A Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts, &c. Volume II (part 2)

Estim. This has been already referred to under previous heads. The ores of lead (galena) may be digested in nitric acid, when the solution may be treated with sulphuric acid, and the lead estimated from the weight of the precipitated sulphate. This is called an assay in the wet way. The method adopted by practical mineralogists is an assay in the dry way, and is conducted as follows:—A small but powerful air-furnace, charged with coke, is brought to as high a temperature as possible, and a conical wrought-iron crucible plunged into the midst of it; as soon as the crucible has attained a dull-red heat, 1000 gr. of the galena, reduced to powder, are thrown into it, and stirred gently with a long piece of stiff iron wire flattened at the one end, in order to expose as large a surface of the powdered ore to the air as possible, observing now and then to withdraw the wire, to prevent it becoming red hot, in which case some of the ore would permanently adhere to it, and be reduced before the intended time; the roasting is completed in 3 or 4 minutes, and any portion of the ore adhering to the stirrer being detached by a knife, and returned into the crucible, the latter is covered up, and allowed to attain a full cherry-red heat, when about 2 or 3 spoonfuls of reducing flux are added, and the whole brought to a full white heat; in 12 to 15 minutes, the portion of metal and scoria adhering to the sides of the crucible are scraped down into the melted mass with a small stick of moist green wood, after which the crucible is again covered, and the heat urged for 2 or 3 minutes longer, so as to keep the mass in a perfectly liquid state during the whole time; the crucible is then removed from the fire with the crucible-tongs, and adroitly tilted so as to discharge its contents into a small, ingot-mould of brass, observing to rake the scoria from the surface to the sides of the crucible, so as to allow the molten lead to be poured out without it; the scoria is then reheated in the crucible with about ⁄2 spoonful of flux, and after being cleansed with a piece of green wood, as before, is at once poured into a second mould, which is instantly inverted; the little button of lead thus obtained is added to the lead in the other mould, and the whole is accurately weighed. The weight, divided by 10, gives the per-centage of lead (including silver, if present) in the ore examined.

One half of the lead thus obtained is put into a dry cupel of bone ash, and placed in the cupelling furnace, and treated as described in the article on assaying; the metallic button left on the cupel is then detached and weighed. The weight, divided by 5, gives the per-centage of pure silver.

Obs. The flux commonly employed in the above assay is composed of red argol, 6 parts; nitre, 4 parts; borax, 2 parts; fluor spar, 1 part; well pulverised and thoroughly mixed together. When the ore is very refractory, about a spoonful of carbonate of potassium should be added for each 1000 grains of ore, in which case the roasting may be dispensed with. The quantity of silver in argentiferous galena varies from ⁄10000 to ⁄3 part of the whole. Whenever this ore contains above 2 parts of silver in the 1000, it is found to be profitable to extract the latter. Indeed, by Pattison’s process it is found that as small a proportion as 1 in 8000 can be extracted with profit.

Uses. The uses of lead in the arts are well known. It enters into the composition of many important alloys (pewter, type-metal, shot-metal, solder, &c.), it furnishes us with several valuable pigments (chrome yellow, &c.), and it is extensively used in dyeing. Some of its preparations are employed in medicine.

Ant., &c. Administer an emetic of sulphate of zinc or sulphate of copper, and, if necessary, tickle the fauces with the finger or a feather, to induce vomiting. Should this not succeed the stomach-pump may be had recourse to. Epsom or Glauber’s salts, or alum, dissolved in water, or water acidulated with sulphuric acid, followed by tea, water gruel, or barley water, are the proper antidotes, and should be taken as soon after the poison has been swallowed as possible. In poisoning by white lead, Dr Alfred Taylor recommends the administration of a mixture of sulphate of magnesium and vinegar, as preferable to the sulphate alone. When the symptoms are those of painter’s colic, the treatment recommended under that head should be adopted. In paralysis arising from lead, small doses of strychnine and its preparations may be cautiously administered. A symptom of poisoning by lead is the formation of a narrow leaden blue line, from ⁄20th to ⁄6th of an inch wide, bordering the edges of the gums, attached to the neck of two or more teeth of either jaw. (Dr Burton.) This discoloration may often be detected or rendered more conspicuous by rinsing the mouth out with water holding a little sulphuretted hydrogen or sulphydrate of ammonium in solution. Chevallier and Rayer recommend the use of sulphurous or hepatic mineral waters, or of artificial solutions of sulphuretted hydrogen or alkaline sulphides in water, both in cases of acute and chronic poisoning by lead; but the practical success of this plan does not appear to have been in proportion to theoretical anticipations. The moist and freshly precipitated sulphides of iron are said by their advocates to be infallible if taken sufficiently early.

Lead in Aerated Water. Some time since Sir Robert Christison condemned the use of syphons for lemonade, owing to the action of free tartaric acid upon lead, and the rapidity with which waters containing any free acid become charged with lead in syphons. According to Professor Miller, 0·0175 gr. of lead per gallon is not an unusual amount for average cistern water. Mr John S. Thompson, however, reports to the Edinburgh University Chemical Society that, after such water has been aerated and put into a syphon, the amount of lead dissolved in it begins to rise in a rapid manner. Thus in potash water, drawn from a syphon, 0·0408 grain of lead per gallon was found to be present, being nearly 25 times the quantity found in the same water before it entered the syphon. Pure aerated water again drawn in a similar manner from a syphon gave 0·0816 gr. of lead per gallon, or exactly double the amount found in the potash water, showing at once the well-known protective action that salts of the alkalies and alkaline earths have on lead. “Although,” says the ‘Medical Journal,’ “these results are sufficiently high and alarming; still, when the water is drawn off in small quantities at a time, as is frequently the case with invalids, the results are found to be still higher; thus, when potash water was so treated, 0·0455 gr. of lead per gallon was found, while aerated water, drawn off in small quantities, gave 0·0933 gr. of lead per gallon, showing a very marked rise in both cases. The cause of this increase in quantity of the lead appears to be owing, not so much to the lengthened period of contact between the liquid and the metal as to the fact that the nozzle of the syphon, being exposed to the atmosphere in a moist state, becomes rapidly oxidised or carbonated, and is left in the most suitable condition for entering into solution, so that, when merely small portions of the liquid are drawn off each time, a comparatively concentrated solution of lead is obtained. These results,” continues the same authority, “compare accurately with those which were obtained by Messrs Savory and Moore, in examining the contents of a series of syphons of aerated water for Dr George Owen Rees, F.R.S., whose attention was drawn to the subject by detecting symptoms of lead-poisoning in himself after he had been in the habit for some time of drinking such aerated water.”

Lead, Acetate of. Pb(C2H3O2)2. Syn. Plumbic acetate, SUGAR OF LEAD, PLUMBI ACETAS. (B. P.) Prep. Litharge (in fine powder) 24; acetic acid, 40; distilled water, 20; mix the acetic acid and the water, add the litharge, and dissolve with the aid of a gentle heat, filter, evaporate until a pellicle forms, and crystallise. Drain and dry the crystal.

Acetic acid (sp. gr. 1·0843), 23 parts, is gently heated in a copper boiler rendered electro-negative by means of a large flat piece of lead soldered within it, and litharge (pure, and in fine powder), 13 parts, is sprinkled in; the heat is then continued, with constant stirring, until the acid is saturated, when the mother-waters of a former process, if any, are added, and the whole is heated to the boiling point, and allowed to settle until cold; the clear portion is now decanted, and evaporated in a similar vessel until the liquor has the sp. gr. 1·266 or 1·267, when it is run into salt-glazed stone-ware vessels (the edges of which have been well smeared with candle grease), and allowed to crystallise. The product is 38 to 38⁄2 parts of crystallised sugar of lead. It is found to be advantageous to preserve a very slight excess of acid during the boiling and crystallisation, to prevent the formation of any basic acetate the presence of which impedes the formation of regular crystals.

From litharge, 112 lbs.; acetic acid (sp. gr. 1·057), 128 lbs. Prop. 180 to 184 lbs.

Prop. Pure acetate of lead forms colourless, transparent, prismatic crystals, slightly efflorescent in dry air; it is soluble in 8 parts of alcohol and in 1⁄4 part of cold water; the aqueous solution has a sweet astringent taste, and feebly reddens litmus, but turns turmeric and the juice of violets green; when gently heated, it melts in its water of crystallisation; by continuing the heat, the whole of the water is expelled, and the dry acetate obtained; at a higher temperature the salt suffers decomposition, and acetic acid, acetone, &c., is given off. Commercial acetate of lead is in general a confused crystalline mass, somewhat resembling broken lump sugar. It is powerfully astringent and poisonous.

When pure it is completely soluble in distilled water acidulated with acetic acid forming a transparent colourless solution, “38 grains dissolved in water require for complete precipitation 200 grains measures of the volumetric solution of oxalic acid.” (B. P.)

Uses, &c. Acetate of lead is extensively employed in dyeing and calico-printing. In medicine it is used as an astringent, styptic, and hæmostatic; in pulmonary, uterine, and intestinal hæmorrhage, colliquative diarrhœa, phthisical sweats, &c. It is usually combined with morphia or opium, and with acetic acid to prevent it passing into the state of the poisonous carbonate in the stomach.—Dose, ⁄2 gr. to 2 gr. (Collier); 1 to 2 gr. to 8 or 10 gr., twice or thrice a day (Pereira); 3 gr. to 10 gr., every 6 or 8 hours (A. T. Thomson). Externally, as a collyrium, 10 gr. to water, 8 fl. oz. (A. T. Thomson); as a lotion, 20 gr. (A. T. Thomson), 1 dr. (Collier) to water, 8 or 10 fl. oz.; as an injection, 40 gr. to rose water, ⁄2 pint. The lotion is cooling and sedative, and is commonly used in excoriations, local inflammations, &c.

Basic Acetates. There are several of these salts, but only one is of any importance.

Tribasic Lead Acetate or Double Plumbic Acetate, and Dioxide. Pb(C2H3O2)2 2PbO. Syn. Subacetate of lead; Basic lead citrate; Goulard’s acetate of lead; Plumbi subacetas (B. P.). Prep. Litharge, 7; acetate of lead, 10; and distilled water, 40; are boiled half an hour, and evaporated down, and allowed to crystallise out of contact with air.

Used under the form of “Plumbi subacetas liquor” v. (B. P.)

Lead, Arse′′niate of. Pb3(AsO4)2. Syn. Arsenate of l.; Plumbi arsenias, L. Prep. Gradually add a solution of acetate of lead to another of arseniate of sodium. A white, insoluble powder. Proposed as an external application in certain forms of cancer.

Lead, Bro′mide of. PbBr2. Syn. Plumbi bromidum, L. Prep. By precipitating a solution of neutral acetate or nitrate of lead with a solution of bromide of potassium. A white, crystalline powder, sparingly soluble in water. It fuses by heat into a red liquid, which turns yellow when cold. It has been used in the same cases as iodide of lead.

Lead, Car′bonate of. PbCO3. Syn. Plumbi carbonas, L. Prep. By precipitating a cold solution of either acetate or nitrate of lead with a solution of an alkaline carbonate, observing to well wash the precipitate and dry it in the shade. This preparation is seldom employed, the commercial carbonate (WHITE LEAD) being substituted for it. See White pigments.

Lead, Chloride of. PbCl2. Syn. Chloride lead; Plumbi chloridum (Ph. L. 1836). Prep. (Ph. L. 1836). Dissolve acetate of lead, 19 oz., in boiling water, 3 pints; next dissolve chloride of sodium, 6 oz., in boiling water, 1 pint; mix the two solutions, and when cold wash and dry the precipitate. A white, crystalline powder.

Dissolve finely powdered litharge in boiling dilute hydrochloric acid, and set aside the filtered solution to cool. Brilliant colourless needles.

Prop. Soluble in 135 parts of cold and in 22 parts of boiling water; it melts when heated, and solidifies on cooling, forming a horn-like substance (horn lead; plumbi corneum).

Uses, &c. In the Ph. L. 1836, chloride of lead was ordered to be employed in the preparation of ‘hydrochlorate of morphia.’ Mr Tuson highly recommends it in cancerous affections, to allay pain and restrain morbid action, either in the form of a lotion or ointment.

Various mixtures of lead chlorides and oxide are employed as a white pigment under the name of ‘Pattison’s white.’ It is prepared by rapidly mixing a boiling solution of lead chloride with an equal volume of lime water. Another similar compound is called ‘patent yellow’ or ‘Turner’s yellow.’

Lead, Chromate of. PbCrO4. Syn. Lemon yellow, Leipsig yellow, Paris yellow. Prep. By adding a filtered solution of acetate or nitrate of lead to a like solution of chromate of potassium, as long as the precipitate forms, which is collected, washed with water, and dried. For information respecting the manufacture of this substance on the large scale, as a colouring substance (chrome yellow), see Yellow pigments.

Lead, Dichromate of. Syn. Chrome orange, Chrome red. PbCrO4.PbO. Prep. By adding to a solution of nitrate or acetate of lead a solution of chromate of potassium, to which an equivalent of potassa has been added. This compound is of a splendid scarlet colour. See Red pigments.

Lead, Cy′anide of. PbCy2. Syn. Plumbi cyanidum, L. Prep. By adding hydrocyanic acid to a solution of acetate of lead, as long as a precipitate forms, which, after being washed with distilled water, is dried by a very gentle heat, and preserved from the light and air. Sometimes used as a source of medicinal hydrocyanic acid.

Lead, Iodide of. PbI2. Syn. Lead iodide; Plumbi iodidum (B. P., Ph. L. E. D.). Prep. (B. P.) Nitrate of lead, 4; iodide of potassium, 4; distilled water, a sufficiency. Dissolve with the aid of heat the nitrate of lead in 30 of water, and the iodide of potassium in 10 of water, mix, collect the precipitate, wash, and dry at a gentle heat.

Prop., &c. A rich yellow-coloured powder, soluble in acetic acid, alcohol, and boiling water; when heated, it fuses and volatilises in yellow vapour, but with a higher degree of heat, violet vapours of iodine are evolved, leaving a residuum (lead) which is wholly soluble in nitric acid.—Dose, ⁄4 gr. to 4 gr. or more, made into a pill; as a deobstruent and resolvent, in enlargements of the cervical, axillary, and mesenteric glands, and in scrofulous affections and scirrhous tumours.

Lead, Nitrate of. Pb(NO3)2. Syn. Plumbi nitras, L. (B. P., Ph. E. D.)

Prep. (Ph. D.) Litharge (in fine powder), 1 oz.; pure nitric acid, 2 fl. oz., diluted with water, ⁄2 pint; mix, apply a sand-heat, and evaporate to dryness, occasionally stirring; boil the residuum in water, 2⁄2 pints; filter, acidulate with a few drops of nitric acid, evaporate to a pellicle, and set the liquid aside to cool; lastly, dry the deposited crystals on bibulous paper, and preserve them in a well closed bottle.

(Commercial.) By dissolving white lead in dilute nitric acid, and crystallising.

Uses, &c. This salt is extensively used in calico printing, and in the preparation of the iodide and other salts of lead. It was formerly much esteemed in asthmas, hæmorrhages, and epilepsy. It is now often used in an external application in cancer, ulcers, wounds, and various cutaneous affections. It is the basis of Liebert’s celebrated ‘cosmétique infallible,’ and of Ledoyen’s ‘disinfecting fluid.’ A very weak solution is an excellent application to chapped nipples, lips, hands, &c.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1 gr.; in the form of pill or solution, washed down with a tablespoonful of water very slightly acidulated with nitric acid.

Lead, Nitro-sac′charate of. Syn. Plumbi nitrosaccharas, L. Prep. (Dr S. E. Hoskins.) Nitric acid, 1 part; water, 19 parts; mix; in this dilute acid saccharate of lead (in fine powder) is to be dissolved, and set aside that crystals may form, which are to be dried by pressure between the folds of bibulous paper. A weak solution of the salt, acidulated with saccharic acid, has been employed by Dr Hoskins as a solvent for phosphatic calculi, with apparent success.

Lead, Oxide of. PbO. Syn. Monoxide of lead, Protoxide of lead, Yellow oxide of lead, Plumbi oxydum (B. P.) Prep. This substance is obtained perfectly pure by expelling the acid from nitrate of lead, by exposing it to heat in a platinum crucible; or, still better, by adding ammonia to a cold solution of nitrate of lead until the liquid becomes faintly alkaline, washing the precipitate with cold water, drying it, and heating it to moderate redness for 1 hour.

Prop., &c. Pure protoxide of lead has a lemon-yellow colour, and is the best of all the salts of lead. It is very heavy, slightly soluble in water, and freely so in acids, particularly when in the hydrated state; the aqueous solution has an alkaline reaction; at a red heat it melts, and assumes a semi-crystalline form on cooling; in the melted state it rapidly attacks and dissolves siliceous matter, with which it unites to form glass (flint glass); when heated along with organic substances of any kind, it is easily reduced to the metallic state.

On the commercial scale, this oxide is prepared by heating the grey film or dross that forms on the surface of melted lead when freely exposed to the air. When the process is arrested, as soon as the oxide acquires a uniform yellow colour, it is called massicot; when the heat is still further increased, until it fuses or partially vitrifies, it forms litharge of which there are several varieties. See Litharge, Massicot.

Lead, Red Oxide of. Syn. Red lead, Minium. Prep. This is prepared by exposing unfused protoxide of lead to the air for a long time, at a dull red heat. It is a very heavy powder, of a fine red colour, decomposed by a strong heat into protoxide of lead, and oxygen gas, which is evolved. Somewhat uncertain in its composition, but is generally of the composition Pb3O4 or PbO22PbO. See Red Pigment.

Lead, Dioxide. PbO2. Syn. Biniodide of lead, Peroxide of lead, Puce oxide of lead. Prep. By digesting red oxide of lead in dilute nitric acid; or by infusing a mixture of protoxide of lead and chlorate of potassium at a heat a little below redness, and washing the powdered mass in water; or by transmitting a current of chlorine gas through a solution of neutral acetate of lead. This oxide gives up half its oxygen at a red heat; acids also decompose it. Its chief use is in chemical analysis, to separate sulphurous acid from certain gaseous mixtures, which it converts into sulphuric acid, which it at the same time absorbs, forming sulphate of lead. It has recently been employed as an oxidising agent in the manufacture of the ANILINE DYES.

Lead, Pyrolig′nite of. Sugar of lead made with rough pyroligneous acid. Used in dyeing, chiefly for the preparation of acetate of alumina.

Lead, Sac′charate of. Syn. Plumbi saccharas, L. Prep. (Dr S. E. Hoskins.) Nitric acid, 2 parts; water, 10 parts; mix in a porcelain capsule, add of sugar, 1 part; and apply heat until reaction ceases; then dilute the liquid with distilled water, neutralise it with powdered chalk, filter, and add to the filtrate a solution of acetate of lead, as long as a precipitate (saccharate of lead) forms; lastly, collect the precipitate on a filter, wash and dry it. Used to make nitro-saccharate of lead, and as a source of saccharic acid.

Lead, Sul′phate of. PbSO4. Syn. Plumbi sulphas, L. This salt occurs native in transparent octohedra (lead vitriol), and is obtained in large quantities as a by-product in the preparation of acetate of aluminum for dyeing.

Prep. By adding dilute sulphuric acid to a solution of a soluble salt of lead. It is very sparingly soluble in water and in dilute sulphuric acid, soluble in strong hydrochloric acid and bitartrate of ammonium.

Lead, Sul′phide of. PbS. Syn. Plumbi sulphide. This occurs abundantly in nature in the form of GALENA.

Prep. By fusing metallic lead with sulphur or by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through a solution of a salt of lead.

Lead, Tan′nate of. Syn. Plumbi tannas, L. Prep. Precipitate a solution of acetate of lead with an infusion of galls, and wash and dry the precipitate. Astringent, sedative, and hæmostatic.—Dose, 1 gr. and upwards, made into a pill. It has been highly recommended in the form of ointment and cataplasms, in bed-sores, chronic ulcers of the feet, white swellings, &c.

Lead, Tar′trate of. Syn. Plumbi tartras, L. Prep. By precipitating acetate of lead, by tartrate of ammonium, washing and drying.

LEAD DUST. Syn. Pulvis plumbi, Plumbum divisum, L. Prep. By melting new lead, adding bruised charcoal, mixing with violent agitation, which must be continued until the metal ‘sets,’ and then pounding and washing away the charcoal. Used by potters.

LEAD, GRANULATED. Prep. By melting new lead, and pouring it in a small stream from an iron ladle with a hole drilled in its bottom, into a pail of water. Used to make solutions and alloys.

LEAD, RED. See Red pigments.

LEAD, WHITE. See White pigment.

LEAD PYROPH′ORUS. See Pyrophorus.

LEATH′ER. Syn. Corium, Corius, L. Leather is the skin of animals which has been prepared by one or other of several processes adopted for the purpose, having the common object of preventing its spontaneous destruction by putrefaction, besides other objects, which are more or less peculiar to each variety of this useful substance.

Leather is only prepared on the large scale, and primarily either by the process of ‘TANNING’ or ‘TAWING,’ in the manner briefly described under these heads.

Curried leather is leather which has been tanned, and sold to the currier, who, after soaking it in water, and rubbing it to soften it, pares it even with a broad, sharp knife, rubs it with a piece of polished stone or wood, and, whilst still wet, besmears it with oil or grease (DUBBING), which gradually penetrates the leather as the moisture evaporates. It next undergoes the operation of ‘waxing,’ which consists of first rubbing it on the flesh side with a mixture of oil and lamp black; it is then ‘black-sized’ with a brush or sponge, and, when dry, is lastly ‘tallowed’ with a proper cloth, and ‘slicked’ upon the flesh side with a broad and polished lump of glass. Leather curried on the hair or grain side, termed ‘black on the grain,’ is blackened by wetting it with iron liquor, and rubbing it with an iron ‘slicker’ before applying the oil or grease. The grain is finally raised by the ‘pommel’ or ‘graining board’ passed over it in various directions.

Leather is dyed or stained by the application, with an ordinary brush, of any of the strong liquid dyes, in the cold or only gently heated, to the surface of the skin previously stretched on a board. The surface, when dry, is commonly finished off with white of egg and the pommel or smoothing stick. Bookbinders generally employ copperas water as a black stain or sprinkle; a solution of indigo as a blue one; and a solution of salt of tartar or common soda, as a brown one.

Leather, before being japanned or varnished, as in the preparation of what is called ‘ENAMELLED’ and ‘PATENT LEATHER,’ is carefully freed from grease by the application of absorbent substances or hard pressure between rollers, and the surface is nicely shaved, smoothed, and polished by appropriate tools, the varnish is then applied to the grain side for the former, and the flesh side of the skin for the latter, which is previously stretched out tight on a board to receive it. The whole is, lastly, submitted to a gentle stove-heat to harden the varnish; and the process is repeated, if necessary.

Uses, &c. These are well known, and are all but universal. The leather manufacture of Great Britain is equal in importance and utility to any other department of our industry, and inferior in point of value and extent only to those of cotton, wool, and iron. “If we look abroad on the instruments of husbandry, on the implements used in most of the mechanic trades, on the structure of a multitude of engines and machines; or if we contemplate at home the necessary parts of our clothing—breeches, shoes, boots, gloves—or the furniture of our houses, the books on our shelves, the harness of our horses, or even the substance of our carriages; what do we see but instances of human industry exerted upon leather? What an aptitude has this single material in a variety of circumstances for the relief of our necessities, and supplying conveniences in every state and stage of life! Without it, or even without it in the plenty we have it, to what difficulties should we be exposed?” (Dr Campbell.) Leather is a kind of natural felt, but of much closer and firmer texture than that of artificial origin. “The thinner and softer kinds of leather are sometimes used as body-clothing; but its special and proper purpose is the manufacture of coverings for the feet, to protect them from cold and water.” (Eras. Wilson.) See Japanning, Varnish, &c.

Leather, destruction of, by Gas. It is well-known that the binding of books suffer considerable damage, when the books are kept in apartments lighted by coal gas. That the cause of this deterioration is due, as was believed, to the combustion of the bisulphide of carbon contained in the gas, and its consequent oxidation into sulphuric acid, is exemplified by the following interesting communication from Professor Church, published in the ‘Chemical News’ for October 19th, 1877. He says:—“Vellum seems unaffected; morocco suffers least; calf is much injured, and russia still more so. The disintegration is most rapid with books on the upper shelves of a library, whither the heated products of combustion ascend, and where they are absorbed and condensed.

By comparing specimens of old leather, with specimens of new, it is quite clear that the destructive influence of gas is due mainly to its sulphur.

True there are traces of sulphates in the dye and size of new leather bindings, but the quantity is insignificant and there is practically no free sulphuric acid. That leather may be destroyed by the oil of vitriol produced by the burning of gas in a library is proved by the following observations and analyses.

The librarian of one of our public libraries forwarded to me the backs of several volumes, which had been ‘shed’ by the books on the upper shelves in an apartment lighted by gas. The leather of one of these backs (a volume of the ‘Archæologia’) was carefully scraped off so as to avoid any paper or size from underneath. This task of scraping was easy enough, for the leather was reduced to the consistency of Scotch snuff. On analysis of the watery extract of this leather, the following figures were obtained:—

Free sulphuric acid in decayed leather 6·21 per cent.

Combined 2·21 ”

8·42

LEAV′EN. Dough which has become sour or run into a state of incipient putrefaction. When a small quantity of it is added to recent dough, it excites fermentation, but is apt to produce a disagreeable taste and odour in the bread. It is now superseded by yeast. Both these substances are used in the same way.

LEAVES (Medicated). Syn. Folia medicata, L. On the Continent several preparations of this kind are in use. In many cases the leaves of tobacco deprived of nicotine, by soaking them in water, are dried, and then moistened or steeped in a tincture or infusion of the medicinal substance. In this way belladonna, camphor, and henbane, are often administered. Cruveilhier recommends opiated belladonna leaves for smoking in troublesome coughs, phthisis, spasmodic asthmas, &c., to be prepared as follows:—Belladonna leaves, 1 oz., are steeped in an infusion of opium, 10 gr., in water, 1 fl. oz. (or less), and are then carefully dried in the shade. “Mustard leaves (Riggollot’s) consist of mustard moistened with water, spread on paper, and dried.” (Squire.) See Cigars (in pharmacy), and Vegetables.

Leaves, How to Dissect. “For the dissection of leaves,” says Mrs Cussons, “I find the process of maceration too long and tedious, to say nothing of the uncertainty as to the results. I have therefore adopted the use of alkali in saturated solution, the specimens to be introduced while the liquid is heated to the boiling point; the time of immersion to be regulated by the character of the various leaves and the nature of the epidermis to be removed. When the specimen is freed from epidermis and cellular tissue, it must be subjected to the action of chlorine to destroy the colouring matter. The introduction of peroxide of hydrogen not only serves to render the lace-like specimen purer in colour, but also preserves it. In destroying the colouring matter in ferns this also is invaluable; added to the chlorine it gives a solidity to the bleached fronds, and appears to equalise the action of the chlorine. For skeletonising capsules the slow process of maceration by steeping in rain-water is alone available; a moderate heat may be applied to hasten the process, but alkali is useless. The only known flower which can be dissected is the Hydrangea japonica. The fibrous nature of the petals renders it easy to skeletonise in the perfect truss in which it grows. Skeletonised leaves and capsules appear to gain in the process a toughness and durability not possessed by them in their natural state.”

LECANOR′IC ACID. See Orsellinic acid.

LEECH. Syn. Hirudo (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), L. The officinal leech of the Pharmacopœias is the Sanguisuga medicinalis (Hirudo medicinalis—Cuv.), familiarly known as the ‘old English’ or ‘speckled leech.’ It is also occasionally called the ‘Hamburg grey’ or ‘Russian leech,’ from being imported from those parts. Its characteristics are—Back, greenish or olive green, sometimes almost black or intense brown, with 6 rusty-red or yellowish longitudinal stripes, which are mostly spotted with black.—Belly, dirty yellow or light olive green, spotted more or less with black. The spots are very variable in size and number; in some cases few, in others so numerous as to form the prevailing tint of the belly. This variety, which is the most valuable of the commercial leeches, is chiefly imported from Hamburg.

Another variety of leech, the Sanguisuga officinalis, familiarly known as the ‘Hamburg’ or ‘French green leech,’ is imported from Bordeaux, Lisbon, and Hamburg. Its characteristics are—Back, brownish olive-green, with 6 reddish or rusty yellow longitudinal bands.—Belly, light dirty pea-green, or yellowish green, free from spots, but exhibiting two lateral stripes. This leech is vastly inferior to the preceding variety, and some of those imported from France and Portugal are absolutely useless, from their indisposition to bite, arising from the fraud practised by the collectors and dealers of gorging them with blood to improve their appearance before sending them to market. The above are the species of leech commonly employed in medicine in this country, but many others are noticed by writers on the subject.

Leeches are best preserved in water obtained from a pond, and occasionally changed; when kept in spring water they soon die. The introduction of a hand to which an ill-flavoured medicine or odour adheres into the water in which they are kept is often sufficient to poison them. The application of saline matter to the skin of leeches, even in very small quantities, immediately occasions the expulsion of the contents of the stomach; hence a few grains of common salt are frequently sprinkled over them, to make them disgorge the blood which they have swallowed. The frequent changing of the water in which leeches are kept is injudicious. Once a month in winter, and once a week in summer, is deemed sufficiently often by the large dealers, unless the water becomes discoloured or bloody, when it should be changed every day, or every other day. When clean pond water cannot be obtained, clean rain water that has been well exposed to the air should alone be employed. Mr J. R. Kenworthy recommends placing in the water a few balls of irregular lumps of pure clay, about 2⁄2 inches in diameter; a method which we can recommend as both simple and successful. The plan adopted by M. Fée is as follows:—Place 7 inches of a mixture of moss, turf, and charcoal, in a marble or stone trough, over which sprinkle some small pebbles. At one end of the trough, and about half way up, place a thin shelf of stone or marble, pierced with small holes, on which put first some moss, or portions of marsh horse-tail (Equisetum palustre), and on this a layer of pebbles to keep it down; then pour in water sufficiently high just to moisten the moss and pebbles, put in the leeches, and tie over the mouth of the trough with a cloth. Another plan consists in keeping the leeches in a glass tank, or aquarium, provided with a pebbly bottom and a few healthy aquatic plants.

Propag. According to Dr Wagner, an annual feast on living blood is necessary to render leeches able to grow and propagate. These conditions can only be fulfilled by restoring to the breeding cisterns those which have been already employed. All artificial methods of feeding them by bladders or sponges of blood have been found to fail. He recommends the employment of two tanks, with the bottom formed of loam, clay, or turf, surrounded by an inner border of a similar substance, and an outer one of sand—the one for leeches fit for medical use—and the other for breeding, or for such leeches as have been applied. No leeches are to be taken from the breeding tank until a year has elapsed after their having been applied and fed with human blood; and their removal to the first tank should take place in September, or October, as by this time the breeding season is over. By this plan all leeches that have been applied are to be carefully restored to the breeding tank, without making them disgorge the blood they have swallowed.

LEECH′ING. This consists in the application of leeches to any vascular part of the body, for the purpose of withdrawing blood from it, and thus allaying local inflammation, distension of vessels, &c. Leeches are most conveniently applied by means of a common pill-box or a wine glass. The part should be previously washed perfectly clean, and if covered with hair should be closely shaved. Sometimes leeches are indisposed to bite; in such cases, allowing them to crawl over a piece of dry linen or calico, rolling them in porter, moistening the part with a little milk or sweetened milk, or drawing a little blood by a slight puncture or scratch, will usually make them bite freely. To stop the bleeding from leech-bites various plans are adopted, among which the application of nitrate of silver or creasote, or gentle pressure for some hours with the finger, are the most successful. Of late years a piece of matico leaf or soldier’s herb, applied in the same manner as a piece of lint, has been commonly adopted to stop the bleeding of leech-bites.

LEEK. Syn. Porrum, L. The Allium porrum (Linn.). Its general properties are intermediate between those of the onion and garlic. The juice is said to be powerfully diuretic, and capable of dissolving phosphate calculi.

LEGU′MIN. Vegetable casein. It is found most abundantly in the seeds of leguminous (podded) plants, e.g. beans, peas, &c., as well as in the sweet and bitter almond.

In properties it closely resembles the casein of milk.

Legumin may be obtained from peas or from almonds as follows:—After digesting the crushed seeds for 2 or 3 hours in warm water, the undissolved portion is removed by straining through linen, and the strained liquid, after depositing the starch suspended in it, is next filtered and mixed with diluted acetic acid. The white flocculent precipitate which is thus produced, is then collected on a filter and washed. It is afterwards dried, powdered, and digested, first in alcohol, and afterwards in ether.

Rochleder considered that, as thus obtained by Dumas and Cahours, it was not absolutely pure, since as it was not entirely soluble in a cold concentrated solution of potash, he recommended the alkaline solution being decanted from the undissolved portion, and again precipitated by the addition of acetic acid.

Legumin as thus prepared was believed by Rochleder to be pure, and was found on analysis to give results analogous to those furnished by casein.

In the seed, legumin occurs associated with considerable quantities of the phosphates of calcium, magnesium, and potassium. Rennet coagulates it like it does the casein of milk, its similarity to which is exemplified by the manufacture of a kind of cheese from peas and beans by the Chinese.

Dried peas contain about a fourth of their weight of legumin.

LEM′ON. Syn. Limo, L. The fruit of the Citrus limonum or lemon tree. The juice, peel, and essential oil are officinal. See Oil, and below.

LEM′ON AC′ID. See Citric acid.

LEM′ON FLA′VOUR. See Essence of Lemon.

LEM′ON JUICE. Syn. Limonis succus (B. P.), Succus limonum (Ph. L. & D.), L. The juice of the lemon, obtained by squeezing and straining. When freshly expressed, it is turbid, owing to the presence of mucilage and extractive matter. These substances render the juice liable to decomposition, and various methods have from time to time been proposed for preserving it. Amongst these may be mentioned the addition to the fresh juice of one per cent. of bisulphite of calcium, or ten per cent. of proof spirit.

“We have examined the juice expressed from two varieties of lemons, viz. Palermo and Messina, with the following results:

Palermo. Messina.

“Ounces of juice yielded by 100 lemons 108 96

Specific gravity of juice 1044·85 1038·56

Percentage of citric acid 8·12 7·04

Percentage of ash 0·289 0·301

“100 parts of the ash of the juice of Palermo lemons gave:

“Sulphuric acid 10·59

Carbonic acid 16·33

Chlorine 0·81

Phosphoric acid 6·74

Ferric phosphate 1·32

Lime 8·89

Magnesia 3·02

Potash 47·84

Soda 3·32

Silica 0·72

Loss 0·42

100·00

“If lemons are kept a few months before squeezing, the yield of juice is slightly increased, but its specific gravity and percentage of citric acid remains unaltered. It is erroneous to suppose that the acid of the lemon is, by keeping, changed into sugar. We have kept lemons for 12 months, and found that the percentage of acid was not diminished. A certain proportion of sugar was formed, but at the expense of the soluble starch contained in the cell-walls of the lemon. Lemon juice on being kept is found to decrease in density, but the amount of acid remains the same.” (Harkness.)

Lemon juice may be preserved by heating it to 150° Fahr., filtering, and setting it aside in bottles completely filled. If this process be performed in the winter, the juice, it is said, may be kept perfectly good for 12 months. Fresh lemon juice is prevented from decomposition and rendered fit for exportation by mixing it with ⁄10th of alcohol. (Schweitzer.)

The Merchant Shipping Act of 1867 requires that after a ship has been at sea ten days 1 oz. of lime or lemon juice, mixed with 1 oz. of sugar and ⁄2 pint of water, shall be served out to each of the crew between the hours of 12 and 1 in the day.

Adult. Lemon juice is frequently adulterated, the adulterants being water, sugar, or gum, and sulphuric or acetic acid. The modus operandi is, to dilute the genuine juice with water, and then bring up the density with the sugar or gum, and the percentage of acid with one or other of the above acids. The examination of lemon and lime juice supplied to the navy is now conducted in the Inland Revenue Laboratory, Somerset House, and it speaks well for that department when we say that cases of scurvy on board ships are now of very rare occurrence. No juice is passed unless it comes up to a certain standard in specific gravity, and percentage of citric acid, and any sample containing any other acid is at once rejected.

Prop. Lemon juice is refrigerant and antiscorbutic, and has long been extensively employed in the preparation of cooling drinks and effervescing draughts, which are justly esteemed as wholesome summer beverages, as well as palliatives in fevers, nausea, &c. In scurvy, there is no remedy equal to freshly expressed lemon juice; and in acute rheumatism and gout, according to the united testimony of Dr Owen Rees, Dr Babington, and numerous Continental practitioners, it has been exhibited with considerable success. In agues, dysentery, English cholera, nausea, and vomiting, heartburn, putrid sore-throat, hospital gangrene, syphilis, and numerous skin diseases, it has proved most serviceable. See Citric Acid, Gout, &c.

Lemon Juice, Facti′′tious. Syn. Solutio acidi citrici, Succus limonum factitius, L. Prep. 1. Citric acid, 1⁄4 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 45 gr.; white sugar, 2⁄2 oz.; cold water, 1 pint; dissolve, add the yellow peel of a lemon, and in 24 hours strain through a hair sieve or a piece of muslin.

2. As the last, but using 15 or 16 drops of oil of lemon, to flavour instead of the lemon peel.

Obs. The above is an excellent substitute for lemon juice, and keeps well in a cool place. Tartaric acid, and even vinegar, are sometimes used instead of citric acid; but it is evident that it then loses all claim to being considered as an imitation of lemon juice, and to employ it in lieu of which would be absurd.

LEM′ON PEEL. Syn. Cortex limonum (B. P., Ph. L.), L. “The fresh outer part of the rind.” (B. P.) “The fresh and the dried exterior rind of the fruit;” the latter dried “in the month of April or May.” (Ph. L.) Candied lemon peel (CORTEX LIMONUM CONDITUS) is employed as a dessert, and as a flavouring ingredient by cooks and confectioners. It is reputed stomachic. See Candying.

LEMON PIC′KLE. See Sauce.

LEMONADE′. Syn. Lemon sherbet, King’s cup; Limonadum, L.; Limonade, Fr. Prep. 1. Lemons (sliced), 2 in no.; sugar, 2⁄2 oz.; boiling water, 1⁄2 pint; mix, cover up the vessel, and let it stand, with occasional stirring until cold, then pour off the clear through a piece of muslin or a clean hair sieve.

2. Juice of 3 lemons; yellow peel of 1 lemon; sugar, ⁄4 lb.; cold water, 1 quart; digest for 5 or 6 hours, or all night, and decant or strain as before.

3. Citric acid, 1 to 1⁄2 dr.; essence of lemon, 10 drops; sugar, 2 oz.; cold water, 1 pint; agitate together until dissolved.

Obs. Lemonade is a pleasant, cooling summer beverage, and when made as above may be drank in large quantities with perfect safety. It also forms an excellent refrigerant and antiseptic drink in fevers and putrid diseases generally. Tartaric acid is commonly substituted for citric acid, from being cheaper; it is, however, much, inferior, being less wholesome and less agreeable. Lemonade for icing is prepared as above, only using a little more sugar. Orange sherbet, or orangeade for icing is made in a similar way from oranges.

Lemonade, Aera′ted. Syn. Limonadum aeratum, L.; Limonade gazeuse, Fr. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Water, charged with 5 times its volume of carbonic acid gas, 1 pint; syrup of lemon, 2 oz.; mix.

2. (Without a bottling machine.)—a. Into each bottle put lemon syrup, 1 to 1⁄2 oz.; essence of lemon, 3 drops; sesquicarbonate of soda, ⁄2 dr.; water, q. s. to nearly fill the bottle; have the cork fitted and ready at hand, then add of tartaric acid (cryst.), 1 dr.; instantly close the bottle, and wire down the cork; it should be kept inverted in a cool place, and, preferably, immersed in a vessel of ice-cold water.

b. As the last, but substituting lump sugar, ⁄4 oz., for the lemon syrup.

c. From lump sugar, 1 oz.; essence of lemon, 3 drops; bicarbonate of potassa, 25 gr.; water q. s., as No. 1; then add citric acid (cryst.), 45 gr., and cork, &c., as before. The last is most wholesome, especially for the scorbutic, dyspeptic, gouty, and rheumatic.

Obs. The best aerated lemonade of the London makers is prepared by putting 1⁄2 fl. oz. of rich lemon syrup into each bottle, which is then filled up with aerated water at the bottling machine.

Lemonade, Antimo′′niated. Syn. Limonadum antimoniatum, L. Prep. By adding tartar emetic, 1 gr., to each pint of ordinary lemonade.—Dose. A wineglassful every ⁄2 hour or hour; as a diaphoretic and expectorant. See Antimony (Potassio-tartrate).

Lemonade, Ape′′rient. Syn. Limonadum laxativum, L. Prep. 1. Sugar, 1 oz.; lemon juice, ⁄4 fl. oz.; sulphate of soda, 3 dr.; water, 8 fl. oz.; put them into a soda-water bottle without shaking, have the cork ready fitted, add of sesquicarbonate of soda (in cryst.), ⁄2 dr., and instantly cork the bottle, wire it down, and keep it in a cool place, inverted. For a dose.

2. Heavy carbonate of magnesia, 1⁄2 dr.; refined sugar, 1 oz.; essence of lemon, 5 or 6 drops; water, 8 fl. oz.; bottle as last, then add of citric acid (cryst.), 3 dr., and instantly cork, &c., as before. For a dose. It should be kept for at least 24 hours before being taken.

Lemonade, Lactic. Syn. Limonadum lacticum, L. Prep. (Magendie.) Lactic acid, 1 to 4 dr.; syrup, 2 oz.; water, 1 pint; mix. Recommended in dyspepsia, &c.

Lemonade, Milk. Syn. Limonadum lactis, L. Prep. Take of sugar, ⁄2 lb.; water, 1 pint; dissolve, add the juice of 3 lemons; milk or whey, ⁄2 pint; stir the whole together and strain through a hair sieve. Some persons add a glassful of sherry.

Lemonade, Min′eral. Syn. Limonade minerale, Fr. On the Continent this name is applied to various drinks consisting of water acidulated with the mineral acids and sweetened with sugar. Thus we have limonade chlorhydrique, nitrique, phosphorique, sulphurique, &c., all of which are used as cooling drinks in fevers, inflammations, skin diseases, &c.

Lemonade, Port′able. See Powders.

LEMONADE POWDERS. See Powders.

LEMONATED KALI. See Kali, Potassium (Citrate), &c.

LEN′ITIVES. In medicine, purgatives which act in a gentle manner, and have a soothing effect. See Laxatives.

LENS. In optics, a piece of glass or other transparent medium, having one or two curved surfaces, either convex or concave. A description of the different kinds of lenses belongs to a work on optics. It may, however, be useful to the chemical student to remark here that the Coddington and Stanhope lenses, which may now be bought at any of the opticians, neatly mounted and of great power, for a few shillings, will be found of the greatest service in examining minute crystals, precipitates, &c.; and for all ordinary purposes offer a cheap and efficient substitute for more complicated microscopes. An extemporaneous instrument, possessing considerable power, may be made by simply piercing a small circular hole in a slip of metal, and introducing into it a drop of water, which then assumes a spherical form on each side of the metal, while the latter is held in a horizontal position. The ingenious little TOY MICROSCOPES sold about the streets of London, under the form of a perforated pill-box, at one penny each, consist of such a lens made with Canada balsam instead of water, which has the property of hardening without losing its transparency after exposure for a few hours to the air. A still simpler substitute for a lens is a piece of blackened card-paper with the smallest possible needle-hole pierced through it. Any very small object held in a strong light, and viewed through this hole at the distance of about an inch, will appear quite distinct, and from 10 to 12 times larger than its usual size. We have often found this little instrument of incalculable service in situations and under circumstances in which a more powerful or complicated apparatus was unattainable or could not be applied.

Another method for the manufacture of an extemporaneous lens, by Mr Francis, is the following:—Procure a piece of thin platinum wire, and twine it once or twice round a pin’s point, so as to form a minute ring with a handle to it. Break up a piece of flint glass into fragments a little larger than a mustard seed; place one of these pieces on the ring of wire, and hold it in the point of the flame of a candle or of a gas-light. The glass will melt and assume a complete lens-light or globular form. Let it cool gradually and keep it for mounting. It may be mounted by placing it between two pieces of brass which have corresponding circular holes cut in them of such a size as to hold the edge of the lens.

LEN′TIL. Syn. Lens, L. The seed of the Ervum Lens, a plant of the natural order Leguminosæ. The lentil is considerably smaller than an ordinary pea, and is of the shape of a double convex lens. Several varieties are cultivated on the Continent of Europe and in many parts of Asia, where they are largely consumed as human food. Lentils are more nourishing than any other description of pulse, but are reputed difficult of digestion, apt to disorder the bowels, and injurious to the eyes. Several alimentary preparations, sold at high prices as cures for dyspepsia, constipation, &c., contain lentil flour as the principal ingredient.

Composition of Lentils.

Nitrogenous matter 25·2

Starch, &c. 56·0

Cellulose 2·4

Fatty matter 2·6

Mineral matter 2·3

Water 11·5

100·00

(Payen.)

Lentils on account of their difficult digestibility require to be very thoroughly cooked. See Ervalenta and Revalenta.

LEPROSY. Syn. Lepra. A disease of the skin distinguished by circular scaly patches.

LEPTANDRIN. A peculiar crystalline principle obtained from the root of Leptandra Virginica, a North American plant belonging to the nat. order Scrophulariaceæ. Leptandrin is chiefly employed in American medical practice as a cathartic and cholagogue, in which latter function it has been recommended as a substitute for mercury. It is stated to be very serviceable in cases of duodenal indigestion and chronic constipation.—Dose, ⁄4 to ⁄2 grain.

Mr Wayne obtained leptandrin by adding subacetate of lead to an infusion of the root, filtering, precipitating the excess of lead by carbonate of sodium, removing the carbonate of lead by filtration, passing the filtered liquid through animal charcoal to absorb all the active matter, washing the charcoal with water till the washings began to be bitter, then treating it with boiling alcohol, and allowing the alcoholic solution to evaporate spontaneously. By dissolving the powder thus obtained in water, treating this with ether, and allowing the ether to evaporate, needle-shaped crystals were obtained, which had the bitter taste of the root. Leptandrin is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether.

LETH′ARGY. Syn. Lethargus, L. A heavy, unnatural sleep, sometimes bordering upon apoplexy, with scarcely any intervals of waking, from which the patient is with difficulty aroused, and into which he again sinks as soon as the excitement is withdrawn. It frequently arises from plethora, in which case depletion is indicated; or from the suppression of some usual discharge or secretion, which it should then be our business to re-establish. It also often arises from over mental fatigue and nervous debility, when relaxation from business, the use of a liberal diet, and ammoniacal stimulants and antispasmodics, are found useful. When depending on a determination of blood to the head, cupping may be had recourse to, and all sources of excitement avoided. In all cases the bowels should be moved as soon as possible by means of mild purgatives.

LET′TUCE. Syn. Lactuca, L. The early leaves or head of the Lactuca sativa, or garden lettuce, forms a common and wholesome salad. They are reputed as slightly anodyne, laxative, hypnotic, and antaphrodisaic, and have been recommended to be eaten at supper by those troubled by watchfulness, and in whom there exists no tendency to apoplexy. The leaves and flowering tops of L. virosa are officinal in the B. P., the “flowering herb” (LACTUCA), in the Ph. L.; the “inspissated juice,” in the Ph. E.; and the “inspissated juice and leaves,” in the Ph. D. The “inspissated juice” of Lactuca virosa, or strong-scented wild lettuce, is also officinal in the Ph. E.; and both the “leaves and inspissated juice” of the same variety are ordered in the Ph. D. The last species is more powerful than the cultivated lettuce. See Extract and Lactucarium.

LEUCORRHŒ′A. Syn. Whites; Catarrhus vaginæ, Fluor albus, L. The symptoms of this disease are well known to most adult females. The common causes are debility, a poor diet, excessive use of hot tea, profuse menstruation or purgation, late hours, immoderate indulgence of the passions, frequent miscarriages, protracted or difficult labours, or local relaxation. Occasionally it is symptomatic of other affections. The treatment must be directed to the restoration of the general health, and imparting tonicity to the parts affected. Tepid or sea bathing, or shower baths; bark, chalybeates, and other tonics; with local affusions of cold water, and mild astringent injections, as those of black tea or oak bark, are generally found successful in ordinary cases.

LEVANT′ NUT. See Cocculus indicus.

LEVIGA′TION. Syn. Levigatio, L. The process of reducing substances to fine powder, by making them into a paste with water, and grinding the mass upon a hard smooth stone or slab, with a conical piece of stone having a flat, smooth, under surface, called a ‘muller.’ Levigation is resorted to in the preparation of paints on the small scale, and in the elutriation of powders. The term is also, sometimes, incorrectly applied to the lengthened trituration of a substance in a marble or Wedgwood-ware mortar.

LEVORACE′MIC ACID. See Racemic acid.

LEY′DEN JAR. Syn. Leyden phial, Electrical jar. An instrument for the accumulation of the electric fluid. Its simplest form is that of a wide-mouthed jar of rather thin glass, coated on both sides with tin-foil, except on the upper portion, which is left uncoated, and having a cover of baked wood, through which passes a brass wire, terminating in a metallic knob, and communicating with the inner coating. To charge the jar, the outer coating is connected with the earth, and the knob put in contact with the conductor of an electrical machine. The inner and outer surfaces of the glass thus become respectively positive and negative, and the particles of the glass become strongly polarised. On making connection between the two coatings with a conducting substance, discharge takes place by a bright spark and a loud snap; and if any part of the body be interposed in the circuit, a shock is felt.

LIBAVIUS’S LIQUOR. See Tin (Tin chloride).

LI′CHEN. In pathology, a dry papulous or pimply eruption of the skin, terminating in scurfy exfoliations. “Lichen exhibits great variety in its outward characters in different individuals; in one the pimples are brightly red; in another, of debilitated constitution, they are bluish and livid; in a third they are developed around the base of hairs; in a fourth they appear as circular groups, and increase by their circumference, while they fade in the centre, forming so many rings of various size; in a fifth, a modification of the preceding, they have the appearance of flexuous bands; while in a sixth they are remarkable for producing intensity of suffering, or unusual disorganisation of the skin. They are all occasioned by constitutional disturbance, sometimes referable to the digestive, and sometimes to the nervous system. In some instances, however, they depend upon a local cause. I have had a crop of lichenous pimples on the backs of my hands from rowing in hot weather; and in hot climates that annoying disorder called prickly heat is a lichen.” (Eras. Wilson.) The treatment of this affection is noticed under Eruptions (Papular).

LICHENS. Syn. Lichenes—Juss., Lichenales—Lind., L. In botany, these are cryptogamous plants, which appear under the form of thin, flat crusts, covering rocks and the barks of trees. Some of them, like Iceland moss (Cetraria Islandica), are esculent and medicinal and employed either as medicine or food; and others, when exposed in a moistened state to the action of ammonia, yield purple or blue colouring principles, which, like indigo, do not pre-exist in the plant. Thus, the Rocella tinctoria, the Variolaria orcina, the Lecanora tartarea, &c., when ground to a paste with water, mixed with putrid urine or solution of carbonate of ammonia, and left for some time freely exposed to the air, furnish the archil, litmus, and cudbear of commerce, very similar substances, differing chiefly in the details of their preparation. From these the colouring matter is easily extracted by water or very dilute solution of ammonia. See Archil, Cudbear, and Litmus.

LIEBER’S HERBS OF HEALTH—Gesundeheitskräuter Liebersche—Blankenheimer Thee—Blankenheimer Tea—Herba Galeopsidis Grandifloræ Concisa (Yellow Hemp Nettle).

LIG′ATURE. In surgery, a small waxed piece of cord or string formed of silk or thread, employed for the purpose of tying arteries, veins, and other parts, to prevent hæmorrhage, or to cause their extirpation. To be safe and useful they should be round, smooth, and sufficiently strong to permit of being tied with security without incurring the danger of breaking or slipping. There are many cases recorded in which emigrants, soldiers, and travellers have lost their lives from the simple inability of those around them to apply a ligature.

LIGHT. Syn. Lumen, Lux, L. Light acts as a vivifying or vital stimulus on organised beings, just as privation of light, or darkness, disposes to inactivity and sleep. “In maladies characterised by imperfect nutrition and sanguinification, as scrofula, rickets, and anæmia, and in weakly subjects with œdematous (dropsical) limbs, &c., free exposure to solar light is sometimes attended with very happy results. Open and elevated situations probably owe part of their healthy qualities to their position with regard to it.” On the contrary, “in diseases of the eye, attended with local vascular or nervous excitement, in inflammatory conditions of the brain, in fever, and in mental irritation, whether attended or not with vascular excitement, the stimulus of light proves injurious, and, in such cases, darkness of the chamber should be enjoined. After parturition, severe wounds, and surgical operations, and in all inflammatory conditions, exclusion of strong light, contributes to the well-doing of the patient.” (Pereira.)

LIGHT, ELECTRIC. We believe we are correct in stating, that within the last two or three years some 600 registrations for patents, more or less, have been taken out for electricity applied to the purposes of artificial illumination. Conceding that many, if not the greater part, of these inventions may prove useless, their number is nevertheless an index of the mental activity that has lately been directed to the subject of electric lighting; and although we are far from affirming that the problem of the practical application of electricity to the lighting of our streets and dwellings may eventually be successfully thought out, still, we think, looking upon these constant endeavours to accomplish the end in view as links in the chain of that experimental evolution and gradation which has characterised the course of most great discoveries, we are justified in regarding them as not altogether improbable auguries and precursors of subsequent success.

Shortly after Faraday’s discovery in 1830 of electrical induction, or the power of a bar of magnetised steel to set up in a certain direction a current of electricity in a coil of insulated wire when introduced into it, Pixü, reducing the result of Faraday’s researches to practice, constructed an instrument, which appears to have been the first dynamic magneto-electric machine. By Pixü’s contrivance a current of electricity was generated by means of the poles of a permanent horseshoe magnet being made to revolve across those of an electro, or temporary magnet, the induced electricity set up in which in its turn established in the surrounding helix a current of electricity, which being made to escape by the terminals or ends of the wire coils could be applied to practical use.

The dynamic electro-magnetic machines of Saxton and Clarke, which succeeded Pixü’s, may be regarded as modifications of this latter, since they differed only in the arrangement of their parts and mode of action. All three machines were chiefly in use in chemical and physical laboratories, whence they have gradually been supplanted by the far more useful Ruhmkorff’s coil, a very powerful variety of the electro-magnetic instrument. In a small form Clarke’s is now chiefly used for medical purposes. That electro-magnetic machines, as cheaper and more convenient sources of electric force, should have been applied to the purposes of telegraphy, will be an obvious inference.

Among the most important and effective of the various instruments for attaining this end, it will suffice to mention the magneto-electric machine of Messrs Siemens and Halske, first brought into use in 1854.

Except, however, in the case of short distances, or with telegraphs belonging to private persons or commercial firms, these instruments have not met with very general adoption. This is owing to the great tension of the induced current, and the consequent difficulty of insulating the wire, particularly for long distances, objections from which the old galvanic apparatus is in a much greater measure free. Mr Henley was the first to use the dynamic magneto-electric machine for working the electric telegraph soon after this instrument had been adopted in England; but as we have seen, the method, except in the cases quoted, have been in great measure abandoned. A large magneto-electric machine has lately been invented by Wheatstone, the induced spark from which is used for firing mines.

The first electro-magnetic machine used for lighting purposes appears to have been one that was the joint invention of MM. Nollet and Van Malderen, of Brussels, a circumstance to which it probably owes its name of the ‘Alliance Machine.’

Nollet, who brought out his invention (which is a modification of Clarke’s) in 1850, originally designed it for the electrolysis of water, the hydrogen resulting from which it was proposed to pass through camphine, or some other hydro-carbon illuminant, and to burn as gas. Additionally it was designed to use the hydrogen as a source of motive power by exploding it in a suitably constructed engine. Owing to the improvements, however, effected in the machine by Van Malderen, by which it became a powerful generator of magneto-electricity, this purpose was abandoned. ‘The Alliance Machine’ consists of a cast-iron frame, on the circumference of which 40 powerful horseshoe magnets, each capable of supporting a weight of 120 to 130 lbs., are fixed, in eight series of 5 magnets each. A number of circular metal discs, around the circumference of which are attached sixteen bobbins of insulated wire fixed to a horizontal shelf turned by a pulley, are in such a position with regard to the magnets, that with each revolution of the shaft each bobbin passes sixteen alternate poles of the magnets, and will have had sixteen alternate currents set up or induced in it. Until replaced by the later and smaller magneto-electric machine, the ‘Alliance’ has been the one mostly employed for the production of the electric light in France, and it is still in use in the lighthouses of Hève and Grisnez, as well as in those of many other places in that country. In 1856 Mr Holmes took out a patent for a machine, which differs from Nollet’s in increasing the number of bobbins by arranging them in concentric circles between two brass discs. By this device the bobbins revolve more quickly in succession in front of the poles of the magnets, a plan which ensures the generation of a greater number of currents for every revolution.

Like the first application of Nollet’s, Holmes’ machine was used for lighthouse illumination. It was in work from December, 1858, until June, 1862, at the South Foreland lighthouse, since which time it has been removed to Dungeness, in the lighthouse of which station it has been in use ever since.

When applied to lighting purposes, both the ‘Alliance’ and Holmes’, and the other machines named, are worked in conjunction with the carbon points, which when arranged with proper machinery constitute the electric lamp.

Wild’s and Ladd’s are powerful dynamic magneto-electric instruments, capable of yielding large quantities of the electric fluid.

Artificial illumination by means of electricity has, however, been more or less occasionally practised for other than lighthouse purposes.

For instance, in 1854, during the building of the Napoleon Docks at Rouen, when 800 workmen were engaged nightly for four hours, the electric light was used for several nights with perfect success, the men being able to carry on their work at a distance of more than 100 yards from the source of the light.

In 1862 and 1863 it was frequently employed in Spain during the night in the construction of railways. During the late Franco-German war in 1870 it was applied to submarine illumination, and more lately it has been used in a series of street illumination in St Petersburg.

The electric light apparatus was placed on the tower of the Admiralty Buildings of that city, and by means of it three of the larger streets were illuminated at night from 7 until 10 o’clock. In this latter case, as well as in that of the Rouen Docks, the lamps were supplied with the electric current generated in batteries.

It may be said, however, to have been only within the last two years that the question of electric lighting has developed into a burning one, and that the light itself has become so much more generally and extensively adopted.

This new era in the history of artificial illumination may be said to date from the introduction of two forms of dynamic magneto-electric apparatus, the one invented by Dr Siemens, the eminent telegraphic engineer, the other by M. Gramme, of Paris, who, from having been formerly a journeyman carpenter, has now become the head of a manufacture which forms a most important branch of scientific industry.

In the apparatus of Gramme and Siemens three marked features and improvements over the older machines have been achieved:—

1. A great reduction in size, and, consequently, in cost, and requisite space for the machine.

2. The method of generating large quantities of electricity by the mutual action between the different parts of the same machine, and the induction therein set up.

3. The production of the electric current at a much less expenditure of motive power.

On this latter point Professor Tyndall, in his report to the elder brethren of the Trinity House, states that magneto-electric machines of old construction cost ten times more, occupied twenty-five times the space, and weighed fourteen times as much as the recent machines, while they produced only one-fifth of the light with practically the same driving power; which in effect amounts to this—that taking illuminating effect in each case into consideration, the new machines cost one-fiftieth, and are, as regards space occupied, 125 times more advantageous than the earlier forms.

In all the older and larger machines the current of electricity, as it was given off from the wire and passed through the carbon points, was alternate, or first in one direction and then in the opposite—that is, it was a momentary current, first positive and then negative.

In Siemens’ machine, and in one form of Gramme’s, the current is direct—that is, it pursues one uniform course in its passage through the carbon points of the lamp, and in its circuit from the terminal of one wire to that of the other.

Scientific opinion is somewhat at variance as to the disadvantages of the indirect current; many electricians consider that it causes the partial destruction of the contacts, and sets up unnecessary heat in the machine. In magneto-electric machines employed in electro-metallurgic operations, it is essential the current should be a direct one.

In the Gramme machine the electro-magnet consists of a ring composed of soft iron wire attached to a horizontal spindle or axis, which latter is turned by an endless strap revolving on a pulley. Around this iron ring are wound a number of coils, each having 300 turns, of insulated copper wire, each coil being bent inside the ring, and fixed to an insulated piece of brass.

The wire being continuous, each coil is connected with the adjacent one, the whole of the coils thus forming a single conductor. The series of pieces of brass to which the wire is soldered are formed into a circle, which surrounds the axis of the machine, each piece of brass being insulated from its neighbour. The iron-wire ring with its attachments is so arranged, that when the shaft or axis to which it is fixed is turned, it revolves between the poles of a powerful horseshoe magnet in the same plane with it. As it turns the ring gives rise in the coils to two different and diverse currents of electricity, one in one half of the coils around the ring, and the other in the other half.

These currents are made to pass to the circle composed of the insulated pieces of brass, which are arranged radially to the axis of the machine.

Two brass brushes press against these insulated brass radii, one on each side.

These brushes are connected one to each terminal of the machine, and so contrived as always to be in contact with the coils, not becoming insulated from one coil until contact is established with the next one, an arrangement which gives rise to a continuous current of electricity always, and in the same direction.

The Gramme, although of very small dimensions, is an extremely powerful machine. It easily decomposes water, and will heat an iron wire 8 inches in length and a 25th of an inch in diameter to redness.

The following description of the Siemens magneto-electric machine is from a paper read some few months back at the Society of Arts by Dr Paget Higgs, and is extracted from the journal published by that body:

“In the latest form of construction of the Siemens magneto-electric machine the armature, as the revolving coil may be called, consists of several lengths of insulated copper wire, coiled in several convolutions upon a cylinder. The whole surface of the cylinder is covered with wire, laid on in sections, each convolution being parallel to its longitudinal axis. For about two thirds of its surface the wire cylinder is surrounded by curved iron bars, there being just sufficient space left between these curved iron bars and the wire cylinder to allow of its free rotation. The curved iron bars are prolongations of the cores of large, flat electro-magnets; the coils of these electro-magnets and the wire on the cylinder (from brush to brush) form a continuous electrical circuit. On revolving the cylinder (which is supported on a longitudinal axis in suitable bearings, the axis carrying a pulley) an initially weak current is generated into its wires by their passage through the magnetic field, formed by the residual magnetism of the iron coils of the electro-magnets, and the current being directed into the coils of the electro-magnets, increases the magnetism of the cores, which again induce a stronger current in the wire cylinder. This material action may continue until the iron has attained its limit of magnetisation. The maximum magnetic power acting upon each convolution is attained at every revolution of the armature, when the convolution passes through the centre of both magnetic fields, and gradually falls to zero as the convolution becomes perpendicular to that position. Each convolution has, therefore, a neutral position, and a convolution leaving that position on the one side of the axis and advancing towards the north pole of the electro-magnet would be subject to a direct induced current, and that portion of the convolution on the opposite side of the axis would be traversed by a current of opposite direction as regards a given point, but of the same direction as regards circuit. Each of the sections of wire coiled upon the cylinder consists of two separate coils, leaving four ends; two of these ends are connected to each of the segments of a circular commutator divided into parts. But all the coils are connected to the several segments of commutator in such a manner that the whole of the double sections form a continuous circuit, but not one continuous helix. Two brushes placed tangentially to the segments of the commutator collect the electric currents; these brushes are connected one to each electro-magnet, and the two free ends of the electro-magnet coils are connected to the conducting wires leading to the lamp.

“The dimensions, weight, number of revolutions made by the armature, light equivalent in normal candles, and horse-power required for driving, are for the three sizes of machines as follows:—

Dimension in Inches. Weight in lbs. Revolutions of cylinder. Candles’ Light. Horse Power.

Length. Width. Height.

25 21 8·8 298 1100 1,000 1⁄2 to 2

29 26 9·5 419 650 6,000 3⁄4 to 4

44 28·3 12·6 1279 480 14,000 9 to 10

“In the lamp which it is preferred to use with the Siemens machine, the points of the carbons after being separated are brought together again by the gravitation of the top carbon and its holder. The descent of the top carbon actuates by means of the straight rack it carries at its lower end, a large pinion, the spindle of which carries a small pinion, gearing into a second neck attached to the lower carbon holder, the superior weight of the top carbon and holder, in conjunction with the multiplying ratio of the two pinions, producing a continual tendency of the carbons to approach each other. The large and small pinions are connected to each other, and to the spindle that carries them, by an arrangement of friction discs, and the object of this construction is to allow of the two racks being moved equally and simultaneously up or down for the purpose of focussing the light when required. This movement is effected by means of bevelled gearing, and actuated by a milled head, which can be pressed into position when required. On the spindle carrying the large and small pinions and the friction discs is placed a toothed wheel, connected with the spindle by a pawl and ratchet.

“This wheel is the first of a train of wheels and pinions driving a regulating fly in the usual way. The pawl and ratchet are provided to allow of the rapid distancing of the carbon holders when it becomes necessary to introduce fresh carbons. The spindle of the fly also carries a small finely-toothed ratchet wheel. This ratchet wheel is actuated by a spring pawl, carried at the end of a lever, which lever is the continuation of the armature of the electro-magnet, in such a manner that when the armature is attracted by the electro-magnet, the spring pawl engages in the teeth of the ratchet wheel, and causes the wheels in gearing therewith to act upon the racks of the carbon holders to draw them apart.

“The action of the lamp is as follows:—The current passes from the conductor to the top carbon holder, thence through the carbons to the bottom carbon holder, then to the coils of the electro-magnet situated in the base of the lamp. From the coils of the electro-magnet the circuit is completed to the other conductor. