A Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts, &c. Volume II (part 3)

Lotion, Mammil′lary. Syn. Lotio balsami Peruviani composita, L. Prep. (Iverg.) Balsam of Peru, 1 dr.; yolk of 1 egg; make an emulsion, and add of spirit of wild thyme, 3 fl. oz. For sore nipples; to be followed, whilst still wet, by a ‘dusting’ with a powder composed of Peruvian bark, 1 dr.; gum Arabic, 2 dr.

Lotion, Mercu′′rial. Prep. 1. (Black wash, Black lotion, Mild phagedenic l.; Lotio nigra (B. P.), L. hydrargyri cinerea, L. h. nigra, L. h. chloridi cum calce, L. mercurialis n., Aqua phagedænica, MITIS, L.)

a. (B. P.) From calomel, 3 gr.; lime water, 1 oz.; well shaken together.

b. (Mid. Hosp.) To the last add of thick mucilage, 1 fl. oz.

c. (Guy’s Hospital.) From calomel, 1 dr., lime water, 8 fl. oz.

Obs. Black wash is a favourite application to all kinds of syphilitic and scrofulous sores. The bottle should be well shaken before the lotion is applied.

2. Yellow wash, Y. lotion, Phagedenic l.; (Lotio flava, L. phagedænica, Aqua p., Lotio hydrargyri flava, L. h. bichloridi cum calce, L.)—a. (B. P.) Corrosive sublimate, 18 gr.; lime water, 10 oz.; well shaken together.

b. (St B. Hosp.) Corrosive sublimate, 20 gr.; lime water, 6 fl. oz. Used as the last, but it is stronger and more active, from containing a little undecomposed bichloride.

Lotion of Myrrh. Syn. Kirkland’s lotion; Lotio myrrhæ, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Kirkland.) Tincture of myrrh and lime water, equal parts. In scorbutic ulcers and gums.

2. (Compound; Lotio myrrhæ composita, L.—Ph. Chirur.) Honey of roses and tincture of myrrh, of each 2 fl. dr.; lime water, 2⁄2 fl. oz. As No. 1; also used as a dentifrice.

Lotion of Ni′trate of Bis′muth. Syn. Lotio bismuthi nitratis, L. Prep. (Cutan. Hosp.) Subnitrate or trisnitrate of bismuth, ⁄2 dr.; corrosive sublimate, 12 gr.; spirit of camphor, ⁄2 fl. dr.; water, 1 pint. In itch, and some other eruptions.

Lotion of Nitrate of Sil′ver. Syn. Lotio argenti nitratis, L. Prep. 1. Nitrate of silver, 15 gr.; nitric acid, 10 drops; distilled water, ⁄2 pint. As a wash for indolent ulcers, sore legs, &c.

2. (Jackson.) Nitrate of silver, 10 gr.; water, 1 fl. oz. For bed-sores; applied, at first, twice or thrice a day.

3. (Schreider.) Nitrate of silver, ⁄2 dr.; nitric acid, 10 drops; water, 1⁄2 fl. oz. In chilblains, soft corns, &c.

Lotion of Nitrate of Silver (Strong). Lotio argenti nitratis fortis. Nitrate of silver, 60 gr.; distilled water, 1 oz.

Lotion of Nitrate of Sil′ver, Etherial. Lotio argenti nitratis ætherea. Nitrate of silver, 20 gr.; distilled water, 1 dr.; spirit of nitrous ether, 1 oz.

Lotion of Ni′tre. Syn. Lotio potassæ nitratis, L. Prep. 1. Nitre, 3 dr.; vinegar, ⁄4 pint; water, ⁄4 pint.

2. Nitre, 2 dr.; sal ammoniac, 1 dr.; vinegar and water, of each ⁄2 pint. In sprains, contusions, extravasations, tender feet, chilblains, &c. Diluted with an equal bulk of water, it is a popular application to ‘black eyes.’

Lotion of Ni′tric Acid. Syn. Lotio acidi, L. acidi nitrici, L. Prep. 1. (Collier.) Nitric acid, ⁄2 fl. oz.; water, 1 pint. In lepra, and other scaly skin diseases.

2. (Phœbus.) Nitric acid, 1 fl. dr.; laudanum, 1⁄2 fl. dr.; rose water, ⁄2 pint. For venereal ulcers.

Lo′tion of Nitromuriat′ic Acid. Syn. Lotion of aqua regia. Prep. (Copland.) Nitromuriatic acid, 1⁄4 dr.; water, 1 pint. In gangrene and mortification.

Lotion of Nux Vom′ica. Syn. Lotio nucis vomicæ, L. Prep. 1. Alcoholic extract of nux vomica, 10 gr.; rectified spirit and water, of each 2⁄2 fl. oz. In amaurosis.

2. (Radius.) Alcoholic extract of nux vomica, 8 gr.; liquor of ammonia (stronger), ⁄2 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz. In paralysed limbs.

Lotion of O′pium. Syn. Lotio opii, L. opiata, L. Prep. 1. (Christison.) Opium, 40 gr.; water, ⁄4 pint; infuse, add to the filtered liquid a solution of sugar of lead, 40, in water, ⁄4 pint, and filter.

2. (St B. Hosp.) Opium, 1⁄2 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; triturate and strain. Anodyne; the first is also refrigerant and discutient.

Lotion of Ox′ide of Zinc. Syn. Lotio zinci oxydi, L. Prep. 1. (Augustin.) Oxide of zinc, 1 dr.; elder-flower water, 1⁄2 fl. oz. In pustular erysipelas.

2. (Hosp. F.) Oxide of zinc, ⁄2 dr.; mucilage, 2 fl. dr.; water, 6 fl. dr. As an astringent and desiccant, in scrofulous eruptions, excoriations, moist chaps, &c.

Lotion, Phageden′ic. See Mercurial lotion (above).

Lotion of Phos′phoric Acid. Syn. Lotio acidi phosphorici, L. Prep. (Pereira.) Dilute phosphoric acid (Ph. L.), 1 fl. oz.; water, ⁄2 pint. In caries and fistula.

Lotion of Potas′sa. See Lotio potassæ, L. Prep. From liquor of potassa, 1 fl. oz.; water, 1 pint. Detergent; in scorbutic eruptions, and foul ulcers, and to prevent infection.

Lotion of Potas′sio-tar′trate of An′timony. Syn. Lotio antimonialis, L. antimonii potassio-tartratis, L. rubefaciens, L. Prep. 1. Tartar emetic, 1 dr.; tincture of camphor, 2 fl. dr.; water, 1 pint. As a local stimulant. Diluted with twice or thrice its weight of water, it is employed as a collyrium in chronic ophthalmia, and in specks on the cornea.

2. (Sir Wm. Blizard.) Tartar emetic, 20 gr.; boiling water, 1 fl. oz. Used to cleanse foul ulcers, to repress fungous growths and warts, and in ringworm, &c.

3. (Pereira.) Tartar emetic, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1⁄2 fl. oz.; dissolve. Employed as a local irritant instead of the ointment. All the above are rubefacient and counter-irritant. See Antimony.

Lotion of Quin′ine. Syn. Lotio quinæ, Embrocatio q., L. Prep. From disulphate of quinine, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz. Applied over the spine in intermittents.

Lotion, Sapona′ceous. Syn. Lotio saponis, L. saponacea (Ph. L. 1746), L. Prep. From liquor of carbonate of potassa, ⁄2 oz.; olive oil, 4 oz.; rose water, 12 oz.; agitate together. Emollient; chiefly as a cosmetic.

Lotion, Saviard’s. Prep. (Foy.) Caustic potassa, 1 dr.; camphor, 20 gr.; sugar, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint. As a wash for indolent ulcers.

Lotion, Struve’s. See Hooping-cough lotion.

Lotion of Sul′phate of Cop′per. Syn. Lotio cupri sulphatis, L. Prep. 1. Blue vitriol, 1 dr.; camphor julep, 1 pint. For phagedenic ulcers, and in itch, &c.

2. (Dr Graves.) Sulphate of copper, 10 gr.; water, 1 fl. oz. In chilblains, ringworm, &c.

3. (Lloyd.) Sulphate of copper, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint. In itch; either alone or diluted.

Lotion of Sul′phate of Iron. Syn. Lotio ferri sulphatis. Sulphate of iron, 2 gr.; water, 1 oz.

Lotion of Sul′phate of Zinc. Syn. Lotio zinci sulphatis, L. Prep. 1. Sulphate of zinc, ⁄4 dr.; water, 1 pint. Astringent; in some chronic skin diseases, as a wash for loose, flabby granulations, and for ulcers that discharge profusely, &c.

2. (Collier.) Sulphate of zinc, 2 dr.; water, 1 pint. As a counter-irritant in pains of the joints, periosteum, old sprains, &c.

Lotion of Sulphuret of Sodium. (Dr Barlow.) Syn. Lotio sodii sulphureti. Prep. Sulphide of sodium, 2 dr.; white soap, 2⁄2 dr.; rectified spirit, 2 dr.; lime water, 7 oz. For ringworm.

Lotion of Tannin. (Mr Druitt.) Syn. Lotio tannini. Prep. Tannic acid, 5 gr.; distilled water, 1 oz.; mix. On lint, covered with oil silk, to sore nipples.

Lotion of Tar. Syn. Lotio picis liquidæ, L. Prep. (Saunders.) Quicklime, 6 oz.; water, 2⁄2 pints; slake, add of tar, 4 oz., and boil to one half. This liquid may be advantageously employed in various chronic skin diseases, especially those affecting the heads of children. See Infusion of Tar.

Lotion of Valer′ian. Syn. Lotio Valerianæ, Embrocatio antihysterica, E. emmenagoga, L. Prep. From tincture of valerian and proof spirit, equal parts. In hysteria, suppressions, &c.

Lotion of Vera′trine. Syn. Lotio veratriæ, L. Prep. (Dr Turnbull.) Veratrine, 20 to 60 gr.; rectified spirit, 2 oz. In gout, rheumatism, &c. It is extremely poisonous, and must only be used where the skin is sound, and then with great caution.

Lotion of Ver′digris. Syn. Lotio æruginis, L. cupri citratis, L. Prep. From verdigris, 3 dr.; vinegar, ⁄4 pint; water, ⁄4 pint. As a wash for indolent, scrofulous, and venereal ulcers.

Lotion of Vin′egar. See Acetic lotion (above).

Lotion, Yellow. See Mercurial lotion (above).

LOUSE. Syn. Pediculus. There are several species of this offensive parasite infesting the bodies of man and domesticated animals. The three varieties of lice found on the human skin are:—(1) The Pediculus corporis, (2) the P. capitis, (3) the P. pubis.

(1.) The P. corporis, the body louse, is of a dirty white colour, and varies from half to two lines in length. Its body is broad and elongated, with the margins divided into lobes, and covered with minute hairs; but it has a narrow thorax, furnished on each side with three legs, which terminate in claws. This creature produces great irritation of the skin, giving rise to a number of little pimples on it, which frequently discharge a watery fluid. It multiplies with extraordinary rapidity.

(2.) The P. capitis, the head louse, is much smaller than the above. It is devoid of hairs, with legs large in proportion to its body. It gives rise to a very troublesome eruption, attended with a watery discharge. It is propagated by means of the ova or nits, which are glued to the hairs of the head.

(3.) The P. pubis, the crab louse, is a small, round variety, which attaches itself with considerable tenacity to the hairs of the stomach and lower part of the body more particularly, and, like the preceding parasite, glues its eggs to the hairs.

Various applications have been recommended for the destruction of these loathsome parasites; amongst which we may mention sulphur, stavesacre, white precipitate, and cocculus indicus, in the form of ointments; carbolic acid and perchloride of mercury lotions, and tobacco. Benzoic acid has been found of service in allaying the irritation. Diligent washing with soap and water should be had recourse to previous to applying any of the above remedies, and should the head be infested, the hair should be cut short, and frequently combed with a small toothcomb.

Pediculi are sometimes conveyed from filthy to cleanly persons by means of dirty water-closets, chairs, sheets, brushes and combs, and in various other ways.

School children frequently obtain them in consequence of their heads being brought into too close contact with the heads of other children infested by them.

LOZ′ENGE. Syn. Troche; Trochiscus, Tabella, L.; Tablette, Fr. A small cake, often medicated, consisting principally of powdered sugar, made into a mass with some glutinous liquid, without the aid of heat, and dried. The form given to lozenges (TROCHE, TABELLÆ, TROCHISCI, TABLETTES) is generally that of a small round tablet or flattened cylinder; but originally they were exclusively made in the shape of a lozenge or rhomb, from which circumstance their familiar name is derived. Lozenges are distinguished from DROPS OR PASTILLES by the non-employment of heat in their preparation; and from PASTES, by the latter being formed of vegetable juice or pulp, and having a softer consistence.

In the preparation of lozenges the dry ingredients, separately reduced to a very fine powder, are first perfectly mixed together, and then beaten into a stiff paste with the glutinous liquid employed to give them form; the mass is next rolled out to a desired thickness, and cut into pieces of the proper shape by means of a small cylinder or punch of steel or tin-plate, called a ‘lozenge-cutter.’ The newly formed lozenges are lastly dried by placing them on an inverted sieve or frame covered with paper in a dry, warm, and airy situation, and are frequently turned until they become hard and brittle, due care being taken to preserve them from dust and dirt. To prevent the mass adhering to the fingers and utensils during the process of manufacture, a little finely powdered starch, or a very little olive oil, scented with the same aromatic as that contained in the lozenges, may be used. Mucilage of gum Arabic or of gum tragacanth, thin isinglass size, or the strained white of egg, are the substances usually employed to make the pulverulent materials adhere together. A strained decoction of Irish moss is now frequently used for the same purpose, for inferior qualities. The larger the proportion of gum which enters into the composition of lozenges, the slower they dissolve in the mouth; hence powdered gum is frequently added to the other materials to increase their quality in this respect, as well as to give an additional solidity to those which, like chalk, for instance, are of a peculiarly dry or crumbly nature. Starch and potato flour are often added to lozenge-masses in lieu of a portion of the sugar, and even plaster of Paris is not unfrequently employed to give them weight; frauds which are readily detected in the manner noticed under Gum and Sugar.

As a general rule, MEDICATED LOZENGES should weigh from 8 to 10 gr. each, and a medium dose of their active ingredient should be distributed through the bulk of 6 to 8 of them, in which case 3 to 5 of them may be safely taken as a dose, or sucked during the lapse of 3 or 4 hours. This will be useful in the preparation of those for which no established proportions are given. In ‘sending out’ compounds of this class containing active medicaments, as morphia or opium, the retailer as well as the manufacturer should be careful that the quantity contained in each lozenge is plainly marked on the label.

In lozenges intended for MOUTH COSMETICS or to perfume the breath, ambergris is generally regarded as the most appropriate perfume; but hard smokers frequently prefer cloves and cinnamon, and some ladies give the preference to roses, orange flowers, and orris or violets.

Lozenges are coloured with the same stains as are used for liqueurs and sweetmeats.

Lozenges, as well as all other similar articles of confectionery, should be preserved in well-closed glass bottles, or jars, or in tin canisters, so as to be perfectly excluded from the air and damp.

Lozenges, Absor′bent. Trochisci antacidi, L. Prep. 1. Take of precipitated chalk, ⁄4 lb.; gum Arabic, 2 oz.; double refined white sugar, 14 oz.; all in impalpable powder; oil of nutmeg, ⁄2 fl. dr.; pass the mixture through a fine sieve, beat it up with mucilage q. s., roll the mass into a thin sheet, and cut it into lozenges; lastly, dry them by exposing them on a sheet of white paper to the air, out of contact with dust.

2. As the last, but substituting heavy carbonate of magnesia, 1⁄2 oz., for an equal weight of chalk. In diarrhœa, heartburn, acidity, &c. See Lozenges, Chalk, Magnesia, L., Soda, &c.

Lozenges, Aca′cia. See Lozenges, Gum.

Lozenges, Acid′ulated. Syn. Acidulated lemon lozenges, Tartaric acid l.; Trochisci acidi tartarici (Ph. E.), L. Prep. From tartaric acid, 2 dr.; oil of lemon, 10 drops; white sugar, 8 oz.; mucilage, q. s. to make a lozenge mass. The same ingredients mixed with heat form ACIDULATED or ACID DROPS. Both are useful in coughs, hoarseness, sore throats, &c. See Lozenges, Cayenne, Citric acid, Rose, &c.

Lozenges, Al′kaline. See Lozenges, Soda, Vichy, &c.

Lozenges, A′lum. Syn. Trochisci aluminis, L. Each lozenge contains 1⁄2 gr. of alum. As an astringent. See Lozenges, Astringent.

Lozenges, An′iseed. Syn. Trochisci anisi, L. Prep. From oil of aniseed, 1⁄2 fl. dr.; finest white sugar, 1 lb.; mucilage, q. s. Carminative and stomachic. In colic, griping, &c.; and as a pectoral.

Lozenges, Anthelmin′tic. See Lozenges, Worm.

Lozenges, Antimonial. Syn. Trochisci antimoniales, Morsuli stibii Kunkelii, L.; Tablettes de Kunkel, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Levigated sulphuret of antimony and cardamom seeds, of each 1 oz.; almonds (blanched), 2 oz.; cinnamon, ⁄2 oz.; sugar, 13 oz.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.; to be divided into 15-gr. lozenges. As an alterative.

Lozenges, Ape′′rient. Syn. Trochisci aperientes, L. Each lozenge contains 1 gr. each of calomel and scammony, and 2 gr. of jalap; or, instead of the last, ⁄4 gr. of jalapine. 2 to 3 for a dose.

Lozenges, Astrin′gent. Syn. Trochisci astringentes, L. Each lozenge contains 1⁄2 gr. of alum and 2 gr. of catechu. In spitting of blood, relaxed uvula, sore throat, &c. See Lozenges, Alum.

Lozenges, Bark. Syn. Trochisci cinchonæ, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Cinchona, 2 oz.; cinnamon, 2 dr.; white sugar, 14 oz.; mucilage of gum tragacanth, q. s.; mix, and divide into 16-gr. lozenges. Tonic.

Lozenges, Bath. Syn. Dawson’s lozenges. From extract of liquorice and gum Arabic, of each 1⁄2 oz.; sugar, 17 oz. It is both rolled into lozenges and formed into pipes. Demulcent; in tickling coughs, &c.

Lozenges, Benzoic Acid. (Th. Hosp.) Syn. Trochisci acidi benzoici. Prep. Benzoic acid in powder, 175 gr.; tragacanth in powder, 70 gr.; refined sugar in powder, 280 gr.; red currant paste, a sufficient quantity to make 1 lb. Divide into 350 lozenges, and dry at a moderate heat in a hot-air chamber. A valuable stimulant and voice lozenge in nervomuscular weakness of the throat.

Lozenges, Bicarbonate of Soda. Trochisci sodæ bicarbonatis. Bicarbonate of soda, in powder, 3600 gr. (8⁄4 oz.); refined sugar, 25 oz.; gum acacia, in powder, 1 oz.; mucilage, 2 oz.; distilled water, 1 oz.; mix, and form in 720 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 5 gr. of bicarbonate of soda.—Dose, 1 to 6 lozenges.

Lozenges, Bis′muth. Syn. Trochisci bismuthi, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Subnitrate of bismuth, 346 gr.; carbonate of magnesia, 4 oz.; precipitated chalk, 6 oz.; sugar, 29 oz.; gum acacia, 1 oz.; mucilage, 2 oz.; rose water, a sufficiency; make 720 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 2 gr. of subnitrate of bismuth.—Dose, 1 to 6 lozenges.

2. (Trousseau.) Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of subnitrate of bismuth. Tonic and antispasmodic; in chronic dyspepsia, gastrodynia, nausea, cramp of the stomach, &c.

Lozenges, Black Cur′rant. Trochisci ribis nigri, L. Prep. From inspissated juice of black currants and sugar, of each, in powder, 1 lb.; tartaric acid, ⁄4 oz.; mucilage, q. s. In hoarseness, &c.

Lozenges, Bo′′rax. Syn. Trochisci boracis, L. Each lozenge contains 3 gr. of borax. One occasionally in aphthous sore mouth, sore throat, &c.

Lozenges, Bromide of Ammonium. Each lozenge contains 2 gr. of bromide of ammonium.—Dose, 1 to 3 lozenges. In hooping-cough.

Lozenges, Burnt Sponge. Syn. Trochisci spongiæ, T. s. ustæ, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Burnt sponge, 4 oz.; sugar, 12 oz.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.; divide into 12-gr. lozenges. In scrofula, glandular enlargements, &c.

Lozenges, Caca′o. Syn. Trochisci butyri cacao, L. Each lozenge contains 1-3rd of its weight of pure cacao butter. In habitual constipation; and in phthisis, scrofula, &c., instead of cod-liver oil; taken ad libitum. They are usually scented with roses.

Lozenges, Caffe′ine. Syn. Trochisci caffeinæ, L. Each lozenge contains ⁄4 gr. of caffeine and ⁄2 gr. of citric acid. In hemicrania, hypochondriasis, &c.

Lozenges, Cal′omel. Syn. Worm lozenges; Trochisci calomelanos, T. hydrargyri chloridi, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of calomel. Alterative, &c. They afford a simple way of introducing mercury into the system. During their use salt food and acid liquors should be avoided. When given for worms they should be followed, in a few hours, by a purge.

Lozenges, Cam′phor. Syn. Trochisci camphoræ, L. Each lozenge contains ⁄4 gr. of (finely powdered) camphor. They must be kept in a well-corked bottle.

Lozenges of Carbolic Acid. (Th. Hosp.) Syn. Trochisci acidi carbolici. Prep. Carbolic acid, 350 gr.; gum Arabic, 220 gr.; refined sugar, 12⁄2 oz.; mucilage, 1 oz.; distilled water q. s. to make 1 lb. Divide into 350 lozenges, and finish as with benzoic acid lozenges.

Lozenges, Car′bonate of Lime. See Lozenges, Chalk.

Lozenges, Cat′echu. Syn. Cachou lozenges; Trochisci catechu (B. P.), T. de terra Japonica, L.; Tablettes de cachou, Fr. Prep. 1. (Ph. E. 1744.) Catechu, 2 oz.; tragacanth, ⁄2 oz.; white sugar, 12 oz.; rose water, q. s.

2. (P. Cod.) Extract of catechu, 4 oz.; sugar, 16 oz.; mucilage of gum tragacanth q. s.; for 10-gr. lozenges.

3. (Tro. catechu et magnesiæ—P. Cod.) Magnesia, 2 oz.; powdered catechu, 1 oz.; sugar, 13 oz.; mucilage of gum tragacanth (made with cinnamon water), q. s. to mix.

4. (Perfumed.) See Cachou aromatisé and Pastils.

5. (B. P.) Pale catechu, in powder, 720 gr.; refined sugar, in powder, 25 oz.; gum Arabic, in powder, 1 oz.; mucilage, 2 oz.; distilled water, a sufficiency; divide into 720 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of catechu.—Dose, 1 to 3 lozenges.

Obs. All the above are taken in diarrhœa, in relaxation of the uvula, in irritation of the larynx, and as cosmetics to fasten the teeth, and disguise a fetid breath. The one containing magnesia (No. 3) is also sucked in dyspepsia, acidity, and heartburn.

Lozenges, Cayenne′. Syn. Trochisci capsici, L. Flavoured with essence or tincture of capsicum or cayenne, with a very concentrated Chili vinegar, or a little pure soluble cayenne pepper.

2. (Acidulated.) To each lb. add of tartaric acid, ⁄2 oz. Both are used in dyspepsia, and to promote digestion and create an appetite. They have also been recommended in temporary deafness arising from exposure to cold. They are generally tinged of a light pink or red colour.

Lozenges, Chalk. Syn. Heartburn lozenges; Trochisci cretæ; (Ph. E.), T. cardialgici, Tabellæ Cardialgicæ, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Prepared chalk, 4 oz.; gum Arabic, 1 oz.; nutmeg, 1 dr.; white sugar, 6 oz.; rose or orange-flower water, q. s. Antacid and absorbent. 3 or 4 sucked ad libitum; in heartburn, dyspepsia, diarrhœa, acidity of the stomach and bowels, &c.

Lozenges, Char′coal. Syn. Trochisci carbonis, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Prepared charcoal, 4 oz.; white sugar, 12 oz., mucilage, q. s. to mix. In diarrhœa, cholera, dyspepsia, &c.

2. (Tro. carbonas cum chocolatâ—M. Chevallier.) Charcoal and white sugar, of each 1 oz.; chocolate, 3 oz.; mucilage of gum tragacanth, q. s. to mix. Nutritious; used as the last.

Lozenges, Ching’s Worm. Prep. 1. (Yellow.) From saffron, ⁄2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse, strain, add, of calomel, 1 lb.; powdered white sugar, 28 lbs.; mix well, make a mass with mucilage of tragacanth, and divide it into 7000 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of calomel.

2. (Brown.) From calomel, 7 oz.; resinous extract of jalap, 3⁄2 lbs.; white sugar, 10 lbs.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.; mix, and divide into 6125 lozenges. Each lozenge contains ⁄2 gr. of calomel and 3⁄2 gr. of resinous extract of jalap. 1 to 6 of the yellow lozenges over night, as a vermifuge, followed by an equal number of the brown ones the next morning fasting.

Lozenges, Chlo′′rate of Potassa. Syn. Trochisci potassæ chloratis, L. Prep. 1. Each lozenge contains 1⁄2 gr. of chlorate of potassa. In phthisis, sore throat, &c. 6 to 12 a day.

2. (B. P.) Chlorate of potash, in powder, 3600 gr. (8⁄4 oz.); refined sugar, in powder, 25 oz.; gum acacia, in powder, 1 oz.; mucilage, 2 oz., distilled water, 1 oz., or a sufficiency; mix the powders, and add the mucilage and water to form a proper mass; divide in 720 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 5 gr. of chlorate of potash.—Dose, 1 to 6 lozenges.

Lozenges, Chloride of Ammonium. Each lozenge contains 2 to 3 gr. of chloride of ammonium. Used in bronchitis.—Dose, 2 to 4 lozenges.

Lozenges, Chlo′′ride of Gold. 1. (Trochisci auri chloridi, L.) Each lozenge contains ⁄40 gr. of neutral chloride of gold. 2 to 4 daily; in scrofula, cancer, &c.

2. (With SODA; Trochisci auri et sodii chloridi, T. sodii auro-chloridi, L.—Chrestien.) Each lozenge contains ⁄16th gr. of soda-chloride of gold. Two daily; as the last.

Lozenges, Chloride of Lime. Syn. Trochisci calcis chloridi, T. c. chlorinatæ, L. Each lozenge contains ⁄4 gr. of dry chloride of lime. They are frequently tinged with a little carmine. Used to sweeten the breath and whiten the teeth. They do not keep well.

Lozenges of Chlorinated Soda. Syn. Trochisci sodæ chlorinatæ. Prep. Solution of chloride of soda, 1 fl. dr.; sugar, 10 dr.; gum Arabic, 2 dr.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. (⁄2 dr. of camphor may be added). To be held in the mouth during infection.

Lozenges, Choc′olate. Syn. Trochisci chocolatæ, L. From vanilla chocolate pressed into sheets, and cut into pieces whilst hot.

Lozenges, Cincho′na. Syn. Trochisci cinchonæ extracti, L. Each lozenge contains 1⁄2 gr. of dry extract of bark. A little cinnamon or nutmeg is often added. See Bark Lozenges.

Lozenges, Cin′namon. Syn. Trochisci cinnamoni, L. From cinnamon (in fine powder), 1 oz., or the essential oil, 1 fl. dr., to each lb. of sugar. Carminative and stomachic. Cassia lozenges are made in the same way, and are frequently substituted for them.

Lozenges, Ci′trate of Iron. Syn. Trochisci ferri citratis, L. Each lozenge contains 1⁄2 gr. of ammonio-citrate of iron. As a mild chalybeate tonic. They are sometimes made with equal parts of sugar and vanilla chocolate.

Lozenges, Citrate of Magne′sia. Syn. Trochisci magnesiæ citratis, L. Each 15-gr. lozenge contains 5 gr. of pure citrate of magnesia. Laxative.

Lozenges, Cit′ric Acid. Syn. Trochisci acidi citrici, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Citric acid, 3 dr.; sugar, 16 oz.; essence of lemon, 16 drops; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.; mix, and divide into 12-gr. lozenges. In coughs, hoarseness, &c.

Lozenges, Clove. Syn. Trochisci caryophilli, L. From cloves (powdered along with sugar), 2 oz., or essential oil, 1 fl. dr., to each lb. of sugar. They are frequently coloured. Carminative and stomachic; also used as a restorative after fatigue, added to chocolate to improve its flavour, and sucked to sweeten the breath.

Lozenges, Cough. Syn. Pectoral lozenges, Pulmonic l.; Trochisci anticatarrhales, L. Prep. 1. Black-currant lozenge-mass, 1 lb.; ipecacuanha (in very fine powder), 2 dr. For 12-gr. lozenges.

2. To the last add of powdered opium and camphor, 1⁄2 dr.

3. To either No. 1 or 2 add of oil of aniseed, 1⁄2 fl. dr.

4. (Tablettes de Tronchin.) From powdered gum Arabic, 8 oz.; oil of aniseed, 16 drops; extract of opium, 12 gr.; kermes mineral, 1 dr.; pure extract of liquorice, 2 oz.; white sugar, 32 oz.; water, q. s.; mix, and divide into 10-gr. lozenges.

5. (Tablettes de Vandamme.) From benzoic acid, 1 dr.; orris powder, 2 dr.; gum Arabic (powdered), 1 oz.; starch, 2 oz.; sugar, 16 oz.; water, q. s.; mix and divide into 15-gr. lozenges.

6. Each lozenge contains ⁄2 gr. of lactucarium, ⁄8 gr. of powdered ipecacuanha, and ⁄12 gr. of powdered squills, together with ⁄3rd of their weight of pure extract of liquorice.

Obs. To render the above serviceable in coughs, hoarseness, &c., the bowels should be kept gently open with some mild aperient, and a light diet adopted, with abstinence from stimulating liquors. See Lozenges, Emetine, Ipecacuanha, &c.

Lozenges, Cro′ton Oil. Syn. Trochisci crotonis, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Croton oil, 5 drops; powdered starch, 40 gr.; white sugar, 1 dr.; chocolate, 2 dr.; divide into 30 lozenges; 5 or 6 generally prove cathartic.

Lozenges, Cu′bebine. Syn. Trochisci cubebini, L. Prep. (Ph. Hamb.) Copaiba and extract of cubebs, of each 6 oz.; yolks of 3 eggs; mix, add of powdered marshmallow root, 6 oz.; make it into pipes of 12 gr. each, and roll them in sugar. In gleet, &c., and in affections of the mucous membranes of the throat and fauces. Lablonye orders them to be made of sugar, and flavoured with oil of peppermint.

Lozenges, Cu′bebs. Syn. Trochisci cubebæ, L. Prep. 1. (Spitta.) Cubebs, 2 dr.; balsam of tolu, 6 gr.; mix, and add of extract of liquorice, 1 oz.; syrup of tolu, 1 dr.; powdered gum, q. s.; divide into 10-gr. lozenges. One of these, allowed to melt gradually in the mouth, is said to alleviate the obstruction in the nose, in coryza.

2. (U. S.) Prep. Oleoresin of cubebs, ⁄2 fl. oz. o. m.; oil of sassafras, 1 fl. dr.; extract of liquorice in powder, 4 oz.; gum Arabic in powder, 3 oz.; sugar in fine powder, 3 oz.; syrup of tolu, q. s. Divide into 480 lozenges.

Lozenges of Cyanide of Gold. (Chrestien.) Syn. Trochisci auri cyanidi. Prep. Cyanide of gold, 2 gr.; chocolate paste, 1 oz. Made into 24 lozenges. From 1 to 4 in the day.

Lozenges, D′Arcet’s. See Lozenges, Vichy.

Lozenges, Diges′tive. See Lozenges, Rhubarb, Ginger, Candy, Digestive, &c.

Lozenges, Edinburgh. Prep. From extract of poppies, 2 oz.; powdered tragacanth, 4 oz.; sugar, 10 oz.; rose water, q. s. to form a lozenge-mass.

Lozenges, Emet′ine. Syn. Trochisci emetinæ, L. Prep. (Magendie.)—1. From impure or coloured emetine, 32 gr. (or pure emetine, 8 gr.); white sugar, 2 oz.; mucilage, q. s. to mix; divide into 64 lozenges. Emetic.—Dose, 1 for a child, and 4 for an adult. They are generally tinged of a pink colour with carmine.

2. From impure or coloured emetine, 32 gr. (or pure emetine, 8 gr.); sugar, 4 oz.; mucilage, q. s.; divide into 256 lozenges. Pectoral. One every hour, or oftener, for an adult. The last are intended to take the place of ipecacuanha lozenges, but are rather stronger.

Lozenges, Escharot′ic. Syn. Trochisci escharotici, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Corrosive sublimate, 2 dr.; starch, 4 dr.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.; mix, and divide into 3-gr. oat-shaped granules. For external use only. See Caustic (Zinc).

Lozenges, Ferrocy′anide of Iron. Syn. Trochisci ferri ferrocyanidi, T. cærulei, L. Each lozenge contains 1⁄2 gr. of pure Prussian blue. Alterative, febrifuge, and tonic; in epilepsy, intermittents, diseases of the ganglionic system, &c.

Lozenges, Fruit. Prep. From juice of black currants (boiled to the consistence of an extract), 1 lb.; juice of red currants (similarly treated), ⁄2 lb.; powdered gum tragacanth, ⁄4 lb.; sugar, 3 lbs.; raspberry syrup, q. s.; pear essence, a few drops. Resemble black currant lozenges, but are more agreeable.

Lozenges, Garana′. See Lozenges, Paullinia.

Lozenges, Gin′ger. Syn. Trochisci zingiberis, L. Prep. From the best unbleached Jamaica ginger and gum Arabic, of each, in very fine powder, 1⁄2 oz.; double refined lump sugar, 1 lb.; rose water (tinged with saffron), q. s. A still finer quality may be made by using an equivalent proportion of essence of ginger, instead of the powder. Inferior qualities are prepared with coarser sugar to which some starch is often added. Ginger lozenges are carminative and stomachic, and are useful in flatulency, loss of appetite, &c.

Lozenges, Gold. Syn. Trochisci auri, L. Each lozenge contains ⁄16 gr. of pulverulent gold.

Lozenges, Gum. Syn. Trochisci acaciæ (Ph. E.), T. gummi arabici, T. gummosi, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Gum Arabic, 4 oz.; starch, 1 oz.; white sugar, 12 oz. (all in very fine powder); rose water, q. s.

2. (P. Cod.) Gum Arabic, 1 lb.; sugar, 3 lbs.; orange-flower water, 2 fl. oz.

3. (Transparent.) From the same materials, but employing a gentle heat. Demulcent; used to allay tickling coughs.

Lozenges, Guaiacum. (Th. Hosp.) Syn. Trochisci guaiaci. Prep. Guaiacum resin in powder, 700 gr.; tragacanth, 70 gr.; sugar, 280 gr.; black currant paste, q. s. Divide into 350 lozenges, and finish as benzoic acid lozenges.

Lozenges, Gum Tra′gacanth. Syn. Trochisci tragacanthæ, T. gummi t., L. Prep. (Ph. E. 1744.) Compound powder of tragacanth, 3 oz.; sugar, 12 oz.; rose water, 4 fl. oz. Resemble the last, but are more durable in the mouth.

Lozenges, Heart′burn. See Lozenges, Chalk, &c.

Lozenges, Iceland Moss. Syn. Trochisci lichenis, L. (P. Cod.) Contain half their weight of dried and powdered lichen jelly. Resemble gum lozenges.

Lozenges, Indian Hemp. Syn. Trochisci cannabis, D. c. Indici, L. (Ebriard.) Each lozenge contains ⁄12 gr. of extract of Indian hemp.

Lozenges, I′odide of Iron. Syn. Trochisci ferri iodidi, L. Each lozenge contains ⁄2 gr. of dry iodide of iron. 12 to 20 daily; in amenorrhœa, chlorosis, scrofulous debility, &c. They are generally flavoured with a little nutmeg or cinnamon.

Lozenges, Iodide of Potassium. Syn. Trochisci Potassi iodidi, L. Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of iodide of potassium, flavoured with nutmeg or cinnamon. 10 to 15 daily; in scrofula, indurations, &c. One of the best ways of taking iodide of potassium.

Lozenges, Ipecacuan′ha. Syn. Trochisci ipecacuanhæ;, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Mix ipecacuanha in powder, 180 gr.; refined sugar in powder, 25 oz.; gum acacia in powder, 1 oz.; add mucilage of acacia, 2 fl. oz., and distilled water, 1 oz., or sufficient to form a proper mass. Divide into 720 lozenges, and dry in a hot-air chamber with a moderate heat. Each lozenge contains ⁄4 gr. of ipecacuanha.

2. (P. Cod., Hamb. do., and Ph. U. S.) Each lozenge contains ⁄4 gr. of ipecacuanha.

3. (Tro. ipecac. cum camphorâ.) Each lozenge contains ⁄2 gr. of camphor, and ⁄4 gr. of ipecacuanha.

4. (Tro. ipecac. cum chocolatâ—P. Cod.) Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of ipecacuanha, and 12 gr. of chocolate à la vanilla. The above are pectoral and expectorant, and are very useful in tickling and chronic coughs, hoarseness, &c.

Lozenges, Ipecacuanha and Morphia. Syn. Trochisci ipecacuanhæ et morphiæ (B. P.). Each lozenge contains ⁄12 gr. ipecacuanha and ⁄36 gr. hydrochlorate morphia.—Dose, 1 to 6 lozenges. See Lozenges, Morphia and Ipecacuanha.

Lozenges, I′ron. Syn. Trochisci ferri, T. chalybeati, L. 1. Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of Quevenne’s iron. See Lozenges, Reduced iron.

2. (Tro. ferri carbonatis.) Each lozenge contains 1⁄2 gr. of saccharine carbonate of iron. They are both mild and excellent chalybeates. See Lozenges, Steel.

Lozenges, Ju′jube. See Paste, Jujube.

Lozenges, Ker′mes Mineral. Syn. Trochisci kermetis, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Each lozenge contains ⁄6 gr. of kermes mineral, and about ⁄4 gr. of gum, made up with sugar and orange-flower water. Diaphoretic and expectorant.

2. (Compound.) As the last, but with the addition of ⁄6 gr. of opium, ⁄4 gr. of squills, and ⁄2 gr. of ipecacuanha. Anodyne and expectorant; both are very useful in catarrhs.

Lozenges, Lactate of Iron. Syn. Trochisci ferri lactatis, L. Prep. (Cap.) Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of lactate of iron. Tonic. Useful in debility, accompanied with a diseased state of the organs of digestion.

Lozenges, Lac′tic Ac′id. Syn. Trochisci acidi lactici, L. Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of lactic acid to about 12 gr. of sugar. They are best flavoured with vanilla or nutmeg. In dyspepsia, &c., especially in gouty subjects. Those prepared by Magendie’s formulæ contain a larger proportion of acid, but are much too sour for frequent use.

Lozenges, Lactuca′′rium. Syn. Trochisci lactucarii, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Prepared with lactucarium in the same manner as the opium lozenges, Ph. E. Each of these lozenges contains from ⁄6 to ⁄7 gr. of lactucarium. Anodyne and demulcent. Used to allay tickling coughs, &c.

Lozenges, Lavender. Syn. Trochisci lavandulæ, L. From ⁄4 fl. dr. of Mitcham oil of lavender to each lb. of sugar, and tinged red with liquid lake or carmine; or violet, with litmus or indigo. Used chiefly to scent the breath. Those of the shops are generally deficient in odour.

Lozenges, Lem′on. Syn. Trochisci limonis, T. limonum, L. Prep. 1. From 1⁄2 fl. dr. of oil of lemon to each lb. of double refined white sugar.

2. (Acidulated.) See Lozenges, Citric and Tartaric.

Obs. Lemon lozenges and drops are agreeable sweetmeats, and those that are acidulated are often very useful to promote expectoration in coughs, &c. The last are also made into drops as well as lozenges, when they form the ‘ACIDULATED LEMON DROPS’ of the shops. Those that are made of citric acid are by far the most wholesome. Both lemon lozenges and drops are generally coloured with infusion of saffron or turmeric.

Lozenges, Lettuce. Syn. Trochisci lactucæ, L. Prep. From extract of lettuce, extract of liquorice, gum, and sugar, equal parts. Anodyne and demulcent; in obstinate cough without expectoration. See Lozenges, Lactucarium.

Lozenges, Lichen. See Lozenges, Iceland moss.

Lozenges, Liquorice. Syn. Black lozenges; Trochisci glycyrrhizæ, T. g. glabræ, T. bechici nigri, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Extract of liquorice and gum acacia, of each 6 oz; white sugar, 12 oz.; dissolve in water, q. s.; evaporate into a paste, and form into lozenges. Pectoral and demulcent. Useful to allay tickling coughs and remove hoarseness.

2. (With OPIUM.) See Lozenges, Opium.

Lozenges, Magne′sia. Syn. Heartburn lozenges; Trochisci magnesiæ (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Carbonate of magnesia, 6 oz.; powdered white sugar, 3 oz.; oil of nutmeg, 20 drops; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. to mix.

2. (Ph. U. S.) Calcined magnesia, 4 oz.; sugar, 12 oz.; nutmeg, 1 dr.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.; for 10-gr. lozenges.

3. (Wholesale.) Calcined magnesia, 3 oz.; powdered gum tragacanth, 1 oz.; double refined lump sugar, ⁄4 lb.; rose or orange-flower water, q. s. to make a lozenge mass.

Obs. Magnesia lozenges are very useful in heartburn, acidity, and indigestion. The confectioners generally omit the nutmeg, and make their mucilage with either rose or orange-flower water, or else add the dry gum to the mass, and then mix up the powders with one or other of these liquids. It is also an improvement to use calcined magnesia, which is about twice as strong as the carbonate, and consequently less need be employed.

Lozenges, Manna. Syn. Trochisci mannæ, L. Prep. (Van Mons.) Powdered tragacanth, 1 dr.; white sugar, 12 oz.; manna, 3 oz.; orange-flower water, q. s. to mix. Demulcent, and in large numbers slightly laxative.

Lozenges, Marshmallow. Syn. Trochisci althææ, L.; Tablettes de guimauve, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Marshmallow root (decorticated and finely powdered), 2 oz.; sugar, 14 oz.; mucilage of tragacanth (made with orange-flower water), q. s. Demulcent and expectorant. Useful to allay the irritation in cough, &c. The preparations of marshmallow have always been highly esteemed as pectorals by the vulgar.

Lozenges, Min′ium. Syn. Trochisci minii (Ph. E. 1744), L. Prep. From red lead, 1 dr.; corrosive sublimate, 2 dr.; crumb of bread, 1 oz.; rose water, q. s.; to be made up into oat-like grains. For external use only.

Lozenges, Morphia. Syn. Trochisci morphiæ (B. P., Ph. E.), T. m. hydrochloratis, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Hydrochlorate of morphia, 20 gr.; tincture of tolu, ⁄2 fl. oz.; powdered white sugar, 25 oz.; dissolve the hydrochlorate in a little warm water, mix it with the tincture and the sugar, make a mass with mucilage of gum tragacanth, q. s., and divide it into 15-gr. lozenges. Each lozenge contains about ⁄40 gr. of hydrochlorate of morphia. Used as opium lozenges, but are pleasanter. The morphia lozenges of the shop generally contain ⁄24 gr. of hydrochlorate of morphia. (Pereira.)

2. (With IPECACUANHA, Trochisci morphiæ et ipecacuanhæ—Ph. E.) As the last, adding of ipecacuanha, 1 dr. Each lozenge contains about ⁄40 gr. of hydrochlorate of morphia, and ⁄13 gr. of ipecacuanha. Anodyne and expectorant; in tickling coughs, &c., and to allay pain.

3. Hydrochlorate of morphia, 20 gr.; tincture of tolu, ⁄2 oz.; refined sugar, in powder, 24 oz.; gum Arabic, in powder, 1 oz.; mucilage, 2 oz., or a sufficiency; boiling distilled water, ⁄2 oz. Divide the mass into 720 lozenges. Each lozenge contains ⁄36 gr. of hydrochlorate of morphia.—Dose, 1 or 2 occasionally, for cough.

Lozenges, Morphia and Ipecacuanha. Syn. Trochisci morphiæ et ipecacuanhæ (B. P.) Hydrochlorate of morphia, 20 gr.; ipecacuanha, in fine powder, 24 oz.; tincture of tolu, ⁄2 oz.; refined sugar, in powder, 24 oz.; gum Arabic, in powder, 1 oz.; mucilage, 2 oz., or a sufficiency; distilled water, ⁄2 oz.; divide the mass into 720 lozenges. Each lozenge contains ⁄36 gr. of hydrochlorate of morphia and ⁄12 gr. of ipecacuanha.—Dose, 1 or 2 occasionally, for cough.

Lozenges of Naphthalin. (Dupasquier.) Syn. Trochisci naphthalini. Prep. Naphthalin, 5 scruples; sugar, 20 oz.; oil of aniseed to flavour; form a mass with mucilage of tragacanth, and divide into lozenges of 15 gr. each. Expectorant, and may be taken to the extent of 20 a day.

Lozenges, Ni′tre. Syn. Trochisci nitrici, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E. 1783.) Nitre, 3 oz.; white sugar, 9 oz.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. to mix. Diuretic; but chiefly sucked, without swallowing, to remove incipient sore throat.

2. Camphorated; Trochisci nitri camphorati, L.—Chaussier. Each lozenge contains ⁄8 gr. of opium, ⁄2 gr. of camphor, and 1 gr. of nitre. In hoarseness, sore throat, &c.

Lozenges, Nut′meg. Syn. Trochisci myristicæ, L. From oil of nutmeg, 1 fl. dr., to each lb. of sugar, and coloured with infusion of saffron. Carminative and stomachic; in colic, &c.

Lozenges, O′pium. Syn. Anodyne lozenges; Trochisci opii (Ph. E.), T. glycyrrhizæ cum opio, L. Prep. 1. (B. P., Ph. E.) Opium (strained), 2 dr.; tincture of tolu, ⁄2 oz.; triturate together, add of powdered sugar, 6 oz.; extract of liquorice (soft) and powdered gum acacia, of each 5 oz.; mix, and divide into 10-gr. lozenges. Each lozenge contains ⁄6 to ⁄7 gr. of opium. Used to allay tickling cough and irritation of the fauces, and as an anodyne and hypnotic.

2. (Ph. U. S.) Opium (in fine powder), 2 dr.; extract of liquorice, gum Arabic, and sugar, of each 5 oz.; oil of aniseed, ⁄2 fl. dr.; water, q. s.; divide into 6-gr. lozenges. Each lozenge contains ⁄10 gr. of opium. As the last.

3. Extract of opium, 72 gr.; tincture of tolu, ⁄2 oz.; refined sugar (in powder), 2 oz.; extract of liquorice, 6 oz.; distilled water, a sufficiency. Divide the mass into 720 lozenges. Each lozenge contains ⁄10 gr. of extract of opium.—Dose, 1 to 2 lozenges.

Lozenges, Or′ange. Syn. Trochisci aurantii, L. From oil of orange, 1⁄2 fl. dr. to each lb. of sugar, and infusion of saffron for colouring. By adding nitric or tartaric acid, 3 dr. ‘ACIDULATED ORANGE LOZENGES’ will be formed.

Lozenges, Orange-flow′er. Syn. Trochisci aurantii florum, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Powdered sugar, 1 lb.; neroli, 1 dr.; orange-flower water, q. s.; make it into drops (pastilli); or, omit the water, and make it into lozenges with mucilage of tragacanth made with orange-flower water. Delightfully fragrant.

Lozenges, Or′ris-root. Syn. Trochisci iridis, L. Prep. From orris-root (in very fine powder), 1 oz.; sugar, 1 lb.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. to mix. Used to perfume the breath.

Lozenges Ox′alate of Potassa. Syn. Trochisci potassæ oxalatis, T. p. super-oxalatis, L. As ACIDULATED LOZENGES, but using quadraoxalate of potassa (salt of sorrel) instead of tartaric acid. (See below.)

Lozenges, Oxal′ic Acid. Syn. Trochisci acidi oxalici, L. As ACIDULATED LOZENGES, but using oxalic acid instead of tartaric acid. The last two are refrigerant, but their use is objectionable, especially for patients who labour under the oxalic diathesis. In large quantities they are poisonous.

Lozenges, Paregor′ic. Syn. Trochisci paregorici, L. Medicated with 2 fl. oz. of paregoric and 2 dr. of tartaric acid, to each lb. of sugar, and tinged of a pink colour with lake or cochineal. As a pectoral in catarrhs, &c.

Lozenges, Paullin′ia. Syn. Trochisci paulliniæ, T. guaranæ, L. Prep. (Dr Gavrelle.) Each lozenge contains nearly ⁄2 gr. of extract of garana or paullinia, and is flavoured with vanilla. 12 to 20 daily, as an alterative and tonic; in chlorosis, diarrhœa.

Lozenges, Pec′toral. Syn. Trochisci pectorales, T. bechici, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Grunn.) Powdered squills, 4 parts; extract of lettuce, 8 parts; ipecacuanha, 18 parts; manna, 125 parts; sugar, 250 parts; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. to mix.

2. (Magendie.) See Lozenges, Emetine.

3. (Black; T. bechici nigri.) See Lozenges, Liquorice.

4. (White; T. bechici albi.) Orris root, 4 dr.; liquorice powder, 6 dr.; starch, 1⁄2 oz.; sugar, 18 oz.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. to make a lozenge-mass.

5. (Yellow; T. bechici flavi.) Powdered orris root, 6 dr.; starch, 4 dr.; liquorice powder, 3 dr.; saffron, 2 dr.; sugar, 8 oz.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. to mix.

Obs. All the above are used as demulcents in coughs, colds, &c. Nos. 1 and 2 are anodyne as well as demulcent. For other formulæ see Lozenges, Cough, Liquorice, Opium, &c.

Lozenges, Pel′litory. Syn. Trochisci pyrethri, L. Prep. From pellitory, mastic, and tragacanth, of each in fine powder, equal parts; orange-flower water, q. s. to mix. In toothache.

Lozenges, Pep′permint. Syn. Trochisci menthæ piperitæ, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Oil of peppermint, 1 dr.; powdered sugar, 16 oz.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.

2. (Ph. U. S.) Oil of peppermint, 1 fl. dr.; sugar, 12 oz.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.

3. (Wholesale.) 1 fl. dr. of the finest Mitcham oil of peppermint to each lb. of the finest double refined white sugar, with mucilage of either gum Arabic or tragacanth to mix.

Obs. The best peppermint lozenges are made of the very finest double refined sugar and of English oil of peppermint only; carefully mixed up with very clean mucilage. The commoner qualities are made by employing inferior lump sugar and foreign oil of peppermint, or, what is better, English oil of peppermint, but in a less proportion than for the better sorts. The addition of starch, in quantity varying from ⁄6 to ⁄9 of the whole mass, is also commonly made to them; and in the cheapest varieties even plaster of Paris or chalk is occasionally introduced by unprincipled makers. The addition of a very small quantity of blue smalts, reduced to an impalpable powder, is commonly made to the sugar, to increase its whiteness. ‘Transparent’ or ‘Semi-transparent peppermint lozenges’ are made from the same materials as the opaque ones; but the sugar is not reduced to quite so fine a powder, and the cake is rolled thinner before cutting it. A little oil of almonds or of olives is also occasionally mixed with the ingredients, to promote the transparency; but it tends to render the lozenges less white.

Peppermint lozenges and drops are useful in flatulency, nausea, and griping; and judging from the enormous and constantly increasing demand for them, they are more highly esteemed by the public than all other lozenges and confections.

Lozenges, Pontefract. These are made of the purest refined juice or extract of liquorice, and have long been esteemed as a demulcent.

Lozenges, Pop′py. Syn. Trochisci papaveris, L. Prep. From extract of poppies, 3 oz.; sugar, 15 oz.; powdered gum tragacanth, 2 oz.; rose water, q. s. to mix. Used in coughs as an anodyne and demulcent, in lieu of opium lozenges.

Lozenges, Pulmon′ic. See Lozenges, Cough, Pectoral, Wafers, &c.

Lozenges, Quin′ine. Syn. Trochisci quininæ sulphatis, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Each lozenge contains about ⁄10 gr. of sulphate (disulphate) of quinine. Tonic and stomachic in dyspepsia, &c.; but to render them useful, the quantity of the alkaloid should be doubled.

Lozenges, Reduced Iron. Syn. Trochisci ferri redacti. (B. P.) Reduced iron, 720 gr.; refined sugar, in powder, 25 oz.; gum Arabic, in powder, 1 oz.; mucilage, 2 oz.; distilled water, 1 oz., or a sufficiency. Mix the iron, sugar, and gum, and add the mucilage and water to form a proper mass. Divide into 720 lozenges, and dry them in a hot-air chamber with a moderate heat. Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of reduced iron.—Dose, 1 to 6 lozenges.

Lozenges, Reduced Iron, with Chocolate. (Bouchardat.) Syn. Trochisci chocolatæ et ferri. Prep. Fine chocolate, 14 oz.; iron reduced by hydrogen, 1 oz. Soften the chocolate by heat, mix with the iron, and divide into lozenges of 15⁄2 gr. each. Levigated iron filings are sometimes substituted for the reduced iron; others direct the peroxide.

Lozenges of Rhatany. (Th. Hosp.) Syn. Trochisci krameriæ. Prep. Extract of rhatany in powder, 1050 gr.; tragacanth, 70 gr.; sugar, 280 gr.; red currant paste, q. s. Mix, and divide into 350 lozenges, and finish as in benzoic acid lozenges.

Lozenges, Rhu′barb. Syn. Digestive lozenges; Trochisci rhei, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Powdered rhubarb, 1 oz.; sugar, 11 oz.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.; divide into 12-gr. lozenges. Stomachic and laxative. Sucked before dinner, they excite the appetite, and, after it, promote digestion. They are frequently aromatised with a little cinnamon or vanilla. See Candy (Digestive).

Lozenges, Rose. Syn. Trochisci rosæ, L. Prep. 1. (Acidulated; T. r. acidæ.) From otto, 5 to 10 drops; citric or tartaric acid, 3 dr.; sugar, 1 lb.; mucilage, q. s.

2. (Ph. E. 1746.) Red-rose leaves (powdered), 1 oz.; sugar, 12 oz.; mucilage, q. s.

3. (Pâte de rose lozenges.) As No. 1, omitting one half of the acid.

4. (Red; T. r. rubri.) As No. 1; but coloured with liquid lake, or infusion of cochineal.

Obs. Some makers add of starch, 4 oz., substitute oil of rhodium for otto of roses, and use mucilage made with rose water; but the quality of course suffers. They are chiefly used to perfume the breath.

Lozenges, Saf′fron. Syn. Trochisci croci, L. Prep. From hay saffron (in fine powder), 1 oz.; white sugar, 1 lb.; mucilage of gum tragacanth, q. s. to mix. Anodyne, pectoral, and emmenagogue; but chiefly used to raise the spirits in hypochondriasis.

Lozenges, San′tonine. Syn. Tasteless worm lozenges; Trochisci santonini, L. Each lozenge contains ⁄2 gr. (nearly) of santonine. 5 to 10 daily, as a vermifuge.

Lozenges, Scammony. (Bourières.) Syn. Trochisci scammonii. Prep. Resin of scammony, 4 dr.; calomel, 4 dr.; sugar, 6 oz.; tragacanth, ⁄2 dr.; tincture of vanilla, 40 minims. Make into 300 lozenges. 1 or 2 for a child; 2 to 4 for an adult.

Lozenges, So′da. Syn. Trochisci sodæ bicarbonatis (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz.; powdered gum Arabic, ⁄2 oz.; sugar, 3 oz.; mucilage, q. s.

2. (Wholesale.) From bicarbonate of soda and powdered gum tragacanth, of each 2 oz.; double refined lump sugar, ⁄4 lb.; rose water, q. s. to mix. In acidity, heartburn, &c. See Lozenges, Vichy.

3. (With GINGER); Trochisci sodæ et zingiberis, L. To the last, add of ginger (in very fine powder), 1⁄2 oz.; powdered gum, ⁄2 oz.

Lozenges of Soluble Tartar. (Guibort.) Syn. Trochisci tartari solubilis. Prep. Borotartrate of potash, 1 oz.; sugar, 7 oz.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.; flavoured with lemon.

Lozenges, Squills. Syn. Trochisci scillæ, L. 1. Each lozenge contains ⁄8 gr. of powdered squills and 2 gr. of extract of liquorice.

2. (With IPECACUANHA); Trochisci scillæ et ipecacuanhæ, L. As the last, adding for each lozenge ⁄4 gr. of powdered ipecacuanha. Both the above are useful cough lozenges.

Lozenges, Starch. Syn. Trochisci alimy, T. bechici albi. L. See Pectoral lozenges.

Lozenges, Steel. Syn. Trochisci ferri, T. chalybeati, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Levigated iron filings, 1 oz.; sugar, 10 oz.; cinnamon, 2 dr.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.; mix, and divide into 480 lozenges. Tonic. See Lozenges, Iron.

Lozenges, Sul′phur. Syn. Trochisci sulphuris, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From sulphur (pure precipitate), 2 oz.; sugar, 16 oz.; mucilage of tragacanth (made with rose water), q. s. to mix. Useful in piles and some skin diseases.

Lozenges, Tannic Acid. Syn. Trochisci acidi tannici (B. P.) Tannic acid, 360 gr.; tincture of tolu, ⁄2 oz,; refined sugar, 25 oz.; gum acacia, 1 oz.; mucilage, 2 oz.; distilled water, 1 oz. Dissolve the tannic acid in the water; add first the tincture of tolu previously mixed with the mucilage, then the gum and the sugar, also previously well mixed. Form the whole into a proper mass, divide into 720 lozenges, and dry them in a hot-air chamber with a moderate heat. Each lozenge contains ⁄2 gr. of tannic acid.—Dose, 1 to 6 lozenges.

Lozenges, Tarta′ric Acid. See Lozenges, Acidulated.

Lozenges, Tolu′. Syn. Balsamic lozenges; Trochisci tolutani, T. balsamicæ, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Balsam of tolu and rectified spirit, of each 1 oz.; dissolve, add of water, 2 fl. oz., heat the mixture in a water bath, and filter; make a mucilage with the filtered liquid, and gum tragacanth (in powder), 80 gr.; add of sugar, 16 oz.; make a mass, and cut it into lozenges.

2. (Wholesale.) As the last, but using only one half the weight of balsam of tolu. Pectoral and balsamic.

Lozenges, Tronchin’s. Syn. Tablettes de Tronchin, Fr. See Lozenges, Cough.

Lozenges, Vanil′la. Syn. Trochisci vanillæ, L. Prep. 1. Essence of vanilla, 3 fl. dr., to each lb. of sugar.

2. (Guibourt.) From vanilla triturated to a fine powder with 7 times its weight of sugar. Antispasmodic, nervine, and stomachic. Used to sweeten the breath, to flavour chocolate, &c.

Lozenges, Vichy. Syn. D’Arcet’s lozenges; Trochisci sodæ, L.; Pastilles de vichy, Fr. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz.; powdered sugar, 19 oz.; mucilage of gum tragacanth, q. s.; mix, and divide into 20-gr. lozenges.

2. (D’Arcet.) As the last, adding a little oil of peppermint to give a slight flavour. Antacid or absorbent; in heartburn, &c.

Lozenges, Vi′olet. Syn. Trochisci violæ, T. violarum, L. Prep. Orris lozenges coloured with the juice of violets.

Lozenges, Wistar’s Cough. Prep. Gum Arabic, extract of liquorice, and sugar, of each 2⁄2 oz.; powdered opium, 1 dr.; oil of aniseed, 40 drops; for 60 lozenges. One, three or four times a day.

Lozenges Worm. Syn. Trochisci anthelmintici, Morsuli contra vermes, L. Most of the advertised nostrums under this name have a basis of calomel (about 1 gr. per lozenge), and require to be followed by a purge a few hours afterwards.

1. (Ph. Austr. 1836.) Ethereal extract of wormseed, 1 dr.; jalap, starch, and sugar, of each 2 dr.; mucilage of gum tragacanth, q. s.; divide into 60 lozenges.

2. (Ph. Dan. 1840.) Wormseed, 1 oz.; ethiops mineral and jalap, of each 3 dr.; cinnamon, 2 dr.; sugar, 7 oz.; rose water, q. s. See Lozenges, Calomel, Ching’s, Santonin, &c. (above).

Lozenges, Zinc. Syn. Trochisci zinci, T. z. sulphatis, L. Prep. (Dr Copland.) Each lozenge contains ⁄2 gr. of sulphate of zinc. Antispasmodic, expectorant, and tonic, and in quantity emetic.

LUBRICATING COMPOUNDS. See Anti-attrition.

LU′CIFERS. See Matches.

LUMBA′GO. Rheumatism of the loins. It is distinguished from nephritis, or inflammation of the kidneys, by the pain being aggravated on stooping. The treatment consists of strong stimulant embrocations or liniments, or of blisters over the parts affected, with active aperients, warmth, and diaphoretics (as Dover’s powder) at bedtime. The hot or vapour bath often gives almost immediate relief. See Liniment of Belladonna and Chloroform. See Rheumatism.

LU′MINOUS PHIAL. See Phosphorus.

LU′NA, CORNEA. [L.] Syn. Horn silver. Fused chloride of silver.

LU′NAR, CAUSTIC. Fused nitrate of silver. See Caustic and Silver.

LUNCHEONS, HOT, by the River Side. We extract the following from ‘Land and Water’:—“In cold weather, by river side or on mountain or moor, when not too far from home, a hot lunch is often a desideratum, but one not easily accomplished without a more or less complicated apparatus and the trouble of lighting a fire—often an impossibility from the want of dry wood. A hot, substantial meal at the end of a hard day’s work is often difficult to get when the time of return home may depend entirely on the humour of the fish; and for either purpose nothing will beat the homely Hot Pot, or ‘Paté de Lancashire,’ as I have seen it pretentiously termed, though the latter name does not convey any of the comforting, cheering sensation to the inner man contained in the simpler denomination. I have never seen a good recipe for it, so append my own. Take a strong glazed earthenware jar of a cylindrical form, ten inches deep and twelve broad. At the bottom of this place a layer, about an inch thick, of potatoes cut into pieces, sprinkle with a little salt; on these place a layer of four or five mutton chops, season with salt and pepper, and a teaspoonful of Worcester sauce. Pour in enough broth, stock, or water to nearly cover the chops; then add another layer of potatoes (rather thicker than the first), on which place two or three chops, and two kidneys, cut into smallish pieces for the sake of the gravy. If mushrooms are procurable, add a few with each layer of meat, or, in place of these, a few oysters. Season, and continue the meat and potatoes in alternate layers until within an inch of the top, when cover with small potatoes whole, or large ones cut into halves or quarters; bake slowly in the oven till the potatoes are quite soft inside, and brown and well cooked at the top, when the dish is ready. If it is not wanted at once, it may easily be kept hot, and the addition of a little stock will prevent its getting dry. To serve out-of-doors, wrap up in cloths, and carry in a small hamper lined with straw, when it will keep steaming hot for an hour or more. One of the great excellences of this dish lies in the fact that all the aroma of the meat is retained, while the potatoes absorb any superfluous gravy. Sliced onions will improve the flavour for those who like them, especially when mushrooms cannot be got. I have tested the appreciation of this dish among a grouse-driving party on the Yorkshire moors on a raw December day, and there was no dissentient voice as to its merits when thankfully discussed over the subsequent pipe. I have found it not ungrateful, after a long day’s fishing, nearly up to my waist in water, when the dinner ordered for six, with a view of taking an evening basket, would have been ruined before my arrival at eleven, had it consisted of aught else; nay, I have assisted at more than one bachelor supper in chambers, where it formed the dish of the evening, and mid-day, evening, or night I have always found it good.”

LUNGS. In anatomy, the organ of respiration occupying the thorax or chest. See Respiration.

LU′PULIN. Syn. Lupulina, Lupuline. Under this name two products are known, namely, 1. (Lupulinic grains, L. glands.) The yellow powder obtained from the dried strobiles or catkins of the hops, by gently rubbing and sifting them.—Dose, 5 to 10 gr.; as an anodyne, tonic, &c.

2. The aromatic bitter principle of hops.

Prep. The aqueous extract of the yellow powder or lupulinic grains of the strobiles, along with a little lime, are treated with rectified spirit; the filtered tincture is evaporated to dryness, redissolved in water, and the solution is again filtered, and evaporated to dryness; the residuum is, lastly, washed with ether, and allowed to dry.

Prop., &c. The latter product is a yellowish-white, bitter, uncrystallisable substance, soluble in 20 parts of water, very soluble in alcohol, and slightly so in ether. The yellow powder above alluded to (No. 1) is improperly called lupulin; a name which appears more appropriate to the pure bitter principle than to the lupulinic grains.

Adult. The lupulin sold to brewers is largely adulterated with quassia. In some samples, lately examined, the quassia amounted to 70 per cent.

LU′PUS. In pathology, a disease affecting the skin, remarkable for eating away the parts which it attacks with extreme rapidity. It is generally confined to the face, and commences with small, spreading ulcerations, which become more or less concealed beneath bran-like scabs, and end in ragged ulcers, which gradually destroy the skin and muscular tissue to a considerable depth.

LUS′TRE. See Plumbago.

LUTE. Syn. Luting; Lutum, Cæmentum, L. A composition employed to secure the joints of chemical vessels, or as a covering to protect them from the violence of the fire.

Prep. 1. Linseed meal, either alone or mixed with an equal weight of whiting, and made into a stiff paste with water. It soon becomes very hard and tough.

2. Ground almond cake, from which the oil has been pressed, mixed up as the last. Both the above are much used for stills, retorts, and other vessels that are not exposed to a heat higher than about 320° Fahr. They are capable of resisting the action of the fumes of volatile oils, spirits, weak acids, &c., for some time.

3. Fresh-slaked lime made into a paste with strained bullock’s blood or size. As the last.

4. Plaster of Paris made into a paste with water, and at once applied. It bears a nearly red heat, but becomes rather porous and friable.

5. Powdered clay or whiting made into putty with water and boiled linseed oil. This is commonly known as ‘fat lute.’

6. A mixture of powdered clay and ground bricks, made up with water or a solution of borax. For joining crucibles, &c., which are to be exposed to a strong heat.

7. Pipe-clay and horse-dung, made into a paste with water. As a coating for glass vessels, to preserve them from injury from exposure to the fire. This composition is used by the pipe-makers, and will stand unharmed the extremest heat of their kiln for 24 hours. It is applied by spreading it on paper.

8. As the last, but employing shredded tow or plumbago for horse-dung.

Obs. For the joints of small vessels, as tubes, &c., especially those of glass or earthenware, pieces of vulcanized Indian tubing, slipped over and tied above and below the joint, are very convenient substitutes for lutes, and have the advantage of lasting for a long time, and bearing uninjured the heat at which oil of vitriol boils. Flat rings or “washers” of vulcanised rubber are also excellent for still heads, &c., whenever the parts can be pinched together by screws or clamps.

LYCOPO′DIUM. The fine powder known in commerce under this name consists of the minute spores of the common club moss, or Lycopodium clavatum. It is exceedingly combustible; thrown suddenly from a powder-puff or bellows across the flame of a candle, it produces the imitation flashes of lightning of our theatres. The powder is also employed as a ‘dusting powder’ in excoriations, and to roll up boluses and pills.

According to M. Paul Cazeneuve, pine pollen is occasionally substituted for lycopodium.

MACARO′NI. This only differs from VERMICELLI in the size of the pipes, which are about as large as a goose-quill. When properly dressed it is very wholesome and nutritious. A pleasant dish may be made by boiling macaroni in water until soft, either with or without a little salt, draining off the water, and then stewing it with a little butter, cream, or milk, and grated cheese, adding spice to palate. It may be made into a ‘form’ and browned before the fire.

MAC′AROONS (English). Prep. Take of sweet almonds, 1 lb.; blanch and beat them to a paste, add of lump sugar 1⁄4 lb.; whites of 6 eggs; the grated yellow peel of 2 lemons; mix well, make it into ‘forms,’ cover with wafer paper, and bake in a moderate oven.

MACE. Syn. Macis, L. The tough membranous, lacerated covering (ariliode) of the NUTMEG. It has a flavour and odour more agreeable than that of nutmeg, which in its general properties it resembles. It is used as a flavouring by cooks, confectioners, and liqueuristes; and in medicine as a carminative. See Oil, &c.

MACERA′TION. Syn. Maceratio, L. The steeping of a substance in cold water, for the purpose of extracting the portion soluble in that menstruum. The word is also frequently applied to the infusion of organic substances in alcohol or ether, or in water, either alkalised or acidulated.

MACKEREL. The Scomber Scombrus (Linn.), a well-known spiny-finned sea-fish, much esteemed at certain seasons for the table. Though nutritious, it is very apt to disagree with delicate stomachs, and occasionally induces symptoms resembling those of poisoning.

MAD′DER. Syn. Rubia, Rubiæ radix, L. The root of Rubia tinctorum (Linn.), or dyer’s madder. The best madder has the size of a common goose-quill, a reddish appearance, and a strong odour. As soon as the roots are taken from the ground they are picked and dried; and before use they are ground in a mill. Levant, Turkey, and Smyrna madder is imported whole; French, Dutch, and Zealand madder, ground. The finest quality of ground madder is called ‘crop’ or ‘grappe,’ ‘ombro’ and ‘gamene’ are inferior sorts, and ‘mull’ the worst.

Madder contains several distinct principles as—madder red, or alizarin;—madder purple, or purpurin;—madder orange, or rubiacin; madder yellow, or xanthin, &c. The first of these (noticed below) is by far the most important.

Pur. Madder is frequently adulterated with logwood, Brazil wood, and other dye-stuffs of inferior value; and also, not unfrequently, with brickdust, red ochre clay, sand, mahogany sawdust, bran, &c. These admixtures may be detected as follows:—

1. When dried at 212° Fahr., and then incinerated, not more than 10% to 12% of ash should be left.

2. It should not lose more than 50% to 56% by exhaustion with cold water.

3. When assayed for alizarin (see below), the quantity of this substance obtained should be equal to that from a sample of the same kind of madder which is known to be pure, and which has been treated in precisely the same manner. The operation may be conducted as follows:—500 gr. of the sample are weighed, and, after being dried by the heat of boiling water or steam, are gradually added to an equal weight of concentrated sulphuric acid, contained in a glass vessel, and stirred with a glass rod; after a few hours the charred mass is washed with cold water, collected on a filter, and dried by the heat of boiling water; the carbonised mass (‘garacine’) is next powdered, and treated with successive portions of rectified spirit, to which a little ether has been added, at first in the cold, and afterwards with heat, until the liquid is no longer coloured by it, when the mixed tincture is filtered, and evaporated (distilled) to dryness; the weight of the residuum, divided by 5, gives the percentage of red colouring matter present. Or,—The dried carbonized matter is exhausted by boiling it in a solution of 1 part of alum in 5 or 6 parts of water, and the decoction, after being filtered whilst in the boiling state, is treated with sulphuric acid as long as a precipitate falls, which is washed, dried, and weighed as before.

Uses, &c. Madder has been given in jaundice and rickets, and as an emmenagogue.—Dose, ⁄2 dr. to 2 dr., twice or thrice a day. It is principally employed as a dye-stuff. See Red dyes, Ivory, Purpurin, &c., also below.

MADDER RED. Syn. Alizarin. C14H8O4. 2Aq. The red colouring principle of madder, first obtained in a separate form by Robiquet.

Prep. 1. The aqueous decoction of madder is treated with dilute sulphuric acid as long as a precipitate falls, which, after being washed, is boiled in a solution of chloride of aluminum as long as it gives out colour; the liquid is then filtered, precipitated with hydrochloric acid, and the precipitate washed and dried. It may be purified from a little adhering purpurin, by dissolving it in alcohol, again throwing it down with hydrate of aluminum, boiling the precipitate with a strong solution of soda, and separating the alizarin from its combination with alumina by means of hydrochloric acid; it is lastly crystallised from alcohol.

2. (Meillet.) Alum, 3 parts, is dissolved in water at 140° Fahr., 30 parts, and madder, 13 parts, added to the solution; the whole is then gently boiled for 30 or 40 minutes, after which it is thrown upon a filter, and submitted to strong pressure; this treatment is repeated with fresh solutions a second and a third time; the mixed filtrates are then decanted, and when nearly cold, oil of vitriol, 1 part, diluted with twice its bulk of water, is added, care being taken to stir the liquid all the time; the supernatant fluid is next decanted, and the residuum well washed, and, lastly, dried in the air. If required quite pure, it is dissolved, whilst still moist, in a solution of 1⁄2 times its weight of carbonate of potassa in 15 parts of water, and, after reprecipitation with sulphuric acid, is washed and dried as before.

3. (Robiquet & Colin.) Powdered madder is exhausted with water of a temperature not exceeding 68° Fahr., and, after being dried, 1 part of it is boiled for 15 or 20 minutes in a solution of alum, 8 parts, in water, 40 parts; the liquid is filtered whilst boiling, the marc well washed with a fresh solution of alum, the mixed liquids precipitated with sulphuric acid, and the precipitate washed and dried, as before.

Obs. Alizarin has recently been produced artificially by Graebe and Liebermann from anthracene (C14H10), a liquid hydrocarbon existing in coal-tar. For a description of the process see Alizarin, Artificial.

4. Madder exhausted by 2 or 3 macerations in 5 or 6 times its weight of cold water, is submitted to strong pressure, to remove adhering water, and the marc, whilst still moist, is mixed with half its weight of oil of vitriol diluted with an equal quantity of water; the whole is kept at the temperature of 212° for an hour, and after being mixed with cold water is thrown on a linen strainer, well washed with cold water, and dried.

5. From powdered madder and oil of vitriol, equal parts, without heat, as described under Madder.

6. (F. Steiner.) The ‘used madder’ of the dye-works is run into filters, and precipitated with sulphuric acid; the matter thus obtained is put into bags and rendered as dry as possible by hydraulic pressure; the pressed cake is next crumbled to pieces, placed in a leaden vessel, and treated with 1-5th of its weight of oil of vitriol, afterwards assisting the action of the acid by introducing steam to the mixture; the resulting dark brown carbonized mass is, lastly, well washed, dried, powdered, and mixed with about 5% of carbonate of soda, when it is ready for sale.

Obs. The last three formulæ produce the ‘GARANCE’ or ‘GARANCINE’ of commerce, now so extensively used in dyeing.

Prop., &c. Pure anhydrous alizarin crystallises in magnificent orange-red crystals, which may be fused and sublimed; it is freely soluble in alkaline solutions, which it colours purple or violet; and, in oil of vitriol, giving a rich red colour; water throws it down from the last unchanged; it is also soluble in hot alcohol, a hot solution of alum, and, less freely, in hot water. Hydrated alizarin occurs in small scales resembling mosaic gold. When impure, it generally forms shining reddish-brown scales. Commercial ‘garancine’ is a deep-brown or puce-coloured powder, and will probably, ere long, entirely supersede crude madder for dyeing. The properties of garancine as a dye-stuff are precisely similar to those of madder. A solution of alum added to a solution of alizarin, and precipitated by carbonate of potassa, furnishes a rose lake; which, after being washed with water and dried, possesses a most charming tint.

MAGILP′. Syn. Megellup. A mixture of pale linseed oil and mastic varnish, employed by artists as a ‘vehicle’ for their colours. The proportions vary according to the work. It is thinned with turpentine.

MAG′ISTERY. Syn. Magisterium, L. The old name of precipitates. The following are the principal substances to which this term has been applied:—Magistery of alum, hydrate of alumina; M. OF BISMUTH, sub-nitrate of bismuth; M. OF DIAPHORETIC ANTIMONY, washed diaphoretic antimony; M. OF OPIUM (Ludolph’s), crude morphia; M. OF LAPIS CALAMINARIS or M. OF ZINC, hydrated oxide of zinc.

MAGNESIA. See Magnesium, Oxide of.

Magnesia, Hydrate of. (P. Cod.) Syn. Magnesiæ hydras. Obtained by boiling magnesia in 20 or 30 times its weight of water for 20 minutes, draining on a linen cloth and drying. It contains 31 per cent. of water.

Magnesia, Lactate of (Ph. Ger.) Syn. Magnesiæ lactas. Prep. Mix 1 oz. (by weight) of lactic acid in 10 oz. of distilled water, just made slightly warm, and add light carbonate of magnesia enough to neutralise it. Filter and evaporate till crystals form.

MAGNE′SIAN APE′′RIENT (Effervescing). Prep. 1. Heavy carbonate of magnesia, 2 lbs.; tartaric acid and double refined lump sugar, of each 1⁄2 lb.; bicarbonate of soda (dried without heat), 1 lb.; each separately dried and in very fine powder; essential oils of orange and lemon, of each ⁄2 fl. dr.; mix well in a warm, dry situation, pass the whole through a sieve, put it into warm, dry bottles, and keep them well corked.

2. As the last, but substituting calcined magnesia, 1 lb., for the heavy carbonate, and adding sugar, ⁄4 lb. The preceding furnish a very pleasant effervescing saline draught.

3. (Moxon’s.)—a. Take of sulphate of magnesia, 2 lbs.; dry it by a gradually increased heat, powder, add of tartaric acid (also dried and powdered), 1⁄4 lb.; calcined magnesia, ⁄2 lb.; finely powdered white sugar, 3 lbs.; bicarbonate of soda (dried without heat), 1 lb.; essence of lemon, 1 dr.; mix, and proceed as before.

b. (Durande.) Carbonate of magnesia, 1 part; bicarbonate of soda, tartrate of soda and potassa (sel de Seignette), and tartaric acid, of each 2 parts; mix as before.

c. (Pharm. Journ.) Sulphate of magnesia and bicarbonate of soda, of each 1 lb.; tartaric acid, ⁄2 lb.; mix as before. The last two are much less agreeable than the others.

4. Carbonate of magnesia, 2 parts; calcined magnesia, 4 parts; citric acid, 13 parts; lump sugar, 25 parts; essence of lemon, q. s. to flavour. Very agreeable. This is known as ‘Rogés Purgatif,’

Obs. The above are very useful and popular medicines in indigestion, heartburn, nausea, habitual costiveness, dyspepsia, &c.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 dessert-spoonfuls, thrown into tumbler 3 parts filled with cold water, rapidly stirred and drank whilst effervescing, early in the morning fasting, or between breakfast and dinner.

MAGNESIAN LEMONADE′. See Citrate of Magnesia and Lemonade (Aperient).

MAGNESIUM. Mg. Syn. Magnium, Talcium. The metallic radical of magnesia. The existence of this metal was demonstrated by Sir H. Davy in 1808; but it was first obtained in sufficient quantity to examine its properties by Bussy in 1830.

Prep. 5 or 6 pieces of sodium, about the size of peas, are introduced into a test-tube, and covered with small fragments of chloride of magnesium; the latter is then heated to near its point of fusion, when the flame of the lamp is applied to the sodium, so that its vapour may pass through the stratum of heated chloride; when the vivid incandescence that follows is over, and the whole has become cold, the mass is thrown into water, and the insoluble metallic portion collected and dried.

Commercial magnesium is prepared by evaporating solution of the chlorides of sodium and magnesium, in the proportion of 1 to 3, to dryness, mixing with one quarter of its weight of fluor spar and a like amount of sodium, and heating to bright redness in an iron crucible of proper construction.

On a larger scale it is prepared by heating to redness a mixture of chloride of magnesium, 9 parts; fused chloride of sodium, 1⁄2 parts; fluoride of calcium, 1⁄2 parts; and sodium in slices, 1⁄2 parts.

Prop., &c. In colour and lustre it resembles silver, but in chemical properties is more like zinc; its sp. gr. is only 1·743; it is malleable; fusible at a red heat, and can be distilled like zinc; unaffected by dry air and by cold water; burns with brilliancy when heated to dull redness in air or oxygen gas, yielding oxide of magnesium; inflames spontaneously in chlorine, yielding chloride of magnesium; it dissolves in the acids with the evolution of hydrogen gas, and pure salts of magnesium result.

It has been used somewhat extensively as an illuminating agent for photographing at night, and also for the purpose of affording a brilliant light for microscopic and magic lantern effects.

Magnesium, Bromide. Syn. Magnesii bromidum. To bromide of iron in solution add calcined magnesia in excess, heat the mixture, filter, and evaporate the clear solution to dryness.

Magnesium, Carbonate of (Light). Syn. Light Carbonate of Magnesia; Carbonate of magnesia; Magnesia; Magnesiæ carbonas levis (B. P.). 3MgCO3.MgO.5H2O. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Sulphate of magnesium, 4 lbs., and carbonate of sodium, 4 lbs. 9 oz.; boiling distilled water, 4 galls.; dissolve the salts separately in one half the water, filter, mix the solutions, and boil for 2 hours, constantly stirring with a spatula, distilled water being frequently added to compensate for that lost by evaporation; lastly, the solution being poured off, wash the precipitated powder with boiling distilled water, and dry it. The formulæ of the Ph. E. & D. are essentially the same, except that the ebullition is limited to from 10 to 20 minutes.

2. (B. P.) Similar to the foregoing except that precipitation takes place in the cold. The formula of this compound is (Mg.CO3)3. Mg(HO)2.4(H2O).

3. (Henry’s.) Ordinary carbonate of magnesia, the washing of which has been finished with a little rose water.

4. Add a solution of carbonate of potassium or sodium to the bittern or residuary liquor of the sea-salt works, and well wash and dry the precipitate as before. This is known in commerce as ‘Scotch magnesia.’

Obs. The carbonate of magnesia of commerce is usually made up into cakes or dice while drying; or it is permitted to drain and dry in masses, which are then cut into squares with a thin knife. It is powdered by simply rubbing it through a wire sieve. The presence of iron in the solution of the sulphate of magnesium, when the crude salt is employed, and which is destructive to the beauty of the preparation may be got rid of by the addition of lime water until the liquor acquires a slight alkaline reaction, and subsequent decantation after repose.

Magnesium, Carbonate of (Heavy). Syn. Heavy Carbonate of Magnesia; Magnesiæ carbonas (B. P.). 3MgCO3.MgO.5H2O. Prep. 1. Apothecaries’ Hall. A saturated solution of sulphate of magnesium, 1 part, is diluted with water, 3 parts, and the mixture heated to the boiling point; a cold saturated solution of carbonate of sodium, 1 part (all by measure), is then added, and the whole is boiled with constant agitation until effervescence ceases; boiling water is next freely poured in, and after assiduous stirring for a few minutes, and repose, the clear liquid is decanted, and the precipitate thrown on a linen cloth and thoroughly washed with hot water; it is, lastly, drained, and dried in an iron pot.

2. (Ph. D.) Dissolve sulphate of magnesium, 10 oz., in boiling distilled water, ⁄2 pint; and carbonate of sodium (cryst.), 12 oz., in boiling distilled water, 1 pint; mix the two solutions, and evaporate the whole to dryness by the heat of a sand bath; then add of boiling water 1 quart, digest with agitation for half an hour, and wash the insoluble residuum as before; lastly, drain it, and dry it at the temperature of boiling water.

3. (B. P.) White granular powder precipitated from a boiling solution of sulphate of magnesium by a solution of carbonate of sodium, the whole evaporated to dryness, and the dry residue digested in water, collected on a filter, and washed.

Prop. The ordinary or light carbonate of magnesia is a white, inodorous, tasteless powder, possessing similar properties to calcined magnesia, except effervescing with acids, and having less saturating power. An ounce measure is filled by 45 to 48 gr. of the powder lightly placed in it. The heavy carbonate is sometimes fully thrice as dense (see below), but in other respects is similar.

Dose. As an antacid, ⁄2 to a whole teaspoonful, 3 or 4 times daily; as a laxative ⁄2 dr. to 2 dr. It is commonly taken in milk. It is apt to produce flatulence, but in other respects is preferable to calcined magnesia.

General Remarks. Although commonly called ‘carbonate of magnesia,’ the above substance, whether in the light or heavy form, appears to be a compound of carbonate with hydrate, in proportions which are not perfectly constant. (For B. P. formula see preceding article.) On account of the excess of base in its composition it was formerly regarded as a subsalt (subcarbonate of magnesia). A great deal has been written uselessly respecting the preparation of these carbonates, about which, however, there is neither mystery nor difficulty, as some writers would lead their readers to suppose. If the solutions are very dilute, the precipitate is exceedingly light and bulky; if otherwise, it is denser. By employing nearly saturated solutions, and then heating them and mixing them together whilst very hot, a very heavy precipitate is obtained, but it is apt to be gritty or crystalline. The same occurs when cold solutions are mixed, and no heat is employed. The lightest precipitate is obtained from cold, highly dilute solutions, and subsequent ebullition of the mixture.

Mr Pattinson, a chemist of Gateshead, prepares a very beautiful and pure heavy carbonate from magnesian limestone. The latter is calcined at a dull red heat (not hotter) for some time, by which the carbonic anhydride is expelled from the carbonate of magnesium, but not from the carbonate of calcium, which hence continues insoluble. The calcined mass is next reduced to a milk with water in a suitable cistern, and the carbonic anhydride resulting from its own calcination forced into it under powerful pressure. The result is a saturated solution of carbonate of magnesia, the lime remaining unacted on so long as the magnesium is in excess. The solution by evaporation yields the heavy carbonate, whilst carbonic anhydride is expelled, and may be again used in the same manufacture. 154 to 160 gr. of the heavy carbonate are required to fill an ounce measure when lightly placed in it, by which it appears to be fully thrice as dense as the light carbonate. The bicarbonate of magnesium (magnesiæ bicarbonas, L.) exists only in solution. The so-called ‘fluid magnesias’ of Murray, Dinneford, Husband, &c., are solutions of this salt. The small prismatic crystals which are deposited when ‘fluid magnesia’ is exposed to the air for some time consist of hydrated neutral carbonate, and not bicarbonate, as is sometimes stated.

Magnesium, Chloride of. MgCl2. Syn. Magnesii chloridum, L. Prep. (Liebig.) By dissolving magnesia in hydrochloric acid, evaporating to dryness, adding an equal weight of chloride of ammonium, projecting the mixture into a red-hot platinum crucible, and continuing the heat till a state of tranquil fusion is attained. On cooling, it forms a transparent, colourless, and very deliquescent mass, which is anhydrous, and soluble in alcohol.

Obs. Without the addition of the chloride of ammonium it is impossible to expel the last portion of the water without at the same time driving off the chlorine, in which case nothing but magnesia is left. The fused mass should be poured out on a clean stone, and when solid broken into pieces, and at once transferred to a warm, dry bottle. The P. Cod. orders the solution to be evaporated to the sp. gr. 1·384, and to be put, whilst still hot, into a wide-mouthed flask to crystallise.—Dose, 1 to 4 dr.; as a laxative.

Magnesium, Cit′rate of. Mg3(C6H5O7)2. Syn. Magnesiæ citras. L. Prep. There is some difficulty in obtaining this salt in an eligible form for medicinal purposes. When precipitated from a solution it is insoluble. The following formulæ can be highly recommended.

1. (Parrish.) Dissolve crystallised citric acid, 100 gr., in water, 15 drops, and its own ‘water of crystallisation’ by the aid of heat; then stir in calcined magnesia, 35 gr.; a pasty mass will result, which soon hardens, and may be powdered for use.

Obs. The chief practical difficulty in this process results from the great comparative bulk of the magnesia, and the very small quantity of the fused mass with which it is to be incorporated. A part of the magnesia is almost unavoidably left uncombined, and the salt is consequently not neutral. The uncombined earth should be dusted off the mass before powdering the latter. A high temperature must be avoided.

2. (Robiquet.) Citric acid, 35⁄4 parts, is powdered and dissolved in boiling water, 10⁄8 parts; when the solution is cold, and before it crystallises, it is poured in a wide earthen vessel, kept cold by surrounding it with water; then, by means of a sieve, carbonate of magnesium, 21⁄6 parts, is distributed evenly and rapidly over the surface without stirring; when the reaction ceases the mixture is beaten rapidly as long as it retains its pasty consistence. The salt should be dried at a temperature not exceeding 70° Fahr.

3. (Effervescing; Magnesiæ citras effervescens, L.)—a. Citric acid (dried and powdered), 7 parts; heavy carbonate of magnesium, 5 parts; mix, and preserve in well-corked bottles.

b. (Ellis.) Mix powdered citric acid, 2⁄2 oz., with powdered sugar, 8 oz.; triturate to a fine powder, and drive off the water of crystallisation by the heat of a water bath; add citrate of magnesium (prepared by fusion), 4 oz., and oil of lemons, 10 drops, and mix intimately; then add bicarbonate of sodium, 3 oz., and again triturate until the whole forms a fine powder, which must be preserved in stoppered bottles. From 1 to 3 tablespoonfuls, mixed in a tumbler of water, furnishes an effervescing draught in which the undissolved portion is so nicely suspended, that it can be taken without inconvenience.

c. (Ph. Germ.) Light carbonate of magnesia, 25 oz.; citric acid, 75 oz.; distilled water, q. s.; mix into a thick paste and dry at 86° Fahr. With 14 oz. of the dried mass mix bicarbonate of soda, 13 oz.; citric acid, 6 oz.; sugar, 3 oz. Sprinkle over the mixture enough rectified spirit so as to make it sufficiently moist to be granulated by rubbing through a tinned iron sieve.

d. (Extemporaneous.) Citric acid (cryst.), 20 gr.; carbonate of magnesium, 14 gr.; mix in a tumbler of cold water, and drink the mixture whilst effervescing. A pleasant saline.

Obs. A dry white powder, sometimes sold as citrate of magnesia in the shops, is quite a different preparation to the above, and does not contain a particle of citric acid. The following formula is that of a wholesale London drug-house that does largely in this article:—

Calcined magnesia, magnesium oxide, 1⁄4 lb. (or carbonate, 2 lbs.); powdered tartaric acid, 1⁄2 lb.; bicarbonate of sodium, 1 lb.; dry each article by a gentle heat, then mix them, pass the mixture through a fine sieve in a warm dry room, and keep it in well-corked bottles. A few drops of essence of lemon and 3 lbs. of finely powdered sugar are commonly added to the above quantity. This addition renders it more agreeable.

Prop., &c. Citrate of magnesium is a mild and agreeable laxative; its secondary effects resemble those of the carbonate.—Dose. As a purgative, ⁄2 to 1 oz. The dose of the effervescing citrate must depend on the quantity of magnesia present. A solution of this salt in water, sweetened and flavoured with lemon, forms magnesian lemonade.

Magnesium, Boro-cit′rate of. Syn. Magnesiæ boro-citras, L. Prep. (Cadet.) Boracic acid (in powder), 113 gr.; oxide of magnesium, 80 gr.; mix in a porcelain capsule, and add enough of a solution of citric acid, 260 gr., in water, 3⁄2 pints, to form a thin paste; then add the remainder of the citric solution, and gently evaporate, with constant stirring, to dryness. A cooling saline, and, in small doses, emmenagogue and lithontriptic.—Dose. As an aperient, 3 to 6 dr.

Magnesium, Oxide of. MgO. Syn. Oxide of Magnesium, Calcined Magnesia, Magnesia (B. P., Ph. L.).

Prep. 1. (B. P.) Magnesium carbonate, heated in a crucible until all the carbonic anhydride is driven off.

Prop., &c. White heavy powder, scarcely soluble in water, but readily soluble in acids without effervescence. Its solution in hydrochloric acid, neutralised by a mixed solution of ammonia and ammonium chloride, gives a copious crystalline precipitate when sodium phosphate is added to it. See next preparation.

Magnesia levis (B. P.) Syn. Light magnesia. Prep. (B. P.) 1. Light carbonate of magnesium heated in a Cornish crucible until all the carbonic anhydride is driven off.

A bulky white powder, differing from the magnesia (B. P.) only in its density, the volume occupied by the same weight being 3⁄2 to 1.

The properties of the two varieties of magnesium oxide are identical, and are used in medicine as antacids, laxatives, and antilithics, and much used in dyspepsia, heartburn, &c.—Dose, 10 to 20 gr. as an antacid and 20 to 60 gr. as a purgative.

Magnesium, Phos′phate of. MgHPO4.6Aq. Syn. Magnesiæ phosphas, L. Prep. From the mixed solutions of phosphate of sodium and sulphate of magnesium, allowed to stand for some time. Small, colourless, prismatic crystals, which, according to Graham, are soluble in about 1000 parts of cold water. Phosphate of magnesium exists in the grains of the cereals, and in considerable quantity in beer. It is also found in guano.

Magnesium and Ammo′′nium, Phosphate of. MgNH4.PO4, 6 Aq. Syn. Ammonio-phosphate of magnesia; Magnesiæ et ammoniæ phosphas, L. This compound falls as a white crystalline precipitate whenever ammonia or carbonate of ammonium is added, in excess, to a solution of a salt of magnesium which has been previously mixed with a soluble phosphate, as that of soda. It subsides immediately from concentrated solutions, but only after some time from very dilute ones.

Prop., &c. Ammonio-phosphate of magnesium is very slightly soluble in pure water; when heated, it is resolved into pyrophosphate of magnesium, and is vitrified at a strong red heat. It is found in wheaten bran, guano, potatoes, &c., and occasionally forms one of the varieties of urinary calculi.

Magnesium, Sil′icates of. There are several native silicates of magnesia, more or less pure, of which, however, none is directly employed in medicine. Meerschaum and steatite or soapstone are well-known varieties. Serpentine is a compound of silicate and hydrate of magnesium. The minerals augite and hornblende are double salts of silicic acid, magnesium, and calcium with some ferrous oxide. The beautiful crystallised mineral called chrysolite is a silicate of magnesium, coloured with ferrous oxide. Jade is a double silicate of magnesium and aluminum, coloured with chromic oxide.

Magnesium, Sulphate of. MgSO4, 7 Aq. Syn. Epsom salt, Magnesiæ sulphas (B. P. Ph. L. E. & D.), Sal Epsomensis, L. This compound was originally extracted from the saline springs of Epsom, Surrey, by Dr Grew, in 1695. It is now exclusively prepared on the large scale, and from either magnesian limestone or the residual liquor of the sea-salt works.

Prep. 1. From dolomite or magnesian limestone.—a. The mineral, broken into fragments, is heated with a sufficient quantity of dilute sulphuric acid to convert its carbonates into sulphates; the sulphate of magnesium is washed out of the mass with hot water, and the solution, after defecation, is evaporated and crystallised.

b. The ‘limestone,’ either simply broken into fragments or else calcined (burnt), and its constituents quicklime and oxide magnesium converted into hydrates by sprinkling (slaking) it with water, is treated with a sufficient quantity of dilute hydrochloric acid to dissolve out all the calcium hydrate without touching the magnesium hydrate; the residuum of the latter, after being washed and drained, is dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid, and crystallised as before.

2. From bittern.—a. The residual liquor or mother-water of sea-salt is boiled for some hours in the pans which are used during the summer for the concentration of brine; the saline solution is then skimmed and decanted from some common salt which has been deposited, after which it is concentrated by evaporation, and, finally, run into wooden coolers; in about 36 hours, 1-8th part of Epsom salts usually crystallises out. This is called ‘singles.’ By re-dissolving this in water, and re-crystallisation, ‘doubles,’ or Epsom salts fit for the market, are obtained. A second crop of crystals may be procured by adding sulphuric acid to the mother-liquor, and re-concentrating the solution, but this is seldom had recourse to in England. Bittern yields fully 5 parts of sulphate of magnesia for every 100 parts of common salt that has been previously obtained from it.

b. A concentrated solution of sulphate of sodium is added to bittern, in equivalent proportion to that of the chloride of magnesium in it, and the mixed solution is evaporated at the temperature of 122° Fahr. (Ure); cubical crystals of common salt are deposited as the evaporation proceeds, after which, by further concentration and repose, regular crystals of sulphate of magnesia are obtained.

c. A sufficient quantity of calcined and slaked magnesian limestone is boiled in bittern to decompose the magnesium salts, and the liquid is evaporated, &c., as before. This is a very economical process.

Prop. Small acicular crystals, or (by careful crystallisation) large four-sided rhombic prisms; colourless; odourless, transparent; slightly efflorescent; extremely bitter and nauseous; when heated, it fuses in its water of crystallisation, the larger portion of which readily passes off, but one equivalent of water is energetically retained; at a high temperature it runs into a species of white enamel; it dissolves in its own weight of cold water, and in 3-4ths of that quantity of boiling water; it is insoluble in both alcohol and ether. Sp. gr. 1·66.

Pur. Sulphate of magnesium is soluble in an equal weight of water at 60° Fahr., by which it may be distinguished from sulphate of sodium, which is much more soluble.

An aqueous solution in the cold is not precipitated by oxalate of ammonium. The precipitate given by carbonate of sodium from a solution of 100 gr. should, after well washing and heating to redness, weigh 16·26 gr. (B. P.)

Digested in alcohol, the filtered liquid does not yield a precipitate with nitrate of silver nor burn with a yellow flame, and evaporates without residue. “Not deliquescent in the air.” (Ph. L.) 100 gr. of the pure crystallised sulphate yields 16⁄4 gr. of calcined magnesium oxide. (Pereira.) 10 gr., dissolved in 1 fl. oz. of water, and treated with a solution of carbonate of ammonium, are not entirely precipitated by 280 minims of solution of phosphate of sodium. (Ph. E.)

Uses, &c. Sulphate of magnesium is an excellent cooling purgative, and sometimes proves diuretic and diaphoretic.—Dose, 1 dr. to 1 oz., as a purgative, or an antidote in poisoning by lead. Large doses should be avoided. Instances are on record of their having proved fatal. Dr Christison mentions the case of a boy 10 years old who swallowed 2 oz. of salts, and died within 10 minutes. The best antidote is an emetic. A small quantity of Epsom salts, largely diluted with water (as a drachm to ⁄2 pint or ⁄4 pint), will usually purge as much as the common dose. This increase of power has been shown by Liebig to result rather from the quantity of water than the salt. Pure water is greedily taken up by the absorbents; but water holding in solution saline matter is rejected by those vessels, and consequently passes off by the intestines.

Obs. Oxalic acid has occasionally been mistaken for Epsom salt, with fatal results. They may be readily distinguished from each other by the following characteristics:—

EPSOM SALT. OXALIC ACID.

Tastes extremely bitter and nauseous. Tastes extremely sour.

Does not volatilise when heated on platinum foil. Volatilises when heated on platinum foil.

Does not produce milkiness when dissolved in hard water. Produces milkiness when dissolved in hard water.

Magnesium, Tar′trate of. Syn. Magnesiæ tartras, Magnesia tartarica, L. Prep. By saturating a solution of tartaric acid with carbonate of magnesium, and gently evaporating to dryness. It is only very slightly soluble in water.—Dose, 20 to 60 gr., or more; in painful chronic maladies of the spleen. (Pereira, ex Radmacher.) The effervescing tartrate of magnesium, commonly sold under the name citrate, has already been noticed.

Magnesium and Potas′sium, Tartrate of. Syn. Potassio-tartrate of magnesia; Magnesiæ potassio-tartras, M. et potassæ tartras, L. Prep. From acid tartrate of potassium (in powder), 7 parts; carbonate of magnesium, 2 parts; water, 165 parts; boiled until the solution is complete, and then evaporated and crystallised. A mild aperient.—Dose, 1 to 5 dr.; in scurvy, &c.

MAG′NET. Syn. Magnes, L. Besides its application to the loadstone, this name was formerly given to several compounds used in medicine.—Arsenical magnet (MAGNES ARSENICALIS), a substance once used as a caustic, consisted of common antimony, sulphur, and arsenious acid, fused together until they formed a sort of glass. Magnes epilepsiæ was native cinnabar.

MAHOG′ANY. This is the wood of Swietenia Mahogoni (Linn.), a native of the hotter parts of the new world. It is chiefly imported from Honduras and Cuba. The extract is astringent, and has been used in tanning, and as a substitute for cinchona bark. The wood is chiefly employed for furniture and ornamental purposes, and, occasionally, in ship-building.

Imitations of mahogany are made by staining the surface of the inferior woods by one or other of the following methods:

1. Warm the wood by the fire, then wash it over with aquafortis, let it stand 24 hours to dry, and polish it with linseed oil reddened by digesting alkanet root in it; or, instead of the latter, give the wood a coat of varnish, or French polish which has been tinged of a mahogany colour with a little aloes and annotta.

2. Socotrine aloes, 1 oz.; dragon’s blood, ⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; dissolve, and apply 2 or 3 coats to the surface of the wood, previously well smoothed and polished; lastly, finish it off with wax or oil tinged with alkanet root.

3. Logwood, 2 oz.; madder, 8 oz.; fustic, 1 oz.; water, 1 gall.; boil 2 hours, and apply it several times to the wood boiling hot; when dry, slightly brush it over with a solution of pearlash, 1 oz.; in water, 1 quart; dry, and polish as before.

4. As the last, but using a decoction of logwood, 1 lb., in water, 5 pints. The tint may be brightened by adding a little vinegar or oxalic acid, and darkened by a few grains of copperas.

Stains and spots may be taken out of mahogany furniture with a little aquafortis or oxalic acid and water, by rubbing the part with the liquid by means of a cork till the colour is restored; observing afterwards to well wash the wood with water, and to dry it and polish it as before.

MAIZE. Syn. Indian corn. The seeds of Zea Mays (Linn.). Like the other corn plants, it belongs to the Grass family (Graminaceæ), and has albuminous grains sufficiently large and farinaceous to be ground into flour.

Maize is extremely nutritious, and although it is poorer in albumenoid matters than wheat, it is, of all the cereal grains, the richest in fatty oil, of which it contains about 9%. (Dumas and Payen.) It is remarkable for its fattening quality on animals, but is apt to excite slight diarrhœa in those unaccustomed to its use. Its meal is the ‘POLENTA’ of the shops. The peculiar starch prepared from it is known as ‘CORN FLOUR,’ In America the young ears are roasted and boiled for food.

The centesimal composition of maize is as follows:—Flesh formers (albumenoid bodies), 9·9; heat and fat formers (starch, dextrin, and fat), 71·2, fibre, 4·0; ash, 1·4; water, 13·5.

Letheby says of maize: “The grain is said to cause disease when eaten for a long time, and without other meal—the symptoms being a scaly eruption upon the hands, great prostration of the vital powers, and death after a year or so, with extreme emaciation.

These effects have been frequently observed amongst the peasants of Italy, who use the meal as their chief food, but I am not aware of any such effects having been seen in Ireland, where it is often the only article of diet for months together.”

Millions of bushels are grown every year in the United States of America, and large quantities are continually imported into England, where it is held in high esteem by cattle breeders, it being much cheaper than many of our home-grown productions. It is occasionally given to horses as a substitute for oats.

MALAG′MA. In pharmacy, a poultice or emollient application.

MA′LIC ACID. H3C4H3O5. Syn. Acidum malicum, L. This acid exists in the juice of many fruits and plants, either alone or associated with other acids, or with potassa or lime. In the juice of the garden rhubarb it exists in great abundance, being associated with acid oxalate of potassa.

Prep. (Everitt.) The stalks of common garden rhubarb are peeled, and ground or grated to a pulp, which is subjected to pressure; the juice is heated to the boiling point, neutralised with carbonate of potassa, mixed with acetate of lime, and the insoluble oxalate of lime which falls is removed by filtration; to the clear and nearly colourless liquid, solution of acetate of lead is next added as long as a precipitate (‘malate of lead’) continues to form; this is collected on a filter, washed, diffused through water, and decomposed by sulphuric acid, avoiding excess, the last portion of lead being thrown down by a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen; the filtered liquid is, lastly, carefully evaporated to the consistence of a syrup, and left in a dry atmosphere until it becomes converted into a solid and somewhat crystalline mass of malic acid. If perfectly pure malic acid is required, the malate of lead must be crystallised before decomposing it with sulphuretted hydrogen. Prod. 20,000 gr. of the peeled stalks yield 12,500 gr. of juice, of which one imperial gallon contains 11,139⁄4 gr. of dry malic acid.

Obs. By a similar process malic acid may be prepared from the juice of thee berries of the mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia), just when they commence to ripen, or from the juice of apples, pears, &c.

Prop., &c. Malic acid is slightly deliquescent, very soluble in water, soluble in alcohol, and has a pleasant acidulous taste. The aqueous infusion soon gets mouldy by keeping. When kept fused for some time at a low heat, it is converted into fumaric acid; and when quickly distilled, it yields maleic acid, while fumaric acid is left in the retort. With the bases malic acid forms salts called malates. Of these the acid malate of ammonia is in large, beautiful crystals; malate of lead is insoluble in cold water, but dissolves in warm dilute acid, from which it separates on cooling in brilliant silvery crystals; acid malate of lime also forms very beautiful crystals, freely soluble in water; neutral malate of lime is only sparingly soluble in water; the first is obtained by dissolving the latter in hot dilute nitric acid, and allowing the solution to cool very slowly.

MALLEABIL′ITY. The peculiar property of metals which renders them capable of extension under the hammer.

MALT. Syn. Bina, Byne, Brasium, Maltum, L. The name given to different kinds of grain, such as barley, bere or bigg, oats, rye, maize, &c., which have become sweet, from the conversion of a portion of their starch into sugar, in consequence of incipient germination artificially produced. Barley is the grain usually employed for this purpose.

Var. Independently of variations of quality, or of the grain from which it is formed, malt is distinguished into varieties depending on the heat of the kiln employed for its desiccation. When dried at a temperature ranging between 90° and 120° Fahr., it constitutes ‘PALE MALT,’ when all the moisture has exhaled, and the heat is raised to from 125° to 135°, ‘YELLOW,’ or ‘PALE AMBER MALT,’ is formed; when the heat ranges between 140° and 160°, the product receives the name of ‘AMBER MALT,’ at 160° to 180°, ‘AMBER-BROWN,’ or ‘PALE BROWN MALT,’ is obtained. Roasted, PATENT, or BLACK MALT, and CRYSTALLISED MALT, are prepared by a process similar to that of roasting coffee. The malt is placed in sheet-iron cylinders over a strong fire, and the cylinders made to revolve at the rate of about 20 revolutions per minute if roasted malt is required, or 120 for crystallised malt. In the former case the finished malt has a dark brown colour; in the latter, the interior of the grain becomes dark brown, whilst the husk assumes a pale amber hue. The temperature must never exceed 420°, or the malt will become entirely carbonised.

Qual. Good malt has an agreeable smell and a sweet taste. It is friable, and when broken discloses a floury kernel. Its husk is thin, clean, and unshrivelled in appearance, and the acrospire is seen extending up the back of the grain, beneath the skin. The admixture of unmalted with malted grain may be discovered, and roughly estimated, by throwing a little into water, malt floats on water, but barley sinks in it. The only certain method, however, of determining the value of malt is to ascertain the amount of soluble matter which it contains, by direct experiment. This varies from 62 to 70%, and for good malt is never less than 66 to 67%. If we assume the quarter of malt at 324 lbs., and the average quantity of soluble matter at 66%, then the total weight of soluble matter will be fully 213⁄4 lbs. per quarter; but as this, “in taking on the form of gum and sugar” during the process of mashing, “chemically combines with the elements of water, so the extract, if evaporated to dryness, would reach very nearly 231 lbs.; and this reduced to the basis of a barrel of 36 gallons, becomes in the language of the brewer, 87 lbs. per barrel, which, however, merely means that the wort from a quarter of malt, if evaporated down to the bulk of a barrel of 36 gallons, would weigh 87 lbs. more than a barrel of water.” (Ure.)

Assay. 1. A small quantity of the sample being ground in a coffee or pepper mill, 100 gr. are accurately weighed, and dried by exposure for about 1 hour at the temperature of boiling water. The loss in weight, in grains, indicates the quantity of moisture per cent. This, in good malt, should not exceed 6⁄2 gr.

2. A second 100 gr. is taken and stirred up with about ⁄2 pint of cold water; the mixture is then exposed to the heat of boiling water for about 40 minutes; after which it is thrown on a weighed filter, and the undissolved portion washed with a little hot water; the undissolved portion, with the filter, is then dried at 212° Fahr., and weighed. The loss in weight, less the percentage of moisture last found, taken in grains, gives the percentage of soluble matter. This should not be less than 66 gr. The same result will be arrived at by evaporating the filtered liquid and ‘washings’ to dryness, and weighing the residuum.

3. A third 100 gr. is taken and mashed with about ⁄2 pint of water at 160° Fahr., for 2 or 3 hours; the liquid is then drained off, the residue gently squeezed, and the strained liquid evaporated to dryness, as before, and weighed. This gives the percentage of saccharine matter, and should not be less than about 71 gr., taking the above average of malt as the standard of calculation.

Uses, &c. Malt is chiefly employed in the arts of brewing and distillation. Both roasted and crystallised malt are merely used to colour the worts produced from pale malt. 1 lb. of roasted malt, mashed with 79 lbs. of pale malt, imparts to the liquor the colour and flavour of ‘porter.’ The paler varieties of malt contain the largest quantity of saccharine matter. After the malt has been kiln-dried, the rootlets may be removed by means of a sieve. Before malt is mashed for beer it must be broken up, and the law requires that it be bruised or crushed by smooth metal rollers, and not ground by millstones. It has also been proposed to employ malt, instead of raw grain, for fattening domestic animals, and as food for their young and those in a sickly state. Infusion of malt (sweet wort, malt tea) is laxative, and has been recommended as an antiscorbutic and tonic. It has been given with great advantage in scurvy; but for this purpose good, well-hopped, mild beer is equally serviceable and more agreeable. See Brewing, Distillation, Fermentation, &c.

MALT LIQ′UORS. The qualities of ale, beer, and porter, as beverages, the detection of their adulteration, and the methods of preparing them, are described under their respective names and in the article upon ‘BREWING’; the present article will, therefore, be confined to a short notice of the cellar management, and the diseases of malt liquors generally.

Age. The appearance and flavour to which this term is applied can, of course, be only given to the liquor by properly storing it for a sufficient time. Fraudulent brewers and publicans, however, frequently add a little oil of vitriol (diluted with water) to new beer, by which it assumes the character of an inferior liquor of the class 1 or 2 years old. Copperas, alum, sliced onions, Seville oranges, and cucumbers, are also frequently employed by brewers for the same purpose.

Bottling. Clean, sweet, and dry bottles, and sound and good corks, should be had in readiness. The liquor to be bottled should be perfectly clear; and if it be not so, it must be submitted to the operation of ‘fining.’ When quite fine, and in good condition, the bung of the cask should be left out all night, and the next day the liquor should be put into bottles, which, after remaining 12 or 24 hours, covered with sheets of paper to keep out the flies and dust, must be securely corked down. Porter is generally wired over. The wire for this purpose should be ‘annealed,’ and not resilient. If the liquor is intended for exportation to a hot climate, the bottles should remain filled for 2 or 3 days, or more, before corking them. The stock of bottled liquor should be stored in a cool situation; and a small quantity, to meet present demands only, should be set on their sides in a warmer place to ripen. October beer should not be bottled before Midsummer, nor March beer till Christmas.

Cloudiness. Add a handful of hops boiled in a gallon of the beer, and in a fortnight fine it down.

Fining. See Clarification and Brewing.

Flatness. When the liquor is new, or has still much undecomposed sugar left in it, a sufficient remedy is to remove it into a warmer situation for a few days. When this is not the case, 2 or 3 pounds of moist sugar (foots) may be ‘rummaged’ into each hogshead. In this way a second fermentation is set up, and in a few days the liquor becomes brisk, and carries a head. This is the plan commonly adopted by publicans. On the small scale the addition of a few grains of carbonate of soda, or of prepared chalk, to each glass, is commonly made for the same purpose; but in this case the liquor must be drunk within a few minutes, else it becomes again flat and insipid. This may be adopted for home-brewed beer which has become sour and vapid.

Foxing or Bucking. The spontaneous souring of worts or beer during their fermentation or ripening, to which this name is applied, may generally be remedied by adding to the liquor some fresh hops (scalded), along with some black mustard seed (bruised). Some persons use a little made mustard, or a solution of alum or of catechu, and in a week or 10 days afterwards further add some treacle, or moist sugar.

Frosted beer is recovered by change of situation; by the addition of some hops boiled in a little sweet wort; or by adding a little moist sugar or treacle to induce a fresh fermentation.

Heading. This is added to thin and vapid beer to make it bear a frothy head. The most innocent, pleasant, and effective addition of this sort is a mixture of pure ammonio-citrate of iron and salt of tartar, about equal parts in the proportion of only a few grains to a quart.

Improving. This is the trade synonym of ‘ADULTERATION’ and ‘DOCTORING,’ Nevertheless there are cases in which ‘improvement’ may be made without affecting the wholesome character of the liquor. Of this kind is the addition of hops, spices, &c., during the maturation of beer that exhibits a tendency to deteriorate. For this purpose some persons cut a half quartern loaf into slices, and after toasting them very high, place them in a coarse linen bag along with ⁄2 lb. of hops, and 2 oz. each of bruised ginger, cloves, and mustard seed, and suspend the bag by means of a string a few inches below the surface of the beer (a hogshead), which is then bunged close. The addition of a little ground capsicum in the same way is also a real improvement to beer, when judiciously made.

Mustiness. To each hogshead, racked into clean casks, add 1 lb. of new hops boiled in a gallon of the liquor, along with 7 lbs. of newly-burnt charcoal (coarsely bruised, and the fine dust sifted off), and a 4-lb. loaf of bread cut into thin slices and toasted rather black; ‘rouse up’ well every day for a week, then stir in of moist sugar 3 or 4 lbs., and bung down for a fortnight.

Recovering. This is said of unsaleable beer when rendered saleable, by giving it ‘head’ or removing its ‘tartness.’

Ripening. This term is applied to the regular maturation of beer. It is also used to express the means by which liquors already mature are rendered brisk, sparkling, or fit and agreeable for immediate use. In the language of the cellar, malt liquors are said to be ‘up’ when they are well charged with gaseous matter, and bear a frothy head. These qualities depend on the undecomposed sugar undergoing fermentation, which, when active, can only be of comparatively short duration, and should, therefore, be repressed rather than excited in beers not required for immediate consumption. When we desire to give ‘briskness’ to these liquors, whether in cask or bottle, it is only necessary to expose them for a few days to a slight elevation of temperature, by removing them, for instance, to a warmer apartment. This is the plan successfully adopted by bottlers. The addition of a small lump of white sugar to each bottle of ale or beer, or a teaspoonful of moist sugar to each bottle of porter, just before corking it, will render it fit for drinking in a few days in ordinary weather, and in 2 or 3 days in the heat of summer. A raisin or a lump of sugar candy is often added to each bottle with a like intention. The Parisians bottle their beer one day and sell it the next. For this purpose, in addition to the sugar as above, they add 2 or 3 drops of yeast. Such bottled liquor must, however, be drunk within a week, or else stored in a very cold place, as it will otherwise burst the bottles or blow out the corks.

Ropiness. A little infusion of catechu or of oak bark, and some fresh hops, may be added to the beer, which in a fortnight should be rummaged well, and the next day ‘fined’ down.

Sourness. Powdered chalk, carbonate of soda, salt of tartar, or pearlash, is commonly added by the publicans to the beer, until the acidity is nearly removed, when 4 or 5 lbs. of moist sugar or foots per hogshead are ‘rummaged’ in, together with sufficient water to disburse double the amount of the outlay and trouble. Such beer must be soon put on draught, as it is very apt to get flat by keeping. Oyster shells and egg shells are also frequently used by brewers for the same purpose. To remove the acidity of beer, on the small scale, a few grains of carbonate of soda per glass may be added just before drinking it.

Storing. The situation of the beer-cellar should be such as to maintain its contents at a permanently uniform temperature, ranging between 44° and 50° Fahr., a condition which can only be ensured by choosing for its locality an underground apartment, or one in the centre of the basement portion of a large building.

Vamping. Half fill casks with the old liquor, fill them up with some newly brewed, and bung close for 3 weeks or a month.

MALTIN. A nitrogenous ferment obtained from malt, which it is believed by Dubrunfaut to be the active principle, and is more energetic than diastase. The above chemist states it may be precipitated from extract of malt, by the addition of two molecules of alcohol at 90 per cent. According to Dubrunfaut maltin exists in all cereal grains, and in the water of rivers and brooks; but not in the well water of Paris.

MALTING. The method of converting barley, wheat, oats, or any other description of grain into malt. There are four successive stages in the process of malting, viz., steeping, couching, flooring, and kiln-drying.

1. Steeping or moistening.—The grain is placed in a large wooden or stone cistern, and sufficient water run in to cover it. Here it remains for a period of from 40 to 60 hours, depending on the temperature of the weather, or until it becomes soft enough to be easily pierced with a needle, or crushed between the thumb and finger without yielding a milky juice. While in steep the grain swells, increasing nearly one fifth in bulk, and about 50 per cent. in weight. The water is then drained off, and the grain is ready for the next operation.

2. Couching or germinating.—From the cistern the swollen barley is thrown out into the couch frame to the depth of from 14 or 20 inches, where heat is generated and germination induced. Here it is allowed to remain for from 20 to 30 hours, according to the state of the weather, until the acrospire or pumule shoots forth. Were the grain to remain long in the couch, particularly in warm weather, it would be either unduly forced or turn sour. Whilst in couch it rises in temperature about 15 degrees, and gives off some of its extra moisture. This is called sweating, and as the rootlets now begin to shoot out, means must be taken to check the germination.

3. Flooring or regulating.—This consists in spreading the heated barley on the floor at different depths, according as it is required to increase or retard germination. During this stage of the operation the art of the maltster may be more properly said to commence, as now all his judgment is brought into requisition. The grain must be turned three or four times a day, and at each turning the layer is spread out more and more, until it is reduced to the depth of about three or four inches. The chief object to be attained by this operation is a regular germination of the grain.

4. Kiln-drying.—The sprouted barley is next spread in a thin layer on the malt kiln, and heat applied. The temperature to which the kiln is raised varies according to the purpose for which the malt is required, the difference between pale, amber, and brown malt depending solely on the degree of heat to which each has been subjected, and the manner in which the heat has been applied (see Malt). If the malt were not kiln-dried it would not keep, but would become mouldy. By the process of drying, the vitality of the seed is destroyed, and it may then be preserved without suffering further change.

Product.—Good barley yields about 80% by weight and 109% by measure, of dried and sifted malt. Of the loss by weight 12% must be referred to water existing in the raw grain.

MAN′′GANESE. Mn. Syn. Manganesium, L. A hard, brittle metal, discovered by Gahn in the black oxide of manganese of commerce.

Prep. Reduce manganous carbonate to fine powder, make it into a paste with oil, adding about 1-10th of its weight of calcined borax, place the mixture in a Hessian crucible lined with charcoal, lute on the cover, and expose it to the strongest heat of a smith’s forge for 2 hours; when cold, break the crucible and preserve the metallic button in naphtha.

Obs. The product is probably a carbide of manganese, just as steel is a carbide of iron. Deville has lately prepared pure manganese by reducing the pure oxide by means of an insufficient quantity of sugar charcoal in a crucible made of caustic lime.

Prop. As prepared by Deville, metallic manganese has a reddish lustre, like bismuth; it is very hard and brittle; when powdered, it decomposes water, even at the lowest temperature. Dilute sulphuric acid dissolves it with great energy, evolving hydrogen. Sp. gr. 7·13. In an oxidised state manganese is abundant in the mineral kingdom, and traces of it have been found in the ashes of plants and in mineral waters.

The salts of manganese may be easily prepared in a state of purity by dissolving the precipitated carbonate in the acids. Most of them are soluble, and several are crystallisable.

Tests. Manganous salts are distinguished as follows:—The hydrates of potassium and sodium give white precipitates insoluble in excess, and rapidly turning brown. The presence of ammonium salts interferes with these tests. Ammonia gives similar results.

Ferrocyanide of potassium gives a white precipitate. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives no precipitate in acid solutions, and precipitates neutral solutions only imperfectly; but in alkaline solutions it gives a bright, flesh-coloured, insoluble precipitate, which becomes dark brown on exposure to the air. Sulphide of ammonium, in neutral solutions, also yields a similar precipitate, which is very characteristic. A compound of manganese fused with borax in the outer flame of the blowpipe gives a bead, which appears of a violet-red colour whilst hot, and upon cooling acquires an amethystine tint; this colour is lost by fusion in the inner flame. Heated upon platinum foil with a little carbonate of sodium, in the outer flame, it yields a green mass whilst hot, which becomes bluish green when cold.

Manganous Ace′tate. Mn(C2H3O2)2. Syn. Acetate of protoxide of manganese; Manganii acetas, L. Prep. 1. By neutralising concentrated acetic acid with manganous carbonate, and evaporating the solution so that crystals may form.

Prop., &c. The crystals, when pure, are of a pale red colour; permanent in the air; soluble in alcohol, and 3⁄2 parts of water, and possess an astringent and metallic taste.—Dose, 5 to 10 gr., as an alterative, hæmatinic, &c.

Manganous Car′bonate. MnCO3. Syn. Carbonate of protoxide of manganese; Manganesii carbonas, L. Prep. Reduce the black oxide of manganese of commerce to fine powder, and after washing it in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, dissolve it in strong hydrochloric acid, and evaporate the resulting solution to dryness; dissolve the residue in water, and add to the solution sufficient sodium carbonate to precipitate all the iron present; digest the mixed precipitate in the remainder of the liquid, filter, add ammonium sulphide until it begins to produce a flesh-coloured precipitate, then filter, and add sodium carbonate as long as a precipitate falls; lastly, well wash the newly-formed carbonate in water, and dry it by a gentle heat.

2. By directly precipitating a solution of the chloride with sodium carbonate, and washing and drying the powder as before.

Prop., &c. A pale buff or cream-coloured powder; insoluble in water; freely soluble in acids; exposed to a strong heat, it loses its carbonic acid, absorbs oxygen, and is converted into the red oxide. It is chiefly employed in the preparation of the other salts of manganese.

Manganous Chlo′′ride. MnCl2. Syn. Protochloride of manganese, Muriate of m.; Manganesii chloridum, L. Prep. 1. By saturating hydrochloric acid with manganous carbonate; the solution is greatly concentrated by evaporation, when crystals may be obtained, or it is at once evaporated to dryness; in either case the product must be placed in warm, dry, stoppered bottles, and preserved from the air.

2. From the dark brown residual liquid of the process of obtaining chlorine from binoxide of manganese and hydrochloric acid; this liquid is evaporated to dryness, and then slowly heated to dull redness in an earthen vessel, with constant stirring, and kept at that temperature for a short time; the greyish-looking powder thus obtained is treated with water, and the solution separated from the ferric oxide and other insoluble matter by filtration; if any iron still remains, a little manganous carbonate is added, and the whole boiled for a few minutes; the filtered solution is then treated as before. This is the least expensive and most convenient source of this salt.

Prop., &c. Rose-coloured tabular crystals; inodorous; very soluble both in water and alcohol; very deliquescent; when gradually heated to fusion the whole of the water is expelled, and at a red heat it slowly suffers decomposition. Astringent, tonic, hæmatinic, and alterative.—Dose, 3 to 10 gr.; in scorbutic, syphilitic, and certain chronic cutaneous affections; anæmia, chlorosis, &c.

Manganous Hydrate. Mn(HO)2. Syn. Hydrated protoxide of manganese. Prep. Formed by adding potassium hydrate to manganous sulphate, and filtering and drying the precipitate in vacuo. White powder rapidly absorbing oxygen and burning first green and then brown from formation of higher oxides.

Manganous I′odide. MnI2. Syn. Manganesii iodidum, L. Prep. By dissolving the carbonate in hydriodic acid and evaporating the filtered liquid in vacuo or out of contact with air.—Dose, 1 to 3 gr.; in anæmia, chlorosis, &c., occurring in scrofulous subjects.

Manganous Oxide. MnO. Syn. Protoxide of Manganese. Prep. By passing a current of hydrogen over manganous carbonate heated to whiteness in a porcelain tube. Olive-green powder rapidly oxidising on exposure to air, and soluble in acids forming manganous salts.

There are four other oxides and two oxyhydrates that may be treated of here, but of which only the peroxide and the manganates and permanganates are of practical importance.

Manganous-manganic Oxide. Mn3O4, or MnO.Mn2O3. Syn. Red oxide of manganese, Protosesquioxide of manganese. Found native as “Hansmanite”. It is produced by igniting manganous carbonate, or manganic oxide, or manganic peroxide. Reddish-brown, coloured crystals or powder, and communicates an amethyst colour to glass when fused with it.

Manganous-manganic Peroxide. Mn4O7 or MnO3.Mn2O3. Syn. Intermediate, oxide of manganese. Found native as “Varvicile,” as a black hard crystalline mass. Decomposed when heated into a lower oxide and oxygen.

Manganous Phosphate. MnH.PO4 + 6Aq. Syn. Phosphate of protoxide of manganese; Manganesii phosphas, L. Prep. By precipitating a solution of manganous sulphate with a solution of sodium phosphate. It must be preserved from the air.—Dose, 3 to 12 gr.; in anæmia, rickets, &c.

Manganous Sul′phate. MnSO4. Syn. Sulphate of protoxide of manganese; Manganesii sulphas, L. Prep. 1. By dissolving manganous carbonate in dilute sulphuric acid, and evaporating the filtered solution so that crystals may form, or at once gently evaporating it to dryness. Pure.

2. (Commercial.) By igniting manganic peroxide (pyrolusite) mixed with about 1-10th of its weight of powdered coal in an iron crucible or gas-retort, and digesting the residuum of the calcination in sulphuric acid, with the addition after a time of a little hydrochloric acid; the solution of manganous sulphate thus obtained, after defecation, is evaporated to dryness, and heated to redness as before; the mass, after ignition, is crushed small, and treated with water; the solution is nearly pure, the whole of the iron having been reduced into the state of insoluble peroxide. Used by the calico printers. Cloth steeped in the solution, and afterwards passed through a solution of chloride of lime, is dyed of a permanent brown.

Prop., &c. Pale rose-coloured crystals of the formulæ MnSO4, 7Aq.; MnSO4, 5Aq.; or MnSO4, 4Aq.; according to the method of crystallising, furnishing a solution of a rich amethystine colour. With sulphate of potassa it forms a double salt (‘manganese alum’).—Dose. As an alterative and tonic, 5 to 10 gr.; as a cholagogue cathartic, 1 to 2 dr., dissolved in water, either alone or combined with infusion of senna. According to Ure, its action is prompt and soon over; 1 dr. of it occasions, after the lapse of an hour or so, one or more liquid bilious stools. In large doses it occasions vomiting, and in excessive doses it destroys life by its caustic action on the stomach. (Dr G. C. Mitscherlich.) It has been administered with manifest advantage in torpor of the liver, gout, jaundice, syphilis, and certain skin diseases; and, combined with iron, in anæmia, chlorosis, rickets, &c.

Manganous Tar′trate. MnC4H4O6. Syn. Manganesii tartras, L. Prep. By saturating a solution of tartaric acid with most manganous carbonate. Alterative and tonic.—Dose, 4 to 12 gr.

Manganate of Barium. BaMnO4. Green insoluble powder, obtained by fusing barium hydrate, potassium chlorate, and manganic peroxide together, and washing the product.

Manganate of Potassium. K2MnO4. Finely powdered manganic peroxide, potassium chlorate, and potassium hydrate, made into a thick paste with water, and heated to dull redness. The fused product is treated with a small quantity of water, and crystallised by evaporation in vacuo.

Dark green, almost black crystals, readily soluble in water, but decomposed by excess, or by acids into manganic peroxide, and potassium permanganate.

Manganate of Sodium. Na2MnO4. Prepared on the large scale by heating a mixture of manganic peroxide and sodium hydrate to redness in a current of air. Used in strong solution as a disinfectant under the name of “Condy’s green fluid.”

Manganic Acid. H2MnO4. This acid has not yet been obtained free, but some of its salts are extensively employed as disinfectants, as “green Condy’s fluid.” The chief compounds are the following:—

Manganic Hydrate. Mn2(HO)6. Syn. Hydrated sesquioxide of manganese. Found native as “manganite,” in reddish-brown crystals. Prep. By passing a current of air through recently precipitated and moist manganous hydrate. Soft dark brown powder converted into the oxide by heat.

Manganic Oxide. Mn2O3. Syn. Sesquioxide of manganese. Found native as “Braumite,” and readily formed by exposing manganous hydrate to the action of air, and drying, or by gently igniting the peroxide brown or black powder decomposed by heat.

Manganic Peroxide. MnO2. Syn. Permanganic oxide, Binoxide of manganese, Peroxide of manganese, Black oxide of manganese, Oxide of manganese, Manganesii oxidum nigrum (B. P.), Manganesii binoxydum (Ph. L.), Manganese oxydum (Ph. E.).

It is the only oxide of manganese that is directly employed in the arts. It is a very plentiful mineral production, and is found in great abundance in some parts of the West of England. The manganese of the shop is prepared by washing, to remove the earthy matter, and grinding in mills. The blackest samples are esteemed the best. It is chiefly used to supply oxygen gas, and in the manufacture of glass and chlorine; in dyeing and to form the salts of manganese. It has been occasionally employed in medicine, chiefly externally in itch and porrigo, made into an ointment with lard. It has been highly recommended by Dr Erigeler in scrofula. Others have employed it as an alterative and tonic with variable success. When slowly introduced into the system during a lengthened period, it is said to produce paralysis of the motor nerves. (Dr Coupar.)—Dose, 3 to 12 gr., or more, thrice daily, made into pills.

Pur. Native binoxide of manganese (pyrolusite) is usually contaminated with variable proportions of argillaceous matter, calcium carbonate, ferric oxide, silica, and barium sulphate, all of which lower its value as a source of oxygen, and for the preparation of chlorine. The richness of this ore can, therefore, be only determined by an assay for its principal ingredient.

Assay. There are several methods adopted for this purpose, among which the following recommend themselves as being the most accurate and convenient.

