.

1218. Filling canteens. It is an invariable rule that all canteens must be filled before the march begins.

Starting

1219. Time to start. When practicable, marches begin in the morning, ample time being allowed for the men to breakfast, animals to feed, and the wagons or animals to be packed.

The time for reveille, if different from the usual hour, should be announced the evening before.

The exact hour for the start depends, of course, upon circumstances. However, as a rule, foot troops do not start before broad daylight; mounted troops, when practicable, about an hour after broad daylight.

In order to avoid intense heat, especially in the tropics, and also, in the case of long marches, to avoid reaching destination after dark, an earlier start than usual must be made.

Both men and animals rest well in the early morning hours, and should not, therefore, have this rest interrupted unless there is some real necessity for it.

Starting at night or at an hour that will cause a part of the march to be made at night, should, if possible, be avoided, because of the difficulties and disadvantages of night marching.

Conduct of the march

1220. The rate of march. The rate of march varies with the length of march, kind of troops, equipment carried, size of command, condition of troops, state of the weather, condition of roads, and other circumstances. However, whatever the rate may be it should be uniform, that is most important, as there is nothing that will irritate and tire a command more than a varying, un-uniform rate of march.

The rate of march is regulated by the commander of the leading company or some one designated by him, who should give the matter special attention, the rate being checked from time to time by a watch.

On a march of several days' duration the position of companies is ordinarily changed daily, so that each in turn leads.

With trained troops, in commands of a regiment or less, marching over average roads, the rate should be from 23/4 to 3 miles per hour. With larger commands carrying full equipment, the rate will be from 2 to 21/2 miles per hour.

Assuming that the length of step of the average man is 30 inches, the following rate-of-march table is deduced:

Steps per minute Miles per hour

35 (1/5) 1

70 2

88 (in practice, 90) 21/2

97 (in practice, 100) 23/4

106 (in practice, 110) 3

[Note. By remembering that 35 (1/5) steps per minute gives 1 mile per hour, the number of steps per minute necessary to give a rate of 2, 21/2, 23/4 and 3 miles per hour, is quickly and easily obtained by multiplying 35 (1/5) by these numbers.]

In hot, sultry weather, with the men carrying the full pack, the rate of march would naturally be considerably less than on a cool day, with the command not carrying the pack. It is most important that these and other considerations affecting the rate of march be constantly borne in mind by the officer in command of the column, who should indicate to the commander of the leading company the number of steps to be taken per minute. In indicating the number of steps to be taken per minute, it should be considered whether the men at the head of the leading company are the average, above the average, or below the average in height. A short man, for example, would probably have to take 100 steps a minute to keep up with a tall man walking at the rate of 90 steps per minute.

1221. Marching capacity. The average marching capacity of Infantry is about 15 miles a day, but in extensive operations, involving large bodies of troops, the average is about 12 miles a day. Small commands of seasoned Infantry marching on good roads in cool weather can average about 20 miles a day.

1222. Halts. A halt of 15 minutes should be made after the first half or three quarters of an hour of marching to enable the men to attend to the calls of nature and adjust their clothing. Judgment must be exercised in selecting the place for this halt; it should not be made in a village or other place where its object would be defeated.

After the first halt a halt of 10 minutes is made in each hour, that is, the troops march 50 minutes and then halt 10. Of course, the number and length of halts should be varied according to the weather, condition of the roads and the equipment carried by the men. In the tropics the best results are often obtained by marching 45 minutes and halting 15.

When the day's march will run well into the afternoon, a halt of about one hour should be made at noon and the men allowed to eat.

Places for long halts should be selected with care; woods, water and shade are desirable features. Arms are stacked and equipments removed.

Halts should not be made in or near towns or villages unless to procure water or supplies, and when so made, the men remain in column, details being sent for whatever is necessary.

In hot weather, especially in the tropics, it may be advisable in the case of long marches to halt for three or four hours during the hottest part of the day and finish the march in the late afternoon or early evening. As a general proposition, however, it is inadvisable to arrive at a strange place after nightfall or even late in the afternoon.

1223. Crossing bridges and fords. When a cause of delay,—for example, a damaged bridge,—is encountered, the troops in rear are notified of the minimum length of the delay; they then conduct themselves as at regular halts.

In ascending or descending slopes, crossing streams or other obstacles, or passing through defiles requiring a reduction of front, every precaution is taken to prevent interruption of the march of the troops in rear. If the distances are not sufficient to prevent check, units are allowed to overlap; if necessary, streams are crossed at two or more places at the same time; in passing through short defiles the pace is accelerated and the exit cleared at once.

If a company unit is delayed while crossing an obstacle, the head slackens the pace or halts until all of that unit has passed; it then resumes its place in the column, increasing the pace, if necessary.

Before attempting to cross with bodies of troops, careful examination is made of fords, boggy places, bridges of doubtful character, ice, etc., as the case may be.

Troops must never cross a bridge in cadence,—that is, the men must not be in step.

In fording a deep stream with a swift current, the men cross on as broad a front as possible, marching abreast and holding hands. They should not look at the water, but at the opposite shore. If the ford is wide enough, mounted troops may cross at the same time on the upstream side, thus breaking the force of the current.

Fords that are at all difficult delay long columns unless the troops cross at several places at once.

1224. Straggling and elongation of column. The marching efficiency of an organization is judged by the amount of straggling and elongation of the column and the condition of the men at the end of the march.

An officer of each company marches in its rear to prevent undue elongation and straggling. If there be only one officer with a company, the first sergeant performs this duty.

No man should leave the ranks without permission. If necessary for a man to fall out on account of sickness, he should be given a permit to do so by the company commander or the officer at the rear of the company. This permit is presented to the surgeon, who will admit him to the ambulance, have him wait for the trains, or follow and rejoin his company at the first halt.

It is the duty of all officers and noncommissioned officers to prevent straggling and elongation of the column.

Miscellaneous

1225. Forced marches. A forced march may be said to be a march of more than average length.

Forced marches seriously impair the fighting power of even the best troops, and should be undertaken only in cases of necessity.

Such marches are generally made by increasing the number of marching hours. For large columns of Infantry marching long distances, increase of pace is seldom of value.

1226. Night marches. While night marches are some times made in very hot weather to avoid the heat of the day, they are generally made for the purpose of surprising the enemy, escaping observation by aeroplane, or for securing a favorable position from which to attack the enemy at dawn.

Moonlight and good roads are favorable for night marches.

Precaution must be taken that the proper road is followed and that contact between units is maintained, men being stationed, if necessary, to mark changes of direction. If necessary, guides are secured and charged with the duty of following the right road. When, due to unfavorable conditions, units cannot be kept well closed, men will be placed at forks and crossings of roads, especially on very dark nights.

When in hostile territory, silence is maintained; articles of equipment are secured to prevent rattling, and smoking and talking are not permitted. Also, under certain conditions villages and farmhouses are avoided on account of warning given by dogs.

Night marches impair the efficiency of a command and are never undertaken without good reason.

1227. Compliments. As a rule, troops on the march pay no compliments; individuals salute when they address, or are addressed by, a superior officer.

1228. Protection on the march. Protection on the march is furnished by covering detachments known as advance guards, rear guards and flank guards.

1229. Fitting of shoes and care of feet. In view of the fact that the greater part of the Infantry soldier's occupation in the field consists of marching, too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance of his paying special attention to the fitting of his shoes and the care of his feet.

An Infantryman with sore feet is like a lame duck trying to keep up with the rest of the flock.

Keep your feet clean. Dirty feet invite blisters. An excellent preventative against sore feet is to wash them every night in hot (preferably salt) water and then dry them thoroughly. If this is not practicable, then mop them every evening with a wet towel and invigorate the skin with a good rubbing.

Keep the nails cut close.

Rubbing the feet with hard soap, grease, or oil of any kind, and putting ordinary talcum powder in the shoes before starting on a march, are very good to prevent sore feet.

Blisters should be pricked and the water let out, but the skin must never be removed. Adhesive plaster on top of the blister will prevent the skin from being pulled off.

In case of sore or blistered feet, considerable relief can be obtained by rubbing them with tallow from a lighted candle and a little whiskey or alcohol in some other form, and putting the socks on at once.

