Plate II (part 2)

In 56 B.C., however, the Veneti of Brittany threw off the yoke and detained two of Crassus's officers as hostages. Caesar, who had been hastily summoned from Illyricum, crossed the Loire and invaded Brittany, but found that he could make no headway without destroying the powerful fleet of high, flat-bottomed boats like floating castles possessed by the Veneti. A fleet was hastily constructed in the estuary of the Loire, and placed under the command of Decimus Brutus. The decisive engagement was fought (probably) in the Gulf of Morbihan and the Romans gained the victory by cutting down the enemy's rigging with sickles attached to poles. As a punishment for their treachery, Caesar put to death the senate of the Veneti and sold their people into slavery. Meanwhile Sabinus was victorious on the northern coasts, and Crassus subdued the Aquitani. At the close of the season Caesar raided the territories of the Morini and Menapii in the extreme north-west.

In 55 B.C. certain German tribes, the Usipetes and Tencteri, crossed the lower Rhine, and invaded the modern Flanders. Caesar at once marched to meet them, and, on the pretext that they had violated a truce, seized their leaders who had come to parley with him, and then surprised and practically destroyed their host. His enemies in Rome accused him of treachery, and Cato even proposed that he should be handed over to the Germans. Caesar meanwhile constructed his famous bridge over the Rhine in ten days, and made a demonstration of force on the right bank. In the remaining weeks of the summer he made his first expedition to Britain, and this was followed by a second crossing in 54 B.C. On the first occasion Caesar took with him only two legions, and effected little beyond a landing on the coast of Kent. The second expedition consisted of five legions and 2000 cavalry, and set out from the Portus Itius (Boulogne or Wissant; see T. Rice Holmes, Ancient Britain and the Invasions of Julius Caesar, 1907, later views in Classical Review, May 1909, and H.S. Jones, in Eng. Hist. Rev. xxiv., 1909, p. 115). Caesar now penetrated into Middlesex and crossed the Thames, but the British prince Cassivellaunus with his war-chariots harassed the Roman columns, and Caesar was compelled to return to Gaul after imposing a tribute which was never paid.

The next two years witnessed the final struggle of the Gauls for freedom. Just before the second crossing to Britain, Dumnorix, an Aeduan chief, had been detected in treasonable intrigues, and killed in an attempt to escape from Caesar's camp. At the close of the campaign Caesar distributed his legions over a somewhat wide extent of territory. Two of their camps were treacherously attacked. At Aduatuca (near Aix-la-Chapelle) a newly-raised legion was cut to pieces by the Eburones under Ambiorix, while Quintus Cicero was besieged in the neighbourhood of Namur and only just relieved in time by Caesar, who was obliged to winter in Gaul in order to check the spread of the rebellion. Indutiomarus, indeed, chief of the Treveri (about Trèves), revolted and attacked Labienus, but was defeated and killed. The campaign of 53 B.C. was marked by a second crossing of the Rhine and by the destruction of the Eburones, whose leader Ambiorix, however, escaped. In the autumn Caesar held a conference at Durocortorum (Reims), and Acco, a chief of the Senones, was convicted of treason and flogged to death.

Early in 52 B.C. some Roman traders were massacred at Cenabum (Orléans), and, on hearing the news, the Arverni revolted under Vercingetorix and were quickly joined by other tribes, especially the Bituriges, whose capital was Avaricum (Bourges). Caesar hastened back from Italy, slipped past Vercingetorix and reached Agedincum (Sens), the headquarters of his legions. Vercingetorix saw that Caesar could not be met in open battle, and determined to concentrate his forces in a few strong positions. Caesar first besieged and took Avaricum, whose occupants were massacred, and then invested Gergovia (near the Puy-de-Dôme), the capital of the Arverni, but suffered a severe repulse and was forced to raise the siege. Hearing that the Roman province was threatened, he marched westward, defeated Vercingetorix near Dijon and shut him up in Alesia (Mont-Auxois), which he surrounded with lines of circumvallation. An attempt at relief by Vercassivellaunus was defeated after a desperate struggle and Vercingetorix surrendered. The struggle was over except for some isolated operations in 51 B.C., ending with the siege and capture of Uxellodunum (Puy d'Issolu), whose defenders had their hands cut off. Caesar now reduced Gaul to the form of a province, fixing the tribute at 40,000,000 sesterces (£350,000), and dealing liberally with the conquered tribes, whose cantons were not broken up.

In the meantime his own position was becoming critical. In 56 B.C., at the conference of Luca (Lucca), Caesar, Pompey and Crassus had renewed their agreement, and Caesar's command in Gaul, which would have expired on the 1st of March 54 B.C., was renewed, probably for five years, i.e. to the 1st of March 49 B.C., and it was enacted that the question of his successor should not be discussed until the 1st of March 50 B.C., by which time the provincial commands for 49 B.C. would have been assigned, so that Caesar would retain imperium, and thus immunity from persecution, until the end of 49 B.C. He was to be elected consul for 48 B.C., and, as the law prescribed a personal canvass, he was by special enactment dispensed from its provisions. But in 54 B.C. Julia, the daughter of Caesar and wife of Pompey, died, and in 53 B.C. Crassus was killed at Carrhae. Pompey now drifted apart from Caesar and became the champion of the senate. In 52 B.C. he passed a fresh law de jure magistratuum which cut away the ground beneath Caesar's feet by making it possible to provide a successor to the Gallic provinces before the close of 49 B.C., which meant that Caesar would become for some months a private person, and thus liable to be called to account for his unconstitutional acts. Caesar had no resource left but uncompromising obstruction, which he sustained by enormous bribes. His representative in 50 B.C., the tribune C. Scribonius Curio, served him well, and induced the lukewarm majority of the senate to refrain from extreme measures, insisting that Pompey, as well as Caesar, should resign the imperium. But all attempts at negotiation failed, and in January 49 B.C., martial law having been proclaimed on the proposal of the consuls, the tribunes Antony and Cassius fled to Caesar, who crossed the Rubicon (the frontier of Italy) with a single legion, exclaiming "Alea jacta est."

Pompey's available force consisted in two legions stationed in Campania, and eight, commanded by his lieutenants, Afranius and Petreius, in Spain; both sides levied troops in Italy. Caesar was soon joined by two legions from Gaul and marched rapidly down the Adriatic coast, overtaking Pompey at Brundisium (Brindisi), but failing to prevent him from embarking with his troops for the East, where the prestige of his name was greatest. Hereupon Caesar (it is said) exclaimed "I am going to Spain to fight an army without a general, and thence to the East to fight a general without an army." He carried out the first part of this programme with marvellous rapidity. He reached Ilerda (Lerida) on the 23rd of June and, after extricating his army from a perilous situation, outmanœuvred Pompey's lieutenants and received their submission on the 2nd of August. Returning to Rome, he held the dictatorship for eleven days, was elected consul for 48 B.C., and set sail for Epirus at Brundisium on the 4th of January. He attempted to invest Pompey's lines at Dyrrhachium (Durazzo), though his opponent's force was double that of his own, and was defeated with considerable loss. He now marched eastwards, in order if possible to intercept the reinforcements which Pompeys father-in-law, Scipio, was bringing up; but Pompey was able to effect a junction with this force and descended into the plain of Thessaly, where at the battle of Pharsalus he was decisively defeated and fled to Egypt, pursued by Caesar, who learnt of his rival's murder on landing at Alexandria. Here he remained for nine months, fascinated (if the story be true) by Cleopatra, and almost lost his life in an émeute. In June 47 B.C. he proceeded to the East and Asia Minor, where he "came, saw and conquered" Pharnaces, son of Mithradates the Great, at Zela. Returning to Italy, he quelled a mutiny of the legions (including the faithful Tenth) in Campania, and crossed to Africa, where a republican army of fourteen legions under Scipio was cut to pieces at Thapsus (6th of April 46 B.C.). Here most of the republican leaders were killed and Cato committed suicide. On the 26th to 29th July Caesar celebrated a fourfold triumph and received the dictatorship for ten years. In November, however, he was obliged to sail for Spain, where the sons of Pompey still held out. On the 17th of March 45 B.C. they were crushed at Munda. Caesar returned to Rome in September, and six months later (15th of March 44 B.C.) was murdered in the senate house at the foot of Pompey's statue.

It was remarked by Seneca that amongst the murderers of Caesar were to be found more of his friends than of his enemies. We can account for this only by emphasizing the fact that the form of Caesar's government became as time went on more undisguised in its absolutism, while the honours conferred upon seemed designed to raise him above the rest of humanity. It is explained elsewhere (see Rome: History, Ancient) that Caesar's power was exercised under the form of dictatorship. In the first instance (autumn of 49 B.C.) this was conferred upon him as the only solution of the constitutional deadlock created by the flight of the magistrates and senate, in order that elections (including that of Caesar himself to the consulship) might be held in due course. For this there were republican precedents. In 48 B.C. he was created dictator for the second time, probably with constituent powers and for an undefined period, according to the dangerous and unpopular precedent of Sulla. In May 46 B.C. a third dictatorship was conferred on Caesar, this time for ten years and apparently as a yearly office, so that he became Dictator IV. in May 45 B.C. Finally, before the 15th of February 44 B.C., this was exchanged for a life-dictatorship. Not only was this a contradiction in terms, since the dictatorship was by tradition a makeshift justified only when the state had to be carried through a serious crisis, but it involved military rule in Italy and the permanent suspension of the constitutional guarantees, such as intercessio and provocatio, by which the liberties of Romans were protected. That Caesar held the imperium which he enjoyed as dictator to be distinct in kind from that of the republican magistrates he indicated by placing the term imperator at the head of his titles. Besides the dictatorship, Caesar held the consulship in each year of his reign except 47 B.C. (when no curule magistrates were elected save for the last three months of the year); and he was moreover invested by special enactments with a number of other privileges and powers; of these the most important was the tribunicia potestas, which we may believe to have been free from the limits of place (i.e. Rome) and collegiality. Thus, too, he was granted the sole right of making peace and war, and of disposing of the funds in the treasury of the state. Save for the title of dictator, which undoubtedly carried unpopular associations and was formally abolished on the proposal of Antony after Caesar's death, this cumulation of powers has little to distinguish it from the Principate of Augustus; and the assumption of the perpetual dictatorship would hardly by itself suffice to account for the murder of Caesar. But there are signs that in the last six months of his life he aspired not only to a monarchy in name as well as in fact, but also to a divinity which Romans should acknowledge as well as Greeks, Orientals and barbarians. His statue was set up beside those of the seven kings of Rome, and he adopted the throne of gold, the sceptre of ivory and the embroidered robe which tradition ascribed to them. He allowed his supporters to suggest the offer of the regal title by putting in circulation an oracle according to which it was destined for a king of Rome to subdue the Parthians, and when at the Lupercalia (15th February 44 B.C.) Antony set the diadem on his head he rejected the offer half-heartedly on account of the groans of the people. His image was carried in the pompa circensis amongst those of the immortal gods, and his statue set up in the temple of Quirinus with the inscription "To the Unconquerable God." A college of Luperci, with the surname Juliani, was instituted in his honour and flamines were created as priests of his godhead. This was intolerable to the aristocratic republicans, to whom it seemed becoming that victorious commanders should accept divine honours at the hands of Greeks and Asiatics, but unpardonable that Romans should offer the same worship to a Roman.

Thus Caesar's work remained unfinished, and this must be borne in mind in considering his record of legislative and administrative reform. Some account of this is given elsewhere (see Rome: History, Ancient), but it may be well to single out from the list of his measures (some of which, such as the restoration of exiles and the children of proscribed persons, were dictated by political expediency, while others, such as his financial proposals for the relief of debtors, and the steps which he took to restore Italian agriculture, were of the nature of palliatives) those which have a permanent significance as indicating his grasp of imperial problems. The Social War had brought to the inhabitants of Italy as far as the Po the privileges of Roman citizenship; it remained to extend this gift to the Transpadane Italians, to establish a uniform system of local administration and to devise representative institutions by which at least some voice in the government of Rome might be permitted to her new citizens. This last conception lay beyond the horizon of Caesar, as of all ancient statesmen, but his first act on gaining control of Italy was to enfranchise the Transpadanes, whose claims he had consistently advocated, and in 45 B.C. he passed the Lex Julia Municipalis, an act of which considerable fragments are inscribed on two bronze tables found at Heraclea near Tarentum. This law deals inter alia with the police and the sanitary arrangements of the city of Rome, and hence it has been argued by Mommsen that it was Caesar's intention to reduce Rome to the level of a municipal town. But it is not likely that such is the case. Caesar made no far-reaching modifications in the government of the city, such as were afterwards carried out by Augustus, and the presence in the Lex Julia Municipalis of the clauses referred to is an example of the common process of "tacking" (legislation per saturam, as it was called by the Romans). The law deals with the constitution of the local senates, for whose members qualifications of age (30 years) and military service are laid down, while persons who have suffered conviction for various specified offences, or who are insolvent, or who carry on discreditable or immoral trades are excluded. It also provides that the local magistrates shall take a census of the citizens at the same time as the census takes place in Rome, and send the registers to Rome within sixty days. The existing fragments tell us little as to the decentralization of the functions of government, but from the Lex Rubria, which applies to the Transpadane districts enfranchised by Caesar (it must be remembered that Cisalpine Gaul remained nominally a province until 42 B.C.) we gather that considerable powers of independent jurisdiction were reserved to the municipal magistrates. But Caesar was not content with framing a uniform system of local government for Italy. He was the first to carry out on a large scale those plans of transmarine colonization whose inception was due to the Gracchi. As consul in 59 B.C. Caesar had established colonies of veterans in Campania under the Lex Julia Agraria, and had even then laid down rules for the foundation of such communities. As dictator he planted numerous colonies both in the eastern and western provinces, notably at Corinth and Carthage. Mommsen interprets this policy as signifying that "the rule of the urban community of Rome over the shores of the Mediterranean was at an end," and says that the first act of the "new Mediterranean state" was "to atone for the two greatest outrages which that urban community had perpetrated on civilization." This, however, cannot be admitted. The sites of Caesar's colonies were selected for their commercial value, and that the citizens of Rome should cease to be rulers of the Mediterranean basin could never have entered into Caesar's mind. The colonists were in many cases veterans who had served under Caesar, in others members of the city proletariat. We possess the charter of the colony planted at Urso in southern Spain under the name of Colonia Julia Genetiva Urbanorum. Of the two latter titles, the first is derived from the name of Venus Genetrix, the ancestress of the Julian house, the second indicates that the colonists were drawn from the plebs urbana. Accordingly, we find that free birth is not, as in Italy, a necessary qualification for municipal office. By such foundations Caesar began the extension to the provinces of that Roman civilization which the republic had carried to the bounds of the Italian peninsula. Lack of time alone prevented him from carrying into effect such projects as the piercing of the Isthmus of Corinth, whose object was to promote trade and intercourse throughout the Roman dominions, and we are told that at the time of his death he was contemplating the extension of the empire to its natural frontiers, and was about to engage in a war with Parthia with the object of carrying Roman arms to the Euphrates. Above all, he was determined that the empire should be governed in the true sense of the word and no longer exploited by its rulers, and he kept a strict control over the legati, who, under the form of military subordination, were responsible to him for the administration of their provinces.

Caesar's writings are treated under Latin Literature. It is sufficient here to say that of those preserved to us the seven books Commentarii de bello Gallico appear to have been written in 51 B.C. and carry the narrative of the Gallic campaigns down to the close of the previous year (the eighth book, written by A. Hirtius, is a supplement relating the events of 51-50 B.C.), while the three books De bello civili record the struggle between Caesar and Pompey (49-48 B.C.). Their veracity was impeached in ancient times by Asinius Pollio and has often been called in question by modern critics. The Gallic War, though its publication was doubtless timed to impress on the mind of the Roman people the great services rendered by Caesar to Rome, stands the test of criticism as far as it is possible to apply it, and the accuracy of its narrative has never been seriously shaken. The Civil War, especially in its opening chapters is, however, not altogether free from traces of misrepresentation. With respect to the first moves made in the struggle, and the negotiations for peace at the outset of hostilities, Caesar's account sometimes conflicts with the testimony of Cicero's correspondence or implies movements which cannot be reconciled with geographical facts. We have but few fragments of Caesar's other works, whether political pamphlets such as the Anticato, grammatical treatises (De Analogia) or poems. All authorities agree in describing him as a consummate orator. Cicero (Brut. 22) wrote: de Caesare ita judico, illum omnium fere oratorum Latine loqui elegantissime, while Quintilian (x. i. 114) says that had he practised at the bar he would have been the only serious rival of Cicero.

The verdict of historians on Caesar has always been coloured by their political sympathies. All have recognised his commanding genius, and few have failed to do justice to his personal charm and magnanimity, which almost won the heart of Cicero, who rarely appealed in vain to his clemency. Indeed, he was singularly tolerant of all but intellectual opposition. His private life was not free from scandal, especially in his youth, but it is difficult to believe the worst of the tales which were circulated by his opponents, e.g. as to his relations with Nicomedes of Bithynia. As to his public character, however, no agreement is possible between those who regard Caesarism as a great political creation, and those who hold that Caesar by destroying liberty lost a great opportunity and crushed the sense of dignity in mankind. The latter view is unfortunately confirmed by the undoubted fact that Caesar treated with scant respect the historical institutions of Rome, which with their magnificent traditions might still have been the organs of true political life. He increased the number of senators to 900 and introduced provincials into that body; but instead of making it into a grand council of the empire, representative of its various races and nationalities, he treated it with studied contempt, and Cicero writes that his own name had been set down as the proposer of decrees of which he knew nothing, conferring the title of king on potentates of whom he had never heard. A similar treatment was meted out to the ancient magistracies of the republic; and thus began the process by which the emperors undermined the self-respect of their subjects and eventually came to rule over a nation of slaves. Few men, indeed, have partaken as freely of the inspiration of genius as Julius Caesar; few have suffered more disastrously from its illusions. See further Rome: History, ii. "The Republic," Period C ad fin.

Authorities.—The principal ancient authorities for the life of Caesar are his own Commentaries, the biographies of Plutarch and Suetonius, letters and speeches of Cicero, the Catiline of Sallust, the Pharsalia of Lucan, and the histories of Appian, Dio Cassius and Velleius Paterculus (that of Livy exists only in the Epitome). Amongst modern works may be named the exhaustive repertory of fact contained in Drumann, Geschichte Roms, vol. iii. (new ed. by Groebe, 1906, pp. 125-829), and the brilliant but partial panegyric of Th. Mommsen in his History of Rome (Eng. trans., vol. iv., esp. p. 450 ff.). J.A. Froude's Caesar; a Sketch (2nd ed., 1896) is equally biased and much less critical. W. Warde Fowler's Julius Caesar (1892) gives a favourable account (see also his Social Life at Rome, 1909). On the other side see especially A. Holm, History of Greece (Eng. trans., vol. iv. p. 582 ff.), J.L. Strachan Davidson, Cicero (1894), p. 345 ff., and the introductory Lections in Prof. Tyrrell's edition of the Correspondence of Cicero, particularly "Cicero's case against Caesar," vol. v. p. 13 ff. Vol. ii. of G. Ferrero's Greatness and Decline of Rome (Eng. trans., 1907) is largely devoted to Caesar, but must be used with caution. The Gallic campaigns have been treated by Napoleon III., Histoire de Jules César (1865-1866), which is valuable as giving the result of excavations, and in English by T. Rice Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (1901), in which references to earlier literature will be found. A later account is that of G. Veith, Geschichte der Feldzüge C. Julius Caesars (1906). For maps see A. von Kampen. For the Civil War see Colonel Stoffel (the collaborator of Napoleon III.), Histoire de Jules César: guerre civile (1887). There is an interesting article, "The Likenesses of Julius Caesar," by J.C. Ropes, in Scribner's Magazine, Feb. 1887, with 18 plates.

(H. S. J.)

Medieval Legends.

In the middle ages the story of Caesar did not undergo such extraordinary transformations as befell the history of Alexander the Great and the Theban legend. Lucan was regularly read in medieval schools, and the general facts of Caesar's life were too well known. He was generally, by a curious error, regarded as the first emperor of Rome, and representing as he did in the popular mind the glory of Rome, by an easy transition he became a pillar of the Church. Thus, in a French pseudo-historic romance, Les Faits des Romains (c. 1223), he receives the honour of a bishopric. His name was not usually associated with the marvellous, and the trouvère of Huon de Bordeaux outstepped the usual sober tradition when he made Oberon the son of Julius Caesar and Morgan la Fay. About 1240 Jehan de Tuim composed a prose Hystore de Julius Cesar (ed. F. Settegast, Halle, 1881) based on the Pharsalia of Lucan, and the commentaries of Caesar (on the Civil War) and his continuators (on the Alexandrine, African and Spanish wars). The author gives a romantic description of the meeting with Cleopatra, with an interpolated dissertation on amour courtois as understood by the trouvères. The Hystore was turned into verse (alexandrines) by Jacot de Forest (latter part of the 13th century) under the title of Roman de Julius César. A prose compilation by an unknown author, Les Fails des Romains (c. 1225), has little resemblance to the last two works, although mainly derived from the same sources. It was originally intended to contain a history of the twelve Caesars, but concluded with the murder of the dictator, and in some MSS. bears the title of Li livres de César. Its popularity is proved by the numerous MSS. in which it is preserved and by three separate translations into Italian. A Mistaire de Julius César is said to have been represented at Amboise in 1500 before Louis XII.

See A. Graf, Roma nella memoria e nella imaginazione del medio evo, i. ch. 8 (1882-1883); P. Meyer in Romania, xiv. (Paris, 1885), where the Faits des Romains is analysed at length; A. Duval in Histoire littéraire de la France, xix. (1838); L. Constans in Petit de Jullevilles' Hist. de la langue et de la litt. française, i. (1896); H. Wesemann, Die Cäsarfabeln des Mittelalters (Löwenberg, 1879).

(M. Br.)

In spite of the explicit statements of Suetonius, Plutarch and Appian that Caesar was in his fifty-sixth year at the time of his murder, it is, as Mommsen has shown, practically certain that he was born in 102 B.C., since he held the chief offices of state in regular order, beginning with the aedileship in 65 B.C., and the legal age for this was fixed at 37-38.

Suetonius, Jul. 76, errs in stating that he used the title imperator as a praenomen.

The statement of Dio and Suetonius, that a general cura legum et morum was conferred on Caesar in 46 B.C., is rejected by Mommsen. It is possible that it may have some foundation in the terms of the law establishing his third dictatorship.

Since the discovery of a fragmentary municipal charter at Tarentum (see Rome), dating from a period shortly after the Social War, doubts have been cast on the identification of the tables of Heraclea with Caesar's municipal statute. It has been questioned whether Caesar passed such a law, since the Lex Julia Municipalis mentioned in an inscription of Patavium (Padua) may have been a local charter. See Legras, La Table latine d'Héraclée (Paris, 1907).

Brunetto Latini, Trésor: "Et ainsi Julius César fu li premiers empereres des Romains."

CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636), English judge, descended by the female line from the dukes de' Cesarini in Italy, was born near Tottenham in Middlesex. He was educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, and afterwards studied at the university of Paris, where in the year 1581 he was made a doctor of the civil law. Two years later he was admitted to the same degree at Oxford, and also became doctor of the canon law. He held many high offices during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., including a judgeship of the admiralty court (1584), a mastership in chancery (1588), a mastership of the court of requests (1595), chancellor and under treasurer of the exchequer (1606). He was knighted by King James in 1603, and in 1614 was appointed master of the rolls, an office which he held till his death on the 18th of April 1636, He was so remarkable for his bounty and charity to all persons of worth that it was said of him that he seemed to be the almoner-general of the nation. His manuscripts, many of which are now in the British Museum, were sold by auction in 1757 for upwards of £500.

See E. Lodge, Life of Sir Julius Caesar (1810); Wood, Fasti Oxonienses, ed. Bliss; Foss, Lives of the Judges.

CAESAREA MAZACA (mod. Kaisarieh), chief town of a sanjak in the Angora vilayet of Asia Minor. Mazaca, the residence of the kings of Cappadocia, later called Eusebea (perhaps after Ariarathes Eusebes), and named Caesarea probably by Claudius, stood on a low spur on the north side of Erjies Dagh (M. Argaeus). The site, now called Eski-shehr, shows only a few traces of the old town. It was taken by Tigranes and destroyed by the Persian king Shapur (Sapor) I. after his defeat of Valerian in A.D. 260. At this time it is stated to have contained 400,000 inhabitants. In the 4th century Basil, when bishop, established an ecclesiastical centre on the plain, about 1 m. to the north-east, and this gradually supplanted the old town. A portion of Basil's new city was surrounded with strong walls and turned into a fortress by Justinian; and within the walls, rebuilt in the 13th and 16th centuries, lies the greater part of Kaisarieh, altitude 3500 ft. The town was captured by the Seljuk sultan, Alp Arslan, 1064, and by the Mongols, 1243, before passing to the Osmanli Turks. Its geographical situation has made it a place of commercial importance throughout history. It lay on the ancient trade route from Sinope to the Euphrates, on the Persian "Royal Road" from Sardis to Susa, and on the great Roman highway from Ephesus to the East. It is still the most important trade centre in eastern Asia Minor. The town is noted for its fruit, especially its vines; and it exports tissues, carpets, hides, yellow berries and dried fruit. Kaisarieh is the headquarters of the American mission in Cappadocia, which has several churches and schools for boys and girls and does splendid medical work. It is the seat of a Greek bishop, an Armenian archbishop and a Roman Catholic bishop, and there is a Jesuit school. On the 30th of November 1895 there was a massacre of Armenians, in which several Gregorian priests and Protestant pastors lost their lives. Pop., according to Cuinet, 71,000 (of whom 26,000 are Christians). Sir C. Wilson gave it as 50,000 (23,000 Christians).

(C. W. W.; J. G. C. A.)

CAESAREAN SECTION, in obstetrics (q.v.) the operation for removal of a foetus from the uterus by an abdominal incision, so called from a legend of its employment at the birth of Julius Caesar. This procedure has been practised on the dead mother since very early times; in fact it was prescribed by Roman law that every woman dying in advanced pregnancy should be so treated; and in 1608 the senate of Venice enacted that any practitioner who failed to perform this operation on a pregnant woman supposed to be dead, laid himself open to very heavy penalties. But the first recorded instance of its being performed on a living woman occurred about 1500, when a Swiss pig-gelder operated on his own wife. From this time onwards it was tried in many ways and under many conditions, but almost invariably with the same result, the death of the mother. Even as recently as the first half of the 19th century the recorded mortality is over 50%. Thus it is no surprise that craniotomy—in which the life of the child is sacrificed to save that of the mother—was almost invariably preferred. As the use of antiseptics was not then understood, and as it was customary to return the uterus to the body cavity without suturing the incision, the immediate cause of death was either septicaemia or haemorrhage. But in 1882 Sänger published his method of suturing the uterus—that of employing two series of sutures, one deep, the other superficial. This method of procedure was immediately adopted by many obstetricians, and it has proved so satisfactory that it is still in use today. This, and the increasing knowledge of aseptic technique, has brought the mortality from this operation to less than 3% for the mother and about 5% for the child; and every year it is being advised more freely for a larger number of morbid conditions, and with increasingly favourable results. Craniotomy, i.e. crushing the head of the foetus to reduce its size, is now very rarely performed on the living child, but symphysiotomy, i.e. the division of the symphysis pubis to produce a temporary enlargement of the pelvis, or caesarean section, is advocated in its place. Of these two operations, symphysiotomy is steadily being replaced by caesarean section.

This operation is now advised for (1) extreme degrees of pelvic contraction, (2) any malformation or tumour of the uterus, cervix or vagina, which would render the birth of the child through the natural passages impossible, (3) maternal complications, as eclampsia and concealed accidental haemorrhage, and (4) at the death of the mother for the purpose of saving the child.

CAESAREA PALAESTINA, a town built by Herod about 25-13 B.C., on the sea-coast of Palestine, 30 miles N. of Joppa, on the site of a place previously called Tunis Stratonis. Remains of all the principal buildings erected by Herod existed down to the end of the 19th century; the ruins were much injured by a colony of Bosnians established here in 1884. These buildings are a temple, dedicated to Caesar; a theatre; a hippodrome; two aqueducts; a boundary wall; and, chief of all, a gigantic mole, 200 ft. wide, built of stones 50 ft. long, in 20 fathoms of water, protecting the harbour on the south and west. The harbour measures 180 yds. across. The massacre of Jews at this place led to the Jewish rebellion and to the Roman war. Vespasian made it a colony and called it Flavia: the old name, however, persisted, and still survives as Kaisarieh. Eusebius was archbishop here (A.D. 315-318). It was captured by the Moslems in 638 and by the Crusaders in 1102, by Saladin in 1187, recaptured by the Crusaders in 1191, and finally lost by them in 1265, since when till its recent settlement it has lain in ruins. Remains of the medieval town are also visible, consisting of the walls (one-tenth the area of the Roman city), the castle, the cathedral (now covered by modern houses), and a church.

(R. A. S. M.)

CAESAREA PHILIPPI, the name of a town 95 miles N. of Jerusalem, 35 miles S.W. from Damascus, 1150 ft. above the sea, on the south base of Hermon, and at an important source of the Jordan. It does not certainly appear in the Old Testament history, though identifications with Baal-Gad and (less certainly) with Laish (Dan) have been proposed. It was certainly a place of great sanctity from very early times, and when foreign religious influences intruded upon Palestine, the cult of its local numen gave place to the worship of Pan, to whom was dedicated the cave in which the copious spring feeding the Jordan arises. It was long known as Panium or Panias, a name that has survived in the modern Banias. When Herod the Great received the territory from Augustus, 20 B.C., he erected here a temple in honour of his patron; but the re-foundation of the town is due to his son, Philip the Tetrarch, who here erected a city which he named Caesarea in honour of Tiberius, adding Philippi to immortalize his own name and to distinguish his city from the similarly-named city founded by his father on the sea-coast. Here Christ gave His charge to Peter (Matt. xvi. 13). Many Greek inscriptions have been found here, some referring to the shrine. Agrippa II. changed the name to Neronias, but this name endured but a short while. Titus here exhibited gladiatorial shows to celebrate the capture of Jerusalem. The Crusaders took the city in 1130, and lost it to the Moslems in 1165. Banias is a poor village inhabited by about 350 Moslems; all round it are gardens of fruit-trees. It is well watered and fertile. There are not many remains of the Roman city above ground. The Crusaders' castle of Subeibeh, one of the finest in Palestine, occupies the summit of a conical hill above the village.

(R. A. S. M.)