1. A portion of the mineral being reduced to very fine powder, 50 gr. of it are put into the little apparatus employed for the analysis of carbonates described at page 406, together with about ⁄2 fl. oz. of cold water, and 100 gr. of strong hydrochloric acid, the latter contained in the little tube (b); 50 gr. of crystallised oxalic acid are then added, the cork carrying the chloride of calcium tube fitted in, and the whole quickly and accurately weighed or counterpoised; the apparatus is next inclined so that the acid contained in the small tube may be mixed with the other contents of the flask, and the reaction of the ingredients is promoted by the application of a gentle heat; the disengaged chlorine resulting from the mutual decomposition of the hydrochloric acid and the manganic peroxide converts the oxalic acid into carbonic acid gas, which is dried in its passage through the chloride of calcium tube before it escapes into the air. As soon as the reaction is complete, and the residual gas has been driven off by a momentary ebullition, the apparatus is allowed to cool, when it is again carefully and accurately weighed. The loss of weight in grains, if doubled, at once indicates the percentage richness of the mineral examined in manganic peroxide; or, more correctly, every grain of carbonic anhydride evolved represents 1·982 gr. of the peroxide.

2. (Fresenius and Will.) The apparatus employed is the ‘alkalimeter’ figured at page 30. The operation is similar to that adopted for the assay of alkalies, and is a modification of the oxalic acid and sulphuric acid test for manganese, originally devised by M. Berthier. The standard weight of manganic peroxide recommended to be taken by Fresenius and Will is 2·91 grammes, along with 6·5 to 7 grammes of neutral potassium oxalate. The process, with quantities altered to adapt it for employment in the laboratories of these countries, is as follows:—Manganic peroxide (in very fine powder), 50 gr.; neutral potassium oxalate (in powder), 120 gr.; these are put into the flask A (see engr., p. 31), along with sufficient water to about 1-4th fill it; the flask A and B (the latter containing the sulphuric acid) are then corked air-tight, and thus connected in one apparatus, the whole is accurately weighed. The opening of the tube b being closed by a small lump of wax, a little sulphuric acid is sucked over from the flask B into the flask A; the disengagement of oxygen from the manganese immediately commences and this reacting upon the oxalic acid present, converts it into carbonic anhydride gas, which passing through the concentrated sulphuric acid in the flask B, which robs it of moisture, finally escapes from the apparatus through the tube d. As soon as the disengagement of carbonic acid ceases, the operator sucks over a fresh portion of sulphuric acid, and this is repeated at short intervals, until bubbles of gas are no longer disengaged. The little wax stopper is now removed, and suction is applied at h until all the carbonic acid in the apparatus is replaced by common air. When the whole has become cold it is again weighed. The loss of weight, doubled, indicates the amount of pure manganic peroxide, in the sample, as before.

3. (Otto.) 50 gr. of the sample reduced to very fine powder are mixed in a glass flask, with hydrochloric acid 1⁄2 fl. oz., diluted with ⁄2 oz. of cold water, and portions of ferrous sulphate, from a weighed sample, immediately added, at first in excess, but afterwards in smaller doses, until the liquid ceases to give a blue precipitate with red prussiate of potash, or to evolve the odour of chlorine; heat being employed towards the end of the process. The quantity of ferrous sulphate consumed is now ascertained by again weighing the sample. If the peroxide examined was pure, the loss of weight will be 317 gr.; but if otherwise, the percentage of the pure peroxide may be obtained by the rule of three. Thus: suppose only 298 gr. of the sulphate were consumed, then

317 : 100 :: 298 : 94,

and the richness of the sample would be 94%. The percentage value of the oxide for evolving chlorine may be obtained by multiplying the weight of the consumed ferrous sulphate by ·2588, which, in the above case, would give 76% of chlorine. For this purpose, as well as for chlorometry, the ferrous sulphate is best prepared by precipitating it from its aqueous solution with alcohol, and drying it out of contact with air until it loses its alcoholic odour.

Obs. Before applying the above processes it is absolutely necessary that we ascertain whether the peroxide examined contains any carbonates, as the presence of these would vitiate the results. This is readily determined by treating it with a little dilute nitric acid:—if effervescence ensues, one or more carbonates are present, and the sample, after being weighed, must be digested for some time in dilute nitric acid in excess, and then carefully collected on a filter, washed, and dried. It may then be assayed as before. The loss of weight indicates the quantity of carbonates present, with sufficient accuracy for technical purposes. The determination of this point is the more important, as these contaminations not merely lessen the richness of the mineral in pure manganic peroxide, but also cause a considerable waste of acid when it is employed in the manufacture of chlorine.

Permanganic Acid. HMnO4. Obtained by distilling cautiously potassium permanganate and sulphuric acid. Dark violet-black liquid, green by reflected light, and rapidly absorbing water forming a violet solution. Oxidises organic matter with explosive violence.

Permanganate of Barium. Ba(MnO)45. Black soluble prisms, formed by decomposing silver permanganate by means of barium chloride, and cautiously evaporating.

Permanganate of Potassium. KMnO4. Prep. Potassium chlorate, or nitrate, and potassium hydrate are made into a paste with water, and manganic peroxide added; the mass is dried and heated to redness. The residue is boiled with water, filtered through asbestos, and evaporated down and recrystallised.

Dark purple, red, almost black anhydrous long prisms, readily soluble in 16 pints of water. Decomposed in presence of acids by most organic matter.

Permanganate of Silver. AgMnO4. Prep. Precipitate a strong solution of silver nitrate by means of a concentrated solution of potassium permanganate. Small black prisms, soluble in 100 parts of water, with a purple colour.

Permanganate of Sodium. NaMnO4. Obtained as a dark purple liquid by passing a current of carbonic anhydride through sodium manganate. Condy’s red fluid is chiefly a sodium permanganate dissolved in water.

MANGE. An eruptive disease, corresponding to the itch in man, resulting from the burrowing into the skin of minute animalcules (mites or acari), and common to several domestic animals, more especially the dog and horse. Like the itch, it is contagious. The causes are confinement, dirt, and bad living. The treatment should consist in the immediate removal of the cause, the frequent use of soft soap and water, followed by frictions with sulphur ointment, solution of chloride of lime or sporokton, the administration of purgatives, and a change to a restorative diet. Dun states that in India a very efficient remedy for mange is employed by the native farriers, which consists of castor oil seeds well bruised, steeped for twelve hours in sour milk, and rubbed into the skin, previously thoroughly cleansed with soap and water. “The itchiness disappears almost immediately and the acari are speedily destroyed.” A dressing consisting of 1 oz. of chloride of zinc (Burnett’s disinfectant fluid) and 1 quart of water may also be applied with advantage.

MAN′′GEL WUR′ZEL. Syn. Mangold-wurzel, Hybrid beet, Root of scarcity. The Beta vulgaris, var. campestris, a variety of the common beet. The root abounds in sugar, and has been used in Germany as a substitute for bread in times of scarcity. In these countries it is chiefly cultivated as food for cattle. The young leaves are eaten as spinach. The percentage composition of mangold wurzel is as follows:—Flesh-formers (albumenoid bodies), 1·54; heat and fat-formers (sugar, &c.) 8·60; indigestible fibre, 1·12; ash, 0·96; 87·78.

MAN′HEIM GOLD. A gold-coloured brass. See Gold (Dutch).

MAN′NA Syn. Manna (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. A concrete exudation from the stem of Fraxinus ornus and F. rotundifolia, obtained by incision. (B. P.) “The juice flowing from the incised bark” of “Fraxinus rotundifolia and F. ornus, hardened by the air.” (Ph. L.) The finest variety of this drug is known as flake manna, and occurs in pieces varying from 1 to 6 inches long, 1 or 2 inches wide, and ⁄2 to 1 inch thick. It has a yellowish-white or cream colour; an odour somewhat resembling honey, but less pleasant, a sweet, mawkish taste; and is light, porous, and friable. It is laxative in doses of 1 to 2 oz.

Manna Factitious, made of a mixture of sugar, starch, and honey, with a very small quantity of scammony to give it odour and flavour, and to render it purgative, has been lately very extensively offered in trade, and met with a ready sale.

MAN′NACROUP. A granular preparation of wheat deprived of bran, used as an article of food for children and invalids. (Brande.)

MAN′NITE. C6H14O6. Syn. Manna sugar, Mushroom s.; Mannita, L. A sweet, crystallisable substance, found in manna and in several other vegetable productions. It has been formed artificially by the action of sodium-amalgam upon an alkaline solution of cane sugar.

Prep. 1. Digest manna in boiling rectified spirit, and filter or decant the solution whilst hot; the mannite crystallises as the liquid cools in tufts of slender, colourless needles.

2. (Ruspini.) Manna, 6 lbs.; cold water (in which the white of an egg has been beaten), 3 lbs.; mix, boil for a few minutes, and strain the syrup through linen whilst hot; the strained liquid will form a semi-crystalline mass on cooling; submit this to strong pressure in a cloth, mix the cake with its own weight of cold water, and again press it; dissolve the cake thus obtained in boiling water, add a little animal charcoal, and filter the mixture into a porcelain dish set over the fire; lastly, evaporate the filtrate to a pellicle, and set the syrup aside to crystallise. Large quadrangular prisms; perfectly white and transparent.

Prop., &c. Mannite has a powerfully sweet and agreeable taste; dissolves in 5 parts of cold water and about half that quantity of boiling water; freely soluble in hot, and slightly so in cold alcohol; fuses by heat without loss of weight; with sulphuric acid it combines to form a new acid compound. It is distinguished from the true sugars by its aqueous solution not being susceptible of the vinous fermentation, and not possessing the property of rotary polarisation. When pure, it is perfectly destitute of purgative properties. It is now extensively imported from Italy, and is chiefly used to cover the taste of nauseous medicines, and as a sweetmeat.

MANURES′. Substances added to soils to increase their fertility. The food of vegetables, as far as their organic structure is concerned, consists entirely of inorganic compounds; and no organised body can serve for the nutrition of vegetables until it has been, by the process of decay, resolved into certain inorganic substances. These are carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, which are well known to be the final products of putrefaction. But even when these are applied to vegetables, their growth will not proceed unless certain mineral substances are likewise furnished in small quantities, either by the soil or the water used to moisten it. Almost every plant, when burned, leaves ashes, which commonly contain silica, potassa, and phosphate of lime; often, also, magnesia, soda, sulphates, and oxide of iron. These mineral bodies appear to be essential to the existence of the vegetable tissues; so that plants will not grow in soils destitute of them, however abundantly supplied with carbonic acid, ammonia, and water. The carbon of plants is wholly derived from carbonic acid, which is either absorbed from the atmosphere, and from rain water, by the leaves, or from the moisture and air in the soil, by the roots. Its carbon is retained and assimilated with the body of the plant, while its oxygen is given out in the gaseous form; this decomposition being always effected under the influence of light at ordinary temperatures. The hydrogen and oxygen of vegetables, which, when combined with carbon, constitute the ligneous, starchy, gummy, saccharine, oily, and resinous matters of plants, are derived from water chiefly absorbed by the roots from the soil. The nitrogen of vegetables is derived chiefly, if not exclusively, from ammonia, which is supplied to them in rain, and in manures, and which remain in the soil till absorbed by the roots.

According to the celebrated ‘mineral theory’ of agriculture advanced by Liebig a soil is fertile or barren for any given plant according as it contains those mineral substances that enter into its composition. Thus, “the ashes of wheat-straw contain much silica and potassa, whilst the ashes of the seeds contain phosphate of magnesia. Hence, if a soil is deficient in any one of these, it will not yield wheat. On the other hand, a good crop of wheat will exhaust the soil of these substances, and it will not yield a second crop till they have been restored, either by manure or by the gradual action of the weather in disintegrating the subsoil. Hence the benefit derived from fallows and from the rotation of crops.

“When, by an extraordinary supply of any one mineral ingredient, or of ammonia, a large crop has been obtained, it is not to be expected that a repetition of the same individual manure next year will produce the same effect. It must be remembered that the unusual crop has exhausted the soil probably of all the other mineral ingredients, and that they also must be restored before a second crop can be obtained.

“The salt most essential to the growth of the potato is the double phosphate of ammonia and magnesia; that chiefly required for hay is phosphate of lime; while for almost all plants potassa and ammonia are highly beneficial.”

From these principles we “may deduce a few valuable conclusions in regard to the chemistry of agriculture. First, by examining the ashes of a thriving plant, we discover the mineral ingredients which must exist in a soil to render it fertile for that plant. Secondly, by examining a soil, we can say at once whether it is fertile in regard to any plants the ashes of which have been examined. Thirdly, when we know the defects of a soil, the deficient matters may be easily obtained and added to it, unmixed with such as are not required. Fourthly, the straw, leaves, &c., of any plant, are the best manure for that plant, since every vegetable extracts from the soil such matters alone as are essential to it. This important principle has been amply verified by the success attending the use of wheat-straw, or its ashes, as manure for wheat, and of the chippings of the vines as a manure for the vineyard. When these are used (in the proper quantity) no other manure is required. Fifthly, in the rotation of crops, those should be made to follow which require different materials; or a crop which extracts little or no mineral matter, such as peas, should come after one which exhausts the soil of its phosphates and potassa.” (Liebig.)

The experiments of Messrs Lawes and Gilbert have forced upon them opinions differing from those of Baron Liebig on some important points in relation to his ‘mineral theory,’ which endeavours to prove that “the crops on a field diminish or increase in exact proportion to the diminution or increase of the mineral substances conveyed to it in manure.” The results obtained by the English investigators appear to prove that it is impossible to get good crops by using mineral manures alone, and that nitrogenous manures (farm-yard manure, guano, ammoniacal salts, &c.) are fertilising agents of the highest order.

Of the chemical manures now so much used bone-dust is, perhaps, the most important, as it supplies the phosphates which have been extracted by successive crops of grass and corn, the whole of the bones of the cattle fed on these crops having been derived from the soil; its gelatin also yields ammonia by putrefaction. Guano acts as a source of ammonia, containing much oxalate and urate of ammonia, with some phosphates. Nightsoil and urine, especially the latter, are most valuable for the ammonia they yield, as well as for the phosphates and potassa; but are very much neglected in this country, although their importance is fully appreciated in Belgium, France, and China. Nitrate of soda is valued as a source of nitrogen.

All organic substances may be employed as manures; preference being, however, given to those abounding in nitrogen, and which readily decay when mixed with the soil.

The analysis of manures, soils, and the ashes of plants, for the purpose of ascertaining their composition and comparative value, is not easily performed by the inexperienced; but a rough approximation to their contents, sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes, may be generally made by any intelligent person with proper care and attention. See Agriculture, Bone-dust, Guano, &c.

Manures, Artificial. Various formulæ belonging to this head will be found dispersed, under their respective names, throughout this work. The following are additional ones:—

1. (Anderson.) Sulphate of ammonia, common salt, and oil of vitriol, of each 10 parts; chloride of potassium, 15 parts; gypsum and sulphate of potassa, of each 17 parts; saltpetre, 20 parts; crude Epsom salts, 25 parts; sulphate of soda, 33 parts. For clover.

2. (Huxtable.) Crude potash, 28 lbs.; common salt, 1 cwt.; bone-dust and gypsum, of each 2 cwt.; wood-ashes, 15 bushels. For either corn, turnips, or grass.

3. (Johnstone.) Sulphate of soda (dry), 11 lbs.; wood-ashes, 28 lbs.; common salt, ⁄4 cwt.; crude sulphate of ammonia, 1 cwt.; bone-dust, 7 bushels. As a substitute for guano.

4. (Lawes’ ‘Superphosphate.’) See Coprolite.

5. (Fertilising powder.) A mixture of very fine bone-dust, 18 parts; calcined gypsum, and sulphate of ammonia, of each 1 part. The seed is ordered to be steeped in the ‘drainings’ from a dunghill, and after being drained, but whilst still wet, to be sprinkled with the powder, and then dried. See Flowers, Lime (Superphosphate), &c.

MANUSCRIPTS, Faded, to Restore. One of the methods in use for the restoration of old or faded writing is to expose it to the vapours of hydrosulphate of ammonia (hydrosulphide of ammonium) until the ink becomes darkened by the formation of sulphide of iron. Another consists in carefully washing, or sponging, the faded manuscript over with a weak solution of the ammonic sulphide, and as soon as the characters become legible, soaking it in water so as to remove the remaining sulphide, and then drying it between folds of blotting paper. A third plan, and one attended with less risk to the paper, is to brush over the manuscript with a moderately strong aqueous solution of gallo-tannic acid, to wash with water, and afterwards to dry it at a temperature of about 150° Fahr.

The solution of gallo-tannic acid may be obtained by making a strong infusion of bruised nutgalls in boiling water, and when cold, straining it. Some old and mediæval manuscripts are written in inks made of carbon. To such the above treatment is inapplicable; being suited only to those traced in ordinary writing ink. For parchments the latter method is preferable.

MAPS. These, as well as architect’s and engineer’s designs, plans, sections, drawings, &c., may be tinted with any of the simple liquid colours mentioned under ‘VELVET COLOURS,’ preference being given to the most transparent ones, which will not obscure the lines beneath them. To prevent the colours from sinking and spreading, which they usually do on common paper, the latter should be wetted 2 or 3 times with a sponge dipped in alum water (3 or 4 oz. to the pint), or with a solution of white size, observing to dry it carefully after each coat. This tends to give lustre and beauty to the colours. The colours for this purpose should also be thickened with a little gum water. Before varnishing maps after colouring them, 2 or 3 coats of clean size should be applied with a soft brush—the first one to the back.

MARASCHI′NO (-kēno). Syn. Marasquin, Fr. A delicate liqueur spirit distilled from a peculiar cherry growing in Dalmatia, and afterwards sweetened with sugar. The best is from Zara, and is obtained from the marasca cherry only. An inferior quality is distilled from a mixture of cherries and the juice of liquorice root.

MAR′BLE. Syn. Limestone, Hard carbonate of Lime; Marmor, Calcis carbonas durus, M. album (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Marbles are merely purer and more compact varieties of limestone, which admit of being sawn into slabs, and are susceptible of a fine polish. White marble is employed for the preparation of carbonic acid and some of the salts of lime. It contains about 65% of lime. Sp. gr. 2·70 to 2·85. The tests of its purity are the same as those already noticed under Chalk.

Marble is best cleaned with a little soap-and-water, to which some ox-gall may be added. Acids should be avoided. Oil and grease may be generally removed by spreading a paste made of soft soap, caustic potash lye, and fullers earth over the part, and allowing it to remain there for a few days; after which it must be washed off with clean water. Or, equal parts of American potash (crude carbonate of potash) and whiting are made into a moderately stiff paste with a sufficiency of boiling water, and applied to the marble with a brush. At the end of two or three days the paste is removed and the marble washed with soap-and-water. Any defect of polish may be brought up with tripoli, followed by putty powder, both being used along with water.

Marble is mended with one or other of the compounds noticed under Cements.

Marble may be stained or dyed of various colours by applying coloured solutions or tincture to the stone, made sufficiently hot to make the liquid just simmer on the surface. The following are the substances usually employed for this purpose:—

Blue. Tincture or solution of litmus, or an alkaline solution of indigo.

Brown. Tincture of logwood.

Crimson. A solution of alkanet root in oil of turpentine.

Flesh colour. Wax tinged with alkanet root, and applied to the marble hot enough to melt it freely.

Gold colour. A mixture of equal parts of white vitriol, sal ammoniac, and verdigris, each in fine powder, and carefully applied.

Green. An alkaline solution or tincture of sap green, or wax strongly coloured with verdigris; or the stone is first stained blue, and then the materials for yellow stain are applied.

Red. Tincture of dragon’s blood, alkanet root, or cochineal.

Yellow. Tincture of gamboge, turmeric, or saffron; or wax coloured with annotta. Success in the application of these colours requires considerable experience. By their skilful use, however, a very pleasing effect, both of colour and grain, may be produced.

MARBLING (of Books, &c.). The edges and covers of books are ‘marbled’ by laying the colour on them with a brush, or by means of a wooden trough containing mucilage, as follows:—Provide a wooden trough, 2 inches deep, 6 inches wide, and the length of a super-royal sheet; boil in a brass or copper pan any quantity of linseed and water until a thick mucilage is formed; strain this into the trough, and let it cool; then grind on a marble slab any of the following colours in table beer. For—blue, Prussian blue or indigo;—red, rose-pink, vermilion, or drop lake;—yellow, king’s yellow, yellow ochre, &c.;—white, flake white;—black, ivory black, or burnt lampblack;—brown umber, burnt u., terra di sienna, burnt s.; black mixed with yellow or red also makes brown;—green, blue and yellow mixed;—purple, red and blue mixed. For each colour provide two cups—one for the ground colours, the other to mix them with the ox-gall, which must be used to thin them at discretion. If too much gall is used the colours spread; when they keep their place on the surface of the trough, on being moved with a quill, they are fit for use. All things being in readiness, the prepared colours are successively sprinkled on the surface of the mucilage in the trough with a brush, and are waved or drawn about with a quill or a stick according to taste. When the design is thus formed, the book, tied tightly between cutting boards of the same size, is lightly pressed with its edge on the surface of the liquid pattern, and then withdrawn and dried. The covers may be marbled in the same way, only the liquid colours must be allowed to run over them. The film of colour in the trough may be as thin as possible; and if any remains after the marbling, it may be taken off by applying paper to it before you prepare for marbling again. This process has been called French marbling.

To diversify the effect, a little sweet oil is often mixed with the colours before sprinkling them on, by which means a light halo or circle appears round each spot. In like manner spirit of turpentine, sprinkled on the surface of the trough, produces white spots. By staining the covers with any of the liquid dyes, and then dropping on them, or running over them, drops of the ordinary liquid mordants, a very pleasing effect may be produced. Vinegar black, or a solution of green copperas, thus applied to common leather, produces black spots or streaks, and gives a similar effect with most of the light dyes. A solution of alum or of tin in like manner produces bright spots or streaks, and soda or potash water dark ones. This style has been called Egyptian marble.—Soap marbling is done by throwing on the colours, ground with a little white soap to a proper consistence, by means of a brush. It is much used for book-edges, stationery, sheets of paper, ladies’ fancy work, &c.—Thread marble is given by first covering the edge uniformly of one colour, then laying pieces of thick thread irregularly on different parts of it, and giving it a fine dark sprinkle. When well managed the effect is very pleasing.—Rice marble is given in a similar way to the last by using rice.—Tree marble is done on leather book-covers, &c., by bending the board a little in the centre, and running the marbling liquid over it in the form of vegetation. The knots are given by rubbing the end of a candle on those parts of the cover.—Wax marble is given in a similar way to thread marble, but using melted wax, which is removed after the book is sprinkled and dried; or a sponge charged with blue, green, or red may be passed over. This, also, is much used for stationery work, especially for folios and quartos. The ‘vinegar black’ of the bookbinders is merely a solution of acetate of iron, made by steeping a few rusty nails or some iron filings in vinegar. All the ordinary liquid colours that do not contain strong acids or alkalies may be used, either alone or thickened with a little gum, for marbling or sprinkling books.

Sprinkling is performed by simply dipping a stiff-haired painter’s brush into the colour, and suddenly striking it against a small stick held in the left hand over the work. By this means the colour is evenly scattered without producing ‘blurs’ or ‘blots.’

Paper, PASTEBOARD, &c., in sheets, are marbled and sprinkled in a similar manner to that above described, but in this case the gum trough must, of course, be longer.

MARGAR′IC ACID. This term was formerly applied to a mixture of palmitic and stearic acids, produced by decomposing the alkaline soaps of solid fats with an acid, but it is now given to a fatty acid which can only be obtained artificially.

MAR′GARIN. Syn. Margarate of glyceryl. A constituent formerly supposed to exist in solid fats, but now regarded as a mixture of stearin and palmitin.

MARINE′ ACID. See Hydrochloric acid.

MARL. A natural mixture of clay and chalk, with sand. It is characterised by effervescing with acids. According to the predominance of one or other of its component parts, it is called argillaceous, calcareous, or sandy marl. It is very generally employed as a manure for sandy soils, more particularly in Norfolk. See Soils.

MAR′MALADE. Originally a conserve made of quinces and sugar; now commonly applied to the conserves of other fruit, more especially to those of oranges and lemons.

Prep. Marmalades are made either by pounding the pulped fruit in a mortar with an equal or a rather larger quantity of powdered white sugar, or by mixing them together by heat, passing them through a hair sieve whilst hot, and then putting them into pots or glasses. The fruit-pulps are obtained by rubbing the fruit through a fine hair sieve, either at once or after it has been softened by simmering it for a short time along with a little water. When heat is employed in mixing the ingredients, the evaporation should be continued until the marmalade ‘jellies’ on cooling. See Conserves, Confections, Electuaries, Jams, Jellies, and below.

Marmalade, Apricot. From equal parts of pulp and sugar.

Marmalade, Mixed. From plums, pears, and apples, variously flavoured to palate.

Marmalade, Orange. Prep. 1. From oranges (either Seville or St Michael’s, or a mixture of the two), by boiling the peels in syrup until soft, then pulping them through a sieve, adding as much white sugar, and boiling them with the former syrup and the juice of the fruit to a proper consistence.

2. By melting the confection of orange peel (Ph. L.), either with or without the addition of some orange or lemon juice, and then passing it through a sieve.

3. (Candied orange marmalade.) From candied orange peel, boiled in an equal weight each of sugar and water, and then passed through a sieve.

4. (Scotch marmalade.)—a. Seville orange juice, 1 quart; yellow peel of the fruit, grated; honey, 2 lbs.; boil to a proper consistence.

b. Seville oranges, 8 lbs.; peel them as thinly as possible, then squeeze out the juice, boil it on the yellow peels for ⁄4 of an hour, strain, add white sugar, 7 lbs., and boil to a proper consistence.

Marmalade, Quince. Syn. Diacydonium. From quince flesh or pulp and sugar, equal parts; or from the juice (miva cydoniorum, gelatina c.), by boiling it to half, adding an equal quantity of white wine and ⁄3rds of its weight of sugar, and gently evaporating the mixture.

Marmalade, Tomato. Like APRICOT MARMALADE, adding a few slices of onion and a little parsley.

MARMORA′TUM. Finely powdered marble and quicklime, well beaten together; used as a cement or mortar.

MAR′ROW (Beef). This is extensively employed by the perfumers in the preparation of various pomades and other cosmetics, on account of its furnishing an exceedingly bland fat, which is not so much disposed to rancidity as the other fats. It is prepared for use by soaking and working it for some time in lukewarm water, and afterwards melting it in a water bath, and straining it through a piece of muslin whilst hot. When scented it is esteemed equal to bear’s grease for promoting the growth of the hair.

MARSH GAS. Light carbonetted hydrogen.

MARSH’S TEST. See Arsenious acid.

MARSHMALLOW. Syn. Althæa (Ph. L. & E.), L. The root (leaves and root—Ph. E.) of Althæa officinalis, Linn., or common marshmallow. (Ph. L.) It is emollient and demulcent; the decoction is useful in irritation of the respiratory and urinary organs, and of the alimentary canal. The flowers as well as the root are reputed pectoral.

MARTIN’S POWDER. A mixture of white arsenic and the powdered stems of Orobanche virginiana (Linn.), a plant common in Virginia. An American quack remedy for cancer.

MASS. Syn. Massa, L. This term is commonly applied in pharmacy and veterinary medicine to certain preparations which are not made up into their ultimate form. Thus, we have ‘ball-masses,’ ‘pill-masses,’ &c.; of which, for convenience, large quantities are prepared at a time, and are kept in pots or jars, ready to be divided into balls or pills, as the demands of business may require. (See below.)

MASSES (Veterinary).

Massa Aloes. Mass of aloes. Syn. Cathartic mass. Prep. Take of Barbadoes aloes, in small pieces, 8 parts; glycerin, 2 parts; ginger, in powder, 1 part; melt together in a water bath, and thoroughly incorporate by frequent stirring.—Use. Cathartic for the horse.—Dose. From 6 to 8 dr.

Massa Aloes Composita. Compound mass of aloes. Syn. Alterative mass. Prep. Take of Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 1 oz.; soft soap, 1 oz.; common mass, 6 oz.; thoroughly incorporate by beating in a mortar, so as to form a mass.—Use. Alterative for the horse.—Dose, 1 oz.

Massa Antimonii Tartarata Composita. Compound mass of tartarated antimony. Syn. Fever ball. Prep. Take of tartrated antimony, in powder, ⁄2 dr.; camphor, in powder, ⁄2 dr.; nitrate of potash, in powder, 2 dr.; common mass, a sufficiency; mix so as to form a bolus.—Use. Febrifuge for the horse.—Dose. The above mixture constitutes 1 dose.

Massa Belladonnæ Composita. Compound mass of belladonna. Syn. Cough ball. Prep. Take of extract of belladonna, ⁄2 to 1 dr.; Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 1 dr.; nitrate of potash, in powder, 2 dr.; common mass, a sufficiency; mix so as to form a bolus.—Use. For the horse in chronic cough.—Dose. The above mixture constitutes 1 dose.

Massa Cathechu Composita. Compound mass of catechu. Syn. Astringent mass. Prep. Take of extract of catechu, in fine powder, 1 oz.; cinnamon bark, in fine powder, 1 oz.; common mass, 6 oz.; mix.—Use. Astringent for the horse.—Dose, 1 oz., in the form of a bolus.

Massa Communis. Common mass. Prep. Take of linseed, finely ground, and treacle, of each equal parts; mix together so as to form a mass.—Use. An excipient for medicinal agents when they are to be administered in the form of bolus.

Massa Cupri Sulphatis. Mass of sulphate of copper. Syn. Tonic Mass. Prep. Take of sulphate of copper, finely powdered, 1 oz.; ginger, in powder, 1 oz.; common mass, 6 oz.; mix.—Use. Tonic for the horse.—Dose, 6 to 8 dr.

Massa Digitalis Composita. Compound mass of digitalis. Syn. Cough ball. Prep. Take of Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 2 oz.; digitalis, 1 oz.; common mass, 13 oz.; mix.—Use. For the horse in chronic cough.—Dose, 1 oz. once or twice a day.

Massa Ferri Sulphatis. Mass of sulphate of iron. Syn. Tonic mass. Prep. Take of sulphate of iron, in powder, 2 oz.; ginger, in powder, 1 oz.; common mass, 5 oz.; mix.—Use. Tonic for the horse.—Dose, 6 to 8 dr.

Massa Resinæ Composita. Compound mass of resin. Syn. Diuretic mass. Prep. Take of resin, in powder, nitrate of potash, in powder, hard soap, of each equal parts; mix.—Use. Diuretic for the horse.—Dose, 1 oz.

Massa Zingiberis Composita. Compound mass of ginger. Syn. Cordial mass. Prep. Take of ginger, in powder, gentian root, in powder, treacle, of each equal parts, a sufficiency; mix so as to form a mass.—Use. Stomachic for the horse.—Dose, 1 oz.

MAS′SICOT. Syn. Masticot, Yellow protoxide of lead; Plumbi oxydum flavum, Cerussa citrina, L. The dross that forms on melted lead exposed to a current of air, roasted until it acquires a uniform yellow colour. Artists often apply the same name to white lead roasted until it turns yellow. Used as a pigment.

MAS′TIC. Syn. Mastich, Gum mastic; Mastiche, L. The “resin flowing from the incised bark of Pistacia Lentiscus, var. Chia.” (Ph. L.) It occurs in pale yellowish, transparent, rounded tears, which soften between the teeth when chewed, and giving out a bitter, aromatic taste. Sp. gr. 1·07. It is soluble in both rectified spirit and oil of turpentine, forming varnishes. It is chiefly used as a ‘masticatory,’ to strengthen and preserve the teeth, and perfume the breath.

Mastic. Fine mortar or cement used for plastering walls, in which the ingredients, in a pulverulent state, are mixed up, either entirely or with a considerable portion of linseed oil. It sets very hard, and is ready to receive paint in a few days. See Cements.

MASTICA′TION. The act of chewing food, by which it not only becomes comminuted, but mixed with the saliva, and reduced to a form fit for swallowing. It has been justly regarded by the highest authorities as the first process of digestion, and one without which the powers of the stomach are overtasked, and often performed with difficulty. Hence the prevalence of dyspepsia and bowel complaints among persons with bad teeth, or who ‘bolt’ their food without chewing it.

MAS′TICATORIES. Syn. Masticatoria, L. Substances taken by chewing them. They are employed as intoxicants, cosmetics, and medicinals; generally with the first intention. The principal masticatory used in this country is tobacco. In Turkey, and several other Eastern nations, opium is taken in a similar manner. In India, a mixture of areca nut, betel leaf, and lime, performs the same duties; whilst in some other parts of the world preparations of the cacao are employed. As cosmetics, orris root, cassia, cinnamon, and sandal wood are frequently chewed to scent the breath. Among medicinals, mastic and myrrh are frequently chewed to strengthen the teeth and gums; pellitory, to relieve the toothache; and rhubarb, ginger, and gentian, to relieve dyspepsia and promote the appetite.

Prep. 1. (Augustin.) Mastic, pellitory (both in powder), and white wax, of each 1 dr.; mixed by heat and divided into 6 balls. In toothache, loose teeth, &c.

2. (W. Cooley.) Mastic, myrrh, and white wax, of each 1 part; rhubarb, ginger, and extract of gentian, of each 2 parts; beaten up with tincture of tolu, q. s., and divided into boluses or lozenges of 10 gr. each. One or two to be chewed an hour before dinner; in dyspepsia, defective appetite, &c.

3. (Quincy.) Mastic, 3 oz.; pellitory and stavesacre seed, of each 2 dr.; cubebs and nutmegs, of each 1 dr.; angelica root, ⁄2 dr.; melted wax, q. s. to make it into small balls. As a stimulant to the gums, and in toothache.

4. Opium, ginger, rhubarb, mastic, pellitory of Spain, and orris root, of each 1 dr.; melted spermaceti, q. s. to mix; for 6-gr. pills. As the last, and in toothache and painful gums.

MAS′TICOT. See Massicot.

MATCHES (Cooper’s). Syn. Sweetening matches. These are made by dipping strips of coarse linen or canvas into melted brimstone. For use, the brimstone on one of them is set on fire, and the match is then at once suspended in the cask, and the bung loosely set in its place. After the lapse of 2 or 3 hours the match is removed and the cask filled with liquor. Some persons pour a gallon or two of the liquor into the cask before ‘matching’ it. The object is to allay excessive fermentation. The operation is commonly adopted in the Western Counties for cider intended for shipment, or other long exposure during transport. It is also occasionally employed for inferior and ‘doctored’ wines.

MATCHES (Instantaneous Light). Of these there are several varieties, of which the one best known, and most extensively used, is the common phosphorus match, known as the ‘congreve’ or ‘lucifer.’ We need not describe the ‘chemical matches,’ ‘phosphorus bottles,’ and ‘prometheans,’ in use during the early part of the present century, as these are quite obsolete. We will simply sketch the general process of manufacture now in use for phosphorus matches:

Manuf. The wooden splints are cut by steam machinery from the very best quality of pine planks, perfectly dried at a temperature of 400° Fahr. English splints are of two sizes—‘large’ and ‘minnikins,’ the former 2⁄4 inches longer, and the latter somewhat shorter. In the manufacture double-lengths are used, so that each splint may be coated with the igniting composition at both ends, and then cut asunder in the middle to form two matches. In England the splints are usually cut square in form, but in Germany they are cylindrical, being prepared by forcing the wood through circular holes in a steel plate. The ends of the double splints having been slightly charred by contact with a red-hot plate, are coated with sulphur by dipping them to the requisite depth in the melted material. In some cases the ends are saturated with melted wax or paraffin instead of sulphur. The splints are then arranged in a frame between grooved boards in such a manner that the prepared ends project on each side of the frame. These projecting ends are then tipped with the phosphorus composition, which is spread to a uniform depth of about ⁄8 inch on a smooth slab of stone, kept warm by means of steam beneath. When partially dry, the tipped splints are taken from the frames, cut through the middle, and placed in heaps of 100, ready for ‘boxing.’

The different compositions for tipping the matches in use in different countries and factories all consist essentially of emulsions of phosphorus in a solution of glue or gum, with or without other matters for increasing the combustibility, for colouring, &c. In England the composition contains a considerable quantity of chlorate of potassa, which imparts a snapping and flaming quality to the matches tipped with it, and but little phosphorus, on account of the moisture of the climate. In Germany the proportion of phosphorus used is much larger, and nitre, or some metallic peroxide, replaces chlorate of potassa. The German matches light quietly with a mild lambent flame, and are injured quickly by damp. The following formulæ have been selected:

1. (English.) Fine glue, 2 parts, broken into small pieces, and soaked in water till quite soft, is added to water, 4 parts, and heated by means of a water bath until it is quite fluid, and at a temperature of 200° to 212° Fahr. The vessel is then removed from the fire, and phosphorus, 1⁄2 to 2 parts, is gradually added, the mixture being agitated briskly and continually with a ‘stirrer’ having wooden pegs or bristles projecting at its lower end. When a uniform emulsion is obtained, chlorate of potassa, 4 to 5 parts, powdered glass, 3 to 4 parts, and red lead, smalt, or other colouring matter, a sufficient quantity (all in a state of very fine powder) are added, one at a time, to prevent accidents, and the stirring continued until the mixture is comparatively cool.

According to Mr G. Gore, the above proportions are those of the best quality of English composition. The matches tipped with it deflagrate with a snapping noise. (See above.)

2. (German.)—a. (Böttger.) Dissolve gum Arabic, 16 parts, in the least possible quantity of water, add of phosphorus (in powder), 9 parts, and mix by trituration; then add of nitre, 14 parts; vermillion or binoxide of manganese, 16 parts, and form the whole into a paste, as directed above; into this the matches are to be dipped, and then exposed to dry. As soon as the matches are quite dry they are to be dipped into very dilute copal varnish or lac varnish, and again exposed to dry, by which means they are rendered waterproof, or at least less likely to suffer from exposure in damp weather.

b. (Böttger.) Glue, 6 parts, is soaked in a little cold water for 24 hours, after which it is liquefied by trituration in a heated mortar; phosphorus, 4 parts, is now added, and rubbed down at a heat not exceeding 150° Fahr.; nitre (in fine powder), 10 parts, is next mixed in, and afterwards red ochre, 5 parts, and smalt, 2 parts, are further added, and the whole formed into a uniform paste, into which the matches are dipped, as before. Cheaper than the last.

c. (Diesel.) Phosphorus, 17 parts; glue, 21 parts; red lead, 24 parts; nitre, 38 parts. Proceed as above.

Obs. Matches tipped with the above (a, b, and c) inflame without fulmination when rubbed against a rough surface, and are hence termed ‘noiseless matches’ by the makers.

3. (Safety matches.) The latest improvement of note in the manufacture of matches is that of Landstrom, of Jonkoping, in Sweden, adopted by Messrs Bryant and May (Patent). It consists in dividing the ingredient of the match-mixture into two separate compositions, one being placed on the ends of the splints, as usual, and the other, which contains the phosphorus, being spread in a thin layer upon the end or lid of the box. The following are the compositions used by the patentee:—a. (For the splints.) Chlorate of potassa, 6 parts; sulphuret of antimony, 2 to 3 parts; glue, 1 part.—b. (For the friction surface.) Amorphous phosphorus, 10 parts; sulphuret of antimony or peroxide of manganese, 8 parts; glue, 3 to 6 parts; spread thinly upon the surface, which has been previously made rough by a coating of glue and sand.

By thus dividing the composition the danger of fire arising from ignition of the matches by accidental friction is avoided, as neither the portion on the splint nor that on the box can be ignited by rubbing against an unprepared surface. Again, by using the innocuous red or amorphous phosphorus, the danger of poisoning is entirely prevented.

MATÉ. Syn. Paraguay Tea. This is the dried leaf of a small shrub, the Ilex Paraguayenses, or Brazilian holly, growing in Paraguay and Brazil; by the inhabitants of which places, as well as South America generally, it is largely employed in the form of a beverage as tea. Its active ingredient, Paraguaine, formerly supposed to be a distinct principle, has from further researches into its composition been discovered to be identical with theine and caffeine—the alkaloids of tea and coffee.

Mr Wanklyn ascribes the following composition to maté:—

Moisture 6·72

Ash 5·86

Soluble organic matter 25·10

Insoluble organic matter 62·32

100·00

MATE′′RIA MED′ICA. A collective name of the various substances, natural and artificial, employed as medicines or in the cure of disease. In its more extended sense it includes the science which treats of their sources, properties, classification, and applications. The materia medica of the Pharmacopœia is a mere list, with occasional notes, “embracing the animal, vegetable, and chemical substances, whether existing naturally, prepared in officinal chemical preparations, or sold in wholesale trade, which we (the College) direct to be used either in curing diseases or in preparing medicines.” (Ph. L.)

MAT′ICO. Syn. Soldier’s herb; Mateco (B. P., Ph. D.); Matica, Herba maticæ, L. The dried leaves of a Peruvian plant, generally believed to be the Artanthe elongata, one of the Piperaceæ. The leaves have been employed with considerable success as a mechanical external styptic; applied to leech-bites, slight cuts, and other wounds, &c., and pressed on with the fingers, they seldom fail to arrest the bleeding. Matico has also been much lauded as an internal astringent and styptic, in hæmorrhages from the lungs, stomach, bowels, uterus, &c.; but as it is nearly destitute of astringent properties, its virtues in these cases must have been inferred from its external action. As an aromatic, bitter stimulant, closely resembling the peppers, it has been proposed as a substitute for cubebs and black pepper, in the treatment of diseases of the mucous membranes, piles, &c.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 dr.; in powder; or under the form of infusion, tincture, or boluses.

MATURA′TION. Growing ripe. Amongst surgeons this term is applied to the process of suppuration, or that which succeeds inflammation, and by which pus or matter is collected in an abscess. Warmth, irritation, and a liberal diet promote this change; cold, sedatives, and depletion, retard it. The maturation of fermented liquor is noticed under Brewing, Malt liquors, Wines, &c.

MEAD. Syn. Mellina, L. An old English liquor, made from the combs from which the honey has been drained, by boiling them in water, and fermenting the saccharine solution thus obtained. It is commonly confounded with metheglin. Some persons add 1 oz. of hops to each gallon; and, after fermentation, a little brandy. It is then called sack mead, See Metheglin.

MEAL. The substance of edible grain ground to powder, without being bolted or sifted. Barley meal and oat meal are the common substances of this class in England. In North America the term is commonly applied to ground Indian corn, whether bolted or not. (Goodrich.) The four resolvent meals of old pharmacy (quatuor farinæ resolventes) are those of barley, beans, linseed, and rye.

MEALS. The “periods of taking food, usually adopted, in conformity with convenience and the recurrences of hunger, are those which are best adapted to the purposes of health; namely, the morning meal, the midday meal, and the evening meal.” “That these are the proper periods for meals is evident from the fact of their maintaining their place amid the changes which fashion is constantly introducing.” “If we look at these periods in another point of view, we shall find an interval of four hours left between them for the act of digestion and subsequent rest of the stomach. Digestion will claim between two and three hours of the interval; the remaining hour is all that the stomach gets of rest, enough, perhaps, but not too much, not to be justly infringed.” (Eras. Wilson.)

MEA′SLES. Syn. Rubeola, Morbilli, L. This very common disease is characterised by feverishness, chilliness, shivering, head-pains, swelling and inflammation of the eyes, shedding of sharp tears, with painful sensibility to light, oppressive cough, difficulty of breathing, and sometimes vomiting or diarrhœa. These are followed about the fourth day by a crimson rash upon the skin, in irregular crescents or circles, and by small red points or spots, which are perceptible to the touch, and which, after four or five days, go off with desquamation of the cuticle. The fever, cough, &c., often continue for some time; and unless there have been some considerable evacuations, either by perspiration or vomiting, they frequently return with increased violence, and occasion great distress and danger.

Treat. When there are no urgent local symptoms, mild aperients, antimonial diaphoretics, and diluents, should be had recourse to; but when the inflammatory symptoms are emergent, and the lungs are weak, especially in plethoric habits, blood may be taken. The cough may be relieved by expectorants, demulcents, and small doses of opium; and the diarrhœa by the administration of the compound powder of chalk and opium; the looseness of the bowels, however, had better not be interfered with, unless it be extreme.

Measles are most prevalent in the middle of winter, and though common to individuals of all ages, are most frequent amongst children. The plethoric, and those of a scrofulous habit, or one which has a syphilitic taint, suffer most from them.

Like the smallpox, the measles are contagious, and seldom attack the same person more than once during life. See Rash.

MEASURE. Syn. Mensura, L. The unit or standard by which we estimate extension, whether of length, superficies, or volume. The following tables represent the values and proportions of the principal measures employed in commerce and the arts:—

Table I. English Lineal Measures.

Inches. Feet. Yards. Poles. Furlongs. Miles.

1· ·083 ·028 ·00505 ·00012626 ·0000157828

12· 1· ·333 ·06060 ·00151515 ·00018939

36· 3· 1· ·1818 ·004545 ·00056818

198· 16·5 5·5 1· ·025 ·003125

7920· 660· 220· 40· 1· ·125

63360· 5280· 1760· 320· 8· 1·

⁂ The unit of the above table is the yard, of which no legal standard has existed since that established by the statute of 1824 was destroyed by the fire which consumed the two Houses of Parliament in 1834.

Table II. English Measures of Superficies.

Square Feet. Square Yards. Poles. Roods. Acres.

1· ·1111 ·00367309 ·000091827 ·000022957

9· 1· ·0330579 ·000826448 ·000206612

272·25 30·25 1· ·025 ·00625

10890· 1210· 40· 1· ·25

43560· 4840· 160· 4· 1·

Table III. English Measure of Volume.—The Imperial Standard, and the relative value of its divisions, including those used in Medicine, with their EQUIVALENTS in avoirdupois and troy weight.

[minims] Minims or drops. fʒ Fluid Drachms. f℥ Fluid Ounces. O. Pints. Oij. Quarts. C. Gallons. Pecks. Bushels. Quarters. Equivalents in distilled water, at 62° Fahr., in

Troy grains. Avoird. weight.

1· ·01666666 ·00208333 ·00010416 ·00005208 ·00001302 — — — ·91146

60· 1· ·125 ·00625 ·003125 ·00078125 — — — 54·6875 lb. oz.

480· 8· 1· ·05 ·025 ·00625 — — — 437·5 1

9600· 160· 20· 1· ·5 ·125 ·0625 ·015625 ·001953125 8750· 1 4

19200· 320· 40· 2· 1· ·25 ·125 ·03125 ·00390625 17500· 2 8

76800· 1280· 160· 8· 4· 1· ·5 ·125 ·015625 70000· 10

2560· 320· 16· 8· 2· 1· ·25 ·03125 — 20

1280· 64· 32· 8· 4· 1· ·125 — 80

512· 256· 64· 32· 8· 1· — 640

⁂ The standard unit of the above table is the gallon, which is declared, by statute, to be capable of “containing ten pounds avoirdupois weight of distilled water, weighed in the air at the temperature of 62° Fahr., the barometer being at 30 inches.” The pound avoirdupois contains 7000 grains, and it is declared that a cubic inch of distilled water, under the above conditions, weighs 252·458 grains; hence the capacity of the imperial gallon and its divisions are as follows:—

Imperial gallon = 277·274 cubic inches.

” quart = 69·3185 ”

” pint = 34·65925 ”

Fluid ounce = 1·73296 ”

” drachm = ·21662 ”

‡‡‡ The imperial gallon is 1-5th larger than the old wine gallon,—1-60th smaller than the old beer gallon, and—1-32nd larger than the old dry-measure gallon.

Table IV. French Metrical or Decimal Measures of Length.

Names. Eq. in Mètres. Equivalents in

English Inches, at 32° Fahr. English Long Measure, at 62° Fahr.

Miles. Fur. Yds. Feet. Inch.

Millimètre ·001 ·03937

Centimètre ·01 ·39371

Décimètre ·1 3·93708

Mètre 1· 39·37079 1 0 3·37

Decamètre 10· 393·70790 10 2 9·7

Hectomètre 100· 3937·07900 109 1 1·078

Kilomètre 1000· 39370·79000 4 213 1 10·3

Myriamètre 10000· 393707·90000 6 1 156 0 9·17

⁂ The standard unit of the above table is the mètre, which has been determined to be 39·37079 inches, at 32° Fahr. (Capt. Kater); the English foot is taken at 62° Fahr. The true length of the mètre, reduced to the latter temperature, is 39·370091 English inches; a number which varies from that in the table only at the fourth decimal figure. It will be perceived that the principle of nomenclature adopted in applying the names, was to prefix the Greek numerals to the decimal multiples, and the Latin numerals to the decimal subdivisions.

Table V. French Metrical or Decimal Measures of Volume.

Names. Eq. in Litres. Eq. in English Cubic Inches Equivalent in English Measures.

Gall. Pints. Oz. Dr. Minims.

Millilitre ·001 ·0610 16·9

Centilitre ·01 ·6103 2 49·

Decilitre ·1 6·1028 3 4 10·36

Litre 1· 61·028 1 15 1 43·69

Decalitre 10· 610·28 2 1 12 1 16·9

Hectolitre 100· 6102·8 22 0 1 4 49·

Kilolitre 1000· 61028· 220 0 16 6 40·

Myrialitre 10000· 610280· 2201 (= 275⁄8 bushels).

⁂ The standard unit in the above table is the litre, or the cube of the ⁄10 of a mètre. The French centiare contains 1 square mètre,—the are, 100 do.,—the hectare, 10,000 do. The old Paris pint is equal to 1·678 English imperial pint.

‡‡‡ The capacity of solids and aëriform fluids is taken in cubic inches, or feet, in England. In France, the stere, or mètre cube, equal to 35·31658 English cubic feet, is the standard unit.

Table VI. Miscellaneous Measures and their Equivalents:

Tea or coffee spoonful (average) = 1 fl. dr.

Dessert spoonful ” = 2 ”

Table spoonful ” = 4 ”

Wine-glassful ” = 2 fl. oz.

Tea-cupful ” = 5 ”

Breakfast-cupful ” = 8 ”

Tumblerful ” = 8 ”

Basinful ” = 12 ”

Thimbleful ” = ⁄4 fl. dr.

Pinch (of leaves and flowers) ” = 1 dr.

Handful (of leaves and flowers) ” = 10 ”

Cubic inch of water, at 62° Fahr. = 252·458 gr.

Cubic foot of water, at 62° Fahr. = 62·32106 lb.

Line = ⁄12 inch.

Barleycorn = ⁄3 ”

Hand = 4 ”

Chain = 4
or 22 poles
yards.

MEAT. The muscular tissue or flesh of the principal animals constituting the food of man may be said to be composed of the same proximate principles, and, given an equal digestibility and power of being assimilated, may be also said to have an equally nutritive value.

Since meat, however, is generally eaten with a certain amount of fat, which accompanies it in varying quantity, the capacity of the meat for forming muscle will, of course, be in inverse proportion to the amount of fat it contains; on the contrary, its power of raising the bodily temperature will be in direct proportion. Moleschott (quoted by Parkes) gives the following as the mean composition of fresh beef, as determined by all the Continental chemists:—

Water 73·4

Soluble albumen and hæmatin 2·25

Insoluble albuminous substances 15·20

Gelatinous substances 3·30

Fat 2·87

Extractive matter 1·38

Creatin 0·068

Ash 1·6

Dr Parkes remarks of the amount of fat given in the above analysis “that it is evidently too low.”

In the above table we recognise in the albuminous and gelatinous substances the source of the muscular tissue of the human organism. The ash contains the chlorides, carbonates, and phosphates of potassium, sodium, and calcium. From these salts are derived the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice, the sodium of the bile, and the calcium phosphate and carbonate of the skeleton. Iron is also present, and this finds its way into the blood.

The flavour of meat is much influenced by the food of the animal. The flesh of the Pampas pig is found to be rank and disagreeable when the animal is killed in its wild state; if, however, the food be changed for the better, the flesh becomes altogether different and quite eatable. The pork of pigs fed on flesh is said to give off a strong odour, the fat at the same time being unusually soft. Soft fat is also said to form in animals that have been fed on oily foods.

When meat is roasted, the fire gradually coagulates the albumen of the joint, the coagulation commencing at the surface, and spreading by degrees to the interior. Unless the roasting be continued long enough, sufficient heat will not reach the parts nearest the centre to effect their coagulation; and if under these circumstances the meat be removed from the fire, the uncoagulated or inner parts will present the well-known red and juicy appearance known as ‘underdone.’ Although a certain quantity of the gravy (which consists of the soluble and saline ingredients) escapes in the process, the greater part is retained. The brown agreeably sapid substance formed on the outside of the meat is known as osmazome, and which is concentrated gravy. The melting fat which collects below forms the dripping. The loss in the meat is principally water.

The chemical effects of boiling are explained under the article devoted to that subject.

Meat generally loses from 30 to 40 per cent., and sometimes as much as 60 per cent. in weight, by cooking.

The amount of bone varies, being seldom less than 8 per cent. It amounts in the neck and brisket to about 10 per cent. and from one third to sometimes half the total weight in shins and legs of beef.

The most economical parts are the round and thick flank, next to these the brisket and sticking-piece, and lastly, the leg.

In choosing mutton and pork, selection should be made of the leg, after this of the shoulder.

“Oxen,” says M. Bizet, “yield of best quality beef 57 per cent. of meat, and 43 per cent. waste. The waste includes the internal viscera, &c. Second quality of beef, 54 per cent. meat and 46 per cent. waste; third quality beef, 51 per cent. meat and 49 per cent. waste. In milking-cows, 46 per cent. meat and 54 per cent. waste. Calves yield 60 per cent. meat, and 40 per cent. loss; and sheep yield 50 per cent. meat, and 50 per cent. loss.” Dr Parkes differs from Bizet as to the latter’s value of the meat of the calf. He says the flesh of young animals loses from 40 to 50 per cent. in cooking.

It seems to be agreed, however, that animals when slaughtered should be neither too young nor too old. The flesh of young animals, although more tender, is less digestible than that of older ones; it is also poorer in salts, fat, and an albuminous substance called syntonin.

Consumption of Meat. Dr Letheby, writing in 1868, says that in London “the indoor operatives eat it to the extent of 14·8 oz. per adult weekly; 70 per cent. of English farm labourers consume it, and to the extent of 16 oz. per man weekly; 60 per cent. of the Scotch, 30 of the Welsh, and 20 of the Irish also eat it. The Scotch probably have a larger allowance than the English, considering that braxy mutton is the perquisite of the Scotch labourer; but the Welsh have only an average amount of 2⁄2 oz. per adult weekly; and the Irish allowance is still less. It is difficult to obtain accurate returns of the quantity of meat consumed in London; but if the computation of Dr Wynter is correct, it is not less than 30⁄4 oz. per head weekly, or about 4⁄2 oz. per day for every man, woman, and child. In Paris, according to M. Armand Husson, who has carefully collected the octroi returns, “it is rather more than 49 oz. per head weekly, or just 7 oz. a day.” Bondin states that throughout France the consumption is about 50 grammes daily, or under 1⁄4 oz.

Dr Letheby, in his work ‘On Food,’ gives the following as the characteristics of good meat:—

“1st. It is neither of a pale pink colour nor of a deep purple tint, for the former is a sign of disease, and the latter indicates that the animal has not been slaughtered, but has died with the blood in it, or has suffered from acute fever.

“2nd. It has a marked appearance from the ramifications of little veins of fat among the muscles.

“3rd. It should be firm and elastic to the touch, and should scarcely moisten the fingers—bad meat being wet, and sodden and flabby, with the fat looking like jelly or wet parchment.

“4th. It should have little or no odour, and the odour should not be disagreeable, for diseased meat has a sickly cadaverous smell, and sometimes a smell of physic. This is very discoverable when the meat is chopped up and drenched with warm water.

“5th. It should not shrink or waste much in cooking.

“6th. It should not run to water, or become very wet on standing for a day or so, but should, on the contrary, dry upon the surface.

“7th. When dried at a temperature of 212° or thereabout, it should not lose more than from 70 to 74 per cent. of its weight, whereas bad meat will often lose as much as 80 per cent.

“Other properties of a more refined character will also serve for the recognition of bad meat, as that the juice of the flesh is alkaline or neutral to test-paper, instead of being distinctly acid, and the muscular fibre, when examined under the microscope is found to be sodden and ill-defined.”

Unsound meat—diseased meat. Dr Letheby, in his ‘Lectures on Food,’ published in 1868, states that the seizure and condemnation, in London, of meat unfit for human food, during a period extending over seven years, amounted to 700 tons per annum, or to about 1-750th of the whole quantity consumed. These 700 tons he dissects into lbs. as follows:—“805,653 lbs. were diseased, 568,375 lbs. were putrid, and 193,782 lbs. were from animals that had not been slaughtered, but had died from accident or disease. It consisted of 6640 sheep and lambs, 1025 calves, 2896 pigs, 9104 quarters of beef, and 21,976 joints of meat.”

He admits, however, that this amount, owing to the difficulties and inefficiency of the mode of supervision, bears a very insignificant proportion to the actual quantity which escaped detection, and which was, therefore, partaken of as food. Professor Gamgee says that one fifth of the meat eaten in the metropolis is diseased. In 1863 the bodies of an enormous number of animals suffering from rinderpest, as well as from pleuro-pneumonia, were consumed in London; and we know that thousands of sheep die every year, in the country, of rot; the inference from which latter fact is that, since the carcases are neither eaten there nor buried on the spot, they are sent up to, and thrown upon, the London markets. The worst specimens find their way to the poorer neighbourhoods, where, as might be expected, their low price ensures a ready sale for them. These sales, it is said, mostly take place at night.

The above statements, which, if we exclude Professor Gamgee’s figures, do not solve the problem as to the quantity of unsound meat consumed in London, not unreasonably justify the assumption that it is very considerable; and this being admitted, we should be prepared to learn that it was a fertile source of disease of a more or less dangerous character.

There is, however, such extensive divergence in the various data bearing upon this point, that no satisfactory solution of it can be said to be afforded. Thus, Livingstone states that, when in South Africa, he found that neither Englishmen nor natives could partake of the flesh of animals affected with pleuro-pneumonia without its giving rise to malignant carbuncle, and sometimes, in the case of the natives, to death, and Dr Letheby attributes the increased number of carbuncles and phlegmons amongst our population to the importation from Holland of cattle suffering from the same disease. On the contrary, Dr Parkes says he was informed, on excellent authority, that the Caffres invariably consume the flesh of their cattle that die of the same epidemic, without the production of any ill effects. Again, there are numerous well-attested cases in which the flesh of sheep which have died from braxy (a disease that makes great ravages amongst the flocks in Scotland) is constantly eaten without injurious results by the Scotch shepherd. The malady causes death in the sheep from the blood coagulating in the vital organs, and the sheep that so dies becomes the property of the shepherd, who, after removing the offal, is careful to cut out the dark congealed blood before cooking it. Sometimes he salts down the carcase. In cases, however, where thorough cooking or an observance of the above precautions have been neglected, very dangerous and disastrous consequences have ensued. During the late siege of Paris large quantities of the flesh of horses with glanders appear to have been eaten with no evil consequences: and Mr Blyth, in his ‘Dictionary of Hygiène,’ quotes a similar case from Tardieu, who states that 300 army horses affected with glanders (morve) were led to St Germain, near Paris, and killed. For several days they served to feed the poor of the town without causing any injury to health.

A similar exemption from any evil effect following the consumption of diseased flesh is recorded by Professor Brucke, of Vienna.

Not many years since the cattle of a locality in Bohemia, being attacked by rinderpest, were ordered by the Government to be slaughtered, after which they were buried. The poor people dug up the diseased carcases, cooked the meat, and ate it, with no injurious result.

Parent Duchâtelet cites a case where the flesh of seven cows attacked with rabies was eaten without injury; and Letheby states that pigs with scarlet fever and spotted typhus have been used for food with equally harmless results. The flesh of sheep with smallpox had been found to produce vomiting and diarrhœa, sometimes accompanied with fever.

One obvious suggestion of the immunity from disease recorded in part of the cases above given is that the injurious properties of the flesh had been destroyed by the heat to which it had been subjected in the process of cooking, combined with the antiseptic and protective power of the gastric juice. The subject, however, has not been sufficiently examined to warrant the conclusion that every kind of unsound meat may be rendered innocuous by culinary means.

But even were this so the idea of partaking of meat which had once been unsound, from whatever cause, and, as in the instances above quoted, with the pustules of smallpox, the spots generated by typhus, and the rash of scarlet fever upon it, becomes unspeakably repulsive and revolting. But we must not be misled because of the difficulty of reconciling the contradictory statements above given, nor by the evidence some of them appear to afford as to the innocuous character of diseased meat, since it is just possible that closer and more prolonged observation of the facts may have led to different conclusions. Thus, for example, pork, infested with that formidable entozoon, the Trichina spiralis, had been partaken of for years, under the impression that it was a perfectly healthy food, until Dr Zencker, of Dresden, discovered that the parasite was the cause of a frightful disease, which he called Trichinosis, and which had hitherto baffled all attempts to find out its origin. Dr Letheby, writing on this subject, says: “I have often had occasion to investigate cases of mysterious disease, which had undoubtedly been caused by unsound meat. One of these, of more than ordinary interest, occurred in the month of November, 1860. The history of it is this:—A forequarter of cow-beef was purchased in Newgate Market by a sausage-maker who lived in Kingsland, and who immediately converted it into sausage-meat. Sixty-six persons were known to have eaten of that meat, and sixty-four of them were attacked with sickness, diarrhœa, and great prostration of vital powers. One of them died; and at the request of the coroner I made a searching inquiry into the matter, and I ascertained that the meat was diseased, and that it, and it alone, had been the cause of all the mischief.”

Here are two instances in which but for subsequent investigation the evil effects narrated would not have been debited to diseased meat, but to some other cause.

“One of the principal and by far the most prolific sources of food-poisoning is the sausage, the eating of which, in Germany more particularly, has caused the death of a number of persons.

The sausages in which these poisonous qualities occasionally develop themselves are the large kinds made in Wurtemburg, in which district alone they have caused the deaths of more than 150 out of 400 persons during the last fifty years. The poisonous character of the sausage is said to develop itself generally in the spring, when it becomes musty, and also soft in the interior. It is then found to be acid to test paper, and to have a very disagreeable and tainted flavour.

Should it be eaten when in this state, after from about twelve to twenty-four hours the patient is attacked with severe intestinal irritation in the form of pains in the stomach and bowels by vomitings, and diarrhœa.

To these symptoms succeed great depression, coldness in the limbs, weak and irregular pulse, and frequent fainting fits. Should the sufferer be attacked with convulsions, and difficult respiration, the seizure generally ends in death. The nature of the poisonous substance that gives rise to these effects in the sausage has not yet been determined. Liebig believed them to be due to the presence in the meat of a particular animal ferment, which he conceived acted on the blood by catalysis, and thus rendered it diseased. Others have surmised that a poisonous organic alkaloid may have been produced in the decaying meat; and others again that the effects may have been caused by some deleterious substance of a fatty nature. M. Van den Corput was of opinion that the mischief was due to the presence in the meat of a poisonous fungus, which he calls a sarcina botulina. This last theory receives support from the fact that a peculiar mouldiness is always to be observed in these dangerous sausages, and that this is coincident with the development of their poisonous qualities.

Several effects have been produced by other kinds of animal food—as veal, bacon, ham, salt-beef, salt-fish, cheese, &c., and the food has usually been in a decayed and mouldy condition. It would be tedious if I were to detail, or even to enumerate the cases recorded by medico-legal writers; but I may perhaps refer to a few of them. In 1839 there was a popular fête at Zurich, and about 600 persons partook of a repast of cold roast veal and ham. In a few hours most of them were suffering from pain in the stomach, with vomiting and diarrhœa; and before a week had elapsed nearly all of them were seriously ill in bed. They complained of shiverings, giddiness, headache and burning fever. In a few cases there was delirium, and when they terminated fatally there was extreme prostration of the vital powers. Careful inquiry was instituted into the matter, and the only discoverable cause of the mischief was incipient putrefaction and slight mouldiness of the meat.” A case is recorded by Dr Geisler of eight persons who became ill from eating bacon which was mouldy; and another by M. Ollivier of the death of four persons out of eight, all of whom had partaken of partially decomposed mutton.

If some of the foregoing statements fail to demonstrate that the act of partaking of diseased meat is a necessary source of danger to health, there can be no such doubt as to the pernicious and perilous consequences which ensue when meat is consumed containing in its tissues the ova and larvæ of certain parasitic creatures. If the fleshy part of a piece of measly pork be carefully examined, it will be found to be more or less dotted about with a number of little bladder-like spots, in size about as large as a hemp-seed.

If now we carefully rupture one of these little bodies or cysts, there will be found in it a minute worm, which under the microscope will be seen to have a head from which proceed a number of little hooks that perform a very disagreeable office should the parasite be taken into the human stomach by any one making a meal off measly and undercooked pork. For, then, being liberated from its sac, or nidus, by the action of the gastric juice of the stomach on this latter, the creature passes into the intestines. To these it attaches itself by means of the hooklets on its head, and instantly becomes a tapeworm, which grows by a succession of jointed segments it is able to develop, and each one of which is capable of becoming a separate and prolific tapeworm filled with countless eggs.

These eggs reach the land through the agency of manure (for they are found in the intestines of the horse), and from this source they get into the stomachs of pigs and oxen, where they hatch not into tapeworm, or tenia, but, travelling through the animal’s stomach, burrow into its muscular tissue. Here they establish and envelop themselves in the little cyst or small bladder-like substance, whose presence, as explained, constitutes the condition called “measly” pork, and here they remain dormant until such time as, taken into the stomach, they may again become tapeworms, to be again expelled and to perpetuate by their ova the round of metamorphosis. From the circumstance of their being met with enclosed in little sacs or cysts, these parasites have been termed Cysticerci. The variety of them we have just been considering as occurring in pork is called the Cysticercus cellulosæ, whilst the tapeworm to which it gives rise is known as the Tinea solium.

Another variety of Cysticercus is met with in the flesh of the ox, the cow, and the calf. In the human body this also develops into a tapeworm called the Tinea mediocanellata. Tapeworm is a very common disease in Russia and Abyssinia, and its prevalence is no doubt due to the habit of giving the children in those countries raw meat to suck, under the impression that the child is strengthened in consequence. From experiments made by Dr Lewis it was found that a temperature of 150° F., maintained for five minutes, was sufficient to destroy these cysticerci.

Another and more formidable entozoon, communicable by unsound meat, is the Echinococcus hominis, which represents one of the metamorphoses of the Tinea echinococcus, the tapeworm of the dog. In Iceland, where a sixth of the population are said to suffer from the ravages of the Echinococcus hominis, it is the custom to feed the dogs on the flesh of slaughtered animals affected with this parasite, which in the body of the dog develops into a tapeworm. The innumerable eggs which the worm produces are, however, incapable of being hatched in the dog’s intestines. They have to find another and more suitable habitat, and this is secured for them as follows:—Segments of the tapeworm, with their countless ova, being voided with dog’s excrement, fall into the running water, and on to the fields and pastures, whence they gain their entrance into the stomachs of human beings, oxen, and sheep. Here the eggs become hatched, not into tapeworms, but into Echinococci hominis, or prospective tapeworms. Burrowing through the membranes of the stomach, the echinococcus establishes itself most commonly in the liver, but not unfrequently in the spleen, heart, lungs, and even the bones of man. In the animal economy they enclose themselves in little sacs or cysts, and give rise to the most alarming and painful diseases, which hitherto have proved incurable. They attack the brain in sheep, and are the cause of the disease known as “staggers.” Sheep are also infested by another parasite known as the Distoma hepatica, the ravages of which give rise in the sheep to that devastating disease—“the rot.” The creature is also known by the name of the “liver-fluke,” since it principally attacks this important organ in the animal. The liver-fluke is of constant occurrence in the livers of diseased sheep, and unless destroyed by thorough cooking will of course pass into the human economy. The embryo fluke gains admission to the sheep’s body through the instrumentality of small snails, to the shells of which it attaches itself. In wet weather the snails crawl over the grass of the meadow which forms the pastures of the sheep, and are swallowed by it. Once in the sheep’s stomach the embryo becomes a fluke, and commences its depredations on the animal’s liver. After this, the reason why the rot attacks sheep after a continuance of wet weather will be evident.

The most terrible of all the meat parasites is a minute worm about ⁄30th of an inch long, found in the flesh of pork. This creature, which is named the Trichina spiralis (from the form it assumes when coiled up in the little cyst or capsule which encloses it), when it gets conveyed into the human stomach with improperly cooked or underdone pork, soon becomes liberated from its confinement owing to the destruction of its envelope by the gastric juice. Once in the stomach the parasite grows rapidly, giving birth to innumerable young trichinæ, which, by first boring through the membranes of the alimentary canal, pierce their way through the different parts of the body into the muscular tissue, where they become encysted, and where they remain until conditions favorable to their liberation again occur.

Until such time, however, as they have become enclosed in the cyst, their movements give rise to indescribable torture, and to a disease known as trichinosis, of which it has been estimated more than 50 per cent. of those attacked by it die. The symptoms of trichinosis commence with loss of appetite, vomiting, and diarrhœa, succeeded after a few days by great fever—resembling, according to Dr Aitken, that of typhoid or typhus. As might be expected the pains in the limbs are extreme. Boils and dropsical swellings are not unusual concomitants of the malady.

Hitherto this frightful disease has been mostly confined to Germany, where there have been several outbreaks of it since its discovery in 1860 by Dr Zencker. Feidler says that only free trichinæ are killed by a temperature of 155° F.; and that when they are in their cysts a greater heat may be necessary. From what has been said the importance of efficient cooking must become manifest. There must always be risk in underdone pork, whether boiled or roasted. In the pig, the trichina, if present, may always be found in the muscles of the eye. In Germany the makers of pork sausages are now said to have these muscles subjected to a microscopic examination previous to using the meat, which, of course, is rejected if the examination has been unfavorable.

The trichinæ, if present in the flesh of pork, may be seen as small round specks by the naked eye, the surrounding flesh itself being rather darker than usual owing to the inflammation set up in it. All doubt, however, on this point may be removed by having recourse to the microscope. Dr Parkes says a power of 50 to 100 diameters is sufficient, and that “the best plan is to take a thin slice of flesh, put it into liquor potassæ (1 part to 8 of water), and let it stand for a few minutes till the muscle becomes clear; it must not be left too long, otherwise the trichinæ will be destroyed. The white specks come out clearly and the worm will be seen coiled up. If the capsule is too dense to allow the worm to be seen, a drop or two of weak hydrochloric acid should be added. If the meat be very fat a little ether or benzine may be put on it in the first place.”

Legislation relative to meat inspection and seizure.—The law recognising the importance of the supply of pure and wholesome meat gives considerable powers to the different sanitary officers who are appointed to inspect it. See Food, Inspection of.

MEAT, AUSTRALIAN. See Meat preserving.

MEAT BISCUITS. Prep. 1. The flour is mixed up with a rich fluid extract of meat, and the dough is cut into pieces and baked in the usual manner.

2. Wheaten flour (or preferably the whole meal), 3 parts; fresh lean beef or other flesh (minced and pulped), 2 parts; thoroughly incorporate the two by hand-kneading or machinery, and bake the pieces in a moderately heated oven. Both the above are very nutritious; the last more especially so. 1 oz. makes a pint of good soup.

MEAT, COLD, to Stew. Let the cold meat be cut into slices about half an inch thick. Take two large-sized onions, and fry them in a wineglass of vinegar; when done, pour them on to the meat; then place the whole in a stewpan, and pour over sufficient water to cover it. After stewing about half an hour add sufficient flour and butter to thicken the gravy, and also pepper, salt, and ketchup, to flavour; then let it simmer gently for another half an hour. Serve up with a little boiled rice around it.

MEAT EXTRACTS. Some preparations of this nature have been already noticed under the heads Essence and Extract; the following are additional and highly valuable formulæ:—

Prep. 1. (Dr Breslau.) Young ox-flesh (free from fat) is minced small, and well beaten in a marble mortar, at first alone, and afterwards with a little cold or lukewarm water; the whole is then submitted to the action of a press, and the solid residuum is treated in the same manner, with a little more cold water; the juice (reddish in colour) is now heated to coagulate the albumen, strained, and finally evaporated in a water bath to the consistence of an extract. As ordinary flesh contains only 1% of kreatine, while that of the heart, according to Dr Gregory, contains from 1·37% to 1·41%, this is the part employed by Dr Breslau. The product possesses an agreeable odour and taste; and is easily soluble in water.

2. (Falkland.) Fresh lean beef (or other flesh), recently killed, is minced very fine, and digested, with agitation, in cold water, 1 pint, to which hydrochloric acid, 6 drops, and common salt, 1 dr., have been added; after about an hour the whole is thrown upon a fine hair sieve, and the liquid portion allowed to drain off without pressure, the first portions that pass through being returned until the fluid, at first turbid, becomes quite clear and transparent; when all the liquid has passed through, cold water, ⁄4 pint, is gently poured on, in small portions at a time, and allowed to drain through into that previously collected. The product is about ⁄4 pint of cold extract of flesh, having a red colour, and a pleasant, soup-like taste. It is administered cold to the invalid—a teacupful at a time, and must on no account be warmed, as the application of even a very slight heat causes its decomposition and the separation of a solid mass of coagulated albumen. This cold extract of flesh is not only much more nutritious than ordinary beef tea, but also contains a certain quantity of the red colouring matter of blood, in which there is a much larger proportion of the iron requisite for the formation of blood-particles. The hydrochloric acid also greatly facilitates the process of digestion. This formula is a modification of the one recently recommended by Liebig for the preparation of a highly nutritive and restorative food for invalids.

3. (Extractum Sanguinis Bovis—Dr Mauthner.) Pass fresh blood (caught from the slaughtered animal) through a sieve, evaporate it to dryness in a water bath, and when cold rub it to powder.—Dose, 10 to 20 gr., or more, per diem, in a little water.

Obs. The above preparations are intended to supersede the inefficient compounds—beef tea, meat soups, &c.—during sickness and convalescence. MM. Breslau and Mauthner describe their extracts of flesh and blood as being peculiarly advantageous in scrofulous exhaustion, exhaustion from anæmia, diarrhœa, &c. The extract of Falkland or Liebig is represented as having been employed both in the hospitals and in private practice at Munich with the most extraordinary success. It is said to be capable of assimilation with the least possible expenditure of the vital force.

Meat, Fluid. This preparation consists of lean meat, in which the albumen has been changed so as to be non-coagulable by heat, and the fibrin and gelatin from their normal insoluble condition to one admitting of their being dissolved in water.

In this soluble condition, the first stage effected in stomach digestion, the several bodies are known as peptones or albuminose, and the proportion of their simple constituents remains the same as in ordinary fibrin, albumen, and gelatin.

The alteration is effected by finely mincing meat and digesting it with peptone, hydrochloric acid, and water, at a temperature of about 100° Fahr., until dissolved.

The solution is then filtered, the bitter principle, formed during the digestion, removed by the addition of a little pancreatic emulsion, and the liquor, which has been neutralised by the addition of carbonate of soda, evaporated to a thick syrup or extractive consistence.

Fluid meat is the only preparation which entirely represents, and yields the amount of nourishment afforded by, lean meat; it differs altogether from beef tea and extracts of meat, as all these contain only a small portion of the different constituents of meat. A patent has been granted to its inventor, Mr Darby.

Meat, Liebig’s Extract of. Syn. Extract of Flesh, Extractum carno. This preparation is an aqueous infusion evaporated to the consistence of a thick paste, of those principles of meat which are soluble in water.

It is chiefly composed of alkaline phosphates and chlorides, a nitrogenous crystalline base known as kreatine, various extractive matters, which it has been surmised may have originated in the decomposition of certain nitrogenous bodies, and possibly of a small quantity of lactic acid, as it contains neither albumen nor fibrin, two of the most important and nutritious ingredients of flesh; it must not, therefore, be regarded as a concentrated form of meat. Liebig says that it requires 34 lbs. of meat to yield 1 lb. of this extract—a statement which, as Dr Pavy justly remarks, shows how completely the substance of the meat which constitutes its real nutritive portion must be excluded. This absence of direct nutrient power, now admitted by physiologists, whilst disqualifying the extract as a substitute for meat, does not, however, preclude its use in certain cases of indisposition requiring the administration of a stimulant or restorative, in which circumstances it has been found a useful and valuable remedy, and has been suggested as a partial substitute for brandy where there is considerable exhaustion or weakness, accompanied with cerebral depression and lowness of spirits. In this latter respect its action seems analogous to strong tea.

In the vast pastures of Australia and the pampas of South America are countless herds of oxen and sheep, whose numbers far exceed the food requirements of the comparatively sparse population of those districts. The fat, horns, hoofs, bones, skins, and wool of these cattle, which form the chief part of the wealth of those countries, are exported principally to Europe. Until within a few years, however, no means had been adopted for the utilisation of the superfluous flesh of the animals, beyond employing it as a manure. By manufacturing it, however, into “extract of meat,” this waste has been remedied, and immense works for its preparation are now erected both in South America and in Australia. The process followed by the different makers, although varying in some particulars, is essentially the same, and consists in extracting by water, either hot, cold, or in the form of the steam, those portions of the meat which are soluble in that fluid, and subsequently evaporating the solution so obtained until it becomes of a proper consistence to be put into jars. The extract so obtained keeps well (if all the fat and gelatin are removed), and is most conveniently adapted for exportation. It is said that the extract as being obtained from cattle that have had English progenitors possesses a flavour superior to that which comes from South America, where the animals are of a different and inferior breed.

The following interesting description of the manufacture of “Liebig’s Extract of Meat” is taken from the Buenos Ayres ‘Standard’ of September, 1867. The establishment, of which it is a description, is at Fray Bentos, on the Uruguay, South America. “The new factory is a building which covers about 20,000 square feet, and is roofed in iron and glass. We first enter a large flagged hall, kept dark, cool, and extremely clean, where the meat is weighed, and passed through apertures to the meat-cutting machines. We next come to the beef-cutting hall, where are four powerful meat-cutters, especially designed by the company’s general manager, M. Geibert; each machine can cut the meat of 200 bullocks per hour. The meat being cut is passed to ‘digerators’ made of wrought iron; each one holds about 12,000 lbs. of beef; there are nine of these digerators, and three more have to be put up. Here the meat is digerated by high-pressure steam of 75 lbs. per square inch; from this the liquid which contains the extract and the fat of the meat proceeds in tubes to a range of ‘fat separators’ of peculiar construction. Here the fat is separated in the hot state from the extract, as no time can be lost for cool operation, otherwise decomposition would set in in a very short time.

“We proceed downstairs to an immense hall, sixty feet high, where the fat separators are working; below them is a range of five cast-iron clarifiers, 1000 gallons each, worked by high-pressure steam through Hallet’s tube system.

“Each clarifier is provided with a very ingenious steam-tap. In the monstrous clarifiers the albumen, fibrin, and phosphates are separated. From hence the liquid extract is raised by means of air-pumps, driven by two thirty horse-power engines, up to two vessels about twenty feet above the clarifiers; thence the liquid runs to the other large evaporators. Now we ascend the staircase reaching the hall, where two immense sets of four vacuum apparatus are at work, evaporating the extract by a very low temperature; here the liquid passes several filtering processes before being evaporated in vacuo. We now ascend some steps and enter the ready-making hall, separated by a wire gauze wall, and all the windows, doors, &c., guarded by the same to exclude flies and dust. The ventilation is maintained by patent fans, and the place is extremely clean. Here are placed five ready-making pans constructed of steel plates, with a system of steel discs revolving in the liquid extract.

“These five pans, by medium of discs, 100 in each pan, effect in one minute more than two million square feet evaporating surface.

“Here concludes the manufacturing process. The extract is now withdrawn in large cans and deposited for the following day.

“Ascending a few steps we enter the decrystallising and packing hall, where two large cast-iron tanks are placed, provided with hot water baths under their bottoms; in these tanks the extract is thrown in quantities of 10,000 lbs. at once, and here decrystallising is made a homogeneous mass and of uniform quality. Now samples are taken and analysed by the chemist of the establishment, Dr Seekamp, under whose charge the chemical and technical operations are performed.

“It may be mentioned that the company’s butcher killed at the rate of 80 oxen per hour; separating by a small double-edged knife the vertebræ, the animal drops down instantaneously on a waggon, and is conducted to a place where 150 men are occupied dressing the meat for the factory, cutting each ox into six pieces; 400 are being worked per day.”

Mr Tooth at a meeting before the “Food Committee” held at the Society of Arts in January, 1868, said that he did not claim any difference in the composition of his article (which was made in Australia) as compared with that made by the South American Company.

In the annexed table the composition of some of the extracts of meat of commerce is given:—

Liebig’s Company. Tooth, Sydney. French Company, South America. Whitehead. Twentyman.

Water 18·56 16·00 17·06 16·50 24·49 20·81

Extractive, soluble in alcohol 45·43 53·00 51·28 28·00 22·08 13·37

Extractive, insoluble 13·93 13·00 10·57 46·00 44·47 59·10

Mineral matter 22·08 18·00 21·09 9·50 8·96 6·72

100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00

The following are the characteristics of extract of meat of good quality. It should always have an acid reaction, its colour should be a pale yellowish brown, and it should have an agreeable meat-like odour and taste. It should be entirely soluble in cold water, and should be free from albumen, fat, and gelatin.

Meat Pie. Stew 2 lbs. of beef steak with one small onion, the gravy from which is to be thickened with flour, and flavoured with pepper and salt. Put it into a baking dish, and cover with a lard crust. It should be baked for one hour. The addition of two kidneys will greatly improve the pie.

Meat (Australian) Pie. Take 2 lbs. of Australian meat, or 1⁄2 lb. of meat and ⁄2 lb. of kidney. Season to taste, pour in a little water, cover with a lard crust, and bake not more than half an hour.

MEAT PRESERVING. “The Belgian Musée de l’Industrie notes the following methods of preserving meats as the most deserving of attention amongst those communicated to the French Academy of Sciences, and published in the Comptes Rendus. 1. M. Bundet’s method, by which the meat is kept in water acidulated with carbolic acid in the proportion of 1 to 5 parts of acid per 1000 of water. A series of experiments proved that all kinds of meat could thus be kept fresh for lengthened periods, without acquiring an ill taste or odour.

“The meat may be placed in barrels or air-tight tin cases, filled with acidulated water of the strength above specified, and headed up; or the pieces may be packed in barrels or cases in alternate layers with charcoal, pounded small, and saturated with water containing ⁄1000 of carbolic acid. The charcoal serves as a vehicle for the antiseptic fluid, and as an absorbent of any gaseous matters given off by the meat. The latter should be wrapped in thin linen covers to prevent the charcoal working its way into the tissues.

“This method, it is suggested, might be employed in curing pork in place of ‘salting,’ or of the more lengthy and costly process of ‘smoking,’ and also for the preservation of poultry, game, butter, eggs, &c.

“2. In the case of South American meat M. Baudet proposes the use of large sacks of caoutchouc. The meat should be packed in them, with alternate layers of charcoal as above described, and each sack, when filled, should be hermetically closed by drawing another empty caoutchouc sack, cap-wise, over it. The caoutchouc, it is supposed, would fetch enough in the market—its low price notwithstanding—to cover expenses of packing and freight, and so permit the meat to be sold in Europe at a very small advance on cost price. If intended for use a second time, the empty bags should be steeped in boiling water for a few minutes, to remove any organic impurities adhering to them.

“3. M. Gorge’s method, which is in use in La Plata, consists in washing and drying the meat, and afterwards steeping in successive waters containing hydrochloric acid and sulphite of soda, and then packing it in air-tight cases holding 1, 5, or 10 kilog. each. Meat thus treated requires to be soaked in warm water for about half an hour before use.

“4. M. Leon Soubeiran has recommended braying and drying, in the fashion adopted by the Chinese and Mongols, as described by M. Simon, French consul in China, in a communication made by him to the Société d’Acclimatation. The pemmican of our Arctic voyagers and the charqui of South America are familiar examples of meat preserved by analogous processes. The late M. Payen, a distinguished member of the Academy, insisted upon the great perfection to which this system might be carried by the aid of hot-air stoves and suitable apparatus.”

Besides the foregoing, numerous patents have from time to time been taken out, and processes proposed for the preservation of meat; so as to enable it to be sent from those distant countries, such as South America, Australia, Canada, &c., where it is greatly in excess of the wants of the population, to other lands, in which the supply is as much below the demand, and the meat at such a price as to preclude its being regularly used as an article of food by the body of the people.

As the putrefactive changes set up in dead flesh are dependent upon the combined influences of moisture, air, and a certain temperature, it follows that most of the various methods of meat preservation resolve themselves into so many different efforts to remove the meat from the operation of one of the conditions above specified as necessary for its decomposition.

The charqui or jerked beef of South America affords an example of meat preserved by means of being deprived of moisture. It occurs in thongs or strips which have been prepared by placing freshly killed meat between layers of salt and drying them in the sun. Charqui, although it retains its soundness for a great length of time, and is rendered eatable by soaking in water and prolonged cooking, is difficult of digestion and wanting in flavour, and if any fat be associated with it, this is liable to become rancid.

Pemmican is meat which, after being dried and powdered, is mixed with sugar and certain spices, both of which assist to preserve the meat as well as to improve its flavour, and to remove the tendency to rancidity caused by any fat that may be accidentally present.

Another process for the preservation of meat by means of desiccation is that of MM. Blumenthal and Chollet, who, in 1854, obtained a patent for preparing tablets composed of dried meat and vegetables, which, after being several times dipped into rich soup, were dried in warm air after each immersion.

At a meeting of the Food Committee, held at the Society of Arts, in May, 1868, specimens of dried beef and mutton in powder, from Brisbane, were shown by Mr Orr, who said they had been dried on tinned plates by means of steam. Dr A. S. Taylor, F.R.S., who examined the sample, found it perfectly fresh and good. It had been prepared at least six months previously.

At a subsequent meeting, the Committee reported that the soup prepared from this desiccated meat, with the addition of a small quantity of vegetables, was considered very successful, and the Committee were of opinion that meat so preserved was likely to prove a valuable and cheap addition to the food resources of the people.

The specimen from which the soup was made had been in the Society’s possession, and formed part of the contents of a tin opened upwards of two years ago. The preservation was perfect.

We have only space briefly to describe some of the more prominent of the processes which have been devised for the preservation of meat by excluding atmospheric air.

Mr Tallerman, a large importer of Australian meat, stated in evidence before the Food Committee of the Society of Arts, in May, 1870, that in the preservation of the meat he sent over to this country he had recourse to a very old practice, which was that of packing the joints in fat, the meat being previously salted or cured. Instead of the meat being packed in brine, the casks with the meat are filled up with melted fat.

In Mr Warrington’s patent, which dates from 1846, it is proposed that animal substances shall be preserved by enveloping them in a layer of glue, gelatin, or concentrated meat gravy, or otherwise by dipping them in warm solutions of such substances, or by wrapping them in waterproof cloth, or by covering them with caoutchouc, gutta percha, or varnish, or thin cream of plaster of Paris, which when set was saturated with melted suet, wax, or stearin.

The patent of Prof. Redwood, which resembles Mr Warrington’s in seeking to exclude atmospheric air by surrounding the meat with an impervious substance, claimed the use of paraffin for this purpose, the paraffin being afterwards coated with a mixture of gelatin and treacle, or gelatin and glycerin. The paraffin is easily removed from the meat by plunging this latter into boiling water, which dissolves the outer coating of gelatin mixture, and at the same time melts the paraffin and liberates the enclosed joint.

Messrs Jones and Trevethick’s patent consisted in exhausting of air the vessel containing the meat, then forcing into it a mixture of nitrogen and sulphurous acids, and subsequently soldering the apertures. Dr Letheby says meat, fish, and poultry preserved in this manner have been found good after seven or eight years; and specimens of them were exhibited in the London Exhibition of 1862.

The removal, however, of atmospheric air from the vessels containing the meat it is designed to preserve is now principally accomplished by means of steam. The germ of this idea originated with M. Pierre Antonie Angilbert more than half a century ago, but the modification of Angilbert’s process, which in principle is that generally adopted by the importers of Australian and South American cooked meat, as well as by the English preparers of the article, originated with Messrs Goldner and Wertheimer, nearly forty years since, and, briefly, is as follows:—The freshly killed meat is placed in tins, with a certain quantity of cold water. The tins and their contents are then securely soldered down, with the exception of a small opening not larger than a pin-hole, which is left in the lid. The tins are next placed in a bath of chloride of calcium, the effect of which is to heat the water in them up to the boiling point, and after a certain time to more or less cook the meat contained in them. When the meat is thought to be sufficiently cooked, and whilst the steam arising from the boiling water is escaping from the aperture, this last is carefully soldered down, the steam not only having driven out all the atmospheric air from the vessel, but in the act of escaping having prevented the ingress of any from without. To still further guard against the entrance of air, the tins are covered over with a thick coating of paint.

Previously to their being allowed to leave the preserving works they are tested by being placed for some time in an apartment in which the temperature is sufficiently high to set up putrefactive action in the meat if any air has been left in the tins, the evidence of which would be the bulging out of the tins, owing to the liberation of certain gaseous products of decomposition. When no distension from inside takes place, the result is considered satisfactory, and the vessels are regarded as properly and hermetically sealed. In some cases the vessels, instead of being heated in a bath of chloride of calcium, are exposed to the action of steam. If the operation be successfully performed, the meat so prepared will keep perfectly good avid sound for years.

Mr Richard Jones effects the removal of the air from the vessels containing the meat as follows:—The meat is put into the tins and entirely soldered up, with the exception of a small tube about the size of a quill, which is soldered on the top of the tin. This tube is placed in connection with a vacuum chamber, and the air exhausted from the tin by means of it. In cooking the meat he also employs a chloride of calcium bath.

Dr Letheby, in one of his Canton Lectures on Food, delivered in 1865, speaking on this part of the subject, and on the above method of meat preservation, says:—“To-night, through the kindness of Messrs Crosse and Blackwell, I am able to show you a specimen of preserved mutton which has been in the case forty-four years, and you will perceive that it is in excellent condition. It formed part of the stores supplied by Messrs Donkin and Gamble, in 1824, to His Majesty’s Exploring ship Fury, which was wrecked in Prince Regent’s Inlet in 1825, when the cases were landed with the other stores, and left upon the beach.

“Eight years afterwards, in August, 1833, they were found by Sir John Ross in the same condition as they were left; and he wrote to Mr Gamble at the end of that year, saying, ‘that the provisions were still in a perfect state of preservation, although annually exposed to a temperature of 92° below and 80° above zero.’ Some of the cases were left untouched by Sir John Ross; and after a further interval of sixteen years the place was visited by a party from Her Majesty’s ship Investigator, when, according to a letter from the captain, Sir James Ross, ‘the provisions were in excellent condition, after having lain upon the beach, exposed to the action of the sun, and all kinds of weather, for a period of nearly a quarter of a century.’ Messrs Crosse and Blackwell have placed the original letters in my hands for perusal, and they show beyond all doubt that meat preserved in this manner will keep good for nearly half a century—in fact, the case of boiled mutton now before you has been preserved for forty—four years.”

The generality of the samples of preserved meat from Australia are excellent in quality and flavour, except that in most cases the meat has been overcooked, which has arisen from the too prolonged contact of the meat with the steam, which it is judged necessary shall be generated in such quantities as to ensure the certainty of the exclusion of the air. Another inconvenience attending the process, viz. the liability of the sides of the tin to collapse, owing to the vacuum formed in its interior, has been remedied by the introduction into the vessel of some inert gas, such as carbonic acid, or nitrogen.

Preserved meat at the present time forms a very considerable article of export both from Australia and South America. In the former country there are several establishments of a colossal character, where the work of tinning the meat is carried on, in many of which establishments hundreds of cattle are slaughtered daily. The largest establishments of the kind are at Sydney and Melbourne, whence extensive shipments are being constantly made. The following figures are taken from the Board of Trade returns:—

Value of Meat preserved otherwise than by Salting.

Imports from
Australia. Total Imports.

1871 £481,093 £610,228

1872 657,945 816,463

1873 557,552 733,331

1874 509,698 757,001

1875 249,611 592,196

Since 1876 tinned meat has been imported from North America.

Several methods have been proposed for the preservation of meat by subjecting it to such conditions that the surrounding temperature should be sufficiently low to arrest putrefaction. In Mr Harrison’s process the reduction of temperature was effected by the application of melting ice and salt, made to run down the outside of the iron chambers containing the meat. It is affirmed that although the joints submitted to this treatment were solidly frozen, no loss of either flavour or immediate decomposition of the meat took place. Mr Harrison’s experiment was perfectly successful in Australia, but broke down during the voyage of a large cargo of meat shipped from Australia in 1873, owing to a defect in the construction of the ice chamber of the vessel and the failure of the supply of ice.

Of other forms of refrigeration applied for this purpose we may mention the process of M. Tellier, by which he proposes to place (on ship-board or elsewhere) joints of meat in a chamber through which a current of air charged with ether or other volatile substance may be passed, with a view to reduce the temperature to 30° F. Also that of M. Poggiale, from whose report to the Paris Academy of Medicine it appears that in chambers contrived on principles similar to M. Tellier’s, all kinds of butcher’s meat and poultry have been hung for ten weeks, at the end of which time they were found perfectly fresh and wholesome. The agent used in the latter case for the production of cold was methylic ether.

The process, however, of refrigeration which has proved not only the most, but in every respect successful, was first satisfactorily carried out since 1876, in which time large cargoes of dead meat have been constantly sent to our metropolitan markets, as well as to Glasgow, from New York. The following extract from the ‘Dundee Advertiser’ gives some interesting details of this process:—

“As to dead meat, the first sale was held on the 5th of June, when 100 carcases of beef and 72 of mutton were disposed of. Since then there has never been a smaller supply, and on the average about 150 carcases have been sold weekly. Last week 210 carcases were sold, and on Wednesday evening there were no fewer than 33 lorries, each laden with three tons of butcher’s meat. The freight paid for carriage to Glasgow, Liverpool, and London, last week amounted to £1900. Altogether, since the importation began, a million and a quarter pounds of dead meat have been sold in Glasgow. The result of this importation has been a reduction in retail price of 1d. per lb., instead of an increase in price, which must have taken place without the increased supply.

“The oxen are collected chiefly in the states of Illinois and Kentucky. They are there reared in enormous numbers on the prairies. Before they reach New York they are driven over railway for fully a thousand miles. Those animals the carcases of which are to be sent to this country are killed the day before the departure of the steamer. As soon as the carcases are dressed they are put into a cooling room capable of containing 500, and subject to a constant current of cold air, supplied by means of a 25 horse-power engine. This sets the beef and extracts the animal heat. Each carcase is next cut into quarters, and these are sewn up in canvas, and during the night transferred on board the vessel. Six of the Anchor Line mail steamers have been fitted up with refrigeration compartments, constructed on a patented principle specially for the conveyance of meat.

“After the quarters have been hung up in the room the door is hermetically closed. Adjoining the compartment is a chamber filled with ice. Air tubes are connected with the beef room, and through them the animal heat ascends, and by means of a powerful engine it is blown across the ice, and returned to the beef room in a cold state. A temperature of about 38° is thus maintained in the beef-room. If it were to get so low as 32°—freezing-point—the meat would be seriously injured. The heat is, therefore, regulated by a thermometer, and when the temperature gets too low, the speed of the engine is slackened, the normal degree of cold being thus maintained almost without variation during the voyage. Cattle killed on Thursday in New York are sold that day fortnight in Glasgow.”

The first patent for the preservation of food by means of ice was granted to Mr John Ling in 1845.

Lastly, mention must not be omitted of another method for the preservation of meat, which consists in the application to it of certain antiseptic substances, the action of which in preventing putrefaction is due to their power of destroying minute parasitic organisms of low animal or vegetable life, that would otherwise attack and set up decomposition in the meat. Our ordinary salted meats owe their immunity from decay, as is well known, to the presence in their tissues of common salt. Meat preserved, however, by this means is tough, indigestible, and wanting in many of its most important soluble constituents, which, dissolving part of the salt, run off from the meat and are lost.

Amongst other agents which have been found serviceable as antiseptics, and for which from time to time numerous patents have been taken out, are nitrate of potash, acetate and hydrochlorate of ammonia, the sulphates of soda and potash, and bisulphate of lime. The writer remembers partaking, some years since, of some Canadian turkey, which had been preserved by means of this latter substance, and the turkey having been killed some two months before being eaten. It was perfectly sound and of excellent flavour. In this instance the bird had been sent from Canada, with several others, packed in waterproof casks, filled up with a weak solution of bisulphite of lime.

In some cases the saline solution is merely brushed over the outside of the meat; whilst in others it is injected into the substance of the flesh.

Thiebierge’s process consists in dipping the joints for five minutes into dilute sulphuric acid, of the strength of about ten of water to one of acid. The meat after being taken out is carefully wiped and dried, and is then hung up for keeping.

Sulphurous acid also forms the subject of several patents for the preservation of meat. In the process of Laury, for which a patent was taken out in 1854, the gas was introduced into the vessels containing the food. In that of Belford, for which a provisional specification was granted the same year, the meat was soaked for 24 hours in a solution of sulphurous and hydrochloric acids (the latter being in the proportion of a hundredth of the volume of the former). The addition of the hydrochloric acid was made with the intention of decomposing any alkaline sulphites that might be formed by the combination of the alkaline salts of the meat with the sulphurous acid.

Dr Dewar’s process, which is very similar to the foregoing, proposes, instead of exposing the meat to sulphurous acid fumigation, to immerse it in a solution of the acid of the same strength as that of the British Pharmacopœia. On being taken out of the liquid the meat, or other article, is, as speedily as possible, dried at a temperature not exceeding 140° F., so that the albumen may be preserved simply in a desiccated, and not in a coagulated condition.

In the patent of Demait, which dates from 1855, the meat was directed to be hung up in a properly constructed chamber, and exposed for some time to the action of the gas. More recently, Professor Gamgee has taken out a patent, which is a modification of Demait’s, and which consists in hanging up the carcase of the animal, previously killed when under the influence of carbonic oxide, in a chamber filled with this latter gas, to which a little sulphurous acid has been added, the chamber having been first exhausted of air. The carcase is allowed to remain in the chamber from 24 to 48 hours, after which it is hung in dry air. It is stated that meat subjected to the above treatment has been found perfectly sound and eatable after an interval of five months.

M. Lanjorrois proposes to preserve animal substances from decay by the addition to them of 1 per cent. of magenta. He states the process had been applied to slices of beef, which, after being kept for several months, yielded, after being washed and boiled, very good soup. Commenting on this suggestion for the preservation of meat, the ‘Chemical News’ very sensibly and properly remarks: “It is to be hoped the magenta employed will be free from arsenic.”

The patent of M. de la Peyrouse (which dates from 1873) also consists in excluding the air by enveloping meat in fat. In this process, however, the fat is mixed, when in a melting condition, with a certain quantity of the carbonates of sodium, potassium, and ammonium, as well as with some chlorides of magnesium and aluminium, with the object of preventing the fat becoming rancid and decomposing, and thus imparting a disagreeable flavour to the meat.

In M. George’s process the meat is partially dried, and then steeped in successive waters containing hydrochloric acid and sulphate of soda.

MECON′IC ACID. H3C7HO7. Syn. Acidum meconicum, L. A peculiar acid, first obtained by Sertuerner from opium, in 1804.

Prep. Meconate of lime is suspended in warm water, and treated with hydrochloric acid. Impure meconic acid crystallises on cooling, and may be purified by repeated treatment in the same way with hydrochloric acid. Its purity is ascertained by its leaving no residue when heated in a platinum or glass capsule.

Prop. Meconic acid forms beautiful pearly scales; possesses a sour astringent taste; is soluble in boiling water, and to a less extent in cold; it is also soluble in alcohol. With the acids it forms salts called ‘meconates,’ most of which are crystallisable. Meconate of lime is obtained by heating a solution of chloride of calcium with an infusion of opium made with cold water, and neutralised by powdered marble, and collecting the precipitate. Meconate of potassa is prepared by direct solution of the base in the impure acid obtained from meconate of lime till the liquor turns green, heat being applied, when the salt crystallises out as the liquid cools; it may be purified by pressure and recrystallisation.

Tests. Meconic acid is characterised by—1. Turning ferric salts red, and the red colour not being destroyed by the action of corrosive sublimate.—2. Precipitating a weak solution of ammonio-sulphate of copper green.—3. With acetate of lead, nitrate of silver, and chloride of barium, it gives white precipitates, which are soluble in nitric acid.—4. It is not reddened by chloride of gold.

MEC′ONIN. C10H10O4. A white, crystalline, odourless, neutral substance, discovered by Couerbe in opium.

MECO′NIUM. See Opium.

MED′ICINES. However skilful the medical practitioner may be, and however judicious his treatment, both are interfered with, and their value more or less neutralised, if the remedies he orders are not administered precisely according to his instructions. It is the duty of the attendant on the sick to follow implicitly the directions of the physician, as well in exactly complying with his orders as in doing nothing that she has not been ordered to do. At the same time there are exceptions to this rule, in which a suspension of the remedy, or a deviation from the order of the physician, is not only allowable, but is absolutely required. Thus, from idiosyncrasy or some other cause, the remedy in the doses ordered may have no effect, or may produce one widely different from that intended or expected. In such cases it is evident that a strict adherence to the direction of the physician would be productive of evil; but he should be immediately apprised of the circumstance. The common practice of neglecting to administer the doses of medicine at the prescribed time, or after prescribed intervals, and then, to compensate for the omission, giving the medicine more frequently or in larger doses, cannot be too severely censured, as destructive to the welfare of the patient and injurious to the credit of the physician.

For the purpose of disguising the taste of medicine, or lessening their nauseating properties, Dr Pollio has recommended a means founded on the physiological fact that a strong impression on the nerves (whether of vision, hearing, or taste) renders that which follows less perceptible than under the usual circumstances. Instead, therefore, of applying to the mouth agreeable substances after swallowing nauseous medicines, we should prepare it beforehand, in order that the taste of the medicine may not be perceived. Aromatic substances, as orange or lemon peel, &c., chewed just before taking medicine, effectually prevent castor oil, &c., being tasted. In preparing the mouth for bitters, liquorice is the only sweet that should be used, the others creating a peculiarly disagreeable compound taste. We have noticed already the effect of oil of orange peel in correcting the nauseating qualities of copaiba. See Dose and Prescribing.

MEDICINES FOR PASSENGER SHIPS. The annexed scale of medicines, medical stores, and instruments for ships clearing under the Passengers Acts, other than steamships engaged in the North Atlantic trade, has been issued and caused to be published by the Board of Trade, and is intended to supersede the scales hitherto in force.

The quantities mentioned in the scale are for every 100 passengers, when the length of the passage, computed according to the Passengers Act, is 100 days and upwards. Half the quantity of medicines indicated, but the same kind and quantity of medical stores should be taken when the passage is less than 100 days.

N.B.—There is a separate scale for North Atlantic steam passenger ships.

The medicines are to be prepared according to the British Pharmacopœia, to be plainly labelled in English, and the average doses for an adult stated, according to the British Pharmacopœia.

All bottles are to be stoppered, and all medicines indicated thus (*) are to be marked with a red poison label. All fluid quantities are to be measured by fluid lbs., oz., or dr.

Lbs. oz. dr.

Acid, Acetic 0 6 0

* Acid, Carbolic 0 1 0

* Acid, Carbolic (a powder containing not less than 20 per cent. of pure carbolic or cresylic acid) 112 0 0

Acid, Citric 0 3 0

Acid, Gallic 0 1 0

Acid, Hydrocyanic Dil. 0 0 4

Acid, Nitric 0 1 0

Acid, Sulph. Dil. 0 6 0

Æther 0 1 0

Alumen 0 1 0

Ammon. Carb. 0 6 0

Amylum 1 0 0

Argent. Nit. (Stick) 0 0 2

Calx Chlorate 7 0 0

Camphor 0 6 0

Charta Epispatica, 4 sq. ft., in case

* Chlor. of Zinc (Burnett’s sol. of) 16 0 0

* Chloroform 0 8 0

Copaiba 0 8 0

Creosote 0 0 2

Cupri Sulph. 0 1 0

Emp. Cantharidis 0 1 0

Ferri et Quiniæ Cit. 0 1 0

Ferri Sulph. 0 0 4

Glycerin 0 6 0

Glycerin Acid. Tannic 0 4 0

* Hydrat. Chloral 0 1 6

Hydrarg. cum Cretâ 0 0 4

Hydrarg. Subchloridi 0 0 4

Lini Farina 6 0 0

Lin. Camph. 0 8 0

Lin. Opii 0 2 0

Lin. Saponis 1 0 0

* Liq. Atropiæ 0 0 1

Liq. Calcis 1 0 0

* Liq. Morphiæ Acetatis 0 1 0

* Liq. Plumbi Subacetatis 0 2 0

Liq. Potassæ 0 2 0

* Liq. Potassæ Permanganatis (B. P. or Condy’s Crimson Fluid) 3 0 0

Magnes. Sulph. 4 0 0

Mist. Sennæ Co. (omit Extract of Liquorice and substitute Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia, 1 oz. to 1 pint of the mixture) 3 0 0

Ol. Croton 0 0 1

Ol. Lini 0 8 0

Ol. Menthæ Pip. 0 0 2

Ol. Morrhuæ 3 0 0

Ol. Olivæ 1 0 0

Ol. Ricini 2 0 0

Ol. Terebinthinæ 1 0 0

* Opium 1 0 0

Plumbi Acetatis 0 1 0

Potassæ Bicarb. Pulv. 0 4 0

Potassii Iodid. 0 2 0

Pulv. Antimonialis 0 0 3

* Pulv. Astringens (double the quantity indicated to be taken to all tropical ports. Pulv. Catechu Co., Pulv. Cretæ Arom. cum Opiô—equal parts) 1 0 0

Pulv. Cretæ Arom. cum Opiô. 0 2 0

Pulv. Ipecac. 0 2 0

Pulv. Ipecac. Co. 0 2 0

Pulv. Jalapæ Co. 0 3 0

Pulv. Potassæ Nitratis 0 4 0

Pulv. Rhei Co. 0 4 0

Pulv. Scammon. Co. 0 0 6

Quiniæ Sulph. (double the quantity indicated to be taken to all tropical ports) 0 1 0

Sodæ Bicarb. 1 0 0

Sp. Æther. Nitrosi 0 8 0

Sp. Ammon. Arom. 0 8 0

Sp. Rectif. 0 4 0

Sp. Sulphur Sublimatum 3 0 0

Syr. Ferri Iodidi 0 4 0

* Sol. Morphiæ Acetat. (a neutral solution containing 4 grains in a drachm, and so marked. To be labelled—for hypodermic injection) 0 0 4

Tr. Arnicæ 0 6 0

Tr. Camphoræ Co. 0 8 0

Tr. Digitalis 0 0 6

Tr. Ergotæ 0 6 0

Tr. Ferri Perchloridi 0 4 0

* Tr. Opii 0 6 0

Tr. Scillæ 0 2 0

Tr. Valerian. Ammon. 0 3 0

Ung. Cetacei 1 0 0

Ung. Hydrargyri 0 2 0

Ung. Hydrargyri Ox. Rub. 0 1 0

Ung. Sulph. 1 0 0

Ung. Zinci 0 2 0

Vin. Colchici 0 1 0

Vin. Ipecac. 0 1 0

Zinci Sulphatis 0 1 0

Desiccated Soup 4 0 0

All pills to be made and marked 5 grains.

Pil. Aloes cum Myrrhâ 2 doz.

Pil. Col. c. Hyoscy 4 doz.

Pil. Hydrarg. 3 doz.

Pil. Ipecac. cum Scillâ 5 doz.

Pil. Quiniæ 6 doz.

Pil. Sapon. Co. 6 doz.

Medical Stores.

Lint 10 oz.

Tow 1 lb.

Adhesive Plaster 3 yds.

Male Syringe 1

Male Syringe Glass 1

Female Syringe 1

Phials (assorted) 2 doz.

Phial corks 6 doz.

Sponges 3

Bed-pan 1

Paper of Pins 1

Hernia Truss, 36 in., reversible 1

Paper of Pill Boxes 1

Gallipots 6

Leg and Arm Bandages 6

Calico 3 yds.

Flannel Bandages, 7 yds. long, 6 in. wide 2

Flannel 2 yds.

Triangular Bandages, base 48 in., sides 33 in. each 2

† Minim Measures 2

† 1 oz. Measures 1

† 2 oz. Measures 1

† Set of Splints 1

† Waterproof sheeting 4 yds.

† Oiled Silk 1 yd.

† Enema Syringe and Stomach Pump 1

† Box of Small Scales and Weights 1

† Wedgwood Mortar and Pestle 1

Wedgwood Funnel 1

† Spatulas 2

† Authorised Book of Directions for Medicine Chests 1

† British Pharmacopœia 1

† One set only of these articles required, irrespective of number of passengers.

N.B.—Only one set of instruments required, without regard to the number of surgeons, passengers, or the length of the voyage.

Instruments.

In Pocket Case 1 Tenaculum.

1 Artery Forceps.

1 Operating ditto.

1 Finger Knife.

1 Curve Bistoury, Probe Point.

1 Curve Bistoury, Spear Point.

2 Probes.

1 Silver Director.

1 Caustic Case.

1 Scissors.

1 Spatula.

12 Needles.

1 Skein Ligature Silk.

3 Lancets.

1 Amputating Saw.

2 Amputating Knives.

1 Bone Forceps.

3 Tooth Forceps.

1 Skull Forceps.

1 Trephine.

1 Elevator.

1 Hey’s Saw.

1 Trephine Brush.

2 Scalpels.

1 Hernia Knife.

2 Trocars and Canulas.

1 Aneurism Needle.

1 Hernia Director.

1 Tourniquet.

2 Silver Catheters (Nos. 4 and 8).

4 Elastic Gum Catheters (Nos. 3, 5, and 7).

1 Clinical Thermometer.

1 Hypodermic Syringe.

1 dozen charged Tubes for Vaccination.

1 Set of Midwifery Instruments.

MEER′SCHAUM. Syn. Ecume de mer, L. A native silicate of magnesia. It has a sp. gr. ranging between 2·6 to 3·4; is readily acted on by acids, and fuses before a powerful blowpipe into a white enamel. The finest qualities are found in Greece and Turkey. Its principal application is to the manufacture of tobacco-pipes. The Germans prepare their pipes for sale by soaking them in tallow, then in white wax, and, finally, by polishing them with shavegrass. Genuine meerschaum pipes are distinguished from mock ones by the beautiful brown colour which they assume after being smoked for some time. Of late years some of the pipemakers have produced a composition clay pipe, which closely resembles meerschaum in appearance, and is “warranted to colour well.” The composition, which is comparatively valueless, is made up into pipes of suitable patterns, which are frequently sold to the ignorant for “meerschaums.” See Cements, Hydraulic.

ME′GRIM. Syn. Meagrim, Hemicrania, L. A pain affecting one side of the head only, often periodic, like an ague, and generally of a nervous, hysterical, or bilious character. It is clavus when there is a strong pulsation, conveying the sensation of a nail piercing the part. See Headache.

MEG′RIMS. Syn. Meagrims, Vertigo. In veterinary medicine this term is applied to horses which when at work reel, then stand for a minute dull and stupid, or fall to the ground, and lie partially insensible for a few minutes. “Horses subject to this affection should be driven with a breastplate or pipe collar, so as to prevent pressure on the veins carrying the blood from the head; the bowels should be kept in good order; an occasional laxative is advisable, and a course, either of arsenic or quinine, or of arsenic and iron.” (Dun.)

MEL′ANCHOLY. See Hypochondriasis and Insanity.

MELIS′SIC ALCOHOL. A substance obtained by Brodie from beeswax. By oxidation it yields ‘melissic acid.’

MELLA′GO. The old name for a medicine having the consistence of honey, with a somewhat sweetish taste. Mellago taraxaci is fluid extract of dandelion.

MELTING-POINT. The temperature at which solids assume the liquid form.

MEN′STRUUM. [L.] A solvent or dissolvent. The principal MENSTRUA employed in chemistry and pharmacy to extract the active principles of bodies by digestion, decoction, infusion, or maceration, are water, alcohol, oils, and solutions of the acids and alkalies.

MERCU′′RIAL BAL′SAM. See Ointment of Nitrate of Mercury.

MERCU′′RIAL DISEASE′. Syn. Morbus mercurialis, Hydrargyriasis, L. This results from the injudicious or excessive use of mercury, or exposure to the fumes of this metal. The common and leading symptoms are a disagreeable coppery taste; excessive salivation; sponginess, tumefaction, and ulceration of the gums; swollen tongue; loosening of the teeth; exfoliation of the jaws; remarkably offensive breath; debility; emaciation; ending (when not arrested) in death from exhaustion. Fever, cachexia, violent purging and griping, a species of eczema (ECZEMA MERCURIALE, LEPRA MERCURIALIS), and other forms of skin disease, are also phases of the same affection, the first of which occasionally proves fatal under the influence of sudden and violent physical exertion.

The treatment, in ordinary cases, may consist in free exposure to the open air, avoiding either heat or cold; the administration of saline aperients, as Epsom salts, phosphate of soda, &c.; the free use of lemon juice and water as a common drink; with weak gargles or washes of chloride of soda or chloride of lime to the gums, mouth, and throat. Severe cases often resist every variety of treatment, and instances are recorded in the medical journals in which the use of even small doses of mercurials, administered by the faculty, have, owing to the peculiar idiosyncrasy of the patients, been followed by the most horrible sufferings, terminating in death.

MER′CURY. Hg. Syn. Quicksilver, Hydrargyrum (B. P., Ph. L. E. and D.); Mercure, Vif argent, Fr.; Quecksilber, Ger. A remarkable metal, which has been known from a very early period. The Romans employed it as a medicine externally, as did the Arabs; but the Hindoos were probably the first to prescribe it internally.

Sources. The most important are the mines of Idria, in Carniola; Almaden, in New Castile; and New Almaden, in California, where it exists combined with sulphur, under the form of cinnabar. From this ore the pure metal is obtained by distilling it with lime or iron filings, in iron retorts, by which the sulphur it contains is seized and retained, while the mercury rises in the state of vapour, and is condensed in suitable receivers. Quicksilver is commonly imported in cylindrical iron bottles; containing ⁄2 cwt. to 1 cwt. each. It is also imported in small quantities from China, contained in bamboo bottles holding about 20 lbs. each.

Prep. Mercury, as imported, is usually sufficiently pure for medicinal purposes without any further preparation. Mere mechanical impurities, as floating dust, dirt, &c., may be got rid of by squeezing the metal through chamois leather or flannel, or by filtering it through a small hole in the apex of an inverted cone of paper. It can be further cleaned by shaking well with a little strong nitric acid, washing with distilled water, and drying by blotting paper, or filtering through warm chamois leather.

Prop., &c. Mercury, at all common temperatures, is a heavy liquid, possessing a nearly silver-white colour, and a brilliant metallic lustre; solidifies (freezes) at -40° Fahr., and is then ductile, malleable, and tenacious; boils at 662° Fahr., and escapes in colourless transparent vapour, of great density; it also volatilises slowly at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. The presence of minute quantities of lead and zinc greatly retard its evaporation at its boiling heat. It unites with oxygen, chlorine, iodine, &c., forming numerous compounds. With the metals it unites to form AMALGAMS. The only acids which act directly on metallic mercury are the sulphuric and nitric, but for this purpose the former must be heated and concentrated. Nitric acid, however, even when dilute and in the cold, dissolves it freely. Pure mercury is unalterable in the air at ordinary temperatures. Sp. gr. 13·59 at 60° Fahr.; about 14· when in the solid state.

Uses, &c. Mercury is applied to various purposes in the arts; as the amalgamation of gold and silver, ‘wash gilding,’ the silvering of looking-glasses, the manufacture of barometers and thermometers, and the preparation of several very valuable medicines. In its metallic state it appears to be inert when swallowed, unless it meets with much acidity in the alimentary canal, or is in a state of minute division; its compounds are, however, all of them more or less poisonous.

Mercury has been employed in one or other of its forms in almost all diseases; but each of its numerous preparations is supposed to have some peculiarity of action of its own, combined with that common to all the compounds of this metal. The mercurials form, indeed, one of the most important classes of the materia medica.

Tests. 1. Metallic mercury is detected by its liquid condition and volatility; and, when in a finely divided or pulverulent state, by the microscope, or by staining a piece of copper white when the two are rubbed together.

Mercury, when present in combination, can be detected as under:

When intimately mixed with anhydrous sodium carbonate, and heated in a small test-tube, under a layer of the carbonate, decomposition ensues, and a crust of grey sublimate forms on the cooler portion of the tube. When examined by a lens this crust is seen to consist of minute metallic globules. By friction with a bright glass or iron rod these are united into globules, which are visible to the naked eye.

A perfectly clean and bright piece of copper, immersed in a slightly acid solution of mercury, becomes in a short time covered with a grey or whitish stain, which assumes a silvery lustre when gently rubbed with a piece of soft cork or leather, and is removed by the subsequent application of heat. A single drop of liquid may be tested on a bright copper coin in this way.

The plate of copper with the deposit of mercury, obtained as above, after being washed with a weak solution of ammonia, and in distilled water, and dried by pressure between the folds of bibulous paper, may be cut into small pieces, and heated in a test-tube, in order to obtain metallic globules. When the suspected solution contains organic matter, bright copper filings may be employed, and the process modified so as nearly to resemble Reinsch’s test for arsenious acid. According to Orfila, “scraped copper plate” is capable of detecting the presence of ⁄80000th part of corrosive sublimate in a solution. MM. Trousseau and Reveil state that a plate of yellow copper (brass) is even more susceptible than one of red copper.

(Smithson’s electrolytic test.) This consists in the use of a polished wire or plate of gold or copper round which a strip or thread of zinc or tin is wound in a spiral direction. The suspected liquid is acidulated with a few drops of hydrochloric acid, and after immersion for a longer or a shorter period (as half an hour to an hour or two), the gold will have become white if any mercury is present. The coil of zinc or tin is then removed from the gold, and the latter, after being washed and dried between the folds of bibulous paper, is heated in a test-tube, to obtain metallic globules, as before.

An ingenious extemporaneous application of the electrolytic test may be made as follows:—Place a drop or two of the suspected liquid on a clean and bright gold or copper coin, and apply a bright key, so that it may at once touch the edge of the coin and the solution. (See engr.) An electric current will then be established as before, and a white spot of reduced mercury will appear on the surface of the metal, which may be recognised in the manner already explained.

The salts of mercury are divided into two classes—mercurous, where mercury is a monad element, and unites with one atom of chlorine; and mercuric salts, where it plays the part of a dyad element, or unites with two atoms. The latter of these will be taken first.

Mercury, Pure. (Ph. B.) Syn. Hydrargyrum purum. Place commercial mercury, 3 lbs., in a glass retort or iron bottle, and applying heat cause 2⁄2 lbs. of the metal to distil over into a flask employed as a receiver. Boil on this for five minutes hydrochloric acid, 3 dr., diluted with distilled water, 9 fl. dr., and having by repeated affusions of distilled water, and decantations, removed every trace of acid, let the mercury be transferred to a porcelain capsule, and dried first by filtering paper, and finally on a water bath.

Mercuric Salts. Tests. Sulphuretted hydrogen and ammonium sulphide, added in very small quantities, produce on agitation a perfectly white precipitate, which acquires successively a yellow, orange, and brownish-red colour, as more of the test is added; and, ultimately, when the test is added in considerable excess, an intensely black colour. This precipitate is insoluble in excess of the precipitant, potassium hydrate, potassium cyanide, hydrochloric acid, or nitric acid, even when boiling; but it dissolves readily and completely in potassium sulphide and in ‘aqua regia’ with decomposition. These reactions are characteristic.

Ammonia gives a white precipitate.

Potassium hydrate gives a reddish precipitate, turning yellow when the test is added in excess. The presence of ammonia causes the precipitate to be white, and when the solution contains much acid both reactions are imperfect.

Alkaline carbonates give a brick-red precipitate.

Potassium iodide gives a scarlet precipitate, which is soluble in excess, and in alcohol, and solution of sodium chloride.

The alkaline bicarbonates either do not disturb the solution, or only cause a slight degree of opalescence.

Mercuric Acetate. Hg(C2H3O2)2. Syn. Protacetate of mercury. Prep. By dissolving mercuric oxide in warm acetic acid. It crystallises in brilliant micaceous lamina, soluble in their own weight of cold water, and somewhat more soluble in boiling water. According to Robiquet, this is the basis of Keyser’s antivenereal pills, which do not contain subacetate of mercury, as has been asserted.

Mercuric Bromide. HgBr2. Syn. Protobromide of mercury, Hydrargyri bibromidum. Prep. Two equal parts of bromine and mercury and sublime. Soluble reddish mass; resembles the iodide in its action.—Dose, ⁄20 to ⁄8 gr.

Mercuric Chloride. HgCl2. Syn. Protochloride of mercury, Perchloride of mercury, Bichloride of mercury, Corrosive sublimate; Hydrargyri perchloridum (B. P.), Hydrargyri bichloridum (Ph. L.), Sublimatus corrosivus (Ph. E.), Sublimatum corrosivum (Ph. D.), Hydrargyri chloridum corrosivum (Ph. U. S.), Hydrargyri murias corrosivus, L. This is the ‘corrosive sublimate’ of the shops.

Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Mercury, 2 lbs.; sulphuric acid, 21⁄2 fl. oz.; boil to dryness, and rub the residuum, when cold, with sodium chloride, 1⁄2 lb., in an earthenware mortar; lastly, sublime by a gradually increased heat.

2. (Ph. E.) Mercury, 4 oz.; sulphuric acid, 2 fl. oz. 3 fl. dr.; pure nitric acid, ⁄2 fl. oz.; dissolve, add of sodium chloride, 3 oz., and sublime as before.

3. (Ph. D.) ‘Persulphate of mercury’ (mercuric sulphate), 2 parts; dried sodium chloride, 1 part; triturate, &c., as before.

4. (Ph. B.) Reduce sulphate of mercury, 20 oz., and chloride of sodium, dried, 16 oz., each to fine powder, and having mixed them add black oxide of manganese, in fine powder, 1 oz., thoroughly by trituration in a mortar, place the mixture in an apparatus adapted for sublimation, and apply sufficient heat to cause vapours of perchloride of mercury to rise into the less heated part of the apparatus arranged for their condensation.

Obs. In preparing corrosive sublimate, as well as calomel, by the common process, the solution of the mercury is usually made in an iron pot, set in a furnace under a chimney, to carry off the fumes; and the sublimation is conducted in an earthen alembic placed in a sand bath, or in an iron pot, covered with a semi-spherical earthen head. Corrosive sublimate may also be made by the direct solution of mercuric oxide in hydrochloric acid, or by bringing its constituents together in the state of vapour. The latter plan was patented by the late Dr A. T. Thomson.

Prop. The mercuric chloride of commerce occurs in white, semi-transparent, crystalline masses, of considerable density; it possesses an intense coppery taste, is soluble in about 16 parts of cold, and in 3 parts of boiling water; the boiling solution deposits its excess of salt in long white prisms as it cools; soluble in alcohol and ether, in the latter so much so that it has even the property of withdrawing it from its aqueous solutions; the addition of hydrochloric acid, ammonious chloride or camphor, increases its solubility in all these menstrua. It is decomposed by contact with nearly all metallic bodies, and in solution by various organic substances, and by exposure to light. Sp. gr. 5·2 (5·14 to 5·42—Liebig). It melts at about 509° Fahr., and boils and volatilises at a higher temperature.

Tests. The presence of mercuric chloride may, under most circumstances, be readily detected by the tests given. To distinguish it from other salts, special tests for chlorine or hydrochloric acid must be applied. If on filtering the solution, acidulating it with dilute nitric acid, and testing it with silver nitrate, a cloudy white precipitate be formed, which is insoluble in excess of the precipitant, and in nitric acid, but soluble in ammonia water, and blackened by lengthened exposure to light, corrosive sublimate is shown to be present in the substance examined. Calomel, the only compound of mercury with chlorine besides corrosive sublimate, is an insoluble powder, which could not, therefore, be found in the filtered liquid. Calomel, or the white precipitate formed by the mercurous salt, with hydrochloric acid and the soluble chlorides, is soluble in excess of the precipitant, and is not only insoluble in liquor of ammonia, but is immediately blackened by it.

For the purpose of demonstrating the presence of corrosive sublimate in a highly coloured liquid, or one loaded with organic matter, it is necessary to agitate it for some minutes with an equal volume of ether. After repose for a short time, the ethereal solution is decanted, and allowed to evaporate spontaneously. The residuum (if any) contains the corrosive sublimate, which, after being dissolved in distilled water, is readily recognised by the above characteristics.

When the substance under examination consists of food, or the contents of the digestive canal, or of animal tissue, it is in general necessary to destroy the organic matter in a nearly similar way to that described under Arsenious acid. The process adopted by Devergie for this purpose consists in dissolving the substance in concentrated hydrochloric acid, and passing a stream of chlorine through the liquid.—Flandin first carbonises the mass with ⁄3 or ⁄2 its weight of concentrated sulphuric acid, at 212° Fahr., and then saturates the acid in the cold, with dry ‘chloride of lime,’ added in fragments, assisting the action by stirring, and further adding, by degrees, as the matter thickens and becomes white, a sufficient quantity of distilled water.—Lassaigne boils the suspected mixture for some time with a solution of sodium chloride; a method which, according to Orfila, is not sufficiently delicate to withdraw minute portions of mercury from flesh.—Millon agitates organic liquids (more especially blood, milk, &c.) in large flasks containing gaseous chlorine, which is frequently renewed.—Orfila either dissolves the matter in aqua regia, and passes a stream of chlorine through the liquid, or he carbonises it by means of concentrated sulphuric acid, in close vessels.—Personne proceeds by a similar method, but avoids raising the temperature of the substances operated on.—Reveil employs either the last method or that of Millon. In all cases it is advisable to operate in close vessels, on account of the volatility of the bichloride; Orfila’s apparatus consists of a matrass, provided with a bent tube, the one end of which is plunged into a jar of cold distilled water. The corrosive sublimate is found both in the volatilised matter and in the carbonised residuum, and is extracted from the latter by boiling it for 15 or 20 minutes in aqua regia.

When the organic matter has been destroyed by any of the above processes, and a colourless and filtered solution in distilled water obtained, the usual tests may be at once applied. But in this way we can only detect the presence of mercury, but are unable to decide in what way it has entered the system, although we may infer it from other circumstances. It is, therefore, absolutely necessary, in all medico-legal investigations, to previously employ ether (see above), in order that we may be enabled to examine the deleterious matter in its original form, or that in which it was swallowed.

Uses, &c. Mercuric chloride is employed as an alterative, diaphoretic, and resolvent, in the chronic forms of secondary syphilis, rheumatism, scrofula, cancer, old dropsies, numerous skin diseases, &c.; and externally, as a caustic, in cancer, and made into an ointment, lotion, or injection, in a vast number of skin diseases, ulcers, gleet, &c., and as a preventive of contagion. It acts quicker than the other preparations of mercury, and it is less apt to induce salivation; but it has been said that its effects are less apparent.—Dose, ⁄10 to ⁄4 gr., either made into a pill, or in solution. It is highly poisonous, and must be exhibited and handled with the greatest caution. Its use is contra-indicated in cases complicated with pulmonary affections or nervous derangement.

Pois.—1. Symptoms. Strong coppery or metallic taste; intense pain in the mouth, pharynx, œsophagus, stomach, and intestines; nausea, vomiting (often bloody), diarrhœa, and (sometimes) violent dysentery (these evacuations are generally more frequent than in poisoning by other metallic compounds). After a certain time there is generally an abatement of the severity of the symptoms; the circulation becomes slower, the pulse small and thready, the respiration gentle, and the skin cold; syncope then supervenes, and great general insensibility, always commencing at the pelvic extremities; and sometimes convulsions occur; the secretion of urine is generally diminished, sometimes even entirely suppressed; but the patients always urinate if the sublimate has been employed in a very diluted state, and if drinks have been administered. Death often appears to result from the shock to the nervous system, from intense exhaustion, or from mortification or intense inflammation of the primæ viæ. Poisoning by corrosive sublimate is distinguished from that by arsenic, by the countenance being flushed, and even swollen; whereas, in poisoning by arsenic, it is wholly contracted and ghastly, and by the whitened condition of the epithelium of the mouth.

2. Antidotes. White of egg, hydrated ferric sulphide or ferrous sulphide, and gluten, are each of them powerful antidotes. White of egg has proved efficacious in numerous cases. It requires the white of one egg to decompose 4 gr. of corrosive sublimate. (Peschier.) The recently precipitated protosulphuret of iron is, however, according to Mialhe, the antidote par excellence, not only to corrosive sublimate, but to the salts of lead and copper. The gluten of wheat has also been recommended (Taddei); or, what is equally efficacious, wheat flour mixed up with water. When any of the above are not at hand, copious draughts of milk may be substituted. Iron filings have been occasionally used as an antidote. All these substances should be taken in considerable quantities; the dose should be frequently repeated, and the general treatment similar to that in cases of poisoning by arsenic. Vomiting should be, in all cases, immediately induced, to remove, if possible, the poisonous matter from the stomach.

Mercuric-ammonium Chloride. HgNH2Cl. Syn. Ammonio-chloride of Mercury, Ammoniated chloride of mercury, White precipitate, Lemery’s w. p., Cosmetic mercury; Hydrargyri ammoniatum (B. P.), Hydrargyri ammonio-chloridum (Ph. L.), Hydrargyrum precipitatum album (Ph. E.)

Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Mercuric chloride, 6 oz.; distilled water, 3 quarts; dissolve, with heat, and when the solution has cooled, add of liquor of ammonia 8 fl. oz., frequently shaking it; lastly, wash the precipitate with water, and dry it. The formulæ of the Ph. E. & D. are nearly similar.

2. Mercuric chloride and ammonium chloride, of each ⁄2 lb.; water, 3 quarts; dissolve, and precipitate with solution of potassium hydrate, q. s.