A little alum in warm water is excellent for tender feet.

The old soldier has learned from long experience in marching, to turn his socks inside out before putting them on thus putting the smooth side next to his skin and possible seams or lumps next to the shoe. The thickness of the sock protects the skin and helps prevent blisters.

Under no circumstances should a soldier ever start on a march with a pair of new shoes.

Each soldier should have on hand at all times two pair of serviceable shoes well broken in.

Remember that it is much better to prevent sore feet by taking the precautions outlined above, than it is to have to treat your feet after they have become sore.

Chapter XIV

CAMPS

1230. Principles governing selection of camp sites. The following basic principles govern in the selection of camp sites:

(a) The water supply should be sufficient, pure, and accessible.

(b) The ground should accommodate the command with as little crowding as possible, be easily drained, and have no stagnant water within 300 yards.

(c) There should be good roads to the camp and good interior communication.

(d) Camp sites should be so selected that troops of one unit need not pass through the camp grounds of another to reach their own camp.

(e) Wood, grass, forage, and supplies must be at hand or obtainable.

(f) In campaign, tactical considerations come first in the selection of camp sites, capability of defense being especially considered, and, as a result, troops may have to camp many nights on objectionable ground.

(g) However, sanitary considerations must always be given all the weight possible consistent with the tactical requirements. Through no fault of their own, troops occupying an unsanitary site may suffer greater losses than in the battles of a long campaign.

1231. Desirable camp sites. The following conditions are desirable for camp sites:

(a) Porous soil, covered with stout turf and underlaid by a sandy or gravelly subsoil.

(b) High banks of rivers, provided no marshes are near.

(c) In cold weather, a southern exposure, with woods to the north to break the cold winds.

(d) In warm weather, an exposure toward the prevailing winds, with site moderately shaded by trees.

1232. Undesirable camp sites. The following conditions are undesirable for camp sites:

(a) Clay soil, or where the ground water approaches the surface, such sites being damp and unhealthful.

(b) Alluvial, marshy ground, and ground near the base of hills, or near thick woods or dense vegetation are also damp.

(c) Ravines and depressions are likely to be unduly warm and to have insufficient or undesirable currents.

(d) Proximity to marshes or stagnant water is usually damp, and has mosquitoes, which transmit malaria, dengue fever and yellow fever.

(e) Old camp sites are dangerous, as they are often permeated by elements of disease which persist for considerable periods.

(f) Dry beds of streams are subject to sudden freshets.

(g) In the tropics troops should not camp nearer than 500 yards to native huts or villages because of danger from malarial infection.

1233. Form and dimensions of camps. The form and dimensions of camps depend upon the tactical situation and the amount and nature of ground available. However, in general, the form and dimensions of a regimental or battalion camp should conform as nearly as practicable to the diagram on the opposite page, and camps of all sizes should, as far as possible, conform to the principles, regarding arrangement, underlying the diagram given on the opposite page, which gives the general form, dimensions, and interior arrangements of a camp for a regiment of Infantry at war strength. In certain cases, particularly in one-night halts in the presence of the enemy, camps must of necessity be contracted, while in other cases, where a more extended halt is contemplated and where tactical reasons will permit, better camp sanitation may be secured, and a more comfortable arrangement made by the expansion of camp areas.

1234. Making camp. The command should be preceded by the commanding officer or a staff officer, who selects the camp site, and designates, by planting stakes, the lines of tents, the positions of the sinks, guard tent, kitchens, picket line, etc.

After the companies are marched to their proper positions and arms are stacked, the details for guard and to bring wood, water, dig sinks, pitch tents, handle rations, etc., should be made before ranks are broken.

Immediately upon reaching camp and before the men are allowed to go around, patrolling sentinels should be established to prevent men from polluting the camp site or adjoining ground before the sinks are constructed.

Sentinels should be posted over the water supply without delay.

As soon as the tents have been pitched and the sinks dug, the camp should be inspected and all unnecessary sentinels relieved.

The tents should be pitched and the sinks dug simultaneously.

Should the troops reach camp before the wagons, the companies may be divided into squads and set to work clearing the ground, gathering fire wood, collecting leaves, grass, etc., for beds, etc.

The moment a command reaches camp its officers and men usually want to go here and there under all sorts of pretexts. No one should be allowed to leave camp until all necessary instructions have been given.

Enlisted men should not be permitted to leave camp without permission of their company commanders.

Sick call should be held as soon as practicable after the tents have been pitched.

Miscellaneous

1235. Retreat. In camp retreat formation should always be under arms, an officer being present with each company and inspecting the arms.

1236. Parade ground. In front of every camp of permanent nature, there should be a parade ground for drills and ceremonies.

1237. Camping on fordable stream. In camping for the night on a fordable stream that is to be crossed, cross before going into camp, unless there is some tactical reason for not doing so; for a sudden rise, or the appearance of the enemy, might prevent the crossing the next morning.

1238. Windstorms. Whenever windstorms are expected, the tent pegs should be secured and additional guy ropes attached to the tents.

Tents may be prevented from blowing down by being made fast at the corners to posts firmly driven into the ground, or by passing ropes over the ridge poles and fastening them to pegs firmly set into the ground.

1239. Making tent poles and pegs fast in loose soil. If the soil be loose or sandy, stones or other hard material should be placed under the tent poles to prevent their working into the soil, thus leaving the tent slack and unsteady. When the soil is so loose that the pegs will not hold at all, fasten the guy ropes to brush, wood or rocks buried in the ground.

1240. Trees sometimes dangerous. While trees add very much to the comfort of a camp, care should be exercised not to pitch tents near trees whose branches or trunks might fall.

Chapter XV

CAMP SANITATION

1241. Definition. By "Camp Sanitation" is meant the adoption of measures to keep the camp in a healthy condition. These measures comprise:

(a) The disposal, so as to render them harmless and prevent pollution, of all wastes, refuse and excreta from men and animals in suitable places provided therefor;

(b) The care exercised in handling, preparing and serving food;

(c) The adequacy of shelter for the men;

(d) The maintenance of proper drainage;

(e) The supply of water for bathing and washing, and the maintenance of a pure supply for drinking.

1242. Camp expedients. "Camp-expedients" is the name given the mechanical means used to put into effect some of the measures, named above, connected with camp sanitation, and usually consist of latrines, kitchen sinks, urinal tubs, rock or earth incinerators, and drainage ditches.

1243. Latrines. The latrines must be dug immediately upon reaching camp—their construction must not be delayed until the camps have been pitched and other duties performed. The exact location of the latrines should be determined by the commanding officer, or by some officer designated by him, the following considerations being observed:

1. They should be so located as not to contaminate the water supply.

2. They should not be placed where they can be flooded by rain water from higher ground, nor should they be so placed that they can pollute the camp by overflow in case of heavy rains.

3. They should be as far from the tents as is compatible with convenience—if too near, they will be a source of annoyance; if too far, some men, especially at night, and particularly if affected with diarrhoea, will defecate before reaching the latrine. Under ordinary circumstances, a distance of about 50 yards is considered sufficient.

Latrines for the men are always located on the opposite side of the camp from the kitchens, generally one for each company unit and one for the officers of a battalion or squadron. They are so placed that the drainage or overflow can not pollute the water supply or camp grounds.

When the camp is for one night only, straddle trenches suffice. In camp of longer duration, and when it is not possible to provide latrine boxes, as for permanent camps, deeper trenches should be dug. These may be used as straddle trenches or a seat improvised. When open trenches are used the excrement must be kept covered at all times with a layer of earth. In more permanent camps the trenches should be 2 feet wide, 6 feet deep, and 15 feet long, and suitably screened. Seats with lids are provided and covered to the ground to keep flies from reaching the deposits; urinal troughs discharging into trenches are provided. Each day the latrine boxes are thoroughly cleaned, outside by scrubbing and inside by applying, when necessary, a coat of oil or whitewash. The pit is burned out daily with approximately 1 gallon oil and 15 pounds straw. When filled to within 2 feet of the surface, such latrines are discarded, filled with earth, and their position marked. All latrines and kitchen pits are filled in before the march is resumed. In permanent camps and cantonments, urine tubs may be placed in the company streets at night and emptied after reveille.