CAESIUM (symbol Cs, atomic weight 132.9), one of the alkali metals. Its name is derived from the Lat. caesius, sky-blue, from two bright blue lines of its spectrum. It is of historical importance, since it was the first metal to be discovered by the aid of the spectroscope (R. Bunsen, Berlin Acad. Ber., 1860), although caesium salts had undoubtedly been examined before, but had been mistaken for potassium salts (see C.F. Plattner, Pog. Ann., 1846, p. 443, on the analysis of pollux and the subsequent work of F. Pisani, Comptes Rendus, 1864, 58, p. 714). Caesium is found in the mineral springs of Frankenhausen, Montecatini, di Val di Nievole, Tuscany, and Wheal Clifford near Redruth, Cornwall (W.A. Miller, Chem. News, 1864, 10, p. 181), and, associated with rubidium, at Dürkheim; it is also found in lepidolite, leucite, petalite, triphylline and in the carnallite from Stassfurt. The separation of caesium from the minerals which contain it is an exceedingly difficult and laborious process. According to R. Bunsen, the best source of rubidium and caesium salts is the residue left after extraction of lithium salts from lepidolite. This residue consists of sodium, potassium and lithium chlorides, with small quantities of caesium and rubidium chlorides. The caesium and rubidium are separated from this by repeated fractional crystallization of their double platinum chlorides, which are much less soluble in water than those of the other alkali metals (R. Bunsen, Ann., 1862, 122, p. 347; 1863, 125, p. 367). The platino-chlorides are reduced by hydrogen, and the caesium and rubidium chlorides extracted by water. See also A. Schrötter (Jour. prak. Chem., 1864, 93, p. 2075) and W. Heintz (Journ. prak. Chem., 1862, 87, p. 310). W. Feit and K. Kubierschky (Chem. Zeit., 1892, 16, p. 335) separate rubidium and caesium from the other alkali metals by converting them into double chlorides with stannic chloride; whilst J. Redtenbacher (Jour. prak. Chem., 1865, 94, p. 442) separates them from potassium by conversion into alums, which C. Setterberg (Ann., 1882, 211, p. 100) has shown are very slightly soluble in a solution of potash alum. In order to separate caesium from rubidium, use is made of the different solubilities of their various salts. The bitartrates RbHC4H406 and CsHC4H406 have been employed, as have also the alums (see above). The double chloride of caesium and antimony 3CsCl·2SbCl3 (R. Godeffroy, Ber., 1874, 7, p. 375; Ann., 1876, 181, p. 176) has been used, the corresponding compound not being formed by rubidium. The metal has been obtained by electrolysis of a mixture of caesium and barium cyanides (C. Setterberg, Ann., 1882, 211, p. 100) and by heating the hydroxide with magnesium or aluminium (N. Beketoff, Chem. Centralblatt, 1889, 2, p. 245). L. Hackspill (Comptes Rendus, 1905, 141, p. 101) finds that metallic caesium can be obtained more readily by heating the chloride with metallic calcium. A special V-shaped tube is used in the operation, and the reaction commences between 400°C. and 500°C. It is a silvery white metal which burns on heating in air. It melts at 26° to 27°C. and has a specific gravity of 1.88 (15°C.).

The atomic weight of caesium has been determined by the analysis of its chloride and bromide. Richards and Archibald (Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1903, 34, p. 353) obtained 132.879 (O=16).

Caesium hydroxide, Cs(OH)2, obtained by the decomposition of the sulphate with baryta water, is a greyish-white deliquescent solid, which melts at a red heat and absorbs carbon dioxide rapidly. It readily dissolves in water, with evolution of much heat. Caesium chloride, CsCl, is obtained by the direct action of chlorine on caesium, or by solution of the hydroxide in hydrochloric acid. It forms small cubes which melt at a red heat and volatilize readily. It deliquesces in moist air. Many double chlorides are known, and may be prepared by mixing solutions of the two components in the requisite proportions. The bromide, CsBr, and iodide, CsI, resemble the corresponding potassium salts. Many trihaloid salts of caesium are also known, such as CsBr3, CsClBr2, CsI3, CsBrI2, CsBr2I, &c. (H.L. Wells and S.L. Penfield, Zeit. fur anorg. Chem., 1892, i, p. 85). Caesium sulphate, Cs2SO4, may be prepared by dissolving the hydroxide or carbonate in sulphuric acid. It crystallizes in short hard prisms, which are readily soluble in water but insoluble in alcohol. It combines with many metallic sulphates (silver, zinc, cobalt, nickel, &c.) to form double sulphates of the type Cs2SO4·RSO4·6H2O. It also forms a caesium-alum Cs2SO4·Al2(SO4)3·24H2O. Caesium nitrate, CsNO3, is obtained by dissolving the carbonate in nitric acid, and crystallizes in glittering prisms, which melt readily, and on heating evolve oxygen and leave a residue of caesium nitrite. The carbonate, Cs2CO3, silicofluoride, Cs2SiF6, borate, Cs2O·3B2O3, and the sulphides Cs2S·4H2O, Cs2S2·H2O, Cs2S3·H2O, Cs2S4 and Cs2S6·H2O, are also known.

Caesium compounds can be readily recognized by the two bright blue lines (of wave length 4555 and 4593) in their flame spectrum, but these are not present in the spark spectrum. The other lines include three in the green, two in the yellow, and two in the orange.

CAESPITOSE (Lat. caespes, a sod), a botanical term for "growing in tufts," like many grasses.

CAESTUS, or Cestus (from Lat. caedo, strike), a gauntlet or boxing-glove used by the ancient pugilists. Of this there were several varieties, the simplest and least dangerous being the meilichae (μειλίχαι), which consisted of strips of raw hide tied under the palm, leaving the fingers bare. With these the athletes in the palaestrae were wont to practise, reserving for serious contests the more formidable kinds, such as the sphaerae (σφαῖραι), which were sewn with small metal balls covered with leather, and the terrible murmekes (μύρμηκες), sometimes called "limb-breakers" (γυιοτόροι), which were studded with heavy nails. The straps (ἳμαντες) were of different lengths, many reaching to the elbow, in order to protect the forearm when guarding heavy blows (see J.H. Krause, Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen, 1841). The caestus is to be distinguished from cestus (=embroidered, from κεντεῖν), an adjective used as a noun in the sense of "girdle," especially the girdle of Aphrodite, which was supposed to have the power of exciting love.

CAESURA (Lat. for "cutting," Gr. τομη), in prosody, a rest or pause, usually occurring about the middle of a verse, which is thereby separated into two parts (κωλα, members). In Greek and Latin hexameters the best and most common caesura is the penthemimeral (i.e. after the 5th half-foot):

Μῆνιν ἄ | ειδε, θε | ά, | Πη | ληϊα | δέω Ἀχι | λῆος
Arma vi | rumque ca | no, Tro | jae qui | primus ab | oris.

Another caesura very common in Homer, but rare in Latin verse, is after the 2nd syllable of the 3rd dactyl:

Οἰω | νοῖσί τε | πᾶσι Δι | ὸς δ' ἐτε | λείετο | βουλή.

On the other hand, the hephthemimeral caesura (i.e. after the 7th half-foot) is common in Latin, but rare in Greek:

Formo | sam reso | nare do | ces Ama | ryllida | silvas.

The "bucolic" caesura, peculiar to Greek (so called because it is chiefly found in writers like Theocritus) occurs after the 4th dactyl:

Ἄνδρα μοι | ἔννεπε, | Μοῦσα, πο | λύτροπον, | ὃς μάλα | πολλά

In the pentameter verse of the elegiac distich the caesura is always penthemimeral. In the iambic trimeter (consisting of three dipodia or pairs of feet), both in Greek and Latin, the most usual caesura is the penthemimeral; next, the hephthemimeral:

Ὦ τέκ | να Κάδ | μου τοῦ | πάλαι | νέα | τροφή
Supplex | et o | ro reg | na per | Proser | pinae.

Verses in which neither of these caesuras occurs are considered faulty. On the other hand, secondary or subsidiary caesuras are found in both Greek and Latin; thus, a trithemimeral (after the 3rd half-foot) is combined with the hephthemimeral, which divides the verse into two unequal parts. A caesura is often called masculine when it falls after a long, feminine when it falls after a short syllable.

The best treatise on Greek and Latin metre for general use is L. Müller, Die Metrik der Griechen und Romer (1885); see also the article Verse.

CAFFEINE, or Theine (1.3.7 trimethyl 2.6 dioxypurin), C8H10N4O2·H2O, a substance found in the leaves and beans of the coffee tree, in tea, in Paraguay tea, and in small quantities in cocoa and in the kola nut. It may be extracted from tea or coffee by boiling with water, the dissolved tannin precipitated by basic lead acetate, the solution filtered, excess of lead precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen and the filtered liquid then evaporated to crystallization; or, tea is boiled with water, and the whole then evaporated to a syrup, which is mixed with slaked lime, evaporated to dryness on the water-bath and extracted with chloroform (P. Cazeneuve, Bull. de la soc. chim. de Paris, 1876-1877, 27, p. 199). Synthetically it may be prepared by the methylation of silver theobromine and silver theophyllin or by boiling heteroxanthine with methyl iodide and potash. E. Fischer and L. Ach (Berichte, 1895, 28, p. 3135) have synthesized it from dimethyl alloxan, whilst W. Traube (Berichte, 1900, 33, p. 3435) has obtained it from 1.3 diamethyl 4.5 diamino 2.6 dioxypyrimidine. On the constitution of caffeine see Purin and also E. Fischer (Annalen, 1882, 215, p. 253).

Caffeine crystallizes in long silky needles, which are slightly soluble in cold water. It becomes anhydrous at 100°C. and melts at 234° to 235°C. It has a faint bitter taste and gives salts with mineral acids. On oxidation with nitric acid caffeine gives cholesterophane (dimethyl parabanic acid), but if chlorine water be used as the oxidant, then it yields monomethyl urea and dimethyl alloxan (E. Fischer).

CAFFIERI, JACQUES (1678-1755), French worker in metal, the most famous member of a family several of whom distinguished themselves in plastic art, was the fifth son of Philippe Caffieri (1634-1716), a decorative sculptor, who, after serving Pope Alexander VII., entered the service of Louis XIV. in 1660. An elder son of Philippe, François Charles (1667-1721), was associated with him. As a fondeur ciseleur, however, the renown of the house centred in Jacques, though it is not always easy to distinguish between his own work and that of his son Philippe (1714-1777). A large proportion of his brilliant achievement as a designer and chaser in bronze and other metals was executed for the crown at Versailles, Fontainebleau, Compiègne, Choisy and La Muette, and the crown, ever in his debt, still owed him money at his death. Jacques and his son Philippe undoubtedly worked together in the "Appartement du Dauphin" at Versailles, and although much of their contribution to the palace has disappeared, the decorations of the marble chimney-piece still remain. They belong to the best type of the Louis XV. style—vigorous and graceful in design, they are executed with splendid skill. It is equally certain that father and son worked together upon the gorgeous bronze case of the famous astronomical clock made by Passement and Danthiau for Louis XV. between 1749 and 1753. The form of the case has been much criticized, and even ridiculed, but the severest critics in that particular have been the readiest to laud the boldness and freedom of the motives, the jewel-like finish of the craftsmanship, the magnificent dexterity of the master-hand. The elder Caffieri was, indeed, the most consummate practitioner of the style rocaille, which he constantly redeemed from its mannered conventionalism by the ease and mastery with which he treated it. From the studio in which he and his son worked side by side came an amazing amount of work, chiefly in the shape of those gilded bronze mounts which in the end became more insistent than the pieces of furniture which they adorned. Little of his achievement was ordinary; an astonishingly large proportion of it is famous. There is in the Wallace collection (Hertford House, London) a commode from the hand of Jacques Caffieri in which the brilliance and spontaneity, the sweeping boldness and elegance of line that mark his style at its best, are seen in a perfection hardly exceeded in any other example. Also at Hertford House is the exceptionally fine lustre which was a wedding present from Louis XV. to Louise Elizabeth of France. After Jacques' death his son Philippe continued to work for the crown, but had many private clients. He made a great cross and six candlesticks for the high altar of Notre Dame, which disappeared in the revolution, but similar work for Bayeux cathedral still exists. A wonderful enamelled toilet set which he executed for the Princess of Asturias has also disappeared. Philippe's style was gradually modified into that which prevailed in the third quarter of the 18th century, since by 1777, when he died, the taste for the magnificent mounts of his early days had passed away. Like his father, he drew large sums from the crown, usually after giving many years' credit, while many other years were needed by his heirs to get in the balance of the royal indebtedness. Philippe's younger brother, Jean Jacques Caffieri (1725-1792), was a sculptor, but was sufficiently adept in the treatment of metals to design the fine rampe d'escalier which still adorns the Palais Royal.

CAFTAN, or Kaftan (a Turkish word, also in use in Persia), a tunic or under-dress with long hanging sleeves, tied with a girdle at the waist, worn in the East by persons of both sexes. The caftan was worn by the upper and middle classes in Russia till the time of Peter the Great, when it was generally discarded.

CAGLI, a town and (with Pergola) an episcopal see of the Marches, Italy, in the province of Pesaro and Urbino, 18 m. S. of the latter town by rail, and 830 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) of town, 4628; commune, 12,533. The church of S. Domenico contains a good fresco (Madonna and saints) by Giovanni Santi, the father of Raphael. The citadel of the 15th century, constructed by Francesco di Giorgio Martini of Siena, is on the S.E. of the modern town. Cagli occupies the site of an ancient vicus (village) on the Via Flaminia, which seems to have borne the name Cale, 24 m. N. of Helvillum (mod. Sigillo) and 18 m. S.W. of Forum Sempronii (mod. Fossombrone). Below the town to the north is a single arched bridge of the road, the arch having the span of 38¼ ft. (See G. Mochi, Storia di Cagli, Cagli, 1878.) About 5 m. to the N.N.W. of Cagli and 2½ m. W. of the Via Flaminia at the mod. Acqualagna is the site of an ancient town; the place is now called piano di Valeria, and is scattered with ruins. Inscriptions show that this was a Roman municipium, perhaps Pitinum Mergens (Corp. Inscr. Lat. xi. [Berlin, 1901] p. 876). Three miles north of Acqualagna the Via Flaminia, which is still in use as the modern high-road, traverses the Furlo Pass, a tunnel about 40 yds. long, excavated by Vespasian in A.D. 77, as an inscription at the north end records. There is another tunnel at lower level, which belongs to an earlier date; this seems to have been in use till the construction of the Roman road, which at first ran round the rock on the outside, until Vespasian cut the tunnel. In repairing the modern road just outside the south entrance to the tunnel, a stratum of carbonized corn, beans, &c., and a quantity of burnt wood, stones, tiles, pottery, &c., was found under and above the modern road, for a distance of some 500 yds. This débris must have belonged to the castle of Petra Pertusa, burned by the Lombards in 570 or 571 on their way to Rome. The castle itself is mentioned by Procopius (Bell. Goth. ii. 11, iii. 6, iv. 28, 34). Here also was found the inscription of A.D. 295, relating to the measures taken to suppress brigandage in these parts. (See Apennines.)

See A. Vernarecci in Notizie degli Scavi, 1886, 411 (cf. ibid. 227); Corp. Inscr. Lat. (Berlin, 1901), Nos. 6106, 6107.

(T. As.)

CAGLIARI (anc. Carales), the capital of the island of Sardinia, an archiepiscopal see, and the chief town of the province of Cagliari, which embraces the southern half of the island. It is 270 m. W.S.W. of Naples, and 375 m. south of Genoa by sea. Pop. (1900) of town, 48,098; of commune, 53,057. It is finely situated at the northern extremity of the Gulf of Cagliari, in the centre of the south coast of the island. The medieval town occupies a long narrow hill running N. and S. with precipitous cliffs on the E. and W. which must have been the ancient acropolis, but the modern town, like the Roman town before it, extends to the slopes of the hill and to the low ground by the sea. On each side of the town are lagoons. That of S. Gilla on the W., which produces fish in abundance, was originally an open bay. That of Molentargius on the E. has large saltpans. The upper town still retains in part its fortifications, including the two great towers at the two extremities, called the Torre dell' Elefante (S.) and the Torre di S. Pancrazio (N.), both erected by the Pisans, the former in 1307, the latter in 1305. The Torre di S. Pancrazio at the highest point (367 ft. above sea-level) commands a magnificent view. Close to it is the archaeological museum, the most important in the island. To the north of it are the modern citadel and the barracks, and beyond, a public promenade. The narrow streets run from north to south for the whole length of the upper town. On the edge of the cliffs on the E. is the cathedral, built in 1257-1312 by the Pisans, and retaining two of the original transept doors. The pulpit of the same period is also fine: it now stands, divided into two, on each side of the entrance, while the lions which supported it are on the balustrade in front of the cathedral (see E. Brunelli in L'Arte, Rome, 1901, 59; D. Scano, ibid. 204). Near the sacristy are also some Gothic chapels of the Aragonese period. The church was, however, remodelled in 1676, and the interior is baroque. Two fine silver candelabra, the tabernacle and the altar front are of the 17th century; and the treasury also contains some good silver work. (See D. Scano in Bolletino d'Arte, February 1907, p. 14; and E. Brunelli in L'Arte, 1907, p. 47.) The crypt contains three ancient sarcophagi. The façade, in the baroque style, was added in 1703. The university, a little farther north, the buildings of which were erected in 1764, has some 240 students. At the south extremity of the hill, on the site of the bastian of south Caterina, a large terrace, the Passeggiata Umberto Primo, has been constructed: it is much in use on summer evenings, and has a splendid view. Below it are covered promenades, and from it steps descend to the lower town, the oldest part of which (the so-called Marina), sloping gradually towards the sea, is probably the nucleus of the Roman municipium, while the quarter of Stampace lies to the west, and beyond it again the suburb of Sant' Avendrace. The northern portion of this, below the castle hill, is the older, while the part near the shore consists mainly of modern buildings of no great interest. To the east of the castle hill and the Marina is the quarter of Villanova, which contains the church of S. Saturnino, a domed church of the 8th century with a choir of the Pisan period. The harbour of Cagliari (along the north side of which runs a promenade called the Via Romo) is a good one, and has a considerable trade, exporting chiefly lead, zinc and other minerals and salt, the total annual value of exports amounting to nearly 1½ million sterling in value. The Campidano of Cagliari, the plain which begins at the north end of the lagoon of S. Gilla, is very fertile and much cultivated, as is also the district to the east round Quarto S. Elena, a village with 8459 inhabitants (1901). The national costumes are rarely now seen in the neighbourhood of Cagliari, except at certain festivals, especially that of S. Efisio (May 1-4) at Pula (see Nora). The methods of cultivation are primitive: the curious water-wheels, made of brushwood with pots tied on to them, and turned by a blindfolded donkey, may be noted. The ox-carts are often made with solid wheels, for greater strength. Prickly pear (opuntia) hedges are as frequent as in Sicily. Cagliari is considerably exposed to winds in winter, while in summer it is almost African in climate. The aqueduct was constructed in quite recent times, rain-water having previously given the only supply. The main line of railway runs north to Decimomannu (for Iglesias), Oristano, Macomer and Chilivani (for Golfo degli Aranci and Sassari); while another line (narrow-gauge) runs to Mandas (for Sorgono and Tortoli). There is also a tramway to Quarto S. Elena.

In A.D. 485 the whole of Sardinia was taken by the Vandals from Africa; but in 533 it was retaken by Justinian. In 687 Cagliari rose against the East Roman emperors, under Gialetus, one of the citizens, who made himself king of the whole island, his three brothers becoming governors of Torres (in the N.W.), Arborea (in the S.W.) and Gallura (in the N.E. of the island). The Saracens devastated it in the 8th century, but were driven out, and the island returned to the rule of kings, until they fell in the 10th century, their place being taken by four "judges" of the four provinces, Cagliari, Torres, Arborea and Gallura. In the 12th century Musatto, a Saracen, established himself in Cagliari, but was driven out with the help of the Pisans and Genoese. The Pisans soon acquired the sovereignty over the whole island with the exception of Arborea, which continued to be independent. In 1297 Boniface VIII. invested the kings of Aragon with Sardinia, and in 1326 they finally drove the Pisans out of Cagliari, and made it the seat of their government. In 1348 the island was devastated by the plague described by Boccaccio. It was not until 1403 that the kings of Aragon were able to conquer the district of Arborea, which, under the celebrated Eleonora (whose code of laws—the so-called Carta de Logu—was famous), offered a heroic resistance. In 1479 the native princes were deprived of all independence. The island remained in the hands of Spain until the peace of Utrecht (1714), by which it was assigned to Austria. In 1720 it was ceded by the latter, in exchange for Sicily, to the duke of Savoy, who assumed the title of king of Sardinia (Cagliari continuing to be the seat of government), and this remained the title of the house of Savoy until 1861. Cagliari was bombarded by the French fleet in 1793, but Napoleon's attempt to take the island failed.

(T. As.)

CAGLIOSTRO, ALESSANDRO, Count (1743-1793), Italian alchemist and impostor, was born at Palermo on the 8th of June 1743. Giuseppe Balsamo—for such was the "count's" real name—gave early indications of those talents which afterwards gained for him so wide a notoriety. He received the rudiments of his education at the monastery of Caltagirone in Sicily, but was expelled from it for misconduct and disowned by his relations. He now signalized himself by his dissolute life and the ingenuity with which he contrived to perpetrate forgeries and other crimes without exposing himself to the risk of detection. Having at last got into trouble with the authorities he fled from Sicily, and visited in succession Greece, Egypt, Arabia, Persia, Rhodes—where he took lessons in alchemy and the cognate sciences from the Greek Althotas—and Malta. There he presented himself to the grand master of the Maltese order as Count Cagliostro, and curried favour with him as a fellow alchemist, for the grand master's tastes lay in the same direction. From him he obtained introductions to the great houses of Rome and Naples, whither he now hastened. At Rome he married a beautiful but unprincipled woman, Lorenza Feliciani, with whom he travelled, under different names, through many parts of Europe. It is unnecessary to recount the various infamous means which he employed to pay his expenses during these journeys. He visited London and Paris in 1771, selling love-philtres, elixirs of youth, mixtures for making ugly women beautiful, alchemistic powders, &c., and deriving large profits from his trade. After further travels on the continent he returned to London, where he posed as the founder of a new system of freemasonry, and was well received in the best society, being adored by the ladies. He went to Germany and Holland once more, and to Russia, Poland, and then again to Paris, where, in 1785, he was implicated in the affair of the Diamond Necklace (q.v.); and although Cagliostro escaped conviction by the matchless impudence of his defence, he was imprisoned for other reasons in the Bastille. On his liberation he visited England once more, where he succeeded well at first; but was ultimately outwitted by some English lawyers, and confined for a while in the Fleet prison. Leaving England, he travelled through Europe as far as Rome, where he was arrested in 1789. He was tried and condemned to death for being a heretic, but the sentence was commuted to perpetual imprisonment, while his wife was immured in a convent. He died in the fortress prison of San Leo in 1795.

The best account of the life, adventures and character of Giuseppe Balsamo is contained in Carlyle's Miscellanies. Dumas's novel, Memoirs of a Physician, is founded on his adventures; see also a series of papers in the Dublin University Magazine, vols. lxxviii. and lxxix.; Memorial, or Brief for Cagliostro in the Cause of Card. de Rohan, &c. (Fr.) by P. Macmahon (1786); Compendio della vita e delle gesta di Giuseppe Balsamo denominato il conte di Cagliostro (Rome, 1791); Sierke, Schwarmer und Schwindler zu Ende des XVIII. Jahrhunderts (1875); and the sketch of his life in D. Silvagni's La Corte e la Società Romana nei secoli XVIII. e XIX. vol. i. (Florence, 1881).

(L. V.*)

CAGNIARD DE LA TOUR, CHARLES (1777-1859), French engineer and physicist, was born in Paris on the 31st of March 1777, and after attending the École Polytechnique became one of the ingénieurs géographiques. He was made a baron in 1818, and died in Paris on the 5th of July 1859. He was the author of numerous inventions, including the cagniardelle, a blowing machine, which consists essentially of an Archimedean screw set obliquely in a tank of water in such a way that its lower end is completely and its upper end partially immersed, and operated by being rotated in the opposite direction to that required for raising water. In acoustics he invented, about 1819, the improved siren which is known by his name, using it for ascertaining the number of vibrations corresponding to a sound of any particular pitch, and he also made experiments on the mechanism of voice-production. In course of an investigation in 1822-1823 on the effects of heat and pressure on certain liquids he found that for each there was a certain temperature above which it refused to remain liquid but passed into the gaseous state, no matter what the amount of pressure to which it was subjected, and in the case of water he determined this critical temperature, with a remarkable approach to accuracy, to be 362°C. He also studied the nature of yeast and the influence of extreme cold upon its life.

CAGNOLA, LUIGI, Marchese (1762-1833), Italian architect, was born on the 9th of June 1762 in Milan. He was sent at the age of fourteen to the Clementine College at Rome, and afterwards studied at the university of Pavia. He was intended for the legal profession, but his passion for architecture was too strong, and after holding some government posts at Milan, he entered as a competitor for the construction of the Porta Orientale. His designs were commended, but were not selected on account of the expense their adoption would have involved. From that time Cagnola devoted himself entirely to architecture. After the death of his father he spent two years in Verona and Venice, studying the architectural structures of these cities. In 1806 he was called upon to erect a triumphal arch for the marriage of Eugene Beauharnais with the princess of Bavaria. The arch was of wood, but was of such beauty that it was resolved to carry it out in marble. The result was the magnificent Arco della Pace in Milan, surpassed in dimensions only by the Arc de l'Étoile at Paris. Among other works executed by Cagnola are the Porta di Marengo at Milan, the campanile at Urgnano, and the chapel of Santa Marcellina in Milan. He died on the 14th of August 1833, five years before the completion of the Arco del Sempione, which he designed for his native city.

CAGOTS, a people found in the Basque provinces, Béarn, Gascony and Brittany. The earliest mention of them is in 1288, when they appear to have been called Christiens or Christianos. In the 16th century they had many names, Cagots, Gahets, Gafets in France; Agotes, Gafos in Spain; and Cacons, Cahets, Caqueux and Caquins in Brittany. During the middle ages they were popularly looked upon as cretins, lepers, heretics and even as cannibals. They were shunned and hated; were allotted separate quarters in towns, called cagoteries, and lived in wretched huts in the country distinct from the villages. Excluded from all political and social rights, they were only allowed to enter a church by a special door, and during the service a rail separated them from the other worshippers. Either they were altogether forbidden to partake of the sacrament, or the holy wafer was handed to them on the end of a stick, while a receptacle for holy water was reserved for their exclusive use. They were compelled to wear a distinctive dress, to which, in some places, was attached the foot of a goose or duck (whence they were sometimes called Canards). And so pestilential was their touch considered that it was a crime for them to walk the common road barefooted. The only trades allowed them were those of butcher and carpenter, and their ordinary occupation was wood-cutting. Their language is merely a corrupt form of that spoken around them; but a Teutonic origin seems to be indicated by their fair complexions and blue eyes. Their crania have a normal development; their cheek-bones are high; their noses prominent, with large nostrils; their lips straight; and they are marked by the absence of the auricular lobules.

The origin of the Cagots is undecided. Littré defines them as "a people of the Pyrenees affected with a kind of cretinism." It has been suggested that they were descendants of the Visigoths, and Michael derives the name from caas (dog) and Goth. But opposed to this etymology is the fact that the word cagot is first found in the for of Béarn not earlier than 1551. Marca, in his Histoire de Béarn, holds that the word signifies "hunters of the Goths," and that the Cagots are descendants of the Saracens. Others made them descendants of the Albigenses. The old MSS. call them Chrétiens or Chrestiaas, and from this it has been argued that they were Visigoths who originally lived as Christians among the Gascon pagans. A far more probable explanation of their name "Chrétiens" is to be found in the fact that in medieval times all lepers were known as pauperes Christi, and that, Goths or not, these Cagots were affected in the middle ages with a particular form of leprosy or a condition resembling it. Thus would arise the confusion between Christians and Cretins. To-day their descendants are not more subject to goitre and cretinism than those dwelling around them, and are recognized by tradition and not by features or physical degeneracy. It was not until the French Revolution that any steps were taken to ameliorate their lot, but to-day they no longer form a class, but have been practically lost sight of in the general peasantry.

See Francisque Michel, Histoire des races maudites de France et d'Espagne (Paris, 1846); Abbé Venuti, Recherches sur les Cahets de Bordeaux (1754); Bulletins de la société anthropologique (1861, 1867, 1868, 1871); Annales medico-psychologiques (Jan. 1867); Lagneau, Questionnaire sur l'ethnologie de la France; Paul Raymond, Mœurs béarnaises (Pau, 1872); V. de Rochas, Les Parias de France et d'Espagne (Cagots et Bohémiens) (Paris, 1877); J. Hack Tuke, Jour. Anthropological Institute (vol. ix., 1880).

CAHER (or Cahir), a market-town of Co. Tipperary, Ireland, in the south parliamentary division, beautifully situated on the river Suir at the foot of the Galtee Mountains. Pop. (1901) 2058. It stands midway between Clonmel and Tipperary town on the Waterford and Limerick line of the Great Southern and Western railway, 124 m. S.W. from Dublin. It is the centre of a rich agricultural district, and there is some industry in flour-milling. Its name (cathair, stone fortress) implies a high antiquity and the site of the castle, picturesquely placed on an island in the river, was occupied from very early times. Here was a fortress-palace of Munster, originally called Dun-iasgach, the suffix signifying "abounding in fish." The present castle dates from 1142, being built by O'Connor, lord of Thomond, and is well restored. It was besieged during the wars of 1599 and 1647, and by Cromwell. Among the fine environs of the town the demesne of Caher Park is especially noteworthy. The Mitchelstown stalactite caverns, 10 m. S.W., and the finely-placed Norman castle of Ardfinnan, on a precipitous crag 6 m. down the Suir, are other neighbouring features of interest, while the Galtee Mountains, reaching in Galtymore a height of 3015 ft., command admirable prospects.

CAHITA, a group of North American Indians, mainly of the Mayo and Yaqui tribes, found chiefly in Mexico, belonging to the Piman family, and numbering some 40,000.

CAHOKIA, the name of a North American Indian tribe of the Illinois confederacy, and of their mission station, near St Louis. The "Cahokia mound" there (a model of which is in the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass.) is interesting as the largest pre-historic earth-work in America.

CAHORS, a city of south-western France, capital of the department of Lot, 70 m. N. of Toulouse, on the railway between that city and Limoges. Pop. (1906) 10,047. Cahors stands on the right bank of the river Lot, occupying a rocky peninsula formed by a bend in the stream. It is divided into two portions by the Boulevard Gambetta, which runs from the Pont Louis Philippe on the south to within a short distance of the fortified wall of the 14th and 15th centuries enclosing the town on the north. To the east lies the old town, with its dark narrow streets and closely-packed houses; west of the Boulevard a newer quarter, with spacious squares and promenades, stretches to the bank of the river. Cahors communicates with the opposite shore by three bridges. One of these, the Pont Valentré to the west of the town, is the finest fortified bridge of the middle ages in France. It is a structure of the early 14th century, restored in the 19th century, and is defended at either end by high machicolated towers, another tower, less elaborate, surmounting the centre pier. The east bridge, the Pont Neuf, also dates from the 14th century. The cathedral of St Étienne stands in the heart of the old town. It dates from the 12th century, but was entirely restored in the 13th century. Its exterior, for the most part severe in appearance, is relieved by some fine sculpture, that of the north portal being especially remarkable. The nave, which is without aisles, is surmounted by two cupolas; its interior is whitewashed and plain in appearance, while the choir is decorated with medieval paintings. Adjoining the church to the south-east there are remains of a cloister built from 1494 to 1509. St Urcisse, the chief of the other ecclesiastical buildings, stands near the cathedral. Dating from the 12th and 13th centuries, it preserves Romanesque capitals recarved in the 14th century. The principal of the civil buildings is the palace of Pope John XXII., built at the beginning of the 14th century; a massive square tower is still standing, but the rest is in ruins. The residence of the seneschals of Quercy, a building of the 14th to the 17th centuries, known as the Logis du Roi, also remains. The chief of the old houses, of which there are many in Cahors, is one of the 15th century, known as the Maison d'Henri IV. Most of the state buildings are modern, with the exception of the prefecture which occupies the old episcopal palace, and the old convent and the Jesuit college in which the Lycée Gambetta is established. The Porte de Diane is a large archway of the Roman period, probably the entrance to the baths. Of the commemorative monuments, the finest is that erected in the Place d'Armes to Gambetta, who was a native of the town. There is also a statue of the poet Clément Marot, born at Cahors in 1496. Cahors is the seat of a bishopric, a prefect and a court of assizes. It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. There are also training colleges, a lycée, a communal college for girls, an ecclesiastical seminary, a library, museum and hospital. The manufacture of farm implements, tanning, wool-spinning, metal-founding, distilling and the preparation of pâté de foie gras and other delicacies are carried on. Wine, nuts, oil of nuts, tobacco, truffles and plums are leading articles of commerce.

History.—Before the Roman conquest, Cahors, which grew up near the sacred fountain of Divona (now known as the Fontaine des Chartreux), was the capital of the Cadurci. Under the Romans it enjoyed a prosperity partly due to its manufacture of cloth and of mattresses, which were exported even to Rome. The first bishop of Cahors, St Genulfus, appears to have lived in the 3rd century. In the middle ages the town was the capital of Quercy, and its territory until after the Albigensian Crusade was a fief of the counts of Toulouse. The seigniorial rights, including that of coining money, belonged to the bishops. In the 13th century Cahors was a financial centre of much importance owing to its colony of Lombard bankers, and the name cahorsin consequently came to signify "banker" or "usurer." At the beginning of the century a commune was organized in the town. Its constant opposition to the bishops drove them, in 1316, to come to an arrangement with the French king, by which the administration of the town was placed almost entirely in the hands of royal officers, king and bishop being co-seigneurs. This arrangement survived till the Revolution. In 1331 Pope John XXII., a native of Cahors, founded there a university, which afterwards numbered Jacques Cujas among its teachers and François Fénelon among its students. It flourished till 1751, when it was united to its rival the university of Toulouse. During the Hundred Years' War, Cahors, like the rest of Quercy, consistently resisted the English occupation, from which it was relieved in 1428. In the 16th century it belonged to the viscounts of Béarn, but remained Catholic and rose against Henry of Navarre who took it by assault in 1580. On his accession Henry IV. punished the town by depriving it of its privileges as a wine-market; the loss of these was the chief cause of its decline.

CAIATIA (mod. Caiazzo), an ancient city of Campania, on the right bank of the Volturnus, 11 m. N.E. of Capua, on the road between it and Telesia. It was already in the hands of the Romans in 306 B.C., and since in the 3rd century B.C. it issued copper coins with a Latin legend it must have had the civitas sine suffragio. In the Social War it rebelled from Rome, and its territory was added to that of Capua by Sulla. In the imperial period, however, we find it once more a municipium. Caiatia has remains of Cyclopean walls, and under the Piazza del Mercato is a large Roman cistern, which still provides a good water supply. The episcopal see was founded in A.D. 966. The place is frequently confused with Calatia (q.v.).

CAIETAE PORTUS (mod. Gaeta), an ancient harbour of Latium adiectum, Italy, in the territory of Formiae, from which it is 5 m. S.W. The name (originally Αἰήτη) is generally derived from the nurse of Aeneas. The harbour, owing to its fine anchorage, was much in use, but the place was never a separate town, but always dependent on Formiae. Livy mentions a temple of Apollo. The coast of the Gulf not only between Caietae Portus and Formiae, but E. of the latter also, as far as the modern Monte Scauri, was a favourite summer resort (see Formia). Cicero may have had villas both at Portus Caietae and at Formiae proper, and the emperors certainly possessed property at both places. After the destruction of Formiae in A.D. 847 it became one of the most important seaports of central Italy (see Gaeta). In the town are scanty remains of an amphitheatre and theatre: near the church of La Trinità, higher up, are remains of a large reservoir. There are also traces of an aqueduct. The promontory (548 ft.) is crowned by the tomb of Munatius Plancus, founder of Lugudunum (mod. Lyons), who died after 22 B.C. It is a circular structure of blocks of travertine 160 ft. high and 180 ft. in diameter. Further inland is the so-called tomb of L. Atratinus, about 100 ft. in diameter. Caietae Portus was no doubt connected with the Via Appia (which passed through Formiae) by a deverticulum. There seems also to have been a road running W.N.W. along the precipitous coast to Speluncae (mod. Sperlonga).

See E. Gesualdo Osservazioni critiche sopra la storia della Via Appia di Pratilli p. 7 (Naples, 1754).

(T. As.)

The two places are sufficiently close for the one villa to have borne both names; but Mommsen (Corp. Inscrip. Lat. x., Berlin, 1883, p. 603) prefers to differentiate them.

CAILLIÉ (or Caillé), RENÉ AUGUSTE (1799-1838), French explorer, was born at Mauzé, Poitou, in 1799, the son of a baker. The reading of Robinson Crusoe kindled in him a love of travel and adventure, and at the age of sixteen he made a voyage to Senegal whence he went to Guadeloupe. Returning to Senegal in 1818 he made a journey to Bondu to carry supplies to a British expedition then in that country. Ill with fever he was obliged to go back to France, but in 1824 was again in Senegal with the fixed idea of penetrating to Timbuktu. He spent eight months with the Brakna "Moors" living north of Senegal river, learning Arabic and being taught, as a convert, the laws and customs of Islam. He laid his project of reaching Timbuktu before the governor of Senegal, but receiving no encouragement went to Sierra Leone where the British authorities made him superintendent of an indigo plantation. Having saved £80 he joined a Mandingo caravan going inland. He was dressed as a Mussulman, and gave out that he was an Arab from Egypt who had been carried off by the French to Senegal and was desirous of regaining his own country. Starting from Kakundi near Boké on the Rio Nunez on 19th of April 1827, he travelled east along the hills of Futa Jallon, passing the head streams of the Senegal and crossing the Upper Niger at Kurussa. Still going east he came to the Kong highlands, where at a place called Timé he was detained five months by illness. Resuming his journey in January 1828 he went north-east and gained the city of Jenné, whence he continued his journey to Timbuktu by water. After spending a fortnight (20th April-4th May) in Timbuktu he joined a caravan crossing the Sahara to Morocco, reaching Fez on the 12th of August. From Tangier he returned to France. He had been preceded at Timbuktu by a British officer, Major Gordon Laing, but Laing had been murdered (1826) on leaving the city and Caillié was the first to accomplish the journey in safety. He was awarded the prize of £400 offered by the Geographical Society of Paris to the first traveller who should gain exact information of Timbuktu, to be compared with that given by Mungo Park. He also received the order of the Legion of Honour, a pension, and other distinctions, and it was at the public expense that his Journal d'un voyage à Temboctou et à Jenne dans l'Afrique Centrale, etc. (edited by E.F. Jomard) was published in three volumes in 1830. Caillié died at Badère in 1838 of a malady contracted during his African travels. For the greater part of his life he spelt his name Caillié, afterwards omitting the second "i."

See Dr Robert Brown's The Story of Africa, vol. i. chap. xii. (London, 1892); Goepp and Cordier, Les Grands Hommes de France, voyageurs: René Caillé (Paris, 1885); E.F. Jomard, Notice historique sur la vie et les voyages de R. Caillié (Paris, 1839). An English version of Caillié's Journal was published in London in 1830 in two volumes under the title of Travels through Central Africa to Timbuctoo, &c.

CAIN, in the Bible, the eldest son of Adam and Eve (Gen. iv.), was a tiller of the ground, whilst his younger brother, Abel, was a keeper of sheep. Enraged because the Lord accepted Abel's offering, and rejected his own, he slew his brother in the field (see Abel). For this a curse was pronounced upon him, and he was condemned to be a "fugitive and a wanderer" on the earth, a mark being set upon him "lest any finding him should kill him." He took up his abode in the land of Nod ("wandering") on the east of Eden, where he built a city, which he named after his son Enoch. The narrative presents a number of difficulties, which early commentators sought to solve with more ingenuity than success. But when it is granted that the ancient Hebrews, like other primitive peoples, had their own mythical and traditional figures, the story of Cain becomes less obscure. The mark set upon Cain is usually regarded as some tribal mark or sign analogous to the cattle marks of Bedouin and the related usages in Europe. Such marks had often a religious significance, and denoted that the bearer was a follower of a particular deity. The suggestion has been made that the name Cain is the eponym of the Kenites, and although this clan has a good name almost everywhere in the Old Testament, yet in Num. xxiv. 22 its destruction is foretold, and the Amalekites, of whom they formed a division, are consistently represented as the inveterate enemies of Yahweh and of his people Israel. The story of Cain and Abel, which appears to represent the nomad life as a curse, may be an attempt to explain the origin of an existence which in the eyes of the settled agriculturist was one of continual restlessness, whilst at the same time it endeavours to find a reason for the institution of blood-revenge on the theory that at some remote age a man (or tribe) had killed his brother (or brother tribe). Cain's subsequent founding of a city finds a parallel in the legend of the origin of Rome through the swarms of outlaws and broken men of all kinds whom Romulus attracted thither. The list of Cain's descendants reflects the old view of the beginnings of civilization; it is thrown into the form of a genealogy and is parallel to Gen. v. (see Genesis). It finds its analogy in the Phoenician account of the origin of different inventions which Eusebius (Praep. Evang. i. 10) quotes from Philo of Byblus (Gebal), and probably both go back to a common Babylonian origin.

On this question, see Driver, Genesis (Westminster Comm., London, 1904), p. 80 seq.; A. Jeremias, Alte Test. im Lichte d. Alten Orients (Leipzig, 1906), pp. 220 seq.; also Enoch, Lamech. On the story of Cain, see especially Stade, Akademische Reden, pp. 229-273; Ed. Meyer, Israeliten, pp. 395 sqq.; A.R. Gordon, Early Trad. Genesis (Index). Literary criticism (see Cheyne, Encycl. Bib. col. 620-628, and 4411-4417) has made it extremely probable that Cain the nomad and outlaw (Gen. iv. 1-16) was originally distinct from Cain the city-builder (vv. 17 sqq.). The latter was perhaps regarded as a "smith," cp. v. 22 where Tubal-cain is the "father" of those who work in bronze (or copper). That the Kenites, too, were a race of metal-workers is quite uncertain, although even at the present day the smiths in Arabia form a distinct nomadic class. Whatever be the meaning of the name, the words put into Eve's mouth (v. 1) probably are not an etymology, but an assonance (Driver). It is noteworthy that Kenan, son of Enosh ("man," Gen. v. 9), appears in Sabaean inscriptions of South Arabia as the name of a tribal-god.

A Gnostic sect of the 2nd century was known by the name of Cainites. They are first mentioned by Irenaeus, who connects them with the Valentinians. They believed that Cain derived his existence from the superior power, and Abel from the inferior power, and that in this respect he was the first of a line which included Esau, Korah, the Sodomites and Judas Iscariot.

(S. A. C.)

CAINE, THOMAS HENRY HALL (1853- ), British novelist and dramatist, was born of mixed Manx and Cumberland parentage at Runcorn, Cheshire, on the 14th of May 1853. He was educated with a view to becoming an architect, but turned to journalism, becoming a leader-writer on the Liverpool Mercury. He came up to London at the suggestion of D.G. Rossetti, with whom he had had some correspondence, and lived with the poet for some time before his death. He published a volume of Recollections of Rossetti (1882), and also some critical work; but in 1885 he began an extremely successful career as a novelist of a melodramatic type with The Shadow of a Crime, followed by The Son of Hagar (1886), The Deemster (1887), The Bondman (1890), The Scapegoat (1891), The Manxman (1894), The Christian (1897), The Eternal City (1901), and The Prodigal Son (1904). His writings on Manx subjects were acknowledged by his election in 1901 to represent Ramsey in the House of Keys. The Deemster, The Manxman and The Christian had already been produced in dramatic form, when The Eternal City was staged with magnificent accessories by Mr Beerbohm Tree in 1902, and in 1905 The Prodigal Son had a successful run at Drury Lane.

See C.F. Kenyon, Hall Caine; The Man and the Novelist (1901); and the novelist's autobiography, My Story (1908).

CA'ING WHALE (Globicephalus melas), a large representative of the dolphin tribe frequenting the coasts of Europe, the Atlantic coast of North America, the Cape and New Zealand. From its nearly uniform black colour it is also called the "black-fish." Its maximum length is about 20 ft. These cetaceans are gregarious and inoffensive in disposition and feed chiefly on cuttle-fish. Their sociable character constantly leads to their destruction, as when attacked they instinctively rush together, and blindly follow the leaders of the herd, whence the names pilot-whale and ca'ing (or driving) whale. Many hundreds at a time are thus frequently driven ashore and killed, when a herd enters one of the bays or fiords of the Faeroe Islands or north of Scotland. The ca'ing whale of the North Pacific has been distinguished as G. scammoni, while one from the Atlantic coast, south of New Jersey, and another from the bay of Bengal, are possibly also distinct. (See Cetacea.)

CAINOZOIC (from the Gr. καινός, recent, ζωή, life), also written Cenozoic (American), Kainozoisch, Cänozoisch (German), Cénozoaire (Renevier), in geology, the name given to the youngest of the three great eras of geological time, the other two being the Mesozoic and Palaeozoic eras. Some authors have employed the term "Neozoic" (Neozoisch) with the same significance, others have restricted its application to the Tertiary epoch (Néozoique, De Lapparent). The "Neogene" of Hörnes (1853) included the Miocene and Pliocene periods; Renevier subsequently modified its form to Néogénique. The remaining Tertiary periods were classed as Paléogaen by Naumaun in 1866. The word "Neocene" has been used in place of Neozoic, but its employment is open to objection.

Some confusion has been introduced by the use of the term Cainozoic to include, on the one hand, the Tertiary period alone, and on the other hand, to make it include both the Tertiary and the post-Tertiary or Quaternary epochs; and in order that it may bear a relationship to the concepts of time and faunal development similar to those indicated by the terms Mesozoic and Palaeozoic it is advisable to restrict its use to the latter alternative. Thus the Cainozoic era would embrace all the geological periods from Eocene to Recent. (See Tertiary and Pleistocene.)

(J. A. H.)

CAÏQUE (from Turk. Kaik), a light skiff or rowing-boat used by the Turks, having from one to twelve rowers; also a Levantine sailing vessel of considerable size.

ÇA IRA, a song of the French Revolution, with the refrain:—

"Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira!

Les aristocrates à la lanterne."

The words, written by one Ladré, a street singer, were put to an older tune, called "Le Carillon National," and the song rivalled the "Carmagnole" (q.v.) during the Terror. It was forbidden by the Directory.

CAIRD, EDWARD (1835-1908), British philosopher and theologian, brother of John Caird (q.v.), was born at Greenock on the 22nd of March 1835, and educated at Glasgow University and Balliol College, Oxford. He took a first class in moderations in 1862 and in Literae humaniores in 1863, and was Pusey and Ellerton scholar in 1861. From 1864 to 1866 he was fellow and tutor of Merton College. In 1866 he became professor of moral philosophy in the university of Glasgow, and in 1893 succeeded Benjamin Jowett as master of Balliol. With Thomas Hill Green he founded in England a school of orthodox neo-Hegelianism (see Hegel, ad fin.), and through his pupils he exerted a far-reaching influence on English philosophy and theology. Owing to failing health he gave up his lectures in 1904, and in May 1906 resigned his mastership, in which he was succeeded by James Leigh Strachan-Davidson, who had previously for some time, as senior tutor and fellow, borne the chief burden of college administration. Dr Caird received the honorary degree of D.C.L. in 1892; he was made a corresponding member of the French Academy of Moral and Political Science and a fellow of the British Academy. His publications include Philosophy of Kant (1878); Critical Philosophy of Kant (1889); Religion and Social Philosophy of Comte (1885); Essays on Literature and Philosophy (1892); Evolution of Religion (Gifford Lectures, 1891-1892); Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers (1904); and he is represented in this encyclopaedia by the article on Cartesianism. He died on the 1st of November 1908.

For a criticism of Dr Caird's theology, see A.W. Benn, English Rationalism in the 19th Century (London, 1906).

CAIRD, JOHN (1820-1898), Scottish divine and philosopher, was born at Greenock on the 15th of December 1820. In his sixteenth year he entered the office of his father, who was partner and manager of a firm of engineers. Two years later, however, he obtained leave to continue his studies at Glasgow University. After a year of academic life he tried business again, but in 1840 he gave it up finally and returned to college. In 1845 he entered the ministry of the Church of Scotland, and after holding several livings accepted the chair of divinity at Glasgow in 1862. During these years he won a foremost place among the preachers of Scotland. In theology he was a Broad Churchman, seeking always to emphasize the permanent elements in religion, and ignoring technicalities. In 1873 he was appointed vice-chancellor and principal of Glasgow University. He delivered the Gifford Lectures in 1892-1893 and in 1895-1896. His Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion (1880) is an attempt to show the essential rationality of religion. It is idealistic in character, being in fact a reproduction of Hegelian teaching in clear and melodious language. His argument for the Being of God is based on the hypothesis that thought—not individual but universal—is the reality of all things, the existence of this Infinite Thought being demonstrated by the limitations of finite thought. Again his Gifford Lectures are devoted to the proof of the truth of Christianity on grounds of right reason alone. Caird wrote also an excellent study of Spinoza, in which he showed the latent Hegelianism of the great Jewish philosopher. He died on the 30th of July 1898.

CAIRN (in Gaelic and Welsh, Carn), a heap of stones piled up in a conical form. In modern times cairns are often erected as landmarks. In ancient times they were erected as sepulchral monuments. The Duan Eireanach, an ancient Irish poem, describes the erection of a family cairn; and the Senchus Mor, a collection of ancient Irish laws, prescribes a fine of three three-year-old heifers for "not erecting the tomb of thy chief." Meetings of the tribes were held at them, and the inauguration of a new chief took place on the cairn of one of his predecessors. It is mentioned in the Annals of the Four Masters that, in 1225, the O'Connor was inaugurated on the cairn of Fraech, the son of Fiodhach of the red hair. In medieval times cairns are often referred to as boundary marks, though probably not originally raised for that purpose. In a charter by King Alexander II. (1221), granting the lands of Burgyn to the monks of Kinloss, the boundary is described as passing "from the great oak in Malevin as far as the Rune Pictorum," which is explained as "the Carne of the Pecht's fieldis." In Highland districts small cairns used to be erected, even in recent times, at places where the coffin of a distinguished person was "rested" on its way to the churchyard. Memorial cairns are still occasionally erected, as, for instance, the cairn raised in memory of the prince consort at Balmoral, and "Maule's Cairn," in Glenesk, erected by the earl of Dalhousie in 1866, in memory of himself and certain friends specified by name in the inscription placed upon it. (See Barrow.)

CAIRNES, JOHN ELLIOTT (1823-1875), British political economist, was born at Castle Bellingham, Ireland, in 1823. After leaving school he spent some years in the counting-house of his father, a brewer. His tastes, however, lay altogether in the direction of study, and he was permitted to enter Trinity College, Dublin, where he took the degree of B.A. in 1848, and six years later that of M.A. After passing through the curriculum of arts he engaged in the study of law and was called to the Irish bar. But he felt no very strong inclination for the legal profession, and during some years he occupied himself to a large extent with contributions to the daily press, treating of the social and economical questions that affected Ireland. He devoted most attention to political economy, which he studied with great thoroughness and care. While residing in Dublin he made the acquaintance of Archbishop Whately, who conceived a very high respect for his character and abilities. In 1856 a vacancy occurred in the chair of political economy at Dublin founded by Whately, and Cairnes received the appointment. In accordance with the regulations of the foundation, the lectures of his first year's course were published. The book appeared in 1857 with the title Character and Logical Method of Political Economy. It follows up and expands J.S. Mill's treatment in the Essays on some Unsettled Questions in Political Economy, and forms an admirable introduction to the study of economics as a science. In it the author's peculiar powers of thought and expression are displayed to the best advantage. Logical exactness, precision of language, and firm grasp of the true nature of economic facts, are the qualities characteristic of this as of all his other works. If the book had done nothing more, it would still have conferred inestimable benefit on political economists by its clear exposition of the true nature and meaning of the ambiguous term "law." To the view of the province and method of political economy expounded in this early work the author always remained true, and several of his later essays, such as those on Political Economy and Land, Political Economy and Laissez-Faire, are but reiterations of the same doctrine. His next contribution to economical science was a series of articles on the gold question, published partly in Fraser's Magazine, in which the probable consequences of the increased supply of gold attendant on the Australian and Californian gold discoveries were analysed with great skill and ability. And a critical article on M. Chevalier's work On the Probable Fall in the Value of Gold appeared in the Edinburgh Review for July 1860.

In 1861 Cairnes was appointed to the professorship of political economy and jurisprudence in Queen's College, Galway, and in the following year he published his admirable work The Slave Power, one of the finest specimens of applied economical philosophy. The inherent disadvantages of the employment of slave labour were exposed with great fulness and ability, and the conclusions arrived at have taken their place among the recognized doctrines of political economy. The opinions expressed by Cairnes as to the probable issue of the war in America were largely verified by the actual course of events, and the appearance of the book had a marked influence on the attitude taken by serious political thinkers in England towards the southern states.

During the remainder of his residence at Galway Professor Cairnes published nothing beyond some fragments and pamphlets mainly upon Irish questions. The most valuable of these papers are the series devoted to the consideration of university education. His health, at no time very good, was still further weakened in 1865 by a fall from his horse. He was ever afterwards incapacitated from active exertion and was constantly liable to have his work interfered with by attacks of illness. In 1866 he was appointed professor of political economy in University College, London. He was compelled to spend the session 1868-1869 in Italy but on his return continued to lecture till 1872. During his last session he conducted a mixed class, ladies being admitted to his lectures. His health soon rendered it impossible for him to discharge his public duties; he resigned his post in 1872, and retired with the honorary title of emeritus professor of political economy. In 1873 his own university conferred on him the degree of LL.D. He died at Blackheath, near London, on the 8th of July 1875.

The last years of his life were spent in the collection and publication of some scattered papers contributed to various reviews and magazines, and in the preparation of his most extensive and important work. The Political Essays, published in 1873, comprise all his papers relating to Ireland and its university system, together with some other articles of a somewhat similar nature. The Essays in Political Economy, Theoretical and Applied, which appeared in the same year, contain the essays towards a solution of the gold question, brought up to date and tested by comparison with statistics of prices. Among the other articles in the volume the more important are the criticisms on Bastiat and Comte, and the essays on Political Economy and Land, and on Political Economy and Laissez-Faire, which have been referred to above. In 1874 appeared his largest work, Some Leading Principles of Political Economy, newly Expounded, which is beyond doubt a worthy successor to the great treatises of Smith, Malthus, Ricardo and Mill. It does not expound a completed system of political economy; many important doctrines are left untouched; and in general the treatment of problems is not such as would be suited for a systematic manual. The work is essentially a commentary on some of the principal doctrines of the English school of economists, such as value, cost of production, wages, labour and capital, and international values, and is replete with keen criticism and lucid illustration. While in fundamental harmony with Mill, especially as regards the general conception of the science, Cairnes differs from him to a greater or less extent on nearly all the cardinal doctrines, subjects his opinions to a searching examination, and generally succeeds in giving to the truth that is common to both a firmer basis and a more precise statement. The last labour to which he devoted himself was a republication of his first work on the Logical Method of Political Economy.

Taken as a whole the works of Cairnes formed the most important contribution to economical science made by the English school since the publication of J.S. Mill's Principles. It is not possible to indicate more than generally the special advances in economic doctrine effected by him, but the following points may be noted as establishing for him a claim to a place beside Ricardo and Mill: (1) His exposition of the province and method of political economy. He never suffers it to be forgotten that political economy is a science, and consequently that its results are entirely neutral with respect to social facts or systems. It has simply to trace the necessary connexions among the phenomena of wealth and dictates no rules for practice. Further, he is distinctly opposed both to those who would treat political economy as an integral part of social philosophy, and to those who have attempted to express economic facts in quantitative formulae and to make economy a branch of applied mathematics. According to him political economy is a mixed science, its field being partly mental, partly physical. It may be called a positive science, because its premises are facts, but it is hypothetical in so far as the laws it lays down are only approximately true, i.e. are only valid in the absence of counteracting agencies. From this view of the nature of the science, it follows at once that the method to be pursued must be that called by Mill the physical or concrete deductive, which starts from certain known causes, investigates their consequences and verifies or tests the result by comparison with facts of experience. It may, perhaps, be thought that Cairnes gives too little attention to the effects of the organism of society on economic facts, and that he is disposed to overlook what Bagehot called the postulates of political economy. (2) His analysis of cost of production in its relation to value. According to Mill, the universal elements in cost of production are the wages of labour and the profits of capital. To this theory Cairnes objects that wages, being remuneration, can in no sense be considered as cost, and could only have come to be regarded as cost in consequence of the whole problem being treated from the point of view of the capitalist, to whom, no doubt, the wages paid represent cost. The real elements of cost of production he looks upon as labour, abstinence and risk, the second of these falling mainly, though not necessarily, upon the capitalist. In this analysis he to a considerable extent follows and improves upon Senior, who had previously defined cost of production as the sum of the labour and abstinence necessary to production. (3) His exposition of the natural or social limit to free competition, and of its bearing on the theory of value. He points out that in any organized society there can hardly be the ready transference of capital from one employment to another, which is the indispensable condition of free competition; while class distinctions render it impossible for labour to transfer itself readily to new occupations. Society may thus be regarded as consisting of a series of non-competing industrial groups, with free competition among the members of any one group or class. Now the only condition under which cost of production will regulate value is perfect competition. It follows that the normal value of commodities—the value which gives to the producers the average and usual remuneration—will depend upon cost of production only when the exchange is confined to the members of one class, among whom there is free competition. In exchange between classes or non-competing industrial groups, the normal value is simply a case of international value, and depends upon reciprocal demand, that is to say, is such as will satisfy the equation of demand. This theory is a substantial contribution to economical science and throws great light upon the general problem of value. At the same time, it may be thought that Cairnes overlooked a point brought forward prominently by Senior, who also had called attention to the bearing of competition on the relation between cost of production and value. The cost to the producer fixes the limit below which the price cannot fall without the supply being affected; but it is the desire of the consumer—i.e. what he is willing to give up rather than be compelled to produce the commodity for himself—that fixes the maximum value of the article. To treat the whole problem of natural or normal value from the point of view of the producer is to give but a one-sided theory of the facts. (4) His defence of the wages fund doctrine. This doctrine, expounded by Mill in his Principles, had been relinquished by him, but Cairnes still undertook to defend it. He certainly succeeded in removing from the theory much that had tended to obscure its real meaning and in placing it in its very best aspect. He also showed the sense in which, when treating the problem of wages, we must refer to some fund devoted to the payment of wages, and pointed out the conditions under which the wages fund may increase or decrease. It may be added that his Leading Principles contain admirable discussions on trade unions and protection, together with a clear analysis of the difficult theory of international trade and value, in which there is much that is both novel and valuable. The Logical Method contains about the best exposition and defence of Ricardo's theory of rent; and the Essays contain a very clear and formidable criticism of Bastiat's economic doctrines.

Professor Cairnes's son, Captain W.E. Cairnes (1862-1906), was an able writer on military subjects, being author of An Absent-minded War (1900), The Coming Waterloo (1905), &c.

CAIRNGORM, a yellow or brown variety of quartz, named from Cairngorm or Cairngorum, one of the peaks of the Grampian Mountains in Banffshire, Scotland. According to Mr E.H. Cunningham-Craig, the mineral occurs in crystals lining cavities in highly-inclined veins of a fine-grained granite running through the coarser granite of the main mass: Shallow pits were formerly dug in the kaolinized granite for sake of the cairngorm and the mineral was also found as pebbles in the bed of the river Avon. Cairngorm is a favourite ornamental stone in Scotland, being set in the lids of snuff-mulls, in the handles of dirks and in brooches for Highland costume. A rich sherry-yellow colour is much esteemed. Quartz of yellow and brown colour is often known in trade as "false topaz," or simply "topaz." Such quartz is found at many localities in Brazil, Russia and Spain. Much of the yellow quartz used in jewellery is said to be "burnt amethyst"; that is, it was originally amethystine quartz, the colour of which has been modified by heat (see Amethyst). Yellow quartz is sometimes known as citrine; when the quartz presents a pale brown tint it is called "smoky quartz"; and when the brown is so deep that the stone appears almost black it is termed morion. The brown colour has been referred to the presence of titanium.

CAIRNS, HUGH MCCALMONT CAIRNS, 1st Earl (1819-1885), Irish statesman, and lord chancellor of England, was born at Cultra, Co. Down, Ireland, on the 27th of December 1819. His father, William Cairns, formerly a captain in the 47th regiment, came of a family of Scottish origin, which migrated to Ireland in the time of James I. Hugh Cairns was his second son, and was educated at Belfast academy and at Trinity College, Dublin, graduating with a senior moderatorship in classics in 1838. In 1844 he was called to the bar at the Middle Temple, to which he had migrated from Lincoln's Inn. During his first years at the chancery bar, Cairns showed little promise of the eloquence which afterwards distinguished him. Never a rapid speaker, he was then so slow and diffident, that he feared that this defect might interfere with his legal career. Fortunately he was soon able to rid himself of the idea that he was only fit for practice as a conveyancer. In 1852 he entered parliament as member for Belfast, and his Inn, on his becoming a Q.C. in 1856, made him a bencher.

In 1858 Cairns was appointed solicitor-general, and was knighted, and in May of that year made two of his most brilliant and best-remembered speeches in the House of Commons. In the first, he defended the action of Lord Ellenborough, who, as president of the board of control, had not only censured Lord Canning for a proclamation issued by him as governor-general of India but had made public the despatch in which the censure was conveyed. On the other occasion referred to, Sir Hugh Cairns spoke in opposition to Lord John Russell's amendment to the motion for the second reading of the government Reform Bill, winning the most cordial commendation of Disraeli. Disraeli's appreciation found an opportunity for displaying itself some years later, when in 1868 he invited him to be lord chancellor in the brief Conservative administration which followed Lord Derby's resignation of the leadership of his party. Meanwhile, Cairns had maintained his reputation in many other debates, both when his party was in power and when it was in opposition. In 1866 Lord Derby, returning to office, had made him attorney-general, and in the same year he had availed himself of a vacancy to seek the comparative rest of the court of appeal. While a lord justice he had been offered a peerage, and though at first unable to accept it, he had finally done so on a relative, a member of the wealthy family of McCalmont, providing the means necessary for the endowment of a title.

The appointment of Baron Cairns of Garmoyle as lord chancellor in 1868 involved the superseding of Lord Chelmsford, an act which apparently was carried out by Disraeli with less tact than might have been expected of him. Lord Chelmsford bitterly declared that he had been sent away with less courtesy than if he had been a butler, but the testimony of Lord Malmesbury is strong that the affair was the result of an understanding arrived at when Lord Chelmsford took office. Disraeli held office on this occasion for a few months only, and when Lord Derby died in 1869, Lord Cairns became the leader of the Conservative opposition in the House of Lords. He had distinguished himself in the Commons by his resistance to the Roman Catholics' Oath Bill brought in in 1865; in the Lords, his efforts on behalf of the Irish Church were equally strenuous. His speech on Gladstone's Suspensory Bill was afterwards published as a pamphlet, but the attitude which he and the peers who followed him had taken up, in insisting on their amendments to the preamble of the bill, was one difficult to maintain, and Lord Cairns made terms with Lord Granville in circumstances which precluded his consulting his party first. He issued a circular to explain his action in taking a course for which many blamed him. Viewed dispassionately, the incident appears to have exhibited his statesmanlike qualities in a marked degree, for he secured concessions which would have been irretrievably lost by continued opposition. Not long after this, Lord Cairns resigned the leadership of his party in the upper house, but he had to resume it in 1870 and took a strong part in opposing the Irish Land Bill in that year. On the Conservatives coming into power in 1874, he again became lord chancellor; in 1878 he was made Viscount Garmoyle and Earl Cairns; and in 1880 his party went out of office. In opposition he did not take as prominent a part as previously, but when Lord Beaconsfield died in 1881, there were some Conservatives who considered that his title to lead the party was better than that of Lord Salisbury. His health, however, never robust, had for many years shown intermittent signs of failing. He had periodically made enforced retirements to the Riviera, and for many years had had a house at Bournemouth, and it was here that he died on the 2nd of April 1885.

Cairns was a great lawyer, with an immense grasp of first principles and the power to express them; his judgments taking the form of luminous expositions or treatises upon the law governing the case before him, rather than of controversial discussions of the arguments adduced by counsel or of analysis of his own reasons. Lucidity and logic were the leading characteristics of his speeches in his professional capacity and in the political arena. In an eloquent tribute to his memory in the House of Lords, Lord Chief Justice Coleridge expressed the high opinion of the legal profession upon his merits and upon the severe integrity and single-minded desire to do his duty, which animated him in his selections for the bench. His piety was reflected by that of his great opponent, rival and friend, Lord Selborne. Like Lord Selborne and Lord Hatherley, Cairns found leisure at his busiest for teaching in the Sunday-school, but it is not recorded of them (as of him) that they refused to undertake work at the bar on Saturdays, in order to devote that day to hunting. He used to say that his great incentive to hard work at his profession in early days was his desire to keep hunters, and he retained his keenness as a sportsman as long as he was able to indulge it. Of his personal characteristics, it may be said that he was a spare man, with a Scottish, not an Irish, cast of countenance. He was scrupulously neat in his personal appearance, faultless in bands and necktie, and fond of wearing a flower in his button-hole. His chilly manner, coupled with his somewhat austere religious principles, had no doubt much to do with the fact that he was never a popular man. His friends claimed for him a keen sense of humour, but it was not to be detected by those whose knowledge of him was professional rather than personal. Probably he thought the exhibition of humour incompatible with the dignity of high judicial position. Of his legal attainments there can be no doubt. His influence upon the legislation of the day was largely felt where questions affecting religion and the Church were involved and in matters peculiarly affecting his own profession. His power was felt, as has been said, both when he was in office and when his party was in opposition. He had been chairman of the committee on judicature reform, and although he was not in office when the Judicature Act was passed, all the reforms in the legal procedure of his day owed much to him. He took part, when out of office, in the passing of the Married Women's Property Act, and was directly responsible for the Conveyancing Acts of 1881-1882, and for the Settled Land Act. Many other statutes in which he was largely concerned might be quoted. His judgments are to be found in the Law Reports and those who wish to consider his oratory should read the speeches above referred to, or that delivered in the House of Lords on the Compensation for Disturbance Bill in 1880, and his memorable criticism of Mr Gladstone's policy in the Transvaal, after Majuba Hill. (See Hansard and The Times, 1st of April 1881.) His style of delivery was, as a rule, cold to a marked degree. The term "frozen oratory" has been applied to his speeches, and it has been said of them that they flowed "like water from a glacier.... The several stages of his speech are like steps cut out in ice, as sharply defined, as smooth and as cold." Lord Caims married in 1856 Mary Harriet, eldest daughter of John McNeill, of Parkmount, Co. Antrim, by whom he had issue five sons and two daughters. He was succeeded in the earldom by his second but eldest surviving son, Arthur William (1861-1890), who left one daughter, and from whom the title passed to his two next younger brothers in succession, Herbert John, third earl (1863-1905), and Wilfrid Dallas, fourth earl (b. 1865).

Authorities.—See The Times, 3rd and 14th of April 1885; Law Journal, Law Times, Solicitors' Journal, 11th of April 1885; the Law Magazine, vol. xi. p. 133; the Law Quarterly, vol. i. p. 365; Earl Russell's Recollections; Memoirs of Lord Malmesbury; Sir Theodore Martin, The Life of the Prince Consort; E. Manson, Builders of our Law; J.B. Atlay, Victorian Chancellors, vol. ii.

See History of the family of Cairnes or Cairns, by H.C. Lawlor (1907).

CAIRNS, JOHN (1818-1892), Scottish Presbyterian divine, was born at Ayton Hill, Berwickshire, on the 23rd of August 1818, the son of a shepherd. He went to school at Ayton and Oldcambus, Berwickshire, and was then for three years a herd boy, but kept up his education. In 1834 he entered Edinburgh University, but during 1836 and 1837, owing to financial straits, taught in a school at Ayton. In November 1837 he returned to Edinburgh, where he became the most distinguished student of his time, graduating M.A. in 1841, first in classics and philosophy and bracketed first in mathematics. While at Edinburgh he organized the Metaphysical Society along with A. Campbell Fraser and David Masson. He entered the Presbyterian Secession Hall in 1840, and in 1843 wrote an article in the Secession Magazine on the Free Church movement, which aroused the interest of Thomas Chalmers. The years 1843-1844 he spent at Berlin studying German philosophy and theology. He was licensed as preacher on the 3rd of February 1845, and on the 6th of August ordained as minister of Golden Square Church, Berwick-on-Tweed. There his preaching was distinguished by its impressiveness and by a broad and unaffected humanity. He had many "calls" to other churches, but chose to remain at Berwick. In 1857 he was one of the representatives at the meeting of the Evangelical Alliance in Berlin, and in 1858 Edinburgh University conferred on him an honorary D.D. In the following year he declined an invitation to become principal of Edinburgh University. In 1872 he was elected moderator of the United Presbyterian Synod and represented his church in Paris at the first meeting of the Reformed Synod of France. In May 1876, he was appointed joint professor of systematic theology and apologetics with James Harper, principal of the United Presbyterian Theological College, whom he succeeded as principal in 1879. He was an indefatigable worker and speaker, and in order to facilitate his efforts in other countries and other literatures he learnt Arabic, Norse, Danish and Dutch. In 1890 he visited Berlin and Amsterdam to acquaint himself with the ways of younger theologians, especially with the Ritschlians, whose work he appreciated but did not accept as final. On his return he wrote a long article on "Recent Scottish Theology" for the Presbyterian and Reformed Review, for which he read over every theological work of note published in Scotland during the preceding half-century. He died on the 12th of March, 1892, at Edinburgh. Among his principal publications are An Examination of Ferrier's "Knowing and Being," and the Scottish Philosophy—(a work which gave him the reputation of being an independent Hamiltonian in philosophy); Memoir of John Brown, D.D. (1860); Romanism and Rationalism (1863); Outlines of Apologetical Theology (1867); The Doctrine of the Presbyterian Church (1876); Unbelief in the 18th Century (1881); Doctrinal Principles of the United Presbyterian Church (Dr Blair's Manual, 1888).

See MacEwen's Life and Letters of John Cairns (1895).

(D. Mn.)

CAIRNS, a seaport of Nares county, Queensland, Australia, 890 m. direct N.N.W. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901) 3557. The town lies parallel with the sea, on the western shore of Trinity Bay, with an excellent harbour, and a long beach, finely timbered. Cairns is the natural outlet for the gold-fields, tin-mines and silver-fields of the district and for the rich copper district of Chillagoe. A government railway, 48 m. long, runs to Mareeba, whence a private company's line continues to Mungana, 100 m. W. There is also a line belonging to a private company connecting Chillagoe with Mareeba. In the vicinity of Cairns are extensive sugar plantations, with sugar mills and refineries; the culture of coffee and tobacco has rapidly extended; bananas, pine-apples and other fruits are exported in considerable quantities and there is a large industry in cedar. The Barron Falls, among the finest in Australia, are near Kuranda, 19 m. from Cairns. Cairns became a municipality in 1885.

CAIRO (Arabic Misr-al-Kahira, or simply Misr), the capital of modern Egypt and the most populous city in Africa, on the Nile, 12 m. S. of the apex of the Delta, in 30° 3′ N. and 31° 21′ E. It is 130 m. S.E. of Alexandria, and 148 E. of Suez by rail, though only 84 m. from the last-named port by the overland route across the desert, in use before the opening of the Suez Canal. Cairo occupies a length of 5 m. on the east bank of the Nile, stretching north from the old Roman fortress of Babylon, and covers an area of about 8 sq. m. It is built partly on the alluvial plain of the Nile valley and partly on the rocky slopes of the Mokattam hills, which rise 550 ft. above the town.

The citadel, which is built on a spur of the Mokattam hills, occupies the S.E. angle of the city. The prospect from the ramparts of this fortress is one of striking picturesqueness and beauty. Below lies the city with its ancient walls and lofty towers, its gardens and squares, its palaces and its mosques, with their delicately-carved domes and minarets covered with fantastic tracery, the port of Bulak, the gardens and palace of Shubra, the broad river studded with islands, the valley of the Nile dotted with groups of trees, with the pyramids on the north horizon, and on the east the barren cliffs, backed by a waste of sand. Since the middle of the 19th century the city has more than doubled in size and population. The newer quarters, situated near the river, are laid out in the fashion of French cities, but the eastern parts of the town retain, almost unimpaired, their Oriental aspect, and in scores of narrow, tortuous streets, and busy bazaars it is easy to forget that there has been any change from the Cairo of medieval times. Here the line of fortifications still marks the eastern limits of the city, though on the north large districts have grown up beyond the walls. Neither on the south nor towards the river are there any fortifications left.

Principal Quarters and Modern Buildings.—From the citadel a straight road, the Sharia Mehemet Ali, runs N. to the Ezbekia (Ezbekiyeh) Gardens, which cover over 20 acres, and form the central point of the foreign colony. North and west of the Ezbekia runs the Ismailia canal, and on the W. side of the canal, about half a mile N. of the Gardens, is the Central railway station, approached by a broad road, the Sharia Clot Bey. The Arab city and the quarters of the Copts and Jews lie E. of the two streets named. West of the Ismailia canal lies the Bulak quarter, the port or riverside district. At Bulak are the arsenal, foundry and railway works, a paper manufactory and the government printing press, founded by Mehemet Ali. A little distance S.E. of the Ezbekia is the Place Atabeh, the chief point of intersection of the electric tramways which serve the newer parts of the town. From the Place Atabeh a narrow street, the Muski, leads E. into the heart of the Arab city. Another street leads S.W. to the Nile, at the point where the Kasr en Nil or Great Nile bridge spans the river, leading to Gezira Bulak, an island whereon is a palace, now turned into a hotel, polo, cricket and tennis grounds, and a racecourse. The districts between the bridge, the Ezbekia and the Ismailia canal, are known as the Ismailia and Tewfikia quarters, after the khedives in whose reigns they were laid out. The district immediately south of the bridge is called the Kasr el-Dubara quarter. Abdin Square, which occupies a central position, is connected with Ezbekia Gardens by a straight road. The narrow canal, El Khalig, which branched from the Nile at Old Cairo and traversed the city from S.W. to N.E., was filled up in 1897, and an electric tramway runs along the road thus made. With the filling up of the channel the ancient festival of the cutting of the canal came to an end.

The government offices and other modern public buildings are nearly all in the western half of the city. On the south side of the Ezbekia are the post office, the courts of the International Tribunals, and the opera house. On the east side are the bourse and the Crédit Lyonnais, on the north the buildings of the American mission. On or near the west side of the gardens are most of the large and luxurious hotels which the city contains for the accommodation of Europeans. Facing the river immediately north of the Great Nile bridge are the large barracks, called Kasr-en-Nil, and the new museum of Egyptian antiquities (opened in 1902). South of the bridge are the Ismailia palace (a khedivial residence), the British consulate general, the palace of the khedive's mother, the medical school and the government hospital. Farther removed from the river are the offices of the ministries of public works and of war—a large building surrounded by gardens—and of justice and finance. On the east side of Abdin Square is Abdin palace, an unpretentious building used for official receptions. Adjoining the palace are barracks. N.E. of Abdin Square, in the Sharia Mehemet Ali, is the Arab museum and khedivial library. Near this building are the new courts of the native tribunals. Private houses in these western districts consist chiefly of residential flats, though in the Kasr el-Dubara quarter are many detached residences.

The Oriental City.—The eastern half of Cairo is divided into many quarters. These quarters were formerly closed at night by massive gates. A few of these gates remain. In addition to the Mahommedan quarters, usually called after the trade of the inhabitants or some notable building, there are the Copt or Christian quarter, the Jews' quarter and the old "Frank" quarter. The last is the Muski district where, since the days of Saladin, "Frank" merchants have been permitted to live and trade. Some of the principal European shops are still to be found in this street. The Copt and Jewish quarters lie north of the Muski. The Coptic cathedral, dedicated to St Mark, is a modern building in the basilica style. The oldest Coptic church in Cairo is, probably, the Keniset-el-Adra, or Church of the Virgin, which is stated to preserve the original type of Coptic basilica. The Coptic churches in the city are not, however, of so much interest as those in Old Cairo (see below). In the Copt quarter are also Armenian, Syrian, Maronite, Greek and Roman Catholic churches. In the Copt and Jewish quarters the streets, as in the Arab quarters, are winding and narrow. In them the projecting upper stories of the houses nearly meet. Sebils or public fountains are numerous. These fountains are generally two-storeyed, the lower chamber enclosing a well, the upper room being often used for scholastic purposes. Many of the fountains are fine specimens of Arab architecture. While the houses of the poorer classes are mean and too often dirty, in marked contrast are the houses of the wealthier citizens, built generally in a style of elaborate arabesque, the windows shaded with projecting cornices of graceful woodwork (mushrebiya) and ornamented with stained glass. A winding passage leads through the ornamental doorway into the court, in the centre of which is a fountain shaded with palm-trees. The principal apartment is generally paved with marble; in the centre a decorated lantern is suspended over a fountain, while round the sides are richly inlaid cabinets and windows of stained glass; and in a recess is the divan, a low, narrow, cushioned seat. The basement storey is generally built of the soft calcareous stone of the neighbouring hills, and the upper storey, which contains the harem, of painted brick. The shops of the merchants are small and open to the street. The greater part of the trade is done, however, in the bazaars or markets, which are held in large khans or storehouses, of two storeys and of considerable size. Access to them is gained from the narrow lanes which usually surround them. The khans often possess fine gateways. The principal bazaar, the Khan-el-Khalil, marks the site of the tombs of the Fatimite caliphs.

The Citadel and the Mosques.—Besides the citadel, the principal edifices in the Arab quarters are the mosques and the ancient gates. The citadel or El-Kala was built by Saladin about 1166, but it has since undergone frequent alteration, and now contains a palace erected by Mehemet Ali, and a mosque of Oriental alabaster (based on the model of the mosques at Constantinople) founded by the same pasha on the site of "Joseph's Hall," so named after the prenomen of Saladin. The dome and the two slender minarets of this mosque form one of the most picturesque features of Cairo, and are visible from a great distance. In the centre is a well called Joseph's Well, sunk in the solid rock to the level of the Nile. There are four other mosques within the citadel walls, the chief being that of Ibn Kalaun, built in A.D. 1317 by Sultan Nasir ibn Kalaun. The dome has fallen in. After having been used as a prison, and, later, as a military storehouse, it has been cleared and its fine colonnades are again visible. The upper parts of the minarets are covered with green tiles. They are furnished with bulbous cupolas. The most magnificent of the city mosques is that of Sultan Hasan, standing in the immediate vicinity of the citadel. It dates from A.D. 1357, and is celebrated for the grandeur of its porch and cornice and the delicate stalactite vaulting which adorns them. The restoration of parts of the mosque which had fallen into decay was begun in 1904. Besides it there is the mosque of Tulun (c. A.D. 879) exhibiting very ancient specimens of the pointed arch; the mosque of Sultan El Hakim (A.D. 1003), the mosque el Azhar (the splendid), which dates from about A.D. 970, and is the seat of a Mahommedan university; and the mosque of Sultan Kalaun, which is attached to the hospital or madhouse (muristan) begun by Kalaun in A.D. 1285. The whole forms a large group of buildings, now partially in ruins, in a style resembling the contemporaneous medieval work in Europe, with pointed arches in several orders. Besides the mosque proper there is a second mosque containing the fine mausoleum of Kalaun. Adjacent to the muristan on the north is the tomb mosque of al Nasir, completed 1303, with a fine portal. East of the Khan-el-Khalil is the mosque of El Hasanēn, which is invested with peculiar sanctity as containing relics of Hosain and Hasan, grandsons of the Prophet. This mosque was rebuilt in the 19th century and is of no architectural importance. In all Cairo contains over 260 mosques, and nearly as many zawias or chapels. Of the gates the finest are the Bab-en-Nasr, in the north wall of the city, and the Bab-ez-Zuwēla, the only surviving part of the southern fortifications.

Tombs of the Caliphs and Mamelukes.—Beyond the eastern wall of the city are the splendid mausolea erroneously known to Europeans as the tombs of the caliphs; they really are tombs of the Circassian or Burji Mamelukes, a race extinguished by Mehemet Ali. Their lofty gilt domes and fanciful network or arabesque tracery are partly in ruins, and the mosques attached to them are also partly ruined. The chief tomb mosques are those of Sultan Barkuk, with two domes and two minarets, completed AD. 1410, and that of Kait Bey (c. 1470), with a slender minaret 135 ft. high. This mosque was carefully restored in 1898. South of the citadel is another group of tomb-mosques known as the tombs of the Mamelukes. They are architecturally of less interest than those of the "caliphs". Southwest of the Mameluke tombs is the much-venerated tomb-mosque of the Imam esh-Shafih or Shaf'i, founder of one of the four orthodox sects of Islam. Near the imam's mosque is a family burial-place built by Mehemet Ali.

Old Cairo: the Fortress of Babylon and the Nilometer.—About a mile south of the city is Masr-el-Atika, called by Europeans Old Cairo. Between Old Cairo and the newer city are large mounds of débris marking the site of Fostat (see below, History). The road to Old Cairo by the river leads past the monastery of the "Howling" Dervishes, and the head of the aqueduct which formerly supplied the citadel with water. Farther to the east is the mosque of Amr, a much-altered building dating from A.D. 643 and containing the tomb of the Arab conqueror of Egypt. Most important of the quarters of Masr-el-Atika is that of Kasr-esh-Shama (Castle of the Candle), built within the outer walls of the Roman fortress of Babylon. Several towers of this fortress remain, and in the south wall is a massive gateway, uncovered in 1901. In the quarter are five Coptic churches, a Greek convent and two churches, and a synagogue. The principal Coptic church is that of Abu Serga (St Sergius). The crypt dates from about the 6th century and is dedicated to Sitt Miriam (the Lady Mary), from a tradition that in the flight into Egypt the Virgin and Child rested at this spot. The upper church is basilican in form, the nave being, as customary in Coptic churches, divided into three sections by wooden screens, which are adorned by carvings in ivory and wood. The wall above the high altar is faced with beautiful mosaics of marbles, blue glass and mother-of-pearl. Of the other churches in Kasr-esh-Shama the most noteworthy is that of El Adra (the Virgin), also called El Moallaka, or The Suspended, being built in one of the towers of the Roman gateway. It contains fine wooden and ivory screens. The pulpit is supported on fifteen columns, which rest on a slab of white marble. The patriarch of the Copts was formerly consecrated in this church. The other buildings in Old Cairo, or among the mounds of rubbish which adjoin it, include several fort-like ders or convents. One, south of the Kasr-esh-Shama, is called Der Bablun, thus preserving the name of the ancient fortress. In the Der Abu Sephin, to the north of Babylon, is a Coptic church of the 10th century, possessing magnificent carved screens, a pulpit with fine mosaics and a semi-circle of marble steps.

Opposite Old Cairo lies the island of Roda, where, according to Arab tradition, Pharaoh's daughter found Moses in the bulrushes. Two bridges, opened in 1908, connect Old Cairo with Roda, and a third bridge joins Roda to Giza on the west bank of the river. Roda Island contains a mosque built by Kait Bey, and at its southern extremity is the Nilometer, by which the Cairenes have for over a thousand years measured the rise of the river. It is a square well with an octagonal pillar marked in cubits in the centre.

Northern and Western Suburbs.—Two miles N.E. of Cairo and on the edge of the desert is the suburb of Abbasia (named after the viceroy Abbas), connected with the city by a continuous line of houses. Abbasia is now largely a military colony, the cavalry barracks being the old palace of Abbas Pasha. In these barracks Arabi Pasha surrendered to the British on the 14th of September 1882, the day after the battle of Tel el-Kebir. Mataria, a village 3 m. farther to the N.E., is the site of the defeat of the Mamelukes by the Turks in 1517, and of the defeat of the Turks by the French under General Kleber in 1800. At Mataria was a sycamore-tree, the successor of a tree which decayed in 1665, venerated as being that beneath which the Holy Family, rested on their flight into Egypt. This tree was blown down in July 1906 and its place taken by a cutting made from the tree some years previously. Less than a mile N.E. of Mataria are the scanty remains of the ancient city of On or Heliopolis. The chief monument is an obelisk, about 66 ft. high, erected by Usertesen I. of the XIIth dynasty. A residential suburb, named Heliopolis, containing many fine buildings, was laid out between Mataria and Abbasia during 1905-10.

On the west bank of the Nile, opposite the southern end of Roda Island, is the small town of Giza or Gizeh, a fortified place of considerable importance in the times of the Mamelukes. In the viceregal palace here the museum of Egyptian antiquities was housed for several years (1889-1902). The grounds of this palace have been converted into zoological gardens. A broad, tree-bordered, macadamized road, along which run electric trams, leads S.S.W. across the plain to the Pyramids of Giza, 5 m. distant, built on the edge of the desert.

Helwan.—Fourteen miles S. of Cairo and connected with it by railway is the town of Helwan, built in the desert 3 m. E. of the Nile, and much frequented by invalids on account of its sulphur baths, which are owned by the Egyptian government. A khedivial astronomical observatory was built here in 1903-1904, to take the place of that at Abbasia, that site being no longer suitable in consequence of the northward extension of the city. The ruins of Memphis are on the E. bank of the Nile opposite Helwan.

Inhabitants.—The inhabitants are of many diverse races, the various nationalities being frequently distinguishable by differences in dress as well as in physiognomy and colour. In the oriental quarters of the city the curious shops, the markets of different trades (the shops of each trade being generally congregated in one street or district), the easy merchant sitting before his shop, the musical and quaint street-cries of the picturesque vendors of fruit, sherbet, water, &c., with the ever-changing and many-coloured throng of passengers, all render the streets a delightful study for the lover of Arab life, nowhere else to be seen in such perfection, or with so fine a background of magnificent buildings. The Cairenes, or native citizens, differ from the fellahin in having a much larger mixture of Arab blood, and are at once keener witted and more conservative than the peasantry. The Arabic spoken by the middle and higher classes is generally inferior in grammatical correctness and pronunciation to that of the Bedouins of Arabia, but is purer than that of Syria or the dialect spoken by the Western Arabs. Besides the Cairenes proper, who are largely engaged in trade or handicrafts, the inhabitants include Arabs, numbers of Nubians and Negroes—mostly labourers or domestics in nominal slavery—and many Levantines, there being considerable colonies of Syrians and Armenians. The higher classes of native society are largely of Turkish or semi-Turkish descent. Of other races the most numerous are Greeks, Italians, British, French and Jews. Bedouins from the desert frequent the bazaars.

At the beginning of the 19th century the population was estimated at about 200,000, made up of 120,000 Moslems, 60,000 Copts, 4000 Jews and 16,000 Greeks, Armenians and "Franks." In 1882 the population had risen to 374,000, in 1897 to 570,062, and in 1907, including Helwan and Mataria, the total population was 654,476, of whom 46,507 were Europeans.

Climate and Health.—In consequence of its insanitary condition, Cairo used to have a heavy death-rate. Since the British occupation in 1882 much has been done to better this state of things, notably by a good water-supply and a proper system of drainage. The death-rate of the native population is about 35 per 1000. The climate of the city is generally healthy, with a mean temperature of about 68° F. Though rain seldom falls, exhalations from the river, especially when the flood has begun to subside, render the districts near the Nile damp during September, October and November, and in winter early morning fogs are not uncommon. The prevalent north wind and the rise of the water tend to keep the air cool in summer.

Commerce.—The commerce of Cairo, of considerable extent and variety, consists mainly in the transit of goods. Gum, ivory, hides, and ostrich feathers from the Sudan, cotton and sugar from Upper Egypt, indigo and shawls from India and Persia, sheep and tobacco from Asiatic Turkey, and European manufactures, such as machinery, hardware, cutlery, glass, and cotton and woollen goods, are the more important articles. The traffic in slaves ceased in 1877. In Bulak are several factories founded by Mehemet Ali for spinning, weaving and printing cotton, and a paper-mill established by the khedive Ismail in 1870. Various kinds of paper are manufactured, and especially a fine quality for use in the government offices. In the Island of Roda there is a sugar-refinery of considerable extent, founded in 1859, and principally managed by Englishmen. Silk goods, saltpetre, gunpowder, leather, &c., are also manufactured. An octroi duty of 9% ad valorem formerly levied on all food stuffs entering the city was abolished in 1903. It used to produce about £150,000 per annum.

Mahommedan Architecture.—Architecturally considered Cairo is still the most remarkable and characteristic of Arab cities. The edifices raised by the Moorish kings of Spain and the Moslem rulers of India may have been more splendid in their materials, and more elaborate in their details; the houses of the great men of Damascus may be more costly than were those of the Mameluke beys; but for purity of taste and elegance of design both are far excelled by many of the mosques and houses of Cairo. These mosques have suffered much in the beauty of their appearance from the effects of time and neglect; but their colour has been often thus softened, and their outlines rendered the more picturesque. What is most to be admired in their style of architecture is its extraordinary freedom from restraint, shown in the wonderful variety of its forms, and the skill in design which has made the most intricate details to harmonize with grand outlines. Here the student may best learn the history of Arab art. Like its contemporary Gothic, it has three great periods, those of growth, maturity and decline. Of the first, the mosque of Ahmed Ibn-Tulun in the southern part of Cairo, and the three great gates of the city, the Bab-en-Nasr, Bab-el-Futuh and Bab-Zuwela, are splendid examples. The design of these entrance gateways is extremely simple and massive, depending for their effect on the fine ashlar masonry in which they are built, the decoration being more or less confined to ornamental disks. The mosque of Tulun was built entirely in brick, and is the earliest instance of the employment of the pointed arch in Egypt. The curve of the arch turns in slightly below the springing, giving a horse-shoe shape. Built in brick, it was found necessary to give a more monumental appearance to the walls by a casing of stucco, which remains in fair preservation to the present day. This led to the enrichment of the archivolts and imposts with that peculiar type of conventional foliage which characterizes Mahommedan work, and which in this case was carried out by Coptic craftsmen. The attached angle-shafts of piers are found here for the first time, and their capitals are enriched, as also the frieze surmounting the walls, with other conventional patterns. The second period passes from the highest point to which this art attained to a luxuriance promising decay. The mosque of sultan Hasan, below the citadel, those of Muayyad and Kalaun, with the Barkukiya and the mosque of Barkuk in the cemetery of Kait Bey, are instances of the second and more matured style of the period. The simple plain ashlar masonry still predominates, but the wall surface is broken up with sunk panels, sometimes with geometrical patterns in them. The principal characteristics of this second period are the magnificent portals, rising sometimes, as in the mosque of sultan Hasan, to 80 or 90 ft., with elaborate stalactite vaulting at the top, and the deep stalactite cornices which crown the summit of the building. The decoration of the interior consists of the casing of the walls with marble with enriched borders, and (about 20 ft. above the ground) friezes 3 to 5 ft. in height in which the precepts of the Koran are carved in relief, with a background of conventional foliage. Of the last style of this period the Ghuriya and the mosque of Kait Bey in his cemetery are beautiful specimens. They show an elongation of forms and an excess of decoration in which the florid qualities predominate. Of the age of decline the finest monument is the mosque of Mahommad Bey Abu-Dahab. The forms are now poor, though not lacking in grandeur, and the details are not as well adjusted as before, with a want of mastery of the most suitable decoration. The usual plan of a congregational mosque is a large, square, open court, surrounded by arcades of which the chief, often several bays deep, and known as the Manksura, or prayer-chamber, faces Mecca (eastward), and has inside its outer wall a decorated niche to mark the direction of prayer. In the centre of the court is a fountain for ablutions, often surmounted by a dome, and in the prayer-chamber a pulpit and a desk for readers. When a mosque is also the founder's tomb, it has a richly ornamented sepulchral chamber always covered by a dome (see further Mosque, which contains plans of the mosques of Amr and sultan Hasan, and of the tomb mosque of Kait Bey).

After centuries of neglect efforts are now made to preserve the monuments of Arabic art, a commission with that object having been appointed in 1881. To this commission the government makes an annual grant of £4000. The careful and syste-matic work accomplished by this commission has preserved much of interest and beauty which would otherwise have gone utterly to ruin. Arrangements were made in 1902 for the systematic repair and preservation of Coptic monuments.

Museums and Library.—The museum of Egyptian antiquities was founded at Bulak in 1863, being then housed in a mosque, by the French savant Auguste Mariette. In 1889 the collection was transferred to the Giza (Ghezireh) palace, and in 1902 was removed to its present quarters, erected at a cost of over £250,000. A statue of Mariette was unveiled in 1904. The museum is entirely devoted to antiquities of Pharaonic times, and, except in historical papyri, in which it is excelled by the British Museum, is the most valuable collection of such antiquities in existence.

The Arab museum and khedivial library are housed in a building erected for the purpose, at a cost of £66,000, and opened in 1903. In the museum are preserved treasures of Saracenic art, including many objects removed from the mosques for their better security. The khedivial library contains some 64,000 volumes, over two-thirds being books and MSS. in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Amharic and Syriac. The Arabic section includes a unique collection of 2677 korans. The Persian section is rich in illuminated MSS. The numismatic collection, as regards the period of the caliphs and later dynasties, is one of the richest in the world.

History.—Before the Arab conquest of Egypt the site of Cairo appears to have been open country. Memphis was some 12 m. higher up on the opposite side of the Nile, and Heliopolis was 5 or 6 m. distant on the N.E. The most ancient known settlement in the immediate neighbourhood of the present city was the town called Babylon. From its situation it may have been a north suburb of Memphis, which was still inhabited in the 7th century A.D. Babylon is said by Strabo to have been founded by emigrants from the ancient city of the same name in 525 B.C., i.e. at the time of the Persian conquest of Egypt. Here the Romans built a fortress and made it the headquarters of one of the three legions which garrisoned the country. The church of Babylon mentioned in 1 Peter v. 13 has been thought by some writers to refer to this town—an improbable supposition. Amr, the conqueror of Egypt for the caliph Omar, after taking the town besieged the fortress for the greater part of a year, the garrison surrendering in April A.D. 641. The town of Babylon disappeared, but the strong walls of the fortress in part remain, and the name survived, "Babylon of Egypt," or "Babylon" simply, being frequently used in medieval writings as synonymous with Cairo or as denoting the successive Mahommedan dynasties of Egypt.

Cairo itself is the fourth Moslem capital of Egypt; the site of one of those that had preceded it is, for the most part, included within its walls, while the other two were a little to the south. Amr founded El-Fostat, the oldest of these, close to the fortress which he had besieged. Fostat signifies "the tent," the town being built where Amr had pitched his tent. The new town speedily became a place of importance, and was the residence of the náibs, or lieutenants, appointed by the orthodox and Omayyad caliphs. It received the name of Masr, properly Misr, which was also applied by the Arabs to Memphis and to Cairo, and is to-day, with the Roman town which preceded it, represented by Masr el-Atika, or "Old Cairo." Shortly after the overthrow of the Omayyad dynasty, and the establishment of the Abbasids, the city of El-'Askar was founded (A.D. 750) by Suleiman, the general who subjugated the country, and became the capital and the residence of the successive lieutenants of the Abbasid caliphs. El-'Askar was a small town N.E. of and adjacent to El-Fostat, of which it was a kind of suburb. Its site is now entirely desolate. The third capital, El-Katai, was founded about A.D. 873 by Ahmed Ibn Tulun, as his capital. It continued the royal residence of his successors; but was sacked not long after the fall of the dynasty and rapidly decayed. A part of the present Cairo occupies its site and contains its great mosque, that of Ahmed Ibn Tulun.

Jauhar (Gohar) el-Kaid, the conqueror of Egypt for the Fatimite caliph El-Moizz, founded a new capital, A.D. 968, which was named El-Kāhira, that is, "the Victorious," a name corrupted into Cairo. The new city, like that founded by Amr, was originally the camp of the conqueror. This town occupied about a fourth part, the north-eastern, of the present metropolis. By degrees it became greater than El-Fostāt, and took from it the name of Misr, or Masr, which is applied to it by the modern Egyptians. With its rise Fostāt, which had been little affected by the establishment of Askar and Katai, declined. It continually increased so as to include the site of El-Katai to the south. In A.D. 1176 Cairo was unsuccessfully attacked by the Crusaders; shortly afterwards Saladin built the citadel on the lowest point of the mountains to the east, which immediately overlooked El-Katai, and he partly walled round the towns and large gardens within the space now called Cairo. Under the prosperous rule of the Mameluke sultans this great tract was filled with habitations; a large suburb to the north, the Hoseynia, was added; and the town of Bulak was founded. After the Turkish conquest (A.D. 1517) the metropolis decayed, but its limits were the same. In 1798 the city was captured by the French, who were driven out in 1801 by the Turkish and English forces, the city being handed over to the Turks. Mehemet Ali, originally the Turkish viceroy, by his massacre of the Mamelukes in 1811, in a narrow street leading to the citadel, made himself master of the country, and Cairo again became the capital of a virtually independent kingdom. Under Mehemet and his successors all the western part of the city has grown up. The khedive Ismail, in making the straight road from the citadel to the Ezbekia gardens, destroyed many of the finest houses of the old town. In 1882 Cairo was occupied by the British, and British troops continue to garrison the citadel.

Bibliography.—S.L. Poole, The Story of Cairo (London, 1902), a historical and architectural survey of the Moslem city; E. Reynolds-Ball, Cairo: the City of the Caliphs (Boston, U.S.A., 1897); Prisse d'Avennes, L'Art arabe d'après les monuments du Caire (Paris, 1847); P. Ravaisse, L'Histoire et la topographie du Caire d'après Makrizi (Paris, 1887); E.W. Lane, Cairo Fifty Years Ago (London, 1896), presents a picture of the city as it was before the era of European "improvements," and gives extracts from the Khitat of Maqrizi, written in 1417, the chief original authority on the antiquities of Cairo; Murray's and Baedeker's Guides, and A. and C. Black's Cairo of To-day (1905), contain much useful and accurate information about Cairo. For the fortress of Babylon and its churches consult A.J. Butler, Ancient Coptic Churches in Egypt (Oxford, 1884).

CAIRO, a city and the county-seat of Alexander county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the S. part of the state, at the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, 365 m. S. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 10,324; (1900) 12,566, of whom 5000 were negroes; (1910 census) 14,548. Cairo is served by the Illinois Central, the Mobile & Ohio, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, and the St Louis South-Western railways, and by river steamboat lines. The city, said to be the "Eden" of Charles Dickens's Martin Chuzzlewit, is built on a tongue of land between the rivers, and has suffered many times from inundations, notably in 1858. It is now protected by great levees. A fine railway bridge (1888) spans the Ohio. The city has a large government building, a U.S. marine hospital (1884), and the A.B. Safford memorial library (1882), and is the seat of St Joseph's Loretto Academy (Roman Catholic, 1864). In one of the squares there is a bronze statue, "The Hewer," by G.G. Barnard. In the N. part of the city is St Mary's park (30 acres). At Mound City (pop. in 1910, 2837), 5 m. N. of Cairo, there is a national cemetery. Lumber and flour are Cairo's principal manufactured products, and the city is an important hardwood and cotton-wood market; the Singer Manufacturing Co. has veneer mills here, and there are large box factories. In 1905 the value of the city's factory products was $4,381,465, an increase of 40.6% since 1900. Cairo is a shipping-point for the surrounding agricultural country. The city owes its origin to a series of commercial experiments. In 1818 a charter was secured from the legislature of the territory of Illinois incorporating the city and bank of Cairo. The charter was soon forfeited, and the land secured by it reverted to the government. In 1835 a new charter was granted to a second company, and in 1837 the Cairo City & Canal Co. was formed. By 1842, however, the place was practically abandoned. A successful settlement was made in 1851-1854 under the auspices of the New York Trust Co.; the Illinois Central railway was opened in 1856; and Cairo was chartered as a city in 1857. During the Civil War Cairo was an important strategic point, and was a military centre and depot of supplies of considerable importance for the Federal armies in the west. In 1862 Admiral Andrew H. Foote established at Mound City a naval depot, which was the basis of his operations on the Mississippi.

CAIROLI, BENEDETTO (1825-1889), Italian statesman, was born at Pavia on the 28th of January 1825. From 1848 until the completion of Italian unity in 1870, his whole activity was devoted to the Risorgimento, as Garibaldian officer, political refugee, anti-Austrian conspirator and deputy to parliament. He commanded a volunteer company under Garibaldi in 1859 and 1860, being wounded slightly at Calatafimi and severely at Palermo in the latter year. In 1866, with the rank of colonel, he assisted Garibaldi in Tirol, in 1867 fought at Mentana, and in 1870 conducted the negotiations with Bismarck, during which the German chancellor is alleged to have promised Italy possession of Rome and of her natural frontiers if the Democratic party could prevent an alliance between Victor Emmanuel and Napoleon. The prestige personally acquired by Benedetto Cairoli was augmented by that of his four brothers, who fell during the wars of Risorgimento, and by the heroic conduct of their mother. His refusal of all compensation or distinction further endeared him to the Italian people. When in 1876 the Left came into power, Cairoli, then a deputy of sixteen years' standing, became parliamentary leader of his party, and, after the fall of Depretis, Nicotera and Crispi, formed his first cabinet in March 1878 with a Francophil and Irredentist policy. After his marriage with the countess Elena Sizzo of Trent, he permitted the Irredentist agitation to carry the country to the verge of a war with Austria. General irritation was caused by his and Count Corti's policy of "clean hands" at the Berlin Congress, where Italy obtained nothing, while Austria-Hungary secured a European mandate to occupy Bosnia and the Herzegovina. A few months later the attempt of Passanante to assassinate King Humbert at Naples (12th of December 1878) caused his downfall, in spite of the courage displayed and the severe wound received by him in protecting the king's person on that occasion. On the 3rd of July 1879 Cairoli returned to power, and in the following November formed with Depretis a coalition ministry, in which he retained the premiership and the foreign office. Confidence in French assurances, and belief that Great Britain would never permit the extension of French influence in North Africa, prevented him from foreseeing the French occupation of Tunis (11th of May 1881). In view of popular indignation he resigned in order to avoid making inopportune declarations to the chamber. Thenceforward he practically disappeared from political life. In 1887 he received the knighthood of the Annunziata, the highest Italian decoration, and on the 8th of August 1889 died while a guest of King Humbert in the royal palace of Capodimonte near Naples. Cairoli was one of the most conspicuous representatives of that type of Italian public men who, having conspired and fought for a generation in the cause of national unity, were despite their valour little fitted for the responsible parliamentary and official positions they subsequently attained; and who by their ignorance of foreign affairs and of internal administration unwittingly impeded the political development of their country.

CAISSON (from the Fr. caisse, the variant form "cassoon" being adapted from the Ital. casone), a chest or case. When employed as a military term, it denotes an ammunition wagon or chest; in architecture it is the term used for a sunk panel or coffer in a ceiling, or in the soffit of an arch or a vault.

In civil engineering, however, the word has attained a far wider signification, and has been adopted in connexion with a considerable variety of hydraulic works. A caisson in this sense implies a case or enclosure of wood or iron, generally employed for keeping out water during the execution of foundations and other works in water-bearing strata, at the side of or under rivers, and also in the sea. There are two distinct forms of this type of caisson:—(1) A caisson open at the top, whose sides, when it is sunk in position, emerge above the water-level, and which is either provided with a water-tight bottom or is carried down, by being weighted at the top and having a cutting edge round the bottom, into a water-tight stratum, aided frequently by excavation inside; (2) A bottomless caisson, serving as a sort of diving-bell, in which men can work when compressed air is introduced to keep out the water in proportion to the depth below the water-level, which is gradually carried down to an adequately firm foundation by excavating at the bottom of the caisson, and building up a quay-wall or pier out of water on the top of its roof as it descends. An example of a caisson with a water-tight bottom is furnished by the quays erected alongside the Seine at Rouen, where open-timber caissons were sunk on to bearing-piles down to a depth of 9¾ ft. below low-water, the brick and concrete lower portions of the quay-wall being built inside them out of water (see Dock). At Bilbao, Zeebrugge and Scheveningen harbours, large open metal caissons, built inland, ballasted with concrete, floated out into position, and then sunk and filled with concrete, have been employed for forming very large foundation blocks for the breakwaters (see Breakwater). Open iron caissons are frequently employed for enclosing the site of river piers for bridges, where a water-tight stratum can be reached at a moderate depth, into which the caisson can be taken down, so that the water can be pumped out of the enclosure and the foundations laid and the pier carried up in the open air. Thus the two large river piers carrying the high towers, bascules, and machinery of the Tower Bridge, London, were each founded and built within a group of twelve plate-iron caissons open at the top; whilst four of the piers on which the cantilevers of the Forth Bridge rest, were each erected within an open plate-iron caisson fitted at the bottom to the sloping rock, where ordinary cofferdams could not have been adopted.

Where foundations have to be carried down to a considerable depth in water-bearing strata, or through the alluvial bed of a river, to reach a hard stratum, bottomless caissons sunk by excavating under compressed air are employed. The caisson at the bottom, forming the working chamber, is usually provided with a strong roof, round the top of which, when the caisson is floated into a river, plate-iron sides are erected forming an upper open caisson, inside which the pier or quay-wall is built up out of water, on the top of the roof, as the sinking proceeds. Shafts through the roof up to the open air provide access for men and materials to the working chamber, through an air-lock consisting of a small chamber with an air-tight door at each end, enabling locking into and out of the compressed-air portion to be readily effected, on the same principle as a water-lock on a canal. When a sufficiently reliable stratum has been reached, the men leave the working chamber; and it is filled with concrete through the shafts, the bottomless caisson remaining embedded in the work. The foundations for the two river piers of the Brooklyn Suspension Bridge, carried down to the solid rock, 78 and 45 ft. respectively below high-water, by means of bottomless timber caissons with compressed air, were an early instance of this method of carrying out subaqueous foundations; whilst the Antwerp quay-walls, commenced many years ago in the river Scheldt at some distance out from the right bank, and the foundations of six of the piers supporting the cantilevers of the Forth Bridge, carried down to rock between 64 and 89 ft. below high-water, are notable examples of works founded under water within wrought iron bottomless caissons by the aid of compressed air. The foundations of the two piers of the Eiffel Tower adjoining the Seine were carried down through soft water-bearing strata to a depth of 33 ft. by means of wrought iron bottomless caissons sunk by the help of compressed air; and the deep foundations under the sills of the new large Florida lock at Havre (see Dock) were laid underneath the water logged alluvial strata close to the Seine estuary by similar means. Workmen, after emerging from such caissons, sometimes exhibit symptoms of illness which is known as caisson disease (q.v.).

As in the above system, significantly termed by French engineers par caisson perdu, the materials of the bottomless caisson have to be left in the work, a more economical system has been adapted for carrying out similar foundations, at moderate depths, by using movable caissons, which, after the lowest portions of the foundations have been laid, are raised by screw-jacks for constructing the next portions. In this way, instead of building the pier or wall on the roof of the caisson, the work is carried out under water in successive stages, by raising the bottomless caisson as the work proceeds; and by this arrangement, the caisson, having completed the subaqueous portion of the structure, is available for work elsewhere. This movable system has been used with advantage for the foundations for some piers of river bridges, some breakwater foundations, and, at the Florida lock, Havre, for founding portions of the side walls.

Closed iron caissons, termed ship-caissons, and sliding or rolling caissons, are generally employed for closing graving-docks, especially the former (so called from their resemblance in shape to a vessel) on account of their simplicity, being readily floated into and out of position; whilst sliding caissons are sometimes used instead of lock-gates at docks, but require a chamber at the side to receive them when drawn back. They possess the advantage, particularly for naval dockyards where heavy weights are transported, of providing in addition a strong movable bridge, thereby dispensing with a swing-bridge across the opening.

The term caisson is sometimes applied to flat air-tight constructions used for raising vessels out of water for cleaning or repairs, by being sunk under them and then floated; but these floating caissons are more commonly known as pontoons, or, when air-chambers are added at the sides, as floating dry-docks.

(L. F. V.-H.)

CAISSON DISEASE. In order to exclude the water, the air pressure within a caisson used for subaqueous works must be kept in excess of the pressure due to the superincumbent water; that is, it must be increased by one atmosphere, or 15 lb per sq. in. for every 33½ ft. that the caisson is submerged below the surface. Hence at a depth of 100 ft. a worker in a caisson, or a diver in a diving-dress, must be subjected to a pressure of four atmospheres or 60 lb per sq. in. Exposure to such pressures is apt to be followed by disagreeable and even dangerous physiological effects, which are commonly referred to as caisson disease or compressed air illness. The symptoms are of a very varied character, including pains in the muscles and joints (the "bends"), deafness, embarrassed breathing, vomiting, paralysis ("divers' palsy"), fainting and sometimes even sudden death. At the St Louis bridge, where a pressure was employed equal to 4¼ atmospheres, out of 600 workmen, 119 were affected and 14 died. At one time the symptoms were attributed to congestion produced by the mechanical effects of the pressure on the internal organs of the body, but this explanation is seen to be untenable when it is remembered that the pressure is immediately transmitted by the fluids of the body equally to all parts. They do not appear during the time that the pressure is being raised nor so long as it is continued, but only after it has been removed; and the view now generally accepted is that they are due to the rapid effervescence of the gases which are absorbed in the body-fluids during exposure to pressure. Experiment has proved that in animals exposed to compressed air nitrogen is dissolved in the fluids in accordance with Dalton's law, to the extent of roughly 1% for each atmosphere of pressure, and also that when the pressure is suddenly relieved the gas is liberated in bubbles within the body. It is these bubbles that do the mischief. Set free in the spinal cord, for instance, they may give rise to partial paralysis, in the labyrinth of the ear to auditory vertigo, or in the heart to stoppage of the circulation; on the other hand, they may be liberated in positions where they do no harm. But if the pressure is relieved gradually they are not formed, because the gas comes out of solution slowly and is got rid of by the heart and lungs. Paul Bert exposed 24 dogs to pressure of 7-9½ atmospheres and "decompressed" them rapidly in 1-4 minutes. The result was that 21 died, while only one showed no symptoms. In one of his cases, in which the apparatus burst while at a pressure of 9½ atmospheres, death was instantaneous and the body was enormously distended, with the right heart full of gas. But he also found that dogs exposed, for moderate periods, to similar pressures suffered no ill effects provided that the pressure was relieved gradually, in 1-1½ hours; and his results have been confirmed by subsequent investigators. To prevent caisson disease, therefore, the decompression should be slow; Leonard Hill suggests it should be at a rate of not less than 20 minutes for each atmosphere of pressure. Good ventilation of the caisson is also of great importance (though experiment does not entirely confirm the view that the presence of carbonic acid to an amount exceeding 1 or 1¼ parts per thousand exercises a specific influence on the production of compressed air illness), and long shifts should be avoided, because by fatigue the circulatory and respiratory organs are rendered less able to eliminate the absorbed gas. Another reason against long shifts, especially at high pressures, is that a high partial pressure of oxygen acts as a general protoplasmic poison. This circumstance also sets a limit to the pressures that can possibly be used in caissons and therefore to the depths at which they can be worked, though there is reason to think that the maximum pressure (4¾ atmospheres) so far used in caisson work might be considerably exceeded with safety, provided that proper precautions were observed in regard to slow decompression, the physique of the workmen, and the hours of labour. As to the remedy for the symptoms after they have appeared, satisfactory results have been obtained by replacing the sufferers in a compressed air chamber ("recompression"), when the gas is again dissolved by the body fluids, and then slowly "decompressing" them.

See Paul Bert, La Pression barométrique (1878); and Leonard Hill, Recent Advances in Physiology and Biochemistry (1906), (both these works contain bibliographies); also a lecture by Leonard Hill delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain on the 25th of May 1906; "Diving and Caisson Disease," a summary of recent investigations, by Surgeon Howard Mummery, British Medical Journal, June 27th, 1908; Diseases of Occupation, by T. Oliver (1908); Diseases of Workmen, by T. Luson and R. Hyde (1908).

CAITHNESS, a county occupying the extreme north-east of Scotland, bounded W. and S. by Sutherlandshire, E. by the North Sea, and N. by the Pentland Firth. Its area is 446,017 acres, or nearly 697 sq. m. The surface generally is flat and tame, consisting for the most part of barren moors, almost destitute of trees. It presents a gradual slope from the north and east up to the heights in the south and west, where the chief mountains are Morven (2313 ft.), Scaraben (2054 ft.) and Maiden Pap (1587 ft.). The principal rivers are the Thurso ("Thor's River"), which, rising in Cnoc Crom Uillt (1199 ft.) near the Sutherlandshire border, pursues a winding course till it reaches the sea in Thurso Bay; the Forss, which, emerging from Loch Shurrery, follows a generally northward direction and enters the sea at Crosskirk, a fine cascade about a mile from its mouth giving the river its name (fors, Scandinavian, "waterfall;" in English the form is force); and Wick Water, which, draining Loch Watten, flows into the sea at Wick. There are many other smaller streams well stocked with fish. Indeed, the county offers fine sport for rod and gun. The lochs are numerous, the largest being Loch Watten, 2¾ m. by ¾ m., and Loch Calder, 2¼ by 1 m., and Lochs Colam, Hempriggs, Heilen, Ruard, Scarmclate, St John's, Toftingale and Wester. So much of the land is low-lying and boggy that there are no glens, except in the mountainous south-west, although towards the centre of the county are Strathmore and Strathbeg (the great and little valleys). Most of the coast-line is precipitous and inhospitable, particularly at the headlands of the Ord, Noss, Skirsa, Duncansbay, St John's Point, Dunnet Head (346 ft.), the most northerly point of Scotland, Holburn and Brims Ness. From Berriedale at frequent intervals round the coast occur superb "stacks," or detached pillars of red sandstone, which add much to the grandeur of the cliff scenery.

Caithness is separated from the Orkneys by the Pentland Firth, a strait about 14 miles long and from 6 to 8 miles broad. Owing to the rush of the tide, navigation is difficult, and, in rough weather, dangerous. The tidal wave races at a speed which varies from 6 to 12 m. an hour. At the meeting of the western and eastern currents the waves at times rise into the air like a waterspout, but the current does not always nor everywhere flow at a uniform rate, being broken up at places into eddies as perilous as itself. The breakers caused by the sunken reefs off Duncansbay Head create the Bores of Duncansbay, and eddies off St John's Point are the origin of the Merry Men of Mey, while off the island of Stroma occurs the whirlpool of the Swalchie, and off the Orcadian Swona is the vortex of the Wells of Swona. Nevertheless, as the most direct road from Scandinavian ports to the Atlantic the Firth is used by at least 5000 vessels every year. In the eastern entrance to the Firth lies the group of islands known as the Pentland Skerries. They are four in number—Muckle Skerry, Little Skerry, Clettack Skerry and Louther Skerry—and the nearest is 4½ m. from the mainland. On Muckle Skerry, the largest (½ m. by ⅓ m.), stands a lighthouse with twin towers, 100 ft. apart. The island of Stroma, 1½ m. from the mainland (pop. 375), belongs to Caithness and is situated in the parish of Canisbay. It is 2¼ m. long by 1¼ m. broad. In 1862 a remarkable tide climbed the cliffs (200 ft.) and swept across the island.

Geology.—Along the western margin of the county from Reay on the north coast to the Scaraben Hills there is a narrow belt of country which is occupied by metamorphic rocks of the types found in the east of Sutherland. They consist chiefly of granulitic quartzose schists and felspathic gneisses, permeated in places by strings and veins of pegmatite. On the Scaraben Hills there is a prominent development of quartz-schists the age of which is still uncertain. These rocks are traversed by a mass of granite sometimes foliated, trending north and south, which is traceable from Reay southwards by Aultnabreac station to Kinbrace and Strath Helmsdale in Sutherland. Excellent sections of this rock, showing segregation veins, are exposed in the railway cuttings between Aultnabreac and Forsinard. A rock of special interest described by Professor Judd occurs on Achvarasdale Moor, near Loch Scye, and hence named Scyelite. It forms a small isolated boss, its relations to the surrounding rocks not being apparent. Under the microscope, the rock consists of biotite, hornblende, serpentinous pseudo-morphs after olivine and possibly after enstatite and magnetite, and may be described as a mica-hornblende-picrite. The remainder of the county is occupied by strata of Old Red Sandstone age, the greater portion being grouped with the Middle or Orcadian division of that system, and a small area on the promontory of Dunnet Head being provisionally placed in the upper division. By means of the fossil fishes, Dr Traquair has arranged the Caithness flagstone series in three groups, the Achanarras beds at the base, the Thurso flagstones in the middle, and the John o' Groats beds at the top. In the extreme south of the county certain minor subdivisions appear which probably underlie the lowest fossiliferous beds containing the Achanarras fauna. These comprise (1) the coarse basement conglomerate, (2) dull chocolate-red sandstones, shales and clays around Braemore in the Berriedale Water, (3) the brecciated conglomerate largely composed of granite detritus seen at Badbea, (4) red sandstones, shales and conglomeratic bands found in the Berriedale Water and further northwards in the direction of Strathmore. Morven, the highest hill in Caithness, is formed of gently inclined sandstones and conglomerates resting on an eroded platform of quartz-schists and quartz-mica-granulites. The flagstones yielding the fishes of the lowest division of the Orcadian series appear on Achanarras Hill about three miles south of Halkirk. The members of the overlying Thurso group have a wide distribution as they extend along the shore on either side of Thurso and spread across the county by Castletown and Halkirk to Sinclairs Bay and Wick. They are thrown into folds which are traversed by faults some of which run in a north and south direction. They consist of dark grey and cream-coloured flagstones, sometimes thick-bedded with grey and blue shales and thin limestones and occasional intercalations of sandstone. In the north-west of the county the members of the Thurso group appear to overlap the Achanarras beds and to rest directly on the platform of crystalline schists. In the extreme north-east there is a passage upwards into the John o' Groats group with its characteristic fishes, the strata consisting of sandstones, flagstones with thin impure limestones. The rocks of Dunnet Head, which are provisionally classed with the upper Old Red Sandstone, are composed of red and yellow sandstones, marls and mudstones. Hitherto no fossils have been obtained from these beds save some obscure plant-like markings, but they are evidently a continuation southwards of the sandstones of Hoy, which there rest unconformably on the flagstone series of Orkney. This patch of Upper Old Red strata is faulted against the Caithness flagstones to the south. For many years the flagstones have been extensively quarried for pavement purposes, as for instance near Thurso, at Castletown and Achanarras. Two instances of volcanic necks occur in Caithness, one piercing the red sandstones at the Ness of Duncansbay and the other the sandstones of Dunnet Head north of Brough. They point to volcanic activity subsequent to the deposition of the John o' Groats beds and of the Dunnet sandstones. The materials filling these vents consist of agglomerate charged with blocks of diabase, sandstone, flagstone and limestone.

An interesting feature connected with the geology of Caithness is the deposit of shelly boulder clay which is distributed over the low ground, being deepest in the valleys and in the cliffs surrounding the bays on the east coast. Apart from the shell fragments, many of which are striated, the deposit contains blocks foreign to the county, as for instance chalk and chalk-flints, fragments of Jurassic rocks with fossils and pieces of jet. The transport of local boulders shows that the ice must have moved from the south-east towards the north-west, which coincides with the direction indicated by the striae. The Jurassic blocks may have been derived from the strip of rocks of that age on the east coast of Sutherland. The shell fragments, many of which are striated, include arctic, boreal and southern forms, only a small number being characteristic of the littoral zone.

Climate and Agriculture.—The climate is variable, and though the winter storms fall with great severity on the coast, yet owing to proximity to a vast expanse of sea the cold is not intense and snow seldom lies many days continuously. In winter and spring the northern shore is subject to frequent and disastrous gales from the N. and N.W. Only about two-fifths of the arable land is good. In spite of this and the cold, wet and windy climate, progressive landlords and tenants keep a considerable part of the acreage of large farms successfully tilled. In 1824 James Traill of Ratter, near Dunnet, recognizing that it was impossible to expect tenants to reclaim and improve the land on a system of short leases, advocated large holdings on long terms, so that farmers might enjoy a substantial return on their capital and labour. Thanks to this policy and the farmers' skill and enterprise, the county has acquired a remarkable reputation for its produce; notably oats and barley, turnips, potatoes and beans. Sheep—chiefly Leicester and Cheviots—of which the wool is in especial request in consequence of its fine quality, cattle, horses and pigs are raised for southern markets.

Other Industries.—The great source of profit to the inhabitants is to be found in the fisheries of cod, ling, lobster and herring. The last is the most important, beginning about the end of July and lasting for six weeks, the centre of operations being at Wick. Besides those more immediately engaged in manning the boats, the fisheries give employment to a large number of coopers, curers, packers and helpers. The salmon fisheries on the coast and at the mouths of rivers are let at high prices. The Thurso is one of the best salmon streams in the north. The flagstone quarries, mostly situated in the Thurso, Olrig and Halkirk districts, are another important source of revenue. Of manufactures there is little beyond tweeds, ropes, agricultural implements and whisky, and the principal imports consist of coal, wood, manure, flour and lime.

The only railway in the county is the Highland railway, which, from a point some four miles to the south-west of Aultnabreac station, crosses the shire in a rough semicircle, via Halkirk, to Wick, with a branch from Georgemas Junction to Thurso. There is also, however, frequent communication by steamer between Wick and Thurso and the Orkneys and Shetlands, Aberdeen, Leith and other ports. The deficiency of railway accommodation is partly made good by coach services between different places.

Population and Government.—The population of Caithness in 1891 was 33,177, and in 1901, 33,870, of whom twenty-four persons spoke Gaelic only, and 2876 Gaelic and English. The chief towns are Wick (pop. in 1901, 7911) and Thurso (3723). The county returns one member to parliament. Wick is the only royal burgh and one of the northern group of parliamentary burghs which includes Cromarty, Dingwall, Dornoch, Kirkwall and Tain. Caithness unites with Orkney and Shetland to form a sheriffdom, and there is a resident sheriff-substitute at Wick, who sits also at Thurso and Lybster. The county is under school-board jurisdiction, and there are academies at Wick and Thurso. The county council subsidizes elementary schools and cookery classes and provides apparatus for technical classes.

History.—The early history of Caithness may, to some extent, be traced in the character of its remains and its local nomenclature. Picts' houses, still fairly numerous, Norwegian names and Danish mounds attest that these peoples displaced each other in turn, and the number and strength of the fortified keeps show that its annals include the usual feuds, assaults and reprisals. Circles of standing stones, as at Stemster Loch and Bower, and the ruins of Roman Catholic chapels and places of pilgrimage in almost every district, illustrate the changes which have come over its ecclesiastical condition. The most important remains are those of Bucholie Castle, Girnigo Castle, and the tower of Keiss; and, on the S.E. coast, the castles of Clyth, Swiney, Forse, Laveron, Knockinnon, Berriedale, Achastle and Dunbeath, the last of which is romantically situated on a detached stack of sandstone rock. About six miles from Thurso stand the ruins of Braal Castle, the residence of the ancient bishops of Caithness. On the coast of the Pentland Firth, 1½ miles west of Dunscansbay Head, is the site of John o' Groat's house.

See S. Laing, Prehistoric Remains of Caithness (London and Edinburgh, 1866); James T. Calder, History of Caithness (2nd edition, Wick); John Home, In and About Wick (Wick); Thomas Sinclair, Caithness Events (Wick, 1899); History of the Clan Gunn (Wick, 1890); J. Henderson, Caithness Family History (Edinburgh, 1884); Harvie-Brown, Fauna of Caithness (Edinburgh, 1887); Principal Miller, Our Scandinavian Forefathers (Thurso, 1872); Smiles, Robert Dick, Botanist and Geologist (London, 1878); H. Morrison, Guide to Sutherland and Caithness (Wick, 1883); A. Auld, Ministers and Men in the Far North (Edinburgh, 1891).

CAIUS or Gaius, pope from 283 to 296, was the son of Gaius, or of Concordius, a relative of the emperor Diocletian, and became pope on the 17th of December 283. His tomb, with the original epitaph, was discovered in the cemetery of Calixtus and in it the ring with which he used to seal his letters (see Arringhi, Roma subterr., l. iv. c. xlviii. p. 426). He died in 296.

CAIUS [Anglice Kees, Keys, etc.], JOHN (1510-1573), English physician, and second founder of the present Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, was born at Norwich on the 6th of October 1510. He was admitted a student at what was then Gonville Hall, Cambridge, where he seems to have mainly studied divinity. After graduating in 1533, he visited Italy, where he studied under the celebrated Montanus and Vesalius at Padua; and in 1541 he took his degree in physic at Padua. In 1543 he visited several parts of Italy, Germany and France; and returned to England. He was a physician in London in 1547, and was admitted fellow of the College of Physicians, of which he was for many years president. In 1557, being then physician to Queen Mary, he enlarged the foundation of his old college, changed the name from "Gonville Hall" to "Gonville and Caius College," and endowed it with several considerable estates, adding an entire new court at the expense of £1834. Of this college he accepted the mastership (24th of January 1558/9) on the death of Dr Bacon, and held it till about a month before his death. He was physician to Edward VI., Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth. He returned to Cambridge from London for a few days in June 1573, about a month before his death, and resigned the mastership to Dr Legge, a tutor at Jesus College. He died at his London House, in St Bartholomew's, on the 29th of July, 1573, but his body was brought to Cambridge, and buried in the chapel under the well-known monument which he had designed. Dr Caius was a learned, active and benevolent man. In 1557 he erected a monument in St Paul's to the memory of Linacre. In 1564 he obtained a grant for Gonville and Caius College to take the bodies of two malefactors annually for dissection; he was thus an important pioneer in advancing the science of anatomy. He probably devised, and certainly presented, the silver caduceus now in the possession of Caius College as part of its insignia; he first gave it to the College of Physicians, and afterwards presented the London College with another.

His works are: Annals of the College from 1555 to 1572; translation of several of Galen's works, printed at different times abroad. Hippocrates de Medicamenlis, first discovered and published by Dr Caius; also De Ratione Victus (Lov. 1556, 8vo). De Mendeti Methodo (Basel, 1554; London, 1556, 8vo). Account of the Sweating Sickness in England (London, 1556, 1721), (it is entitled De Ephemera Britannica). History of the University of Cambridge (London, 1568, 8vo; 1574, 4to, in Latin). De Thermis Britannicis; but it is doubtful whether this work was ever printed. Of some Rare Plants and Animals (London, 1570). De Canibus Britannicis (1570, 1729). De Pronunciatione Graecae et Latinae Linguae (London, 1574); De Libris propriis (London, 1570). He also wrote numerous other works which were never printed.

For further details see the Biographical History of Caius College, an admirable piece of historical work, by Dr John Venn (1897).

CAJAMARCA, or Caxamarca, a city of northern Peru, capital of a department and province of the same name, 90 m. E. by N. of Pacasmayo, its port on the Pacific coast. Pop. (1906, estimate) of the department, 333,310; of the city, 9000. The city is situated in an elevated valley between the Central and Western Cordilleras, 9400 ft. above sea level, and on the Eriznejas, a small tributary of the Marañon. The streets are wide and cross at right angles; the houses are generally low and built of clay. Among the notable public buildings are the old parish church built at the expense of Charles II. of Spain, the church of San Antonio, a Franciscan monastery, a nunnery, and the remains of the palace of Atahualpa, the Inca ruler whom Pizarro treacherously captured and executed in this place in 1533. The hot sulphur springs of Pultamarca, called the Baños del Inca (Inca's baths) are a short distance east of the city and are still frequented. Cajamarca is an important commercial and manufacturing town, being the distributing centre for a large inland region, and having long-established manufactures of woollen and linen goods, and of metal work, leather, etc. It is the seat of one of the seven superior courts of the republic, and is connected with the coast by telegraph and telephone. A railway has been undertaken from Pacasmayo, on the coast, to Cajamarca, and by 1908 was completed as far as Yonán, 60 m. from its starting-point.

The department of Cajamarca lies between the Western and Central Cordilleras and extends from the frontier of Ecuador S. to about 7° S. lat., having the departments of Piura and Lambayeque on the W. and Amazonas on the E. Its area according to official returns is 12,542 sq. m. The upper Marañon traverses the department from S. to N. The department is an elevated region, well watered with a large number of small streams whose waters eventually find their way through the Amazon into the Atlantic. Many of its productions are of the temperate zone, and considerable attention is given to cattle-raising. Coal is found in the province of Hualgayoc at the southern extremity of the department, which is also one of the rich silver-mining districts of Peru. Next to its capital the most important town of the department is Cajamarquilla, whose population was about 6000 in 1906.

CAJATAMBO, or Caxatambo, a town and province of the department of Ancachs, Peru, on the western slope of the Andes. Since 1896 the population of the town has been estimated at 6000, but probably it does not exceed 4500. The town is 110 m. N. by E. of Lima, in lat. 9° 53′ S., long. 76° 57′ W. The principal industries of the province are the raising of cattle and sheep, and the cultivation of cereals. Cochineal is a product of this region. Near the town there are silver mines, in which a part of its population is employed.

CAJETAN (Gaetanus), Cardinal (1470-1534), was born at Gaeta in the kingdom of Naples. His proper name was Tommaso de Vio, but he adopted that of Cajetan from his birthplace. He entered the order of the Dominicans at the age of sixteen, and ten years later became doctor of theology at Padua, where he was subsequently professor of metaphysics. A public disputation at Ferrara (1494) with Pico della Mirandola gave him a great reputation as a theologian, and in 1508 he became general of his order. For his zeal in defending the papal pretensions against the council of Pisa, in a series of works which were condemned by the Sorbonne and publicly burnt by order of King Louis XII., he obtained the bishopric of Gaeta, and in 1517 Pope Leo X. made him a cardinal and archbishop of Palermo. The year following he went as legate into Germany, to quiet the commotions raised by Luther. It was before him that the Reformer appeared at the diet of Augsburg; and it was he who, in 1519, helped in drawing up the bull of excommunication against Luther. Cajetan was employed in several other negotiations and transactions, being as able in business as in letters. In conjunction with Cardinal Giulio de' Medici in the conclave of 1521-1522, he secured the election of Adrian Dedel, bishop of Tortosa, as Adrian VI. Though as a theologian Cajetan was a scholastic of the older Thomist type, his general position was that of the moderate reformers of the school to which Reginald Pole, archbishop of Canterbury, also belonged; i.e. he desired to retain the best elements of the humanist revival in harmony with Catholic orthodoxy illumined by a revived appreciation of the Augustinian doctrine of justification. Nominated by Clement VII. a member of the committee of cardinals appointed to report on the "Nuremberg Recess," he recommended, in opposition to the majority, certain concessions to the Lutherans, notably the marriage of the clergy as in the Greek Church, and communion in both kinds according to the decision of the council of Basel. In this spirit he wrote commentaries upon portions of Aristotle, and upon the Summa of Aquinas, and towards the end of his life made a careful translation of the Old and New Testaments, excepting Solomon's Song, the Prophets and the Revelation of St John. In contrast to the majority of Italian cardinals of his day, Cajetan was a man of austere piety and fervent zeal; and if, from the standpoint of the Dominican idea of the supreme necessity of maintaining ecclesiastical discipline, he defended the extremist claims of the papacy, he also proclaimed that the pope should be "the mirror of God on earth." He died at Rome on the 9th of August 1534.

See "Aktenstücke über das Verhalten der römischen Kurie zur Reformation, 1524-1531," in Quellen und Forschungen (Kön. Preuss. Hist. Inst., Rome), vol. iii. p. 1-20; T.M. Lindsay, History of the Reformation, vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1906).

He was christened Giacomo, but afterwards took the name of Tommaso in honour of Thomas Aquinas.

CAJUPUT OIL, a volatile oil obtained by distillation from the leaves of the myrtaceous tree Melaleuca leucadendron, and probably other species. The trees yielding the oil are found throughout the Indian Archipelago, the Malay Peninsula and over the hotter parts of the Australian continent; but the greater portion of the oil is produced from Celebes Island. The name cajuput is derived from the native Kayuputi or white wood. The oil is prepared from leaves collected on a hot dry day, which are macerated in water, and distilled after fermenting for a night. This oil is extremely pungent to the taste, and has the odour of a mixture of turpentine and camphor. It consists mainly of cineol (see Terpenes), from which cajuputene having a hyacinthine odour can be obtained by distillation with phosphorus pentoxide. The drug is a typical volatile oil, and is used internally in doses of ½ to 3 minims, for the same purposes as, say, clove oil. It is frequently employed externally as a counter-irritant.

CAKCHIQUEL, a tribe of Central American Indians of Mayan stock, inhabiting parts of Guatemala. Their name is said to be that of a native tree. At the conquest they were found to be in a much civilized condition.

See D.G. Brinton, Annals of the Cakchiquels.

CALABAR (or Old Calabar), a seaport of West Africa in the British protectorate of Southern Nigeria, on the left bank of the Calabar river in 4° 56′ N., 8° 18′ E., 5 m. above the point where the river falls into the Calabar estuary of the Gulf of Guinea. Pop. about 15,000. It is the capital of the eastern province of the protectorate, and is in regular steamship and telegraphic communication with Europe. From the beach, where are the business houses and customs office, rise cliffs of moderate elevation, and on the sides or summits of the hills are the principal buildings, such as Government House, the European hospital and the church of the Presbyterian mission. The valley between the hills is occupied by the native quarter, called Duke Town. Here are several fine houses in bungalow style, the residences of the chiefs or wealthy natives. Along the river front runs a tramway connecting Duke Town with Queen Beach, which is higher up and provided with excellent quay accommodation. Among the public institutions are government botanical gardens, primary schools and a high school. Palms, mangos and other trees grow luxuriantly in the gardens and open spaces, and give the town a picturesque setting. The trade is very largely centred in the export of palm oil and palm kernels and the import of cotton goods and spirits, mostly gin. (See Nigeria for trade returns.)

Calabar was the name given by the Portuguese discoverers of the 15th century to the tribes on this part of the Guinea coast at the time of their arrival, when as yet the present inhabitants were unknown in the district. It was not till the early part of the 18th century that the Efik, owing to civil war with their kindred and the Ibibio, migrated from the neighbourhood of the Niger to the shores of the river Calabar, and established themselves at Ikoritungko or Creek Town, a spot 4 m. higher up the river. To get a better share in the European trade at the mouth of the river a body of colonists migrated further down and built Obutöng or Old Town, and shortly afterwards a rival colony established itself at Aqua Akpa or Duke Town, which thus formed the nucleus of the existing town. The native inhabitants are still mainly Efik. They are pure negroes. They have been for several generations the middle men between the white traders on the coast and the inland tribes of the Cross river and Calabar district. Christian missions have been at work among the Efiks since the middle of the 19th century. Many of the natives are well educated, profess Christianity and dress in European fashion. A powerful bond of union among the Efik, and one that gives them considerable influence over other tribes, is the secret society known as the Egbo (q.v.). The chiefs of Duke Town and other places in the neighbourhood placed themselves in 1884 under British protection. From that date until 1906 Calabar was the headquarters of the European administration in the Niger delta. In 1906 the seat of government was removed to Lagos.

Until 1904 Calabar was generally, and officially, known as Old Calabar, to distinguish it from New Calabar, the name of a river and port about 100 m. to the east. Since the date mentioned the official style is Calabar simply. Calabar estuary is mainly formed by the Cross river (q.v.), but receives also the waters of the Calabar and other streams. The Rio del Rey creek at the eastern end of the estuary marks the boundary between (British) Nigeria and (German) Cameroon. The estuary is 10 to 12 m. broad at its mouth and maintains the same breadth for about 30 m.

CALABAR BEAN, the seed of a leguminous plant, Physostigma venenosum, a native of tropical Africa. It derives its scientific name from a curious beak-like appendage at the end of the stigma, in the centre of the flower; this appendage though solid was supposed to be hollow (hence the name from φῦσα, a bladder, and stigma). The plant has a climbing habit like the scarlet runner, and attains a height of about 50 ft. with a stem an inch or two in thickness. The seed pods, which contain two or three seeds or beans, are 6 or 7 in. in length; and the beans are about the size of an ordinary horse bean but much thicker, with a deep chocolate-brown colour. They constitute the E-ser-e or ordeal beans of the negroes of Old Calabar, being administered to persons accused of witchcraft or other crimes. In cases where the poisonous material did its deadly work, it was held at once to indicate and rightly to punish guilt; but when it was rejected by the stomach of the accused, innocence was held to be satisfactorily established. A form of duelling with the seeds is also known among the natives, in which the two opponents divide a bean, each eating one-half; that quantity has been known to kill both adversaries. Although thus highly poisonous, the bean has nothing in external aspect, taste or smell to distinguish it from any harmless leguminous seed, and very disastrous effects have resulted from its being incautiously left in the way of children. The beans were first introduced into England in the year 1840; but the plant was not accurately described till 1861, and its physiological effects were investigated in 1863 by Sir Thomas R. Fraser.

The bean usually contains a little more than 1% of alkaloids. Of these two have been identified, one called calabarine, and the other, now a highly important drug, known as physostigmine—or occasionally as eserine. The British pharmacopoeia contains an alcoholic extract of the bean, intended for internal administration; but the alkaloid is now always employed. This is used as the sulphate, which has the empirical formula of (C15H21N3O2)2, H2SO4, plus an unknown number of molecules of water. It occurs in small yellowish crystals, which are turned red by exposure to light or air. They are readily soluble in water or alcohol and possess a bitter taste. The dose is 1/60-1/30 grain, and should invariably be administered by hypodermic injection. For the use of the oculist, who constantly employs this drug, it is also prepared in lamellae for insertion within the conjunctival sac. Each of these contains one-thousandth part of a grain of physostigmine sulphate, a quantity which is perfectly efficient.

Physostigmine has no action on the unbroken skin. When swallowed it rapidly causes a great increase in the salivary secretion, being one of the most powerful sialogogues known. It has been shown that the action is due to a direct influence on the secreting gland-cells themselves. After a few minutes the salivation is arrested owing to the constricting influence of the drug upon the blood-vessels that supply the glands. There is also felt a sense of constriction in the pharynx, due to the action of the drug on its muscular fibres. A similar stimulation of the non-striped muscle in the alimentary canal results in violent vomiting and purging, if a large dose has been taken. Physostigmine, indeed, stimulates nearly all the non-striped muscles in the body, and this action upon the muscular coats of the arteries, and especially of the arterioles, causes a great rise in blood-pressure shortly after its absorption, which is very rapid. The terminals of the vagus nerve are also stimulated, causing the heart to beat more slowly. Later in its action, the drug depresses the intra-cardiac motor ganglia, causing prolongation of diastole and finally arrest of the heart in dilatation. A large lethal dose kills by this action, but the minimum lethal dose by its combined action on the respiration and the heart. The respiration is at first accelerated by a dose of physostigmine, but is afterwards slowed and ultimately arrested. The initial hastening is due to a stimulation of the vagus terminals in the lung, as it does not occur if these nerves are previously divided. The final arrest is due to paralysis of the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata, hastened by a quasi-asthmatic contraction of the non-striped muscular tissue in the bronchial tubes, and by a "water-logging" of the lungs due to an increase in the amount of bronchial secretion. It may here be stated that the non-striped muscular tissue of the bladder, the uterus and the spleen is also stimulated, as well as that of the iris (see below). It is only in very large doses that the voluntary muscles are poisoned, there being induced in them a tremor which may simulate ordinary convulsions. The action is a direct one upon the muscular tissue (cf. the case of the gland-cells), since it occurs in an animal whose motor nerves have been paralysed by curare.

Consciousness is entirely unaffected by physostigmine, there being apparently no action on any part of the brain above the medulla oblongata. But the influence of the alkaloid upon the spinal cord is very marked and characteristic. The reflex functions of the cord are entirely abolished, and it has been experimentally shown that this is due to a direct influence upon the cells in the anterior cornua. It is precisely the reverse of the typical action of strychnine. Near the termination of a fatal case there is a paralysis of the sensory columns of the cord, so that general sensibility is lowered. The alkaloid calabarine is, on the other hand, a stimulant of the motor and reflex functions of the cord, so that only the pure alkaloid physostigmine and not any preparation of Calabar bean itself should be used when it is desired to obtain this action.

Besides the secretions already mentioned as being stimulated, the bile, the tears and the perspiration are increased by the exhibition of this drug.

There remains only to consider its highly important action upon the eye. Whether administered in the form of the official lamella or by subcutaneous injection, physostigmine causes a contraction of the pupil more marked than in the case of any other known drug. That this action is a direct and not a nervous one is shown by the fact that if the eye be suddenly shaded the pupil will dilate a little, showing that the nerves which cause dilatation are still competent after the administration of physostigmine. Besides the sphincter pupillae, the fibres of the ciliary muscle are stimulated. There is consequently spasm of accommodation, so that clear vision of distant objects becomes impossible. The intra-ocular tension is markedly lowered. This action, at first sight somewhat obscure, is due to the extreme pupillary contraction which removes the mass of the iris from pressing upon the spaces of Fontana, through which the intraocular fluids normally make a very slow escape from the eye into its efferent lymphatics.

There is a marked antagonism in nearly all important particulars between the actions of physostigmine and of atropine. The details of this antagonism, as well as nearly all our knowledge of this valuable drug, we owe to Sir Thomas Fraser, who introduced it into therapeutics.

The clinical uses of physostigmine are based upon the facts of its pharmacology, as above detailed. It has been recommended in cases of chronic constipation, and of want of tone in the muscular wall of the urinary bladder. It has undoubtedly been of value in many cases of tetanus, in which it must be given in maximal doses. (The tetanus antitoxin should invariably be employed as well.) Sir Thomas Fraser differs from nearly all other authorities in regarding the drug as useless in cases of strychnine poisoning, and the question must be left open. There is some doubtful evidence of the value of the alkaloid in chorea. The oculist uses it for at least six purposes. Its stimulant action on the iris and ciliary muscle is employed when they are weak or paralysed. It is used in all cases where one needs to reduce the intra-ocular tension, and for this and other reasons in glaucoma. It is naturally the most efficient agent in relieving the discomfort or intolerable pain of photophobia; and it is the best means of breaking down adhesions of the iris, and of preventing prolapse of the iris after injuries to the cornea. In fact it is hardly possible to over-estimate its value in ophthalmology. The drug has been highly and widely recommended in general paralysis, but there remains grave doubt as to its utility in this disease.

Toxicology.—The symptoms of Calabar bean poisoning have all been stated above. The obvious antidote is atropine, which may often succeed; and the other measures are those usually employed to stimulate the circulation and respiration. Unfortunately the antagonism between physostigmine and atropine is not perfect, and Sir Thomas Fraser has shown that in such cases there comes a time when, if the action of the two drugs be summated, death results sooner than from either alone. Thus atropine will save life after three and a half times the fatal dose of physostigmine has been taken, but will hasten the end if four or more times the fatal dose has been ingested. Thus it would be advisable to use the physiological antidote only when the dose of the poison—assuming estimation to be possible—was known to be comparatively small.

CALABASH (from the Span. calabaza, a gourd or pumpkin, possibly derived from the Pers. kharlunza, a melon), the shell of a gourd or pumpkin made into a vessel for holding liquids; also a vessel of similar shape made of other materials. It is the name of a tree (Crescentia Cujete) of tropical America, whose gourd-like fruit is so hard that vessels made of it can be used over a fire many times before being burned.

CALABASH TREE, a native of the West Indies and South America, known botanically as Crescentia Cujete (natural order, Bignoniaceae). The fruit resembles a gourd, and has a woody rind, which after removal of the pulp forms a calabash.

CALABOZO, or Calaboso, an inland town of Venezuela, once capital of the province of Caracas in the colonial period, and now capital of the state of Guárico. Pop. (1891) 5618. Calabozo is situated in the midst of an extensive llano on the left bank of the Guárico river, 325 ft. above sea-level and 123 m. S.S.W. of Caracas. The plain lies slightly above the level of intersecting rivers and is frequently flooded in the rainy season; in summer the heat is most oppressive, the average temperature being 88°F. The town is regularly laid out with streets crossing at right angles, and possesses several fine old churches, a college and public school. It is also a bishop's see, and a place of considerable commercial importance because of its situation in the midst of a rich cattle-raising country. It is said to have been an Indian town originally, and was made one of the trading stations of the Compañia Guipuzcoana in 1730. However, like most Venezuelan towns, Calabozo made little growth during the 19th century. In 1820 the Spanish forces under Morales were defeated here by the revolutionists under Bolívar and Paez.

CALABRESELLA (sometimes spelt Calabrasella), an Italian card-game ("the little Calabrian game") for three players. All the tens, nines and eights are removed from an ordinary pack; the order of the cards is three, two, ace, king, queen, &c. In scoring the ace counts 3; the three 2; king, queen and knave 1 each. The last trick counts 3. Each separate hand is a whole game. One player plays against the other two, paying to each or receiving from each the difference between the number of points that he and they hold. Each player receives twelve cards, dealt two at a time. The remainder form the stock, which is left face downwards. There are no trumps. The player on the dealer's left declares first: he can either play or pass. The dealer has the last option. If one person announces that he plays, the others combine against him. If all decline to play, the deal passes, the hands being abandoned. The single player may demand any "three" he chooses, giving a card in exchange. If the three demanded is in the stock, no other card may be asked for. If a player hold all the threes, he may demand a two. The single player must take one card from the stock, in exchange for one of his own (which is never exposed) and may take more. He puts out the cards he wishes to exchange face downwards, and selects what he wishes from the stock, which is now exposed; the rejected cards and cards left in the stock form the "discard." The player on the dealer's left then leads. The highest card wins the trick, there being no trumps. Players must follow suit, if they can. The single player and the allies collect all the tricks they win respectively. The winner of the last trick, besides scoring three, adds the discard to his heap. The heaps are then searched for the scoring cards, the scores are compared and the stakes paid. It is important to remember that the value and the order of the cards are not the same, thus the ace, whose value is 3, is only third as a trick-winner; also that it is highly important to win the last trick. Thirty-five is the full score.

CALABRIA, a territorial district of both ancient and modern Italy.

(1) The ancient district consisted of the peninsula at its southeast extremity, between the Adriatic Sea and the Gulf of Tarentum, ending in the lapygian promontory (Lat. Promunturium Sallentinum; the village upon it was called Leuca—Gr. Λευκά, white, from its colour—and is still named S. Maria di Leuca) and corresponding in the main with the modern province of Lecce, Brundisium and Tarentum being its most north-westerly cities, though the boundary of the latter extends somewhat farther west. It is a low terrace of limestone, the highest parts of which seldom reach 1500 ft.; the cliffs, though not high, are steep, and it has no rivers of any importance, but despite lack of water it was (and is) remarkably fertile. Strabo mentions its pastures and trees, and its olives, vines and fruit trees (which are still the principal source of prosperity) are frequently spoken of by the ancients. The wool of Tarentum and Brundisium was also famous, and at the former place were considerable dye-works. These two towns acquired importance in very early times owing to the excellence of their harbours. Traces of a prehistoric population of the stone and early bronze age are to be found all over Calabria. Especially noticeable are the menhirs (pietre fitte) and the round tower-like specchie or truddhi, which are found near Lecce, Gallipolli and Muro Leccese (and only here in Italy); they correspond to similar monuments, the perdas fittas and the nuraghi, of Sardinia, and the inter-relation between the two populations which produced them requires careful study. In 272-266 B.C. we find six triumphs recorded in the Roman fasti over the Tarentini, Sallentini and Messapii, while the name Calabria does not occur; but after the foundation of a colony at Brundisium in 246-245 B.C., and the final subjection of Tarentum in 209 B.C., Calabria became the general name for the peninsula. The population declined to some extent; Strabo (vi. 281) tells us that in earlier days Calabria had been extremely populous and had had thirteen cities, but that in his time all except Tarentum and Brundisium, which retained their commercial importance, had dwindled down to villages. The Via Appia, prolonged to Brundisium perhaps as early as 190 B.C., passed through Tarentum; the shorter route by Canusium, Barium and Gnathia was only made into a main artery of communication by Trajan (see Appia, Via). The only other roads were the two coast roads, the one from Brundisium by Lupiae, the other from Tarentum by Manduria, Neretum, Aletium (with a branch to Callipolis) and Veretum (hence a branch to Leuca), which met at Hydruntum. Augustus joined Calabria to Apulia and the territory of the Hirpini to form the second region of Italy. From the end of the second century we find Calabria for juridical purposes associated either with Apulia or with Lucania and the district of the Bruttii, while Diocletian placed it under one corrector with Apulia. The loss of the name Calabria came with the Lombard conquest of this district, when it was transferred to the land of the Bruttii, which the Byzantine empire still held.

(2) The modern Calabria consists of the south extremity of Italy (the "toe of the boot" in the popular simile, while the ancient Calabria, with which the present province of Lecce more or less coincides, is the "heel"), bounded on the N. by the province of Potenza (Basilicata) and on the other three sides by the sea. Area 5819 sq. m. The north boundary is rather farther north than that of the ancient district of the Bruttii (q.v.). Calabria acquired its present name in the time of the Byzantine supremacy, after the ancient Calabria had fallen into the hands of the Lombards and been lost to the Eastern empire about A.D. 668. The name is first found in the modern sense in Paulus Diaconus's Historia Langobardorum (end of the 8th century). It is mainly mountainous; at the northern extremity of the district the mountains still belong to the Apennines proper (the highest point, the Monte Pollino, 7325 ft., is on the boundary between Basilicata and Calabria), but after the plain of Sibari, traversed by the Crati (anc. Crathis, a river 58 m. long, the only considerable one in Calabria), the granite mountains of Calabria proper (though still called Apennines in ordinary usage) begin. They consist of two groups. The first extends as far as the isthmus, about 22 m. wide, formed by the gulfs of S. Eufemia and Squillace; its highest point is the Botte Donato (6330 ft.). It is in modern times generally called the Sila, in contradistinction to the second (southern) group, the Aspromonte (6420 ft.); the ancients on the other hand applied the name Sila to the southern group. The rivers in both parts of the chain are short and unimportant. The mountain districts are in parts covered with forest (though less so than in ancient times), still largely government property, while in much of the rest there is good pasture. The scenery is fine, though the country is hardly at all visited by travellers. The coast strip is very fertile, and though some parts are almost deserted owing to malaria, others produce wine, olive-oil and fruit (oranges and lemons, figs, &c.) in abundance, the neighbourhood of Reggio being especially fertile. The neighbourhood of Cosenza is also highly cultivated; and at the latter place a school of agriculture has been founded, though the methods used in many parts of Calabria are still primitive. Wheat, rice, cotton, liquorice, saffron and tobacco are also cultivated. The coast fisheries are important, especially in and near the straits of Messina. Commercial organization is, however, wanting. The climate is very hot in summer, while snow lies on the mountain-tops for at least half the year. Earthquakes are frequent and have done great damage: that of the autumn of 1905 was very disastrous (O. Malagodi, Calabria Desolata, Rome, 1905), but it was surpassed in its effects by the terrible earthquake of 1908, by which Messina (q.v.) was destroyed, and in Calabria itself Reggio and numerous smaller places ruined. The railway communications are sufficient for the coast districts; there are lines along both the east and west coasts (the latter forms part of the through route by land from Italy to Sicily, ferry-boats traversing the Strait of Messina with the through trains on board) which meet at Reggio di Calabria. They are connected by a branch from Marina di Catanzaro passing through Catanzaro to S. Eufemia; and there is also a line from Sibari up the valley of the Crati to Cosenza and Pietrafitta. The interior is otherwise untouched by railways; indeed many of the villages in the interior can only be approached by paths; and this is one of the causes of the economic difficulties of Calabria. Another is the unequal distribution of wealth, there being practically no middle class; a third is the injudicious disforestation which has been carried on without regard to the future. The natural check upon torrents is thus removed, and they sometimes do great damage. The Calabrian costumes are still much worn in the remoter districts: they vary considerably in the different villages. There is, and has been, considerable emigration to America, but many of the emigrants return, forming a slightly higher class, and producing a rise in the rate of payment to cultivators, which has increased the difficulties of the small proprietors. The smallness and large number of the communes, and the consequently large number of the professional classes and officials, are other difficulties, which, noticeable throughout Italy, are especially felt in Calabria. The population of Calabria was 1,439,329 in 1901. The chief towns of the province of Catanzaro were in 1901:—Catanzaro (32,005), Nicastro (18,150), Monteleone (13,481), Cotrone (9545), total of province (1871) 412,226; (1901) 498,791; number of communes, 152; of the province of Cosenza, Cosenza (20,857), Corigliano Calabro (15,379), Rossano (13,354), S. Giovanni in Fiore (13,288), Castrovillari (9945), total of province (1871) 440,468; (1901) 503,329, number of communes, 151; of the province of Reggio, Reggio di Calabria (44,569), Palmi (13,346), Cittanova (11,782), Gioiosa Ionica(11,200), Bagnara Calabra (11,136), Siderno Marina (10,775), Gerace (10,572), Polistena (10,112); number of communes 106; total of province (1871) 353,608; (1901) 437,209. A feature of modern Calabria is the existence of several Albanian colonies, founded in the 15th century by Albanians expelled by the Turks, who still speak their own language, wear their national costume, and worship according to the Greek rite. Similar colonies exist in Sicily, notably at Piana dei Greci near Palermo.

(T. As.)

CALAFAT, a town of Rumania in the department of Doljiu; on the river Danube, opposite the Bulgarian fortress of Vidin. Pop. (1900) 7113. Calafat is an important centre of the grain trade, and is connected by a branch line with the principal Walachian railways, and by a steam ferry with Vidin. It was founded in the 14th century by Genoese colonists, who employed large numbers of workmen (Calfats) in repairing ships—which industry gave its name to the place. In 1854 a Russian force was defeated at Calafat by the Turks under Ahmed Pasha, who surprised the enemy's camp.

CALAH (so in the Bible; Kalah in the Assyrian inscriptions), an ancient city situated in the angle formed by the Tigris and the upper Zab, 19 m. S. of Nineveh, and one of the capitals of Assyria. According to the inscriptions, it was built by Shalmaneser I. about 1300 B.C., as a residence city in place of the older Assur. After that it seems to have fallen into decay or been destroyed, but was restored by Assur-nasir-pal, about 880 B.C., and from that time to the overthrow of the Assyrian power it remained a residence city of the Assyrian kings. It shared the fate of Nineveh, was captured and destroyed by the Medes and Babylonians toward the close of the 7th century, and from that time has remained a ruin. The site was discovered by Sir A.H. Layard, in 1845, in the tel of Nimrud. Hebrew tradition (in the J narrative, Genesis x. 11, 12) mentions Calah as built by Nimrod. Modern Arabic tradition likewise ascribes the ruins, like those of Birs Nimrud, near Babylon, to Nimrod, because they are the most prominent ruins of that region. Similarly the ancient dike in the river Tigris at this point is ascribed to Nimrod. The ruin mounds of Nimrud consist of an oblong enclosure, formed by the walls of the ancient city, of which fifty-eight towers have been traced on the N. and about fifty on the E. In the S.W. corner of this oblong is an elevated platform in the form of a rectangular parallelogram, some 600 yds. from N. to S. and 400 yds. from E. to W., raised on an average about 40 ft. above the plain, with a lofty cone 140 ft. high in the N.W. corner. This is the remains of the raised platform of unbaked brick, faced with baked bricks and stone, on which stood the principal palaces and temples of the city, the cone at the N.W. representing the ziggurat, or stage-tower, of the principal temple. Originally on the banks of the Tigris, this platform now stands some distance E. of the river. Here Layard conducted excavations from 1845 to 1847, and again from 1849 to 1851. The means at his disposal were inadequate, his excavations were incomplete and also unscientific in that his prime object was the discovery of inscriptions and museum objects; but he was wonderfully successful in achieving the results at which he aimed, and the numerous statues, monuments, inscribed stones, bronze objects and the like found by him in the ruins of Calah are among the most precious possessions of the British Museum. Excavations were also conducted by Hormuzd Rassan in 1852-1854, and again in 1878, and by George Smith in 1873. But while supplementing in some important respects Layard's excavations, this later work added relatively little to his discoveries whether of objects or of facts. The principal buildings discovered at Calah are:—(a) the North-West palace, south of the ziggurat, one of the most complete and perfect Assyrian buildings known, about 350 ft. square, consisting of a central court, 129 ft. by 90 ft., surrounded by a number of halls and chambers. This palace was originally constructed by Assur-nasir-pal I. (885-860 B.C.), and restored and reoccupied by Sargon (722-705 B.C.). In it were found the winged lions, now in the British Museum, the fine series of sculptured bas-reliefs glorifying the deeds of Assur-nasir-pal in war and peace, and the large collection of bronze vessels and implements, numbering over 200 pieces; (b) the Central palace, in the interior of the mound, toward its southern end, erected by Shalmaneser II. (860-825 B.C.) and rebuilt by Tiglath-pileser III. (745-727 B.C.). Here were found the famous black obelisk of Shalmaneser, now in the British Museum, in the inscription on which the tribute of Jehu, son of Omri, is mentioned, the great winged bulls, and also a fine series of slabs representing the battles and sieges of Tiglath-pileser; (c) the South-West palace, in the S.W. corner of the platform, an uncompleted building of Esarhaddon (681-668 B.C.), who robbed the North-West and Central palaces, effacing the inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser, to obtain material for his construction; (d) the smaller West palace, between the South-West and the North-West palaces, a construction of Hadad-nirari or Adadnirari III. (812-783 B.C.); (e) the South-East palace, built by Assur-etil-ilani, after 626 B.C., for his harem, in the S.E. corner of the platform, above the remains of an older similar palace of Shalmaneser; (f) two small temples of Assur-nasir-pal, in connexion with the ziggurat in the N.W. corner; and (g) a temple called E-Zida, and dedicated to Nebo, near the South-East palace. From the number of colossal figures of Nebo discovered here it would appear that the cult of Nebo was a favourite one, at least during the later period. The other buildings on the E. side of the platform had been ruined by the post-Assyrian use of the mound for a cemetery, and for tunnels for the storage and concealment of grain. While the ruins of Calah were remarkably rich in monumental material, enamelled bricks, bronze and ivory objects and the like, they yielded few of the inscribed clay tablets found in such great numbers at Nineveh and various Babylonian sites. Not a few of the astrological and omen tablets in the Kuyunjik collection of the British Museum, however, although found at Nineveh, were executed, according to their own testimony, at Calah for the rab-dup-šarrē or principal librarian during the reigns of Sargon and Sennacherib (716-684 B.C.). From this it would appear that there was at that time at Calah a library or a collection of archives which was later removed to Nineveh. In the prestige of antiquity and religious renown, Calah was inferior to the older capital, Assur, while in population and general importance it was much inferior to the neighbouring Nineveh. There is no proper ground for regarding it, as some Biblical scholars of a former generation did, through a false interpretation of the book of Jonah, as a part or suburb of Nineveh.

See A.H. Layard, Nineveh and its Remains (London, 1849); George Smith, Assyrian Discoveries (London, 1883); Hormuzd Rassam, Ashur and the Land of Nimrod (London and New York, 1897).

(J. P. Pe.)

CALAHORRA (anc. Calagurris), a city of northern Spain, in the province of Logroño; on the left bank of the river Cidacos, which enters the Ebro 3 m. E., and on the Bilbao-Saragossa railway. Pop. (1900) 9475. Calahorra is built on the slope of a hill overlooking the wide Ebro valley, which supplies its markets with an abundance of grain, wine, oil and flax. Its cathedral, which probably dates from the foundation of the see of Calahorra in the 5th century, was restored in 1485, and subsequently so much altered that little of the original Gothic structure survives. The Casa Santa, annually visited by many thousands of pilgrims on the 31st of August, is said to contain the bodies of the martyrs Emeterius and Celedonius, who were beheaded in the 3rd or 4th century, on the site now occupied by the cathedral. Their heads, according to local legend, were cast into the Ebro, and, after floating out to sea and rounding the Iberian peninsula, are now preserved at Santander.

The chief remains of the Roman Calagurris are the vestiges of an aqueduct and an amphitheatre. Calagurris became famous in 76 B.C., when it was successfully defended against Pompey by the adherents of Sertorius. Four years later it was captured by Pompey's legate, Afranius, after starvation had reduced the garrison to cannibalism. Under Augustus (31 B.C.-A.D. 14) Calagurris received the privileges of Roman citizenship, and at a later date it was given the additional name of Nassica to distinguish it from the neighbouring town of Calagurris Fibularensis, the exact site of which is uncertain. The rhetorician Quintilian was born at Calagurris Nassica about A.D. 35.

CALAIS, a seaport and manufacturing town of northern France, in the department of Pas-de-Calais, 18 m. E.S.E. of Dover, and 185 m. N. of Paris by the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 59,623. Calais, formerly a celebrated fortress, is defended by four forts, not of modern construction, by a citadel built in 1560, which overlooks it on the west, and by batteries. The old town stands on an island hemmed in by the canal and the harbour basins, which divide it from the much more extensive manufacturing quarter of St Pierre, enveloping it on the east and south. The demolition of the ramparts of Old Calais was followed by the construction of a new circle of defences, embracing both the old and new quarters, and strengthened by a deep moat. In the centre of the old town is the Place d'Armes, in which stands the former hôtel-de-ville (rebuilt in 1740, restored in 1867), with busts of Eustache de St Pierre, Francis, duke of Guise, and Cardinal Richelieu. The belfry belongs to the 16th and early 17th century. Close by is the Tour du Guet, or watch-tower, used as a lighthouse until 1848. The church of Notre-Dame, built during the English occupancy of Calais, has a fine high altar of the 17th century; its lofty tower serves as a landmark for sailors. A gateway flanked by turrets (14th century) is a relic of the Hôtel de Guise, built as a gild hall for the English woolstaplers, and given to the duke of Guise as a reward for the recapture of Calais. The modern town-hall and a church of the 19th century are the chief buildings of the quarter of St Pierre. Calais has a board of trade-arbitrators, a tribunal and a chamber of commerce, a commercial and industrial school, and a communal college.

The harbour is entered from the roads by way of a channel leading to the outer harbour which communicates with a floating basin 22 acres in extent, on the east, and with the older and less commodious portion of the harbour to the north and west of the old town. The harbour is connected by canals with the river Aa and the navigable waterways of the department.

Calais is the principal port for the continental passenger traffic with England carried on by the South-Eastern & Chatham and the Northern of France railways. The average number of passengers between Dover and Calais for the years 1902-1906 inclusive was 315,012. Trade is chiefly with the United Kingdom. The principal exports are wines, especially champagne, spirits, hay, straw, wool, potatoes, woven goods, fruit, glass-ware, lace and metal-ware. Imports include cotton and silk goods, coal, iron and steel, petroleum, timber, raw wool, cotton yarn and cork. During the five years 1901-1905 the average annual value of exports was £8,388,000 (£6,363,000 in the years 1896-1900), of imports £4,145,000 (£3,759,000 in 1896-1900). In 1905, exclusive of passenger and mail boats, there entered the port 848 vessels of 312,477 tons and cleared 857 of 305,284 tons, these being engaged in the general carrying trade of the port. The main industry of Calais is the manufacture of tulle and lace, for which it is the chief centre in France. Brewing, saw-milling, boat-building, and the manufacture of biscuits, soap and submarine cables are also carried on. Deep-sea and coast fishing for cod, herring and mackerel employ over 1000 of the inhabitants.

Calais was a petty fishing-village, with a natural harbour at the mouth of a stream, till the end of the 10th century. It was first improved by Baldwin IV., count of Flanders, in 997, and afterwards, in 1224, was regularly fortified by Philip Hurepel, count of Boulogne. It was besieged in 1346, after the battle of Crécy, by Edward III. and held out resolutely by the bravery of Jean de Vienne, its governor, till after nearly a year's siege famine forced it to surrender. Its inhabitants were saved from massacre by the devotion of Eustache de St Pierre and six of the chief citizens, who were themselves spared at the prayer of Queen Philippa. The city remained in the hands of the English till 1558, when it was taken by Francis, duke of Guise, at the head of 30,000 men from the ill-provided English garrison, only 800 strong, after a siege of seven days. From this time the Calaisis or territory of Calais was known as the Pays Reconquis. It was held by the Spaniards from 1595 to 1598, but was restored to France by the treaty of Vervins.

CALAIS, a city and sub-port of entry of Washington county, Maine, U.S.A., on the Saint Croix river, 12 m. from its mouth, opposite Saint Stephens, New Brunswick, with which it is connected by bridges. Pop. (1890) 7290;(1900) 7655 (1908 being foreign-born); (1910) 6116. It is served by the Washington County railway (102.5 m. to Washington Junction, where it connects with the Maine Central railway), and by steamboat lines to Boston, Portland and Saint Johns. In the city limits are the post-offices of Calais, Milltown and Red Beach. The city has a small public library. The valley here is wide and deep, the banks of the river bold and picturesque, and the tide rises and falls about 25 ft. The city has important interests in lumber, besides foundries, machine shops, granite works—there are several granite (notably red granite) quarries in the vicinity—a tannery, and manufactories of shoes and calcined plaster. Big Island, now in the city of Calais, was visited in the winter of 1604-1605 by Pierre du Guast, sieur de Monts. Calais was first settled in 1779, was incorporated as a town in 1809, and was chartered as a city in 1851.

CALAÏS and ZETES (the Boreadae), in Greek mythology, the winged twin sons of Boreas and Oreithyia. On their arrival with the Argonauts at Salmydessus in Thrace, they liberated their sister Cleopatra, who had been thrown into prison with her two sons by her husband Phineus, the king of the country (Sophocles, Antigone, 966; Diod. Sic. iv. 44). According to another story, they delivered Phineus from the Harpies (q.v.), in pursuit of whom they perished (Apollodorus i. 9; iii. 15). Others say that they were slain by Heracles near the island of Tenos, in consequence of a quarrel with Tiphys, the pilot of the Argonauts, or because they refused to wait during the search for Hylas, the favourite of Heracles (Hyginus, Fab., 14. 273; schol. on Apollonius Rhodius i. 1304). They were changed by the gods into winds, and the pillars over their tombs in Tenos were said to wave whenever the wind blew from the north. Like the Harpies, Calaïs and Zetes are obvious personifications of winds. Legend attributed the foundation of Cales in Campania to Calaïs (Silius Italicus viii. 512).

CALAMINE, a mineral species consisting of zinc carbonate, ZnCO3, and forming an important ore of zinc. It is rhombohedral in crystallization and isomorphous with calcite and chalybite. Distinct crystals are somewhat rare; they have the form of the primitive rhombohedron (rr′ = 72° 20′), the faces of which are generally curved and rough. Botryoidal and stalactitic masses are more common, or again the mineral may be compact and granular or loose and earthy. As in the other rhombohedral carbonates, the crystals possess perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the rhombohedron. The hardness is 5; specific gravity, 4.4. The colour of the pure mineral is white; more often it is brownish, sometimes green or blue: a bright-yellow variety containing cadmium has been found in Arkansas, and is known locally as "turkey-fat ore." The pure material contains 52% of zinc, but this is often partly replaced isomorphously by small amounts of iron and manganese, traces of calcium and magnesium, and sometimes by copper or cadmium.

Calamine is found in beds and veins in limestone rocks, and is often associated with galena and blende. It is a product of alteration of blende, having been formed from this by the action of carbonated waters; or in many cases the zinc sulphide may have been first oxidized to sulphate, which in solution acted on the surrounding limestone, producing zinc carbonate. The latter mode of origin is suggested by the frequent occurrence of calamine pseudomorphous after calcite, that is, having the form of calcite crystals. Deposits of calamine have been extensively mined in the limestones of the Mendip Hills, in Derbyshire, and at Alston Moor in Cumberland. It also occurs in large amount in the province of Santander in Spain, in Missouri, and at several other places where zinc ores are mined. The best crystals of the mineral were found many years ago at Chessy near Lyons; these are rhombohedra of a fine apple-green colour. A translucent botryoidal calamine banded with blue and green is found at Laurion in Greece, and has sometimes been cut and polished for small ornaments such as brooches.

The name calamine (German, Galmei), from lapis calaminaris, a Latin corruption of cadmia (καδμία), the old name for zinc ores in general (G. Agricola in 1546 derived it from the Latin calamus, a reed), was early used indiscriminately for the carbonate and the hydrous silicate of zinc, and even now both species are included by miners under the same term. The two minerals often closely resemble each other in appearance, and can usually only be distinguished by chemical analysis; they were first so distinguished by James Smithson in 1803. F.S. Beudant in 1832 restricted the name calamine to the hydrous silicate and proposed the name "smithsonite" for the carbonate, and these meanings of the terms are now adopted by Dana and many other mineralogists. Unfortunately, however, in England (following Brooke and Miller, 1852) these designations have been reversed, calamine being used for the carbonate and smithsonite for the silicate. This unfortunate confusion is somewhat lessened by the use of the terms zinc-spar and hemimorphite (q.v.) for the carbonate and silicate respectively.

(L. J. S.)

CALAMIS, an Athenian sculptor of the first half of the 5th century B.C. He made statues of Apollo the averter of ill, Hermes the ram-bearer, Aphrodite and other deities, as well as part of a chariot group for Hiero, king of Syracuse. His works are praised by ancient critics for delicacy and grace, as opposed to breadth and force. Archaeologists are disposed to regard the bronze charioteer recently found at Delphi as a work of Calamis; but the evidence is not conclusive (see Greek Art).

CALAMY, EDMUND, known as "the elder" (1600-1666), English Presbyterian divine, was born of Huguenot descent in Walbrook, London, in February 1600, and educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where his opposition to the Arminian party, then powerful in that society, excluded him from a fellowship. Nicholas Felton, bishop of Ely, however, made him his chaplain, and gave him the living of St Mary, Swaffham Prior, which he held till 1626. He then removed to Bury St Edmunds, where he acted as lecturer for ten years, retiring when his bishop (Wren) insisted on the observance of certain ceremonial articles. In 1636 he was appointed rector (or perhaps only lecturer) of Rochford in Essex, which was so unhealthy that he had soon to leave it, and in 1639 he was elected to the perpetual curacy of St Mary Aldermanbury in London, where he had a large following. Upon the opening of the Long Parliament he distinguished himself in defence of the Presbyterian cause, and had a principal share in writing the conciliatory work known as Smectymnuus, against Bishop Joseph Hall's presentation of episcopacy. The initials of the names of the several contributors formed the name under which it was published, viz., S. Marshal, E. Calamy, T. Young, M. Newcomen and W. Spurstow. Calamy was an active member in the Westminster assembly of divines, and, refusing to advance to Congregationalism, found in Presbyterianism the middle course which best suited his views of theology and church government. He opposed the execution of Charles I., lived quietly under the Commonwealth, and was assiduous in promoting the king's return; for this he was afterwards offered the bishopric of Coventry and Lichfield, but declined it, it is said, on his wife's persuasion. He was made one of Charles's chaplains, and vainly tried to secure the legal ratification of Charles's declaration of the 25th of October 1660. He was ejected for Nonconformity in 1662, and was so affected by the sight of the devastation caused by the great fire of London that he died shortly afterwards, on the 29th of October 1666. He was buried in the ruins of his church, near the place where the pulpit had stood. His publications are almost entirely sermons. His eldest son (Edmund), known as "the younger," was educated at Cambridge, and was ejected from the rectory of Moreton, Essex, in 1662. He was of a retiring disposition and moderate views, and died in 1685.

CALAMY, EDMUND (1671-1732), English Nonconformist divine, the only son of Edmund Calamy "the younger," was born in London, in the parish of St Mary Aldermanbury, on the 5th of April 1671. He was sent to various schools, including Merchant Taylors', and in 1688 proceeded to the university of Utrecht. While there, he declined an offer of a professor's chair in the university of Edinburgh made to him by the principal, William Carstares, who had gone over on purpose to find suitable men for such posts. After his return to England in 1691 he began to study divinity, and on Baxter's advice went to Oxford, where he was much influenced by Chillingworth. He declined invitations from Andover and Bristol, and accepted one as assistant to Matthew Sylvester at Blackfriars (1692). In June 1694 he was publicly ordained at Annesley's meeting-house in Little St Helen's, and soon afterwards was invited to become assistant to Daniel Williams in Hand Alley, Bishopsgate. In 1702 he was chosen one of the lecturers in Salters' Hall, and in 1703 he succeeded Vincent Alsop as pastor of a large congregation in Westminster. In 1709 Calamy made a tour through Scotland, and had the degree of doctor of divinity conferred on him by the universities of Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Glasgow. Calamy's forty-one publications are mainly sermons, but his fame rests on his nonconformist biographies. His first essay was a table of contents to Baxter's Narrative of his life and times, which was sent to the press in 1696; he made some remarks on the work itself and added to it an index, and, reflecting on the usefulness of the book, he saw the expediency of continuing it, as Baxter's history came no further than the year 1684. Accordingly, he composed an abridgment of it, with an account of many other ministers who were ejected after the restoration of Charles II.; their apology, containing the grounds of their nonconformity and practice as to stated and occasional communion with the Church of England; and a continuation of their history until the year 1691. This work was published in 1702. The most important chapter (ix.) is that which gives a detailed account of the ministers ejected in 1662; it was afterwards published as a distinct volume. He afterwards published a moderate defence of Nonconformity, in three tracts, in answer to some tracts of Benjamin, afterwards Bishop, Hoadly. In 1713 he published a second edition (2 vols.) of his Abridgment of Baxter's History, in which, among various additions, there is a continuation of the history through the reigns of William and Anne, down to the passing of the Occasional Bill. At the end is subjoined the reformed liturgy, which was drawn up and presented to the bishops in 1661. In 1718 he wrote a vindication of his grandfather and several other persons against certain reflections cast upon them by Laurence Echard in his History of England. In 1719 he published The Church and the Dissenters Compar'd as to Persecution, and in 1728 appeared his Continuation of the Account of the ejected ministers and teachers, a volume which is really a series of emendations of the previously published account. He died on the 3rd of June 1732, having been married twice and leaving six of his thirteen children to survive him. Calamy was a kindly man, frankly self-conscious, but very free from jealousy. He was an able diplomatist and generally secured his ends. His great hero was Baxter, of whom he wrote three distinct memoirs. His eldest son Edmund (the fourth) was a Presbyterian minister in London and died 1755; another son (Edmund, the fifth) was a barrister who died in 1816; and this one's son (Edmund, the sixth) died in 1850, his younger brother Michael, the last of the direct Calamy line, surviving till 1876.

CALARASHI (Călărasi), the capital of the Jalomitza department, Rumania, situated on the left bank of the Borcea branch of the Danube, amid wide fens, north of which extends the desolate Baragan Steppe. Pop. (1900) 11,024. Calarashi has a considerable transit trade in wheat, linseed, hemp, timber and fish from a broad mere on the west or from the Danube. Small vessels carry cargo to Braila and Galatz, and a branch railway from Calarashi traverses the Steppe from south to north, and meets the main line between Bucharest and Constantza.

CALAS, JEAN (1698-1762), a Protestant merchant at Toulouse, whose legal murder is a celebrated case in French history. His wife was an Englishwoman of French extraction. They had three sons and three daughters. His son Louis had embraced the Roman Catholic faith through the persuasions of a female domestic who had lived thirty years in the family. In October 1761 another son, Antoine, hanged himself in his father's warehouse. The crowd, which collected on so shocking a discovery, took up the idea that he had been strangled by the family to prevent him from changing his religion, and that this was a common practice among Protestants. The officers of justice adopted the popular tale, and were supplied by the mob with what they accepted as conclusive evidence of the fact. The fraternity of White Penitents buried the body with great ceremony, and performed a solemn service for the deceased as a martyr; the Franciscans followed their example; and these formalities led to the popular belief in the guilt of the unhappy family. Being all condemned to the rack in order to extort confession, they appealed to the parlement; but this body, being as weak as the subordinate magistrates, sentenced the father to the torture, ordinary and extraordinary, to be broken alive upon the wheel, and then to be burnt to ashes; which decree was carried into execution on the 9th of March 1762. Pierre Calas, the surviving son, was banished for life; the rest were acquitted. The distracted widow, however, found some friends, and among them Voltaire, who laid her case before the council of state at Versailles. For three years he worked indefatigably to procure justice, and made the Calas case famous throughout Europe (see Voltaire). Finally the king and council unanimously agreed to annul the proceeding of the parlement of Toulouse; Calas was declared to have been innocent, and every imputation of guilt was removed from the family.

See Causes célèbres, tome iv.; Raoul Allier, Voltaire et Calas, une erreur judiciaire au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1898); and biographies of Voltaire.

CALASH (from Fr. calèche, derived from Polish kolaska, a wheeled carriage), a light carriage with a folding hood; the Canadian calash is two-wheeled and has a seat for the driver on the splash-board. The word is also used for a kind of hood made of silk stretched over hoops, formerly worn by women.

CALASIAO, a town of the province of Pangasinán, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on a branch of the Agno river, about 4 m. S. by E. of Dagupan, the N. terminal of the Manila & Dagupan railway. Pop. (1903) 16,539. In 1903, after the census had been taken, the neighbouring town of Santa Barbara (pop. 10,367) was annexed to Calasiao. It is in the midst of a fertile district and has manufactures of hats and various woven fabrics.

CALASIO, MARIO DI (1550-1620), Italian Minorite friar, was born at a small town in the Abruzzi whence he took his name. Joining the Franciscans at an early age, he devoted himself to Oriental languages and became an authority on Hebrew. Coming to Rome he was appointed by Paul V., whose confessor he was, to the chair of Scripture at Ara Coeli, where he died on the 1st of February 1620. Calasio is known by his Concordantiae sacrorum Bibliorum hebraicorum, published in 4 vols. (Rome, 1622), two years after his death, a work which is based on Nathan's Hebrew Concordance (Venice, 1523). For forty years Calasio laboured on this work, and he secured the assistance of the greatest scholars of his age. The Concordance evinces great care and accuracy. All root-words are treated in alphabetical order and the whole Bible has been collated for every passage containing the word, so as to explain the original idea, which is illustrated from the cognate usages of the Chaldee, Syrian, Rabbinical Hebrew and Arabic. Calasio gives under each Hebrew word the literal Latin translation, and notes any existing differences from the Vulgate and Septuagint readings. An incomplete English translation of the work was published in London by Romaine in 1747. Calasio also wrote a Hebrew grammar, Canones generates linguae sanctatae (Rome, 1616), and the Dictionarium hebraicum (Rome, 1617).

CALATAFIMI, a town of the province of Trapani, Sicily, 30 m. W.S.W. of Palermo direct (51½ m. by rail). Pop. (1901) 11,426. The name of the town is derived from the Saracenic castle of Kalat-al-Fimi (castle of Euphemius), which stands above it. The principal church contains a fine Renaissance reredos in marble. Samuel Butler, the author of Erewhon, did much of his work here. The battlefield where Garibaldi won his first victory over the Neapolitans on the 15th of May 1860, lies 2 m. S.W.

CALATAYÚD, a town of central Spain, in the province of Saragossa, at the confluence of the rivers Jalón and Jiloca, and on the Madrid-Saragossa and Calatayúd-Sagunto railways. Pop. (1900) 11,526. Calatayúd consists of a lower town, built on the left bank of the Jalón, and an upper or Moorish town, which contains many dwellings hollowed out of the rock above and inhabited by the poorer classes. Among a number of ecclesiastical buildings, two collegiate churches are especially noteworthy. Santa Maria, originally a mosque, has a lofty octagonal tower and a fine Renaissance doorway, added in 1528; while Santo Sepulcro, built in 1141, and restored in 1613, was long the principal church of the Spanish Knights Templar. In commercial importance Calatayúd ranks second only to Saragossa among the Aragonese towns, for it is the central market of the exceptionally fertile expanse watered by the Jalón and Jiloca. About 2 m. E. are the ruins of the ancient Bilbilis, where the poet Martial was born c. A.D. 40. It was celebrated for its breed of horses, its armourers, its gold and its iron; but Martial also mentions its unhealthy climate, due to the icy winds which sweep down from the heights of Moncayo (7705 ft.) on the north. In the middle ages the ruins were almost destroyed to provide stone for the building of Calatayúd, which was founded by a Moorish amir named Ayub and named Kalat Ayub, "Castle of Ayub." Calatayúd was captured by Alphonso I. of Aragon in 1119.

CALATIA, an ancient town of Campania, Italy, 6 m. S.E. of Capua, on the Via Appia, near the point where the Via Popillia branches off from it. It is represented by the church of St. Giacomo alle Galazze. The Via Appia here, as at Capua, abandons its former S.E. direction for a length of 2000 Oscan ft. (1804½ English ft.), for which it runs due E. and then resumes its course S.E. There are no ruins, but a considerable quantity of débris; and the pre-Roman necropolis was partially excavated in 1882. Ten shafts lined with slabs of tufa which were there found may have been the approaches to tombs or may have served as wells. The history of Calatia is practically that of its more powerful neighbour Capua, but as it lay near the point where the Via Appia turns east and enters the mountains, it had some strategic importance. In 313 B.C. it was taken by the Samnites and recaptured by the dictator Q. Fabius; the Samnites captured it again in 311, but it must have been retaken at an unknown date. In the 3rd century we find it issuing coins with an Oscan legend, but in 211 B.C. it shared the fate of Capua. In 174 we hear of its walls being repaired by the censors. In 59 B.C. a colony was established here by Caesar.

See Ch. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopädie, iii. 1334 (Stuttgart, 1899).

CALAVERAS SKULL, a famous fossil cranium, reported by Professor J.D. Whitney as found (1886) in the undisturbed auriferous gravels of Calaveras county, California. The discovery at once raised the still discussed question of "tertiary man" in the New World. Doubt has been thrown on the genuineness of the find, as the age of the gravels is disputed and the skull is of a type corresponding exactly with that of the present Indian inhabitants of the district. Whitney assigns the fossil to late Tertiary (Pliocene) times, and concludes that "man existed in California previous to the cessation of volcanic activity in the Sierra Nevada, to the epoch of the greatest extension of the glaciers in that region and to the erosion of the present river cañons and valleys, at a time when the animal and vegetable creation differed entirely from what they now are...." The specimen is preserved in the Peabody museum, Cambridge, Mass.

CALBÁYOG, a town of the province of Sámar, Philippine Islands, on the W. coast at the mouth of the Calbáyog river, about 30 m. N.W. of Catbalogan, the capital, in lat. 12° 3′ N. Pop. (1903) 15,895. Calbáyog has an important export trade in hemp, which is shipped to Manila. Copra is also produced in considerable quantity, and there is fine timber in the vicinity. There are hot springs near the town. The neighbouring valleys of the Gándara and Hippatan rivers are exceedingly fertile, but in 1908 were uncultivated. The climate is very warm, but healthy. The language is Visayan.

CALBE, or Kalbe, a town of Germany, on the Saale, in Prussian Saxony. It is known as Calbe-an-der-Saale, to distinguish it from the smaller town of Calbe on the Milde in the same province. Pop. (1905) 12,281. It is a railway junction, and among its industries are wool-weaving and the manufacture of cloth, paper, stoves, sugar and bricks. Cucumbers and onions are cultivated, and soft coal is mined in the neighbourhood.

CALCAR (or Kalcker), JOHN DE (1499-1546), Italian painter, was born at Calcar, in the duchy of Cleves. He was a disciple of Titian at Venice, and perfected himself by studying Raphael. He imitated those masters so closely as to deceive the most skilful critics. Among his various pieces is a Nativity, representing the angels around the infant Christ, which he arranged so that the light emanated wholly from the child. He died at Naples.

CALCEOLARIA, in botany, a genus belonging to the natural order Scrophulariaceae, containing about 150 species of herbaceous or shrubby plants, chiefly natives of the South American Andes of Peru and Chile. The calceolaria of the present day has been developed into a highly decorative plant, in which the herbaceous habit has preponderated. The plants are now very generally raised annually from seed, which is sown about the end of June in a mixture of loam, leaf-mould and sand, and, being very small, must be only slightly covered. When the plants are large enough to handle they are pricked out an inch or two apart into 3-inch or 5-inch pots; when a little more advanced they are potted singly. They should be wintered in a greenhouse with a night temperature of about 40°, occupying a shelf near the light. By the end of February they should be moved into 8-inch or 10-inch pots, using a compost of three parts good turfy loam, one part leaf-mould, and one part thoroughly rotten manure, with a fair addition of sand. They need plenty of light and air, but must not be subjected to draughts. When the pots get well filled with roots, they must be liberally supplied with manure water. In all stages of growth the plants are subject to the attacks of the green-fly, for which they must be fumigated.

The so-called shrubby calceolarias used for bedding are increased from cuttings, planted in autumn in cold frames, where they can be wintered, protected from frost by the use of mats and a good layer of litter placed over the glass and round the sides.

CALCHAQUI, a tribe of South American Indians, now extinct, who formerly occupied northern Argentina. Stone and other remains prove them to have reached a high degree of civilization. They offered a vigorous resistance to the first Spanish colonists coming from Chile.

CALCHAS, of Mycenae or Megara, son of Thestor, the most famous soothsayer among the Greeks at the time of the Trojan war. He foretold the duration of the siege of Troy, and, when the fleet was detained by adverse winds at Aulis, he explained the cause and demanded the sacrifice of Iphigeneia. When the Greeks were visited with pestilence on account of Chryseis, he disclosed the reasons of Apollo's anger. It was he who suggested that Neoptolemus and Philoctetes should be fetched from Scyros and Lemnos to Troy, and he was one of those who advised the construction of the wooden horse. When the Greeks, on their journey home after the fall of Troy, were overtaken by a storm, Calchas is said to have been thrown ashore at Colophon. According to another story, he foresaw the storm and did not attempt to return by sea. It had been predicted that he should die when he met his superior in divination; and the prophecy was fulfilled in the person of Mopsus, whom Calchas met in the grove of the Clarian Apollo near Colophon. Having been beaten in a trial of soothsaying, Calchas died of chagrin or committed suicide. He had a temple and oracle in Apulia.

Ovid, Metam. xii. 18 ff.; Homer, Iliad i. 68, ii. 322; Strabo vi. p. 284, xiv. p. 642.

CALCITE, a mineral consisting of naturally occurring calcium carbonate, CaCO3, crystallizing in the rhombohedral system. With the exception of quartz, it is the most widely distributed of minerals, whilst in the beautiful development and extraordinary variety of form of its crystals it is surpassed by none. In the massive condition it occurs as large rock-masses (marble, limestone, chalk) which are often of organic origin, being formed of the remains of molluscs, corals, crinoids, &c., the hard parts of which consist largely of calcite.

The name calcite (Lat. calx, calcis, meaning burnt lime) is of comparatively recent origin, and was first applied, in 1836, to the "barleycorn" pseudomorphs of calcium carbonate after celestite from Sangerhausen in Thuringia; it was not until about 1843 that the name was used in its present sense. The mineral had, however, long been known under the names calcareous spar and calc-spar, and the beautifully transparent variety called Iceland-spar had been much studied. The strong double refraction and perfect cleavages of Iceland-spar were described in detail by Erasmus Bartholinus in 1669 in his book Experimenta Crystalli Islandici disdiaclastici; the study of the same mineral led Christiaan Huygens to discover in 1690 the laws of double refraction, and E.L. Malus in 1808 the polarization of light.

An important property of calcite is the great ease with which it may be cleaved in three directions; the three perfect cleavages are parallel to the faces of the primitive rhombohedron, and the angle between them was determined by W.H. Wollaston in 1812, with the aid of his newly invented reflective goniometer, to be 74° 55′. The cleavage is of great help in distinguishing calcite from other minerals of similar appearance. The hardness of 3 (it is readily scratched with a knife), the specific gravity of 2.72, and the fact that it effervesces briskly in contact with cold dilute acids are also characters of determinative value.

Crystals of calcite are extremely varied in form, but, as a rule, they may be referred to four distinct habits, namely: rhombohedral, prismatic, scalenohedral and tabular. The primitive rhombohedron, r {100} (fig. 1), is comparatively rare except in combination with other forms. A flatter rhombohedron, e {110}, is shown in fig. 2, and a more acute one, f {111}, in fig. 3. These three rhombohedra are related in such a manner that, when in combination, the faces of r truncate the polar edges of f, and the faces of e truncate the edges of r. The crystal of prismatic habit shown in fig. 4 is a combination of the prism m {211} and the rhombohedron e {110}; fig. 5 is a combination of the scalenohedron v {201} and the rhombohedron r {100}; and the crystal of tabular habit represented in fig. 6 is a combination of the basal pinacoid c {111}, prism m {211}, and rhombohedron e {110}. In these figures only six distinct forms (r, e, f, m, v, c) are represented, but more than 400 have been recorded for calcite, whilst the combinations of them are almost endless.

Depending on the habits of the crystals, certain trivial names have been used, such, for example, as dog-tooth-spar for the crystals of scalenohedral habit, so common in the Derbyshire lead mines and limestone caverns; nail-head-spar for crystals terminated by the obtuse rhombohedron e, which are common in the lead mines of Alston Moor in Cumberland; slate-spar (German Schieferspath) for crystals of tabular habit, and sometimes as thin as paper: cannon-spar for crystals of prismatic habit terminated by the basal pinacoid c.

Calcite is also remarkable for the variety and perfection of its twinned crystals. Twinned crystals, though not of infrequent occurrence, are, however, far less common than simple (untwinned) crystals. No less than four well-defined twin-laws are to be distinguished:—

i. Twin-plane c (111).—Here there is rotation of one portion with respect to the other through 180° about the principal (trigonal) axis, which is perpendicular to the plane c (111); or the same result may be obtained by reflection across this plane. Fig. 7 shows a prismatic crystal (like fig. 4) twinned in this manner, and fig. 8 represents a twinned scalenohedron v {201}.

ii. Twin-plane e (110).—The principal axes of the two portions are inclined at an angle of 52° 30½′. Repeated twinning on this plane is very common, and the twin-lamellae (fig. 9) to which it gives rise are often to be observed in the grains of calcite of crystalline limestones which have been subjected to pressure. This lamellar twinning is of secondary origin; it may be readily produced artificially by pressure, for example, by pressing a knife into the edge of a cleavage rhombohedron.

iii. Twin-plane r (100).—Here the principal axes of the two portions are nearly at right angles (89° 14′), and one of the directions of cleavage in both portions is parallel to the twin-plane. Fine crystals of prismatic habit twinned according to this law were formerly found in considerable numbers at Wheal Wrey in Cornwall, and of scalenohedral habit at Eyam in Derbyshire and Cleator Moor in Cumberland; those from the last two localities are known as "butterfly twins" or "heart-shaped twins" (fig. 10), according to their shape.

iv. Twin-plane f (111).—The principal axes are here inclined at 53° 46′. This is the rarest twin-law of calcite.

Calcite when pure, as in the well-known Iceland-spar, is perfectly transparent and colourless. The lustre is vitreous. Owing to the presence of various impurities, the transparency and colour may vary considerably. Crystals are often nearly white or colourless, usually with a slight yellowish tinge. The yellowish colour is in most cases due to the presence of iron, but in some cases it has been proved to be due to organic matter (such as apocrenic acid) derived from the humus overlying the rocks in which the crystals were formed. An opaque calcite of a grass-green colour, occurring as large cleavage masses in central India and known as hislopite, owes its colour to enclosed "green-earth" (glauconite and celadonite). A stalagmitic calcite of a beautiful purple colour, from Reichelsdorf in Hesse, is coloured by cobalt.

Optically, calcite is uniaxial with negative bi-refringence, the index of refraction for the ordinary ray being greater than for the extraordinary ray; for sodium-light the former is 1.6585 and the latter 1.4862. The difference, 0.1723, between these two indices gives a measure of the bi-refringence or double refraction.

Although the double refraction of some other minerals is greater than that of calcite (e.g. for cinnabar it is 0.347, and for calomel 0.683), yet this phenomenon can be best demonstrated in calcite, since it is a mineral obtainable in large pieces of perfect transparency. Owing to the strong double refraction and the consequent wide separation of the two polarized rays of light traversing the crystal, an object viewed through a cleavage rhombohedron of Iceland-spar is seen double, hence the name doubly-refracting spar. Iceland-spar is extensively used in the construction of Nicol's prisms for polariscopes, polarizing microscopes and saccharimeters, and of dichroscopes for testing the pleochroism of gem-stones.

Chemically, calcite has the same composition as the orthorhombic aragonite (q.v.), these minerals being dimorphous forms of calcium carbonate. Well-crystallized material, such as Iceland-spar, usually consists of perfectly pure calcium carbonate, but at other times the calcium may be isomorphously replaced by small amounts of magnesium, barium, strontium, manganese, zinc or lead. When the elements named are present in large amount we have the varieties dolomitic calcite, baricalcite, strontianocalcite, ferrocalcite, manganocalcite, zincocalcite and plumbocalcite, respectively.

Mechanically enclosed impurities are also frequently present, and it is to these that the colour is often due. A remarkable case of enclosed impurities is presented by the so-called Fontainbleau limestone, which consists of crystals of calcite of an acute rhombohedral form (fig. 3) enclosing 50 to 60% of quartz-sand. Similar crystals, but with the form of an acute hexagonal pyramid, and enclosing 64% of sand, have recently been found in large quantity over a wide area in South Dakota, Nebraska and Wyoming. The case of hislopite, which encloses up to 20% of "green earth," has been noted above.

In addition to the varieties of calcite noted above, some others, depending on the state of aggregation of the material, are distinguished. A finely fibrous form is known as satin-spar (q.v.), a name also applied to fibrous gypsum: the most typical example of this is the snow-white material, often with a rosy tinge and a pronounced silky lustre, which occurs in veins in the Carboniferous shales of Alston Moor in Cumberland. Finely scaly varieties with a pearly lustre are known as argentine and aphrite (German Schaumspath); soft, earthy and dull white varieties as agaric mineral, rock-milk, rock-meal, &c.—these form a transition to marls, chalk, &c. Of the granular and compact forms numerous varieties are distinguished (see Limestone and Marble). In the form of stalactites calcite is of extremely common occurrence. Each stalactite usually consists of an aggregate of radially arranged crystalline individuals, though sometimes it may consist of a single individual with crystal faces developed at the free end. Onyx-marbles or Oriental alabaster (see Alabaster) and other stalagmitic deposits also consist of calcite, and so do the allied deposits of travertine, calc-sinter or calc-tufa.

The modes of occurrence of calcite are very varied. It is a common gangue mineral in metalliferous deposits, and in the form of crystals is often associated with ores of lead, iron, copper and silver. It is a common product of alteration in igneous rocks, and frequently occurs as well-developed crystals in association with zeolites lining the amygdaloidal cavities of basaltic and other rocks. Veins and cavities in limestones are usually lined with crystals of calcite. The wide distribution, under various conditions, of crystallized calcite is readily explained by the solubility of calcium carbonate in water containing carbon dioxide, and the ease with which the material is again deposited in the crystallized state when the carbon dioxide is liberated by evaporation. On this also depends the formation of stalactites and calc-sinter.

Localities at which beautifully crystallized specimens of calcite are found are extremely numerous. For beauty of crystals and variety of forms the haematite mines of the Cleator Moor district in west Cumberland and the Furness district in north Lancashire are unsurpassed. The lead mines of Alston in Cumberland and of Derbyshire, and the silver mines of Andreasberg in the Harz and Guanajuato in Mexico have yielded many fine specimens. From the zinc mines of Joplin in Missouri enormous crystals of golden-yellow and amethystine colours have been recently obtained. At all the localities here mentioned the crystals occur with metalliferous ores. In Iceland the mode of occurrence is quite distinct, the mineral being here found in a cavity in basalt.

The quarry, which since the 19th century has supplied the famous Iceland-spar, is in a cavity in basalt, the cavity itself measuring 12 by 5 yds. in area and about 10 ft. in height. It is situated quite close to the farm Helgustadir, about an hour's ride from the trading station of Eskifjordur on Reydar Fjordur, on the east coast of Iceland. This cavity when first found was filled with pure crystallized masses and enormous crystals. The crystals measure up to a yard across, and are rhombohedral or scalenohedral in habit; their faces are usually dull and corroded or coated with stilbite. In recent years much of the material taken out has not been of sufficient transparency for optical purposes, and this, together with the very limited supply, has caused a considerable rise in price. Only very occasionally has calcite from any locality other than Iceland been used for the construction of a Nicol's prism.

(L. J. S.)

CALCIUM [symbol Ca, atomic weight 40.0 (O=16)], a metallic chemical element, so named by Sir Humphry Davy from its occurrence in chalk (Latin calx). It does not occur in nature in the free state, but in combination it is widely and abundantly diffused. Thus the sulphate constitutes the minerals anhydrite, alabaster, gypsum, and selenite; the carbonate occurs dissolved in most natural waters and as the minerals chalk, marble, calcite, aragonite; also in the double carbonates such as dolomite, bromlite, barytocalcite; the fluoride as fluorspar; the fluophosphate constitutes the mineral apatite; while all the more important mineral silicates contain a proportion of this element.

Extraction.—Calcium oxide or lime has been known from a very remote period, and was for a long time considered to be an elementary or undecomposable earth. This view was questioned in the 18th century, and in 1808 Sir Humphry Davy (Phil. Trans., 1808, p. 303) was able to show that lime was a combination of a metal and oxygen. His attempts at isolating this metal were not completely successful; in fact, metallic calcium remained a laboratory curiosity until the beginning of the 20th century. Davy, inspired by his successful isolation of the metals sodium and potassium by the electrolysis of their hydrates, attempted to decompose a mixture of lime and mercuric oxide by the electric current; an amalgam of calcium was obtained, but the separation of the mercury was so difficult that even Davy himself was not sure as to whether he had obtained pure metallic calcium. Electrolysis of lime or calcium chloride in contact with mercury gave similar results. Bunsen (Ann., 1854, 92, p. 248) was more successful when he electrolysed calcium chloride moistened with hydrochloric acid; and A. Matthiessen (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1856, p. 28) obtained the metal by electrolysing a mixture of fused calcium and sodium chlorides. Henri Moissan obtained the metal of 99% purity by electrolysing calcium iodide at a low red heat, using a nickel cathode and a graphite anode; he also showed that a more convenient process consisted in heating the iodide with an excess of sodium, forming an amalgam of the product, and removing the sodium by means of absolute alcohol (which has but little action on calcium), and the mercury by distillation.

The electrolytic isolation of calcium has been carefully investigated, and this is the method followed for the commercial production of the metal. In 1902 W. Borchers and L. Stockem (Zeit. für Electrochemie, 1902, p. 8757) obtained the metal of 90% purity by electrolysing calcium chloride at a temperature of about 780°, using an iron cathode, the anode being the graphite vessel in which the electrolysis was carried out. In the same year, O. Ruff and W. Plato (Ber. 1902, 35, p. 3612) employed a mixture of calcium chloride (100 parts) and fluorspar (16.5 parts), which was fused in a porcelain crucible and electrolysed with a carbon anode and an iron cathode. Neither of these processes admitted of commercial application, but by a modification of Ruff and Plato's process, W. Ruthenau and C. Suter have made the metal commercially available. These chemists electrolyse either pure calcium chloride, or a mixture of this salt with fluorspar, in a graphite vessel which serves as the anode. The cathode consists of an iron rod which can be gradually raised. On electrolysis a layer of metallic calcium is formed at the lower end of this rod on the surface of the electrolyte; the rod is gradually raised, the thickness of the layer increases, and ultimately a rod of metallic calcium, forming, as it were, a continuation of the iron cathode, is obtained. This is the form in which calcium is put on the market.

An idea as to the advance made by this method is recorded in the variation in the price of calcium. At the beginning of 1904 it was quoted at 5s. per gram, £250 per kilogram or £110 per pound; about a year later the price was reduced to 21s. per kilogram, or 12s. per kilogram in quantities of 100 kilograms. These quotations apply to Germany; in the United Kingdom the price (1905) varied from 27s. to 30s. per kilogram (12s. to 13s. per lb.).

Properties.—A freshly prepared surface of the metal closely resembles zinc in appearance, but on exposure to the air it rapidly tarnishes, becoming yellowish and ultimately grey or white in colour owing to the information of a surface layer of calcium hydrate. A faint smell of acetylene may be perceived during the oxidation in moist air; this is probably due to traces of calcium carbide. It is rapidly acted on by water, especially if means are taken to remove the layer of calcium hydrate formed on the metal; alcohol acts very slowly. In its chemical properties it closely resembles barium and strontium, and to some degree magnesium; these four elements comprise the so-called metals of the "alkaline earths." It combines directly with most elements, including nitrogen; this can be taken advantage of in forming almost a perfect vacuum, the oxygen combining to form the oxide, CaO, and the nitrogen to form the nitride, Ca3N2. Several of its physical properties have been determined by K. Arndt (Ber., 1904, 37, p. 4733). The metal as prepared by electrolysis generally contains traces of aluminium and silica. Its specific gravity is 1.54, and after remelting 1.56; after distillation it is 1.52. It melts at about 800°, but sublimes at a lower temperature.

Compounds.—Calcium hydride, obtained by heating electrolytic calcium in a current of hydrogen, appears in commerce under the name hydrolite. Water decomposes it to give hydrogen free from ammonia and acetylene, 1 gram yielding about 100 ccs. of gas (Prats Aymerich, Abst. J.C.S., 1907, ii p. 460). Calcium forms two oxides—the monoxide, CaO, and the dioxide, CaO2. The monoxide and its hydrate are more familiarly known as lime (q.v.) and slaked-lime. The dioxide was obtained as the hydrate, CaO2·8H2O, by P. Thénard (Ann. Chim. Phys., 1818, 8, p. 213), who precipitated lime-water with hydrogen peroxide. It is permanent when dry; on heating to 130° C. it loses water and gives the anhydrous dioxide as an unstable, pale buff-coloured powder, very sparingly soluble in water. It is used as an antiseptic and oxidizing agent.

Whereas calcium chloride, bromide, and iodide are deliquescent solids, the fluoride is practically insoluble in water; this is a parallelism to the soluble silver fluoride, and the insoluble chloride, bromide and iodide. Calcium fluoride, CaF2, constitutes the mineral fluor-spar (q.v.), and is prepared artificially as an insoluble white powder by precipitating a solution of calcium chloride with a soluble fluoride. One part dissolves in 26,000 parts of water. Calcium chloride, CaCl2, occurs in many natural waters, and as a by-product in the manufacture of carbonic acid (carbon dioxide), and potassium chlorate. Aqueous solutions deposit crystals containing 2, 4 or 6 molecules of water. Anhydrous calcium chloride, prepared by heating the hydrate to 200° (preferably in a current of hydrochloric acid gas, which prevents the formation of any oxychloride), is very hygroscopic, and is used as a desiccating agent. It fuses at 723°. It combines with gaseous ammonia and forms crystalline compounds with certain alcohols. The crystallized salt dissolves very readily in water with a considerable absorption of heat; hence its use in forming "freezing mixtures." A temperature of -55°C. is obtained by mixing 10 parts of the hexahydrate with 7 parts of snow. A saturated solution of calcium chloride contains 325 parts of CaCl2 to 100 of water at the boiling point (179.5°). Calcium iodide and bromide are white deliquescent solids and closely resemble the chloride.

Chloride of lime or "bleaching powder" is a calcium chlor-hypochlorite or an equimolecular mixture of the chloride and hypochlorite (see Alkali Manufacture and Bleaching).

Calcium carbide, CaC2, a compound of great industrial importance as a source of acetylene, was first prepared by F. Wohler. It is now manufactured by heating lime and carbon in the electric furnace (see Acetylene). Heated in chlorine or with bromine, it yields carbon and calcium chloride or bromide; at a dull red heat it burns in oxygen, forming calcium carbonate, and it becomes incandescent in sulphur vapour at 500°, forming calcium sulphide and carbon disulphide. Heated in the electric furnace in a current of air, it yields calcium cyanamide (see Cyanamide).

Calcium carbonate, CaCO3, is of exceptionally wide distribution in both the mineral and animal kingdoms. It constitutes the bulk of the chalk deposits and limestone rocks; it forms over one-half of the mineral dolomite and the rock magnesium limestone; it occurs also as the dimorphous minerals aragonite (q.v.) and calcite (q.v.). Tuff (q.v.) and travertine are calcareous deposits found in volcanic districts. Most natural waters contain it dissolved in carbonic acid; this confers "temporary hardness" on the water. The dissipation of the dissolved carbon dioxide results in the formation of "fur" in kettles or boilers, and if the solution is falling, as from the roof of a cave, in the formation of stalactites and stalagmites. In the animal kingdom it occurs as both calcite and aragonite in the tests of the foraminifera, echinoderms, brachiopoda, and mollusca; also in the skeletons of sponges and corals. Calcium carbonate is obtained as a white precipitate, almost insoluble in water (1 part requiring 10,000 of water for solution), by mixing solutions of a carbonate and a calcium salt. Hot or dilute cold solutions deposit minute orthorhombic crystals of aragonite, cold saturated or moderately strong solutions, hexagonal (rhombohedral) crystals of calcite. Aragonite is the least stable form; crystals have been found altered to calcite.

Calcium nitride, Ca3N2, is a greyish-yellow powder formed by heating calcium in air or nitrogen; water decomposes it with evolution of ammonia (see H. Moissan, Compt. Rend., 127, p. 497).

Calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2·4H2O, is a highly deliquescent salt, crystallizing in monoclinic prisms, and occurring in various natural waters, as an efflorescence in limestone caverns, and in the neighbourhood of decaying nitrogenous organic matter. Hence its synonyms, "wall-saltpetre" and "lime-saltpetre"; from its disintegrating action on mortar, it is sometimes referred to as "saltpetre rot." The anhydrous nitrate, obtained by heating the crystallized salt, is very phosphorescent, and constitutes "Baldwin's phosphorus." A basic nitrate, Ca(NO3)2·Ca(OH)2·3H2O, is obtained by dissolving calcium hydroxide in a solution of the normal nitrate.

Calcium phosphide, Ca3P2, is obtained as a reddish substance by passing phosphorus vapour over strongly heated lime. Water decomposes it with the evolution of spontaneously inflammable hydrogen phosphide; hence its use as a marine signal fire ("Holmes lights"), (see L. Gattermann and W. Haussknecht, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 1176, and H. Moissan, Compt. Rend., 128, p. 787).

Of the calcium orthophosphates, the normal salt, Ca3(PO4)2, is the most important. It is the principal inorganic constituent of bones, and hence of the "bone-ash" of commerce (see Phosphorus); it occurs with fluorides in the mineral apatite (q.v.); and the concretions known as coprolites (q.v.) largely consist of this salt. It also constitutes the minerals ornithite, Ca3(PO4)2·2H2O, osteolite and sombrerite. The mineral brushite, CaHPO4·2H2O, which is isomorphous with the acid arsenate pharmacolite, CaHAsO4·2H2O, is an acid phosphate, and assumes monoclinic forms. The normal salt may be obtained artificially, as a white gelatinous precipitate which shrinks greatly on drying, by mixing solutions of sodium hydrogen phosphate, ammonia, and calcium chloride. Crystals may be obtained by heating di-calcium pyrophosphate, Ca2P2O7, with water under pressure. It is insoluble in water; slightly soluble in solutions of carbonic acid and common salt, and readily soluble in concentrated hydrochloric and nitric acid. Of the acid orthophosphates, the mono-calcium salt, CaH4(PO4)2, may be obtained as crystalline scales, containing one molecule of water, by evaporating a solution of the normal salt in hydrochloric or nitric acid. It dissolves readily in water, the solution having an acid reaction. The artificial manure known as "superphosphate of lime" consists of this salt and calcium sulphate, and is obtained by treating ground bones, coprolites, &c., with sulphuric acid. The di-calcium salt, Ca2H2(PO4)2, occurs in a concretionary form in the ureters and cloaca of the sturgeon, and also in guano. It is obtained as rhombic plates by mixing dilute solutions of calcium chloride and sodium phosphate, and passing carbon dioxide into the liquid. Other phosphates are also known.

Calcium monosulphide, CaS, a white amorphous powder, sparingly soluble in water, is formed by heating the sulphate with charcoal, or by heating lime in a current of sulphuretted hydrogen. It is particularly noteworthy from the phosphorescence which it exhibits when heated, or after exposure to the sun's rays; hence its synonym "Canton's phosphorus," after John Canton (1718-1772), an English natural philosopher. The sulphydrate or hydrosulphide, Ca(SH)2, is obtained as colourless, prismatic crystals of the composition Ca(SH)2·6H2O, by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into milk of lime. The strong aqueous solution deposits colourless, four-sided prisms of the hydroxy-hydrosulphide, Ca(OH)(SH). The disulphide, CaS2 and pentasulphide, CaS5, are formed when milk of lime is boiled with flowers of sulphur. These sulphides form the basis of Balmain's luminous paint. An oxysulphide, 2CaS·CaO, is sometimes present in "soda-waste," and orange-coloured, acicular crystals of 4CaS·CaSO4·18H2O occasionally settle out on the long standing of oxidized "soda- or alkali-waste" (see Alkali Manufacture).

Calcium sulphite, CaSO3, a white substance, soluble in water, is prepared by passing sulphur dioxide into milk of lime. This solution with excess of sulphur dioxide yields the "bisulphite of lime" of commerce, which is used in the "chemical" manufacture of wood-pulp for paper making.

Calcium sulphate, CaSO4, constitutes the minerals anhydrite (q.v.), and, in the hydrated form, selenite, gypsum (q.v.), alabaster (q.v.), and also the adhesive plaster of Paris (see Cement). It occurs dissolved in most natural waters, which it renders "permanently hard." It is obtained as a white crystalline precipitate, sparingly soluble in water (100 parts of water dissolve 24 of the salt at 15°C.), by mixing solutions of a sulphate and a calcium salt; it is more soluble in solutions of common salt and hydrochloric acid, and especially of sodium thiosulphate.

Calcium silicates are exceptionally abundant in the mineral kingdom. Calcium metasilicate, CaSiO3, occurs in nature as monoclinic crystals known as tabular spar or wollastonite; it may be prepared artificially from solutions of calcium chloride and sodium silicate. H. Le Chatelier (Annales des mines, 1887, p. 345) has obtained artificially the compounds: CaSiO3, Ca2SiO4, Ca3Si2O7, and Ca3SiO5. (See also G. Oddo, Chemisches Centralblatt, 1896, 228.) Acid calcium silicates are represented in the mineral kingdom by gyrolite, H2Ca2(SiO3)3·H2O, a lime zeolite, sometimes regarded as an altered form of apophyllite (q.v.), which is itself an acid calcium silicate containing an alkaline fluoride, by okenite, H2Ca(SiO3)2·H2O, and by xonalite 4CaSiO3·H2O. Calcium silicate is also present in the minerals: olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles, epidote, felspars, zeolites, scapolites (qq.v.).

Detection and Estimation.—Most calcium compounds, especially when moistened with hydrochloric acid, impart an orange-red colour to a Bunsen flame, which when viewed through green glass appears to be finch-green; this distinguishes it in the presence of strontium, whose crimson coloration is apt to mask the orange-red calcium flame (when viewed through green glass the strontium flame appears to be a very faint yellow). In the spectroscope calcium exhibits two intense lines—an orange line (α), (λ 6163), a green line (β), (λ 4229), and a fainter indigo line. Calcium is not precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen, but falls as the carbonate when an alkaline carbonate is added to a solution. Sulphuric acid gives a white precipitate of calcium sulphate with strong solutions; ammonium oxalate gives calcium oxalate, practically insoluble in water and dilute acetic acid, but readily soluble in nitric or hydrochloric acid. Calcium is generally estimated by precipitation as oxalate which, after drying, is heated and weighed as carbonate or oxide, according to the degree and duration of the heating.

CALCULATING MACHINES. Instruments for the mechanical performance of numerical calculations, have in modern times come into ever-increasing use, not merely for dealing with large masses of figures in banks, insurance offices, &c., but also, as cash registers, for use on the counters of retail shops. They may be classified as follows:—(i.) Addition machines; the first invented by Blaise Pascal (1642). (ii.) Addition machines modified to facilitate multiplication; the first by G.W. Leibnitz (1671). (iii.) True multiplication machines; Léon Bollés (1888), Steiger (1894). (iv.) Difference machines; Johann Helfrich von Müller (1786), Charles Babbage (1822). (v.) Analytical machines; Babbage (1834). The number of distinct machines of the first three kinds is remarkable and is being constantly added to, old machines being improved and new ones invented; Professor R. Mehmke has counted over eighty distinct machines of this type. The fullest published account of the subject is given by Mehmke in the Encyclopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften, article "Numerisches Rechnen," vol. i., Heft 6 (1901). It contains historical notes and full references. Walther von Dyck's Catalogue also contains descriptions of various machines. We shall confine ourselves to explaining the principles of some leading types, without giving an exact description of any particular one.