All latrines must be filled before marching. The following illustration shows a very simple and excellent latrine seat which can be made and kept in the company permanently for use in camps on the march:

Urinal troughs, made of muslin and coated with oil or paint, should discharge into the trenches.

1244. Urinal tubs. When obtainable, urinal tubs or cans should be placed in the company streets at night, their location being indicated by lighted lanterns, the tubs or cans being removed at reveille.

1245. Kitchens. Camp kettles can be hung on a support consisting of a green pole lying in the crotches of two upright posts of the same character. A narrow trench for the fire, about 1 foot deep, dug under the pole, not only protects the fire from the wind but saves fuel.

A still greater economy of fuel can be effected by digging a similar trench in the direction of the wind and slightly narrower than the diameter of the kettles. The kettles are then placed on the trench and the space between the kettles filled in with stones, clay, etc., leaving the flue running beneath the kettles. The draft can be improved by building a chimney of stones, clay, etc., at the leeward end of the flue.

Four such trenches radiating from a common central chimney will give one flue for use whatever may be the direction of the wind.

A slight slope of the flue, from the chimney down, provides for drainage and improves the draft.

The lack of portable ovens can be met by ovens constructed of stone and covered with earth to better retain the heat. If no stone is available, an empty barrel, with one head out, is laid on its side, covered with wet clay to a depth of 6 or more inches and then with a layer of dry earth equally thick. A flue is constructed with the clay above the closed end of the barrel, which is then burned out with a hot fire. This leaves a baked clay covering for the oven.

A recess can be similarly constructed with boards or even brushwood, supported on a horizontal pole resting on upright posts, covered and burnt out as in the case of the barrel.

When clay banks are available, an oven may be excavated therein and used at once.

To bake in such ovens, first heat them and then close flues and ends.

Food must be protected from flies, dust, and sun. Facilities must be provided for cleaning and scalding the mess equipment of the men. Kitchens and the ground around them must be kept scrupulously clean.

Solid refuse should be promptly burned, either in the kitchen fire or in an improvised crematory.

In temporary camps, if the soil is porous, liquid refuse from the kitchens may be strained through gunny sacking into seepage pits dug near the kitchen. Flies must not have access to these pits. Boards or poles, covered with brush or grass and a layer of earth may be used for this purpose. The strainers should also be protected from flies. Pits of this kind, dug in clayey soil, will not operate successfully. All pits should be filled with earth before marching.

As a precautionary measure against setting the camp on fire, all dry grass, underbrush, etc., in the immediate vicinity of the kitchen should be cut down.

In case of a fire in camp, underbrush, spades, shovels, blankets, etc., are used to beat it out.

Gunny sacks dipped in water are the best fire fighters.

Burning away dried grass and underbrush around exterior of camp is a great protection against fire from outside.

1246. Kitchen pits. Pits of convenient size should be constructed for the liquid refuse from the kitchens. Solid refuse should be burned either in the kitchen fire or at some designated place, depending upon whether the camp is of a temporary or permanent nature. Unless the camp be of a very temporary nature, the pits should be covered with boards or other material in order to exclude the flies.

All pits should be filled in with earth before breaking camp.

1247. Incinerators. The incineration pit shown in the following diagram, affords an excellent, simple and economical way of disposing of camp waste and offal, tin cans and dish-water included:

Description:

The pit is about 41/2 feet long, 11/2 feet wide and 2 feet deep at one end and 21/2 at the other. It is partially filled with stones, the larger ones on the bottom and the smaller on the top. At one end of the pit the stones extend a little above the surface, and slope gradually toward the other end until the fire pit is reached ten inches below the surface of the trench. Over the fire pit, about five inches above the ground, is placed a crab or a piece of boiler iron, on which is boiled all the water for washing dishes, etc. The fire pit is only about one-half of the stone surface, as the radiated heat keeps the rest of the stones hot, causing all dish and slop water to evaporate quickly.

Any tin cans that may be thrown into the fire pit are removed after a short exposure to the heat and placed in a trench especially dug for the purpose.

The company incinerator shown below was used with great success by some of our troops at Texas City, Texas. The rocks should not be too large. The men should be instructed to drop all liquid on the sides of the incinerator and throw all solid matter on the fire—the liquids will thus be evaporated and the solids burned. Until the men learn how to use the incinerator properly, a noncommissioned officer should be detailed to supervise its use.

1248. Drainage. When camp is established for an indefinite period, drainage should be attended to at once. Each tent should have a shallow trench dug around it and the company and other streets ditched on both sides, all the trenches and ditches connecting with a ditch that carries the water from the camp. All surface drainage from higher ground should be intercepted and turned aside.

1249. Avoiding old camp sites. The occupation of old camp sites is dangerous, since these are often permeated by elements of disease which persist for considerable periods.

1250. Changing camp sites. Camp sites must be changed promptly when there is evidence of soil pollution or when epidemic disease threatens. Also, a change of camp site is often desirable in order to secure a change of surroundings and to abandon areas that have become dusty and cut up.

1251. Bunks. Place a number of small poles about seven feet long close together, the upper ends resting on a cross pole about six inches in diameter and the lower ends resting on the ground; or, the poles may be raised entirely off the ground by being placed on cross poles supported by forked stakes at the corners; on the poles place grass, leaves, etc.

1252. Wood. The firewood should be collected, cut and piled near the kitchen. Dry wood is usually found under logs or roots of trees.

If wagons are not heavily loaded it is sometimes a good plan to bring a few sticks of dry wood from the preceding camp, or to pick up good wood en route.

1253. Water. Precautionary measures should always be taken to prevent the contamination of the water, and a guard from the first troops reaching camp should at once be placed over the water supply.

If the water is obtained from a stream, places should be designated as follows for getting water:

• (1) For drinking and cooking;
• (2) For watering animals;
• (3) For bathing and for washing clothing.

The first designated place should be farthest up the stream; the others, in the order named, downstream.

Where two bodies of troops are to camp on the same stream one must not pollute the water to be used by the other. This can be arranged by the commanders agreeing upon a point where both commands will obtain their drinking water, upon a second point where animals will be watered, etc.

If the stream be small, the water supply may be increased by building a dam.

Small springs may be dug out and each lined with a gabion, or a barrel or box with both ends removed, or with stones, the space between the lining and the earth being filled with puddled clay. A rim of clay should be built to keep out surface drainage. The same method may be used near swamps, streams, or lakes to increase or clarify the water supply.

Water that is not known to be pure should be boiled 20 minutes; it should then be cooled and aerated by being poured repeatedly from one clean container to another, or it may be purified by apparatus supplied for the purpose.

Arrangements should be made for men to draw water from the authorized receptacles by means of a spigot or other similar arrangement. The dipping of water from the receptacles, or the use of a common drinking cup, should be prohibited.

In the field it is sometimes necessary to sterilize or filter water. The easiest and surest way of sterilizing water is by boiling. Boiled water should be aerated by being poured from one receptacle to another or by being filtered through charcoal or clean gravel. Unless boiled water be thus aerated it is very unpalatable and it is with difficulty that troops can be made to drink it.

Filtration merely clarifies—it does not purify. The following are simple methods of filtration:

1. Dig a hole near the source of supply so that the water may percolate through the soil before being used.

2. Sink a barrel or box into the ground, the water entering therein through a wooden trough packed with clean sand, gravel or charcoal.

3. Place a box or barrel in another box or barrel of larger size, filling the space between with clean sand, gravel, moss or charcoal, and piercing holes near the bottom of the outer barrel and near the top of the inner. The filter thus constructed is partly submerged in the water to be filtered.

4. Bore a small hole in the bottom of a barrel or other suitable receptacle, which is partly filled with layers of sand, gravel, and, if available, charcoal and moss. The water is poured in at the top and is collected as it emerges from the aperture below.

The amount of water used by troops is usually computed at the rate of five gallons for each man and ten gallons for each animal per day.

1254. Rules of sanitation. The following rules of sanitation are to be observed:

Men should not lie on damp ground. In temporary camps and in bivouac they raise their beds if suitable material, such as straw, leaves, or boughs can be obtained, or use their ponchos or slickers. In cold weather and when fuel is plentiful the ground may be warmed by fires, the men making their beds after raking away the ashes.

When troops are to remain in camp for some time all underbrush is cleared away and the camp made as comfortable as possible. Watering troughs, shelter in cold weather, and shade in hot, are provided for the animals, if practicable.

The camp is policed daily after breakfast and all refuse matter burned.

Tent walls are raised and the bedding and clothing aired daily, weather permitting.

Tents must be kept clean and in order.

The company street and the ground around the tents must be kept clean.

Food, slop water, rags, paper, empty tin cans, and other trash and refuse must not be thrown on the ground, but should be put in the box, can or other receptacle provided for the purpose or thrown into the incinerator.

The food must be protected from flies, dust and sun.

Under no circumstances must the company street or any other part of the camp grounds be defiled by urinating or deficating thereon. The urinal tub and the latrine must invariably be used.

When an open trench is used as a sink, each individual must always cover his excrement with dirt.

If the sink is inclosed by a box with stool-covers, the covers must always be put down as soon as one is through using them so as to keep out the flies. However it is found in practice that men will not do this therefore it is a good plan to construct the covers so that they will close automatically when a man rises from the seat.

Kitchen garbage must be burned in a pit or incinerator, or put into covered cans and hauled away. The covers must be kept on the cans at all times, so as to keep out the flies.

Horses are not to be ridden through camp except on the roadways.

As soon as a tent is pitched it should be ditched.

When it rains the guy ropes must be loosened to prevent the tent pegs from pulling out and the tent falling down.

The body and the clothes should be cleaned daily as thoroughly as the means at hand will permit.

In the morning wash the face and neck and don't fail to use your tooth brush afterward.

In the continued absence of opportunity for bathing it is well to take an air bath and a moist or dry rub before getting into fresh underclothes.

If the lack of opportunity to wash clothes continues for any length of time, soiled clothes and bedding must be frequently exposed to the sun and air. Sunshine is a good germ killer.

If there are mosquitoes in camp, mosquito bars must be used by men when asleep, and headnets by men on guard and other duty. Also, if in a malarial country, about five grains of quinine should be taken daily, preferably just before supper. In localities where a pernicious form of malaria prevails, daily doses of ten grains of quinine should be given.

In the tropics troops are require to camp at least 500 yards away from all native huts or villages as a preventative measure against malaria. Men are also prohibited from visiting these places at night for the same reason.

Clean your mess kit thoroughly after every meal, if practicable, washing same with soap and boiling water.

The company cooks must keep everything in the kitchen and mess tent clean with hot water and soap. Boil the utensils and dish rags, and be sure to throw all slops and garbage into the kitchen incinerator.

Rest and sleep are most important to preserve the health, so, keep the body rested by plenty of sleep. Do not join idle parties going to walk the streets of the nearest town at nights, nor sit up late playing cards.

Observe in camp even with greater care than when in barracks the rules of health and personal hygiene. (See pars. 1451–1477.)

1255. Your camp, your home. A soldier should always look upon his camp as his home, which it is for the time being. Your tent is your bedroom; the company street, your sitting-room; the latrine, your toilet; the mess tent, your dining-room; the camp kitchen, your kitchen; the bathing facilities, your bathroom. And as you are careful about keeping your bedroom and the other rooms of your home in a clean and orderly condition, so should you do your share to keep your tent and the other parts of camp in a clean, sanitary condition.

Chapter XVI

INDIVIDUAL COOKING

1256. Importance of individual cooking. It often happens in campaign that it is impossible to have the field ranges and cooking utensils accompany the troops, and in such case each man must cook his own food in his mess kit. Also, it frequently happens that detachments operating away from their companies must do individual cooking.

All food we eat should be properly cooked, if not, stomach or intestinal trouble will result. Hence, the importance of every soldier learning how to cook in his mess kit the main components of the ration.

1257. Fire. Remember that the best fire for cooking is a small, clear one, or better yet, a few brisk coals. Dig a hole in the ground with your bayonet and make your fire in it with dry wood, starting it with paper, shavings, dry leaves or dry grass.

If preferred the fire may be made between two small flat stones or bricks, care being taken to so place the stones that the draft will pass between them. The mess pan can be placed on the stones, across the fire, and the cup for boiling the coffee at the end away from the draft where it will get the most heat.

This method will, as a rule, be necessary on rocky or stony ground.

1258. Recipes. The following recipes, which are based on the War Department publication, "Manual for Army Cooks," require the use of only the soldier's mess kit,—knife, fork, spoon, cup, and mess pan:

Meats

1259. Bacon. Cut side of bacon in half lengthwise. Then cut slices about five to the inch, three of which should generally be sufficient for one man for one meal. Place in a mesa pan with about one-half inch of cold water. Let come to a boil and then pour the water off. Fry over a brisk fire, turning the bacon once and quickly browning it. Remove the bacon to lid of mess pan, leaving the grease for frying potatoes, onions, rice flapjacks, etc., according to recipe.

1260. Fresh meat. To fry.—To fry, a small amount of grease (1 to 2 spoonfuls) is necessary. Put grease in mess pan and let come to a smoking temperature, then drop in the steak and, if about one-half inch thick, let fry for about one minute before turning—depending upon whether it is desired it shall be rare, medium, or well done. Then turn and fry briskly as before. Salt and pepper to taste.

Applies to beef, veal, pork, mutton, venison, etc.

1261. Fresh meat. To broil.—Cut in slices about 1 inch thick, from half as large as the hand to four times that size. Sharpen a stick or branch of convenient length, say from 2 to 4 feet long, and weave the point of the stick through the steak several times so that it may be readily turned over a few brisk coals or on the windward side of a small fire. Allow to brown nicely, turning frequently. Salt and pepper to taste. Meat with considerable fat is preferred, though any meat may be broiled in this manner.

1262. Fresh meat. To stew.—Cut into chunks from one-half inch to 1 inch cubes. Fill cup about one-third full of meat and cover with about 1 inch of water. Let boil or simmer about one hour or until tender. Add such fibrous vegetables as carrots, turnips, or cabbage, cut into small chunks, soon after the meat is put on to boil, and potatoes, onions, or other tender vegetables when the meat is about half done. Amount of vegetables to be added, about the same as meat, depending upon supply and taste. Salt and pepper to taste. Applies to all fresh meats and fowls. The proportion of meat and vegetables used varies with their abundance and fixed quantities can not be adhered to. Fresh fish can be handled as above, except that it is cooked much quicker, and potatoes, onions, and canned corn are the only vegetables generally used with it, thus making a chowder. A slice of bacon would greatly improve the flavor. May be conveniently cooked in mess pan or tin cup.

Fresh Vegetables

1263. Potatoes, fried. Take two medium-sized potatoes or one large one (about one-half pound), peel and cut into slices about one-fourth inch thick and scatter well in the mess pan in which the grease remains after frying the bacon. Add sufficient water to half cover the potatoes, cover with the lid to keep the moisture in, and let come to a boil from fifteen to twenty minutes. Remove the cover and dry as desired. Salt and pepper to taste. During the cooking the bacon already prepared may be kept on the cover, which is most conveniently placed bottom side up over the cooking vegetables.

1264. Onions, fried. Same as potatoes.

1265. Potatoes, boiled. Peel two medium-sized potatoes or one large one (about one-half pound), and cut in coarse chunks of about the same size—say 11/2-inch cubes. Place in mess pan and three-fourths fill with water. Cover with lid and let boil or simmer for fifteen or twenty minutes. They are done when easily penetrated with a sharp stick. Pour off the water and let dry out for one or two minutes over hot ashes or light coals.

1266. Potatoes, baked. Take two medium-sized potatoes or one large one cut in half (about one-half pound.) Lay in a bed of light coals, cover with same and smother with ashes. Do not disturb for thirty or forty minutes, when they should be done.

1267. Rice. Take two-thirds of a cup of water and bring to a boil. Add 4 spoonfuls of rice and boil until soft, that is, until it can be mashed by the fingers with but little resistance. This will require about 15 minutes. Add 2 pinches of salt and, after stirring, pour off the water and empty the rice out on the lid of the mess pan.

1268. Canned Tomatoes. One 2-pound can is generally sufficient for five men.

Stew. Pour into the mess pan one man's allowance of tomatoes, add about two large hardtacks broken into small pieces, and let come to a boil. Add salt and pepper to taste, or add a pinch of salt and one-fourth spoonful of sugar.

Or, having fried bacon, pour the tomatoes into the mess pan, the grease remaining, and add, if desired, two broken hardtacks. Set over a brisk fire and let come to a boil.

Or, heat the tomatoes just as they come from the can, adding two pinches of salt and one-half spoonful of sugar if desired.

Or, especially in hot weather, eaten cold with hard bread they are very palatable.

Hot Breads

1269. Flapjack. Take 6 spoonfuls of flour and one-third spoonful of baking powder and mix thoroughly (or dry mix in a large pan before issue, at the rate of 25 pounds of flour and three half-pound cans of baking powder for 100 men). Add sufficient cold water to make a batter that will drip freely from the spoon, adding a pinch of salt. Pour into the mess pan, which should contain the grease from fried bacon, or a spoonful of butter or fat, and place over medium hot coals sufficient to bake so that in from five to seven minutes the flapjack may be turned over by a quick toss of the pan. Fry from five to seven minutes longer or until, by examination, it is found to be done.

1270. Hoecake. Hoecake is made exactly the same as a flapjack by substituting corn meal for flour.

Drinks

1271. Coffee. Fill cup about two-thirds full of water and when it boils add, 1 heaping spoonful of coffee, and let boil 5 minutes. Stir grains well when adding. Add 1 spoonful of sugar, if desired. Let simmer ten minutes after boiling. Settle with a dash of cold water or let stand for a few minutes.

1272. Tea. Fill cup about two-thirds full of water and when it boils add 1/2 spoonful of tea, and let boil 5 minutes. Add 1 spoonful of sugar, if desired. Let stand or "draw" 8 minutes. If allowed to stand longer, the tea will get bitter, unless separated from the grounds.

1273. Cocoa. Fill cup about two-thirds full of water and when it boils add 1 heaping spoonful of cocoa and let boil 5 minutes. Stir when adding until dissolved. Add 11/2 spoonful of sugar, if desired. Let cool. (If available, milk should be used instead of water, and should be kept somewhat below the boiling point. A 1-pound can of evaporated milk with 31/2 quarts of water will make 1 gallon of milk of the proper consistency for making cocoa or chocolate.)

1274. Chocolate. Same as cocoa, using 1 cubic inch of chocolate.

Emergency Ration

1275. Emergency Rations. Detailed instructions as to the manner of preparing the emergency ration are found on the label with each can. Remember that even a very limited amount of bacon or hard bread, or both, taken with the emergency ration makes it far more palatable, and greatly extends the period during which it can be consumed with relish. For this reason it would be better to husband the supply of hard bread and bacon to use with the emergency ration when it becomes evident that the latter must be consumed, rather than to retain the emergency ration to the last extremity to be used exclusively for a longer period than two or three days.

Chapter XVII

CARE AND PRESERVATION OF CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT

1276. General. A soldier's clothing and equipment are issued to him by his government for certain purposes, and he has, therefore, no right to be in any way careless or neglectful of them.

The importance that the Government attaches to the proper care and preservation of the soldier's clothing and equipment, is shown by the fact that the matter is made the subject of one of the Articles of War, the 84th, which prescribes that any soldier who, through neglect, loses or spoils his arms, clothing or accouterments shall suffer such punishment as a court-martial may direct.

Clothing

1277. Every article of clothing in your hands should receive as much care and attention as you give your person.

Not only will your clothes last longer if properly cared for, but you will look neater and better dressed, which will add much to your military appearance.

Every soldier should have an A-1 whisk broom and no article of clothing should ever be worn without first being thoroughly brushed.

1278. Pressing. Occasional pressing helps to preserve and freshen clothes,—it puts new life into the cloth.

Blue clothing and woolen olive drab when worn regularly should be pressed about once a week.

In a company where there is an iron for general use there is no reason why every soldier should not press his own clothes.

1279. Chevrons and stripes can be cleaned by moistening a clean woolen rag with gasoline and rubbing the parts and then pressing with a hot iron.

1280. Leggins. When soiled, leggins must be washed. If the leggins are allowed to dry without being rung out, they will look better.

1281. Service hat and the caps require nothing but brushing.

Shirts, underwear, socks, etc., should be carefully folded and put away neatly.

1282. A special suit of clothing for inspections, parades, etc. Set aside your best suit of clothes for inspections, parades and other ceremonies. The uniform worn at these formations should not be worn around in the barracks,—every man has sufficient "second best" garments for barrack use.

1283. Putting away. Uniforms should be dried thoroughly, brushed and properly folded before being put away. The number of folds should be reduced to a minimum.

Before uniforms are put away they should be carefully examined and any missing buttons, tears or stains should be attended to at once.

Lockers and other places in which clothing is kept must be free from dust. They should be wiped off occasionally with a cloth wrung out of soap suds.

1284. Stains. Tailors usually remove stains with a rubber made by rolling tightly a piece of woolen cloth of some kind, about 2 inches wide, until the roll is about an inch in diameter.

Rings in removing stains may be avoided by rubbing until very nearly dry.

1285. Grease spots. Ordinarily benzine is a good stain remover in case of grease spots, but its use is more or less dangerous. It should be used in an open room or out of doors and never near a fire or lights.

"Carbona," which can be purchased in almost any drug store, is excellent for removing stains and it is perfectly safe.

Carbon tetrachloride (Merck's) is much cheaper than "Carbona" and about equally as good. It retails at 45c a pint at nearly all drug stores.

Grease spots can also be removed by placing a piece of brown paper, newspaper, blotting paper or other absorbent paper over the stain, and pressing with a hot iron.

1286. Rust or ink stains can be removed with a solution of oxalic acid. Apply rapidly and rinse at once with plenty of fresh water; this is most important—otherwise it will probably discolor the material.

1287. Sweat stains can not be removed. However, the color can be partially restored and the material cleaned with a solution of ammonia and water—1/3 liquid ammonia, 2/3 water.

1288. The shine that is sometimes left from pressing is caused by leaving the iron on too long or using an iron that is too hot.

This shine, if the cloth is not scorched, can be removed by "sponging," i. e., by placing a piece of damp muslin cloth on the material and then applying the iron only long enough to steam the surface of the garment.

1289. Grease and oil stains on white trouser stripes can be removed with benzine, naptha or gasoline, applied with a stiff nail brush. Stains of rust and ink can be removed by means of oxalic acid (2 ounces of oxalic acid to 1 pint of water—dissolves quickest in warm water) applied with cloth or brush, then rinsed thoroughly with plain water and sponge. After the stripes have dried, apply English pipe-clay, rubbing with the cake itself; then rub in uniformly with woolen cloth rubber—rub vigorously—then brush off surplus pipe-clay.

1290. Paint spots. Turpentine will take out paint spots.

1291. Gilt ornaments and gilt buttons should be polished as often as necessary in order to keep them fresh and bright. Use a button stick in cleaning buttons, so as not to soil the cloth.

Shoes

(Instructions issued by the Quartermaster General's Office, June 16, 1899.)

1292. General care. Shoes should at all times be kept polished. By being so kept they are made more pliable and wear longer.

Shoes must withstand harder service than any other article worn, and more shoes are ruined through neglect than by wear in actual service.

Proper care should be taken in selecting shoes to secure a proper fit, and by giving shoes occasional attention much discomfort and complaint will be avoided.

1293. Selection. A shoe should always have ample length, as the foot will always work forward fully a half a size in the shoe when walking, and sufficient allowance for this should be made. More feet are crippled and distorted by shoes that are too short than for any other reason. A shoe should fit snug yet be comfortable over ball and instep, and when first worn should not lace close together over the instep. Leather always stretches and loosens at instep and can be taken up by lacing. The foot should always be held firmly, but not too tightly in proper position. If shoes are too loose, they allow the foot to slip around, causing the foot to chafe; corns, bunions, and enlarged joints are the result.

1294. Repairs. At the first sign of break, shoes should be repaired, if possible. Always keep the heels in good condition. If the heel is allowed to run down at the side, it is bad for the shoe and worse for the foot; it also weakens the ankle and subjects the shoe to an uneven strain, which makes it more liable to give out. Shoes, if kept in repair, will give double the service and comfort.

1295. Shoe dressing. The leather must not be permitted to become hard and stiff. If it is impossible to procure a good shoe dressing, neat's-foot oil or tallow are the best substitutes; either will soften the leather and preserve its pliability. Leather requires oil to preserve its pliability, and if not supplied will become brittle, crack, and break easily under strain. Inferior dressings are always harmful, and no dressing should be used which contains acid or varnish. Acid burns the leather as it would the skin, and polish containing varnish forms a false skin which soon peels off, spoiling the appearance of the shoe and causing the leather to crack. Paste polish containing turpentine should also be avoided.

1296. Perspiration. Shoe becoming damp from perspiration should be dried naturally by evaporation. It is dangerous to dry leather by artificial heat. Perspiration contains acid which is harmful to leather, and shoes should be dried out as frequently as possible.

1297. Wet shoes. Wet or damp shoes should be dried with great care. When leather is subjected to heat, a chemical change takes place, although no change in appearance may be noted at the time. Leather when burnt becomes dry and parched and will soon crack through like pasteboard when strained. This applies to leather both in soles and uppers. When dried the leather should always be treated with dressing to restore its pliability. Many shoes are burned while on the feet without the knowledge of the wearer by being placed while wet on the rail of a stove or near a steam pipe. Care should be taken while shoes are being worn never to place the foot where there is danger of their being burned.

(Note. To dry wet shoes, the last thing at night take a few handfuls of dry clean pebbles, heat them in meat can, kettle or campfire until very hot; place them in the shoes,—they will dry them out thoroughly in a few hours,—shake once in awhile. Oats or corn may also be used, but they are not available always and pebbles usually are. Now is an excellent time to grease or oil the shoes.—Author.)

1298. Keep shoes clean. An occasional application of soap and water will remove the accumulation of old dressings and allow fresh dressing to accomplish its purpose.

1299. Directions for polishing. Russet leather should be treated with great care. Neither acid, lemon juice, nor banana peel should be used for cleaning purposes. Only the best liquid dressing should be used and shoes should not be rubbed while wet.

1300. Liquid dressing. Care should be taken in using liquid dressing. Apply only a light coat and allow this to dry into the leather before rubbing with a cloth. Too much dressing is wasteful.

Equipment

(Instructions issued by the Ordnance Department in Pamphlet No. 1965, July 12, 1915.)

Cloth Equipment

1301. General. All cloth equipment should be brushed frequently with a stiff bristle brush. A dry scrub brush may be used.

It should be washed only under the direction and supervision of an officer.

During ordinary garrison duty it should rarely be necessary to wash the equipment.

When the equipment becomes soiled a light local washing will frequently be sufficient, but when dirty it should unhesitatingly be given a good thorough washing,—otherwise it may be expected that it will become unsanitary and rot.

During field service it is to be expected that the equipment will become soiled much more rapidly. Always on return to garrison from field service and as opportunity offers in the field, equipment should be thoroughly washed.

1302. Instructions for washing cloth equipment.

(a) Preparation of soap solution. Dissolve in nine cups of hot water one cake of H. & H. soap or a substitute which is issued by the Ordnance Department.

One cup of this solution is sufficient to clean the entire cloth and web equipment of one man. One cake per squad is a liberal allowance.

The H. & H. soap issued by the Ordnance Department is made especially for washing cloth fabrics liable to fade. If for any reason this soap is not obtainable, a good laundry soap (Ivory or equal) may be used, but in no case should the yellow soap issued by the Quartermaster Corps be used.

(b) Brushing. Brush the equipment thoroughly to remove all dust and mud before washing.

(c) Washing. Spread the belt, haversack, etc., on a clean board or rock and apply the soap solution with a scrub brush. When a good lather appears, wash off with clear water.

In the case of a bad grease spot the direct application of soap to the brush will ordinarily be sufficient to remove it.

(d) Drying. Always dry washed equipment in the shade. The sun will bleach the fabric.

On return from a march in the rain, dry the equipment in the shade, if practicable.

1303. Shelter tent. The shelter tent is cleaned and cared for as prescribed above for the cloth equipment.

When practicable always dry your shelter tent before folding and packing it. (Author.)

Mess Outfit

1304. Knife. The knife blade is made of tempered steel, and when put away for a long period should be covered with a light coating of oil to prevent rust.

Keep your knife clean by washing in soap and water after every meal.

Do not use the blade as a pry.

If the point is broken, grind the blade down to a new point.

1305. Fork. Keep your fork clean by washing with hot water and soap after every meal.

Never use the prongs of your fork for prying open tops of cans, extracting corks, etc.

Don't permit your knife, fork or spoon to remain in vinegar or other foodstuffs for a long period, as verdigris will form. This corrodes the metal and is poisonous.

1306. Spoon. Keep your spoon clean by washing with soap and water after every meal.

1307. Meat can. Do not carry meat of any kind or other greasy substance in the meat can for a long period, as it will corrode the aluminum.

If the rivets securing the hinge to the meat can become loose, a few blows with a hammer or hand ax on the outside ends of the rivets, the heads of the rivets being backed up on a piece of metal, will tighten them.

If the hinge pin becomes loose, a nail can be used to replace it, the nail being cut with a service wire cutter and the ends of the nail headed over slightly with a few blows of a hammer.

1308 Bacon can. The interior of the bacon can should always be kept clean and free from hardened grease or dirt by frequent washings with soar and water.

If the cover becomes loose on the body of the can, the upper half of the body may be bent out until the cover is again tight.

If the cover is too tight, a slight amount of flattening with a hammer on the edge of the cover, resting on a wooden block, will usually extend the cover sufficiently.

1309. Condiment can. When not in use, always remove the contents. Many cans have been ruined by neglecting to do this.

See that the threaded ends do not become rusty.

The can should be disassembled at all inspections, so that the inspecting officer may see that no rust is present.

1310. Cup. The cup is made of aluminum and excessive heat damages aluminum.

In using the cup for cooking never allow the contents to evaporate entirely. In other words, never hold an empty cup over a fire.

Keep your cup clean with hot water and soap,—preferably H & H soap.

1311. Canteen. Although as a rule, only soap and water should be used in cleaning aluminum, a little sand can be used to advantage in cleaning the canteen.

Particular attention must be taken to see that canteens are properly cleaned after they have been filled with coffee, milk or any other fluid containing organic matter.

Being made of aluminum the canteen is easily dented, and care must be taken to prevent this.

When not actually in use the canteen should habitually be emptied and the cup left off to dry.

Intrenching Tools

1312. Pick mattock. If the blade of the mattock is deformed, it should be straightened in a vise.

In the field, cracked handles of pick mattocks, shovels, and hand axes should be wrapped with cord.

1313. Shovel. Do not use the side edges of the shovel blade as a mattock, for this will deform the blade.

If the blade becomes bent, straighten it with a hammer on a block of wood.

Keep your intrenching tool free from rust, being especially careful that no rust gets into the sockets.

Leather Equipment

1314. General. Because of the value of leather equipment and its rapid deterioration if neglected, the proper care of leather is most important.

1315. Materials. Two agents are necessary to the proper cleaning of leather,—a cleaning agent and an oiling agent.

The cleaning agent issued by the Ordnance Department is castile soap; the oiling agents are neat's-foot oil and harness soap.

The soap cleans the surface of the leather, and removes from the surface pores of the leather, dirt, sweat, and other foreign matter, so that the oil can more readily penetrate the pores and saturate the fibers, thus making the leather pliable and elastic.

1316. Cleaning. Daily, or as often as used, leather equipment should be wiped off with a cloth slightly dampened in water, merely to remove mud, dust or other foreign substances.

This daily care will do much to maintain the appearance of the equipment, but it is, however, insufficient of itself to properly preserve it.

Leather should never be cleaned by immersing in water or holding under a hydrant.

At intervals of from one to four weeks, depending upon the circumstances, it is essential that the equipment be thoroughly cleaned in accordance with the following instructions:

(a) Separate all parts, unbuckle straps, remove all buckles, loops, etc., where possible.

(b) Wipe off all surface dust and mud with a damp (not wet) sponge. After rinsing out the sponge, a lather is made by moistening the sponge in clear water, squeezing it out until nearly dry, and rubbing it vigorously upon castile soap. When a thick, creamy lather is obtained, thoroughly clean each piece of the equipment without neglecting any portion. Each strap should be drawn its entire length through the lathered sponge so as to actually remove the salt, sweat, and dirt from each leather piece.

(c) After again rinsing the sponge make a thick lather as described above with the saddle soap. Go over each separate piece, thoroughly working the lather well into every part of the equipment, remembering that its action is that of a dressing.

(d) After the leather has been allowed to become partially dry, it should be rubbed vigorously with a soft cloth to give it the neat, healthy appearance that is desired.

1317. Oiling. If the foregoing instructions have been carefully followed, the appearance should now be perfect, and if the leather is soft and pliable nothing further is required. It will be found, however, that it will be necessary from time to time to apply a little oil. It is not practicable, owing to different conditions of climate and service, to prescribe definitely the frequency of oiling. It has been found that during the first few months of use a set of new equipment should be given at least two applications of oil per month. Thereafter it is entirely a matter of judgment, as indicated by the appearance and pliability of the leather. Frequent, light applications are of more value than infrequent heavy applications.

1318. New equipment. Before using, perfectly new equipment should in all cases be given a light application of neat's-foot oil; soap is unnecessary because the leather is clean. The application of oil is important because leather equipment frequently remains a considerable time in an arsenal or depot and in spite of periodical inspections and dubbing it is probably too dry for severe service.

1319. How to apply oil. The quantity of oil to be used can not be definitely prescribed. If not enough oil is used, the leather will be stiff and brittle; if too much is used, it will soil the clothing and accumulate dirt. The leather should, therefore, be saturated with sufficient oil to be soft and pliable without excess sufficient to cause it to exude.

In applying the oil the following general instructions should govern:

(a) The oil should be applied to the flesh side of the equipment where practicable when the leather is clean and still damp after washing (about half dry), because it penetrates more uniformly when applied from the flesh side, and when the leather is damp. If the leather is dry it will absorb the oil like blotting paper, preventing proper distribution.

(b) The oil should be applied with an oiled rag or cotton waste by long, light, quick strokes—light strokes, so that the pressure applied may not squeeze out an excess of oil; quick strokes, so that the leather may not absorb an undue amount of oil. The endeavor should be to obtain a light, even distribution.

(c) After applying the oil the leather equipment should be allowed to stand for 24 hours, if practicable, in a warm dry place. It should then be rubbed with a dry cloth to remove any unabsorbed oil.

Points to Be Remembered

1320. Therefore, from what has been said, the following points must be remembered:

(a) Keep leather clean.

(b) Keep leather pliable by frequent applications of oil.

(c) Use only materials furnished by the Ordnance Department. Shoe polishes, etc., are almost invariably injurious.

(d) Dry all leather wet from whatever cause, in the shade; never in the sun or close to a steam radiator, furnace, or boiler.

(e) Leather should habitually be stored in a cool, dry place, without artificial heat.

Chapter XVIII

CARE AND DESCRIPTION OF THE RIFLE

Care

1321. Importance. The care of his rifle should be the soldier's first thought; for, if he would have it take care of him in time of danger, he must take care of it at all times.

It is a generally recognized fact that more rifles become inaccurate and unserviceable by the lack of care than by firing.

The instructions for taking care of the rifle are few and simple. Learn them well and apply them constantly—it only requires a little care and patience. You will be well repaid for it. It may some day save your life.

1322. Care of bore requires work. The bore of the rifle is manufactured with the greatest care in order that a high degree of accuracy may be obtained, and it should, therefore, be properly cared for.

The proper care of the bore requires conscientious, careful work, but it pays well in reduced labor of cleaning and in prolonged accuracy life of the rifle, and better results in target practice.

1323. How to clean the bore. With the cleaning rod the bore must always be cleaned from the breech—never from the muzzle. Cleaning from the muzzle is liable to wear and otherwise injure the mouth of the barrel, which is easily injured and thus the piece rendered inaccurate.

First, remove the bolt from the rifle, place the muzzle on the floor, a board, or piece of canvas, and do not remove it therefrom while the cleaning rod is in the bore. Never place the muzzle on the bare ground, lest dirt should get into it. (Note. Of course, if a rack is provided for cleaning rifles, it should be used instead of placing the muzzle on the floor.)

To clean the bore use patches of rag, preferably canton flannel, cutting them into squares of such size that they may easily run through the barrel.

1324. What care of the bore consists of. Briefly stated, the care of the bore consists of removing the fouling resulting from firing to obtain a chemically clean surface, and then coating this surface with a film of oil to prevent rusting.

1325. Kinds of fouling. The fouling which results from firing is of two kinds—the powder fouling, from the burning of the powder; and the metal fouling, from the nickel scraped off the bullet as it passes through the bore.

The powder fouling is highly corrosive, that is, it causes rust and eats into the metal, and it must, therefore, be removed as soon as possible.

The metal fouling itself will not cause rust, but it may cover the powder fouling and thus prevent the cleaning material from getting at the powder fouling, which, as stated before, will eat into the metal. When metal fouling accumulates in noticeable quantities it reduces the accuracy of the rifle.

1326. How to remove powder fouling. Powder fouling may be readily removed by scrubbing the bore with the soda solution (hot) furnished by the Ordnance Department, but this solution has no effect on the metal fouling.

It is, therefore, necessary to remove all metal fouling before we are sure that all powder fouling has been removed and that the bore may be safely oiled.

Ordinarily, after firing a barrel in good condition, the metal fouling is so slight as to be hardly perceptible, and is easily removed by solvents.

However, due to the accumulation of metal fouling, pitting (little hollows in the metal) or the presence of dust, or other abrasives (substances that cause the metal to wear away by rubbing), the fouling may occur in clearly visible flakes or patches and be much more difficult to remove.

1327. How to remove metal fouling. After scrubbing out the bore with the soda solution, plug it from the breech with a cork at the front end of the chamber or where the rifling begins.

Slip one of the 2-inch sections of rubber hose over the muzzle down to the sight and fill with the standard Ordnance Department solution to at least one-half inch above the muzzle of the barrel.

Let it stand for 30 minutes, then pour out the solution, remove the hose and breech plug, and swab out thoroughly with soda solution to neutralize and remove all trace of ammonia and powder fouling.

Wipe the barrel clean, dry, and oil.

With few exceptions, one application is sufficient, but if all fouling is not removed, repeat the operation.

Hoppe's Nitro Solvent No. 9 will accomplish the same result even better and quicker and with much less labor.

1328. How to proceed in cleaning the bore.

To clean the bore after firing, proceed as follows:

Swab out the bore with soda solution to remove powder fouling. A convenient way to do this is to insert the muzzle of the rifle into the can containing the solution and with the cleaning rod inserted from the breech, pump the barrel full a few times.

Remove and dry with a couple of patches of cloth. Examine to see whether any patches of metal fouling are in evidence, and if so, then remove same as explained above. If no metal fouling is in evidence, then swab out with the swabbing solution. The amount of swabbing required with the swabbing solution can be determined only by experience assisted by the color of the patches of cloth. Ordinarily a couple of minutes' work is sufficient. Dry thoroughly, and oil with 3-in-One.

As a measure of safety a patch should always be run through the bore on the next day and the bore examined to insure that cleaning has been properly done. The bore should then be oiled again with 3-in-One.

1329. Necessity for preventing formation of pits. It is a fact recognized by all that a highly polished steel surface rusts much less easily than one which is roughened; also that a barrel which is pitted fouls much more rapidly than one which is smooth. Every effort, therefore, should be made to prevent the formation of pits, which are merely enlarged rust spots, and which not only affect the accuracy of the piece but also increase the labor of cleaning.

If swabbing solution or standard metal fouling solution is not available, the barrel should be scrubbed as already described, with the soda solution, dried, and oiled with a light oil. At the end of 24 hours it should again be cleaned, when it will usually be found to have "sweated." Usually a second cleaning is sufficient, but to insure safety it should be again examined at the end of a few days, before final oiling.

Of course, the swabbing solution should always be used, if available, for it must be remembered that each "puff" when the bore "sweats" is an incipient rust pit.

What has just been said contemplates the use of the solutions furnished by the Ordnance Department. However, the same result will be obtained with less labor by using Hoppe's Nitro Powder Solvent No. 9, which is sold by all post and camp exchanges, and which the Author, as the result of experience, highly recommends.

1330. How to oil a barrel. The proper method of oiling a barrel is as follows:

Wipe the cleaning rod dry; select a clean patch of cloth and smear it well with sperm or warmed cosmic oil, being sure that the cosmic has soaked into the patch well; scrub the bore with patch, finally drawing the patch smoothly from the muzzle to the breech, allowing the cleaning rod to turn with the rifling. The bore will be found now to be smooth and bright so that any subsequent rust or "sweating" can be easily detected by inspection. (By "sweating" is meant, rust having formed under the coating of metal fouling where powder fouling was present, the surface is puffed up.)

1331. Care of the chamber. The chamber of the rifle is often neglected because it is not readily inspected. Care should be taken to see that it is cleaned as thoroughly as the bore. A roughened chamber delays greatly the rapidity of fire, and not infrequently causes shells to stick.

1332. The bolt. To clean the bolt, remove; clean all parts thoroughly with an oily rag; dry, and before assembling lightly oil the firing pin, the barrel of the sleeve, the striker, the well of the bolt, and all cams.

1333. The sights. Both the front and rear sights should be cared for just as you would care for the works of your watch. If the sights are injured, the rifle will not shoot as aimed.

The front sight cover issued by the Ordnance Department protects the front sight.

1334. The magazine. The magazine should be kept clean and covered with a thin coat of oil.

1335. The stock. The stock should receive a light coat of raw linseed oil once a month, or after any wetting from rain, dew, etc. The oil should be thoroughly rubbed in with the hand.

1336. Care of the mechanism. When the rifle has been wet or exposed to unfavorable climatic conditions, the bolt should be withdrawn and all working parts carefully wiped with a dry cloth, and then gone over with an oily rag.

The same thing should be done after firing.

All working parts should habitually be lightly oiled with a thin-bodied oil, such as "3-in-One."

1337. The care of all metal parts. All metal parts of the rifle should be kept clean and free from rust.

1338. Cams and bearings. All cams and bearings must be kept constantly oiled.

1339. How to apply oil. Do not pour or squirt oil on the rifle.

Put a few drops on a piece of clean cloth, preferably cotton, and rub with the cloth, thereby avoiding the use of an unnecessary amount.

Cams and bearings can be oiled this way. However, if the oiler is used instead because of greater ease in reaching them, oil them lightly. To soak with oil accomplishes no more than to cover with a light coating—it merely results in excessive, undesirable smearing and a waste of oil.

Remember

1340. 1. It is easier to prevent than to remove rust.

2. To remove rust, apply oil with a rag, and let it stand for a while so as to soften the rust; then wipe with a dry rag.

3. Emery paper or a burnisher must never be used in removing rust, for it also removes the bluing.

However, an ordinary rubber eraser will be found very serviceable for removing rust.

4. To prevent rust and dirt in the bore, run a rag through at least once each day.

5. Never, under any circumstances, put away a rifle that has been fired or exposed to bad weather, without first cleaning it.

6. Never lay your rifle flat on the ground. Not only is there danger of dirt or other foreign matter getting into the bore, but a vehicle may run over it, or some one may step on the sight. Always rest it up securely against something. On the target range it is well for every soldier to have a short wood or metal fork, on which to rest his rifle.

7. In coming to the order from any position, always bring the rifle to the ground gently.

Army Regulations Regarding the Rifle

1341. Are enlisted men allowed to take their arms apart?

No; not unless they have the permission of a commissioned officer, and even then only under proper supervision and in the manner prescribed in the descriptive pamphlet issued by the Ordnance Department. (A. R. 292.)

(Except when repairs are needed, the following named parts should never be dismounted by the soldier, and whenever they are taken apart they should be removed only by the company mechanic, or someone else familiar with the handling of tools and delicate mechanism: Bolt stop, cut off, safety lock, sleeve lock, front sight, front sight movable stud, lower band, upper band, and stacking swivel screws.)

(Unless the screw driver is handled carefully and with some skill the screws are sure to be injured either at the head or thread. The soldier may dismount the bolt and magazine mechanism for the purpose of cleaning them, but he is not permitted to do any further dismounting without the authority of a commissioned officer.)

Is the polishing of blued and browned parts permitted?

No, and rebluing, rebrowning, putting any portion of an arm in fire, removing a receiver from a barrel, mutilating any part by fire or otherwise, and attempting to beautify or change the finish, are prohibited. However, the prohibition of attempts to beautify or change the finish of arms is not construed as forbidding the application of raw linseed oil to the wood parts of arms. This oil is considered necessary for the preservation of the wood, and it may be used for such polishing as can be given when rubbing in one or more coats when necessary. The use of raw linseed oil only is allowed for redressing and the application for such purpose of any kind of wax or varnish, including heelball, is strictly prohibited. (Army Regulations 292.)

Is the use of tompions in small arms permitted?

No, it is prohibited by regulations. (Army Regulations 292.)

Should pieces be unloaded before being taken to quarters or tents?

Yes, unless it is otherwise ordered. They should also be unloaded as soon as the men using them are relieved from duty. (Army Regulations 292.)

Should a loaded or unloaded rifle or revolver ever be pointed at anyone in play?

No, under no circumstances whatsoever. A soldier should never point a rifle or revolver at a person unless he intends to shoot him.

Description

1342. Nomenclature of the rifle. The illustrations on this page and those on the two following pages give the nomenclature of the rifles, with which every soldier should be familiar.

The bolt (Fig. 2) consists of the handle, A; sleeve, B; safety lock, C; Cocking piece, D; safety lug, E; extractor, F; extractor collar, G; locking lugs, H; extractor tongue groove, I; and gas escape hole, J.

1343. Rear-sight leaf; drift slide; wind gauge. The illustration on the opposite page shows the rear sight leaf (raised), the drift slide (E), and the wind gauge (F, L.). It is most important that the soldier be thoroughly familiar with the use of these parts, for otherwise it is impossible for him to sight correctly and use his rifle properly.

The leaf is graduated from 100 to 2850 yards. The lines that extend the whole way across the two branches of the leaf, mark 100 yard divisions; those that extend about half way across, mark 50 yard divisions, and the shorter lines mark 25 yard divisions.

The even numbers (4, 6, 8, etc.) on the left branch of the leaf, indicate 400, 600, 800, etc, yards.

The odd numbered hundreds of yards (300, 500, 700, etc.) are on the right branch of the leaf.

The numbers rest on top of the lines to which they refer.

So, if you want to fire at a target 800 yards away, set the rear sight at 8; 1,000 yards, at 10; 1,200 yards, at 12, etc.

With the fly leaf up, ranges from 100 to 2350 yards can be obtained through the peep hole, K; from 100 to 2450 through the lower peep notch, J; and from 1400 to 2750 yards through the upper peep notch, G.

There is a horizontal line on the drift slide, across the peep hole, K. If the peep hole sight is used the sight is set by this horizontal line, which is set opposite the proper graduation (line across branch of leaf).

If the peep notch, J, is used, the sight is set by the short horizontal line—that is, on a line with the top of the notch.

If the peep notch, G, is used, the sight is set by the top of the slide, C, which is set on the proper graduation.

Care must be taken not to use one of the peep notches when the sight has been set for the peep hole, or not to do the reverse, without first changing the sight.

The sighting notch, A, used when the range is 2850 yards, is hardly ever used, because the rifle is very, very seldom, if ever, fired at that range.

By battle sight we mean the position of the rear sight with the leaf down, and it corresponds to a sight setting of 530 yards. The notch, H, that is used when the leaf is down is called the battle sight notch. The battle sight is the only one used in rapid fire. In unexpected, close encounters the side that first opens a rapid and accurate fire has a great advantage over the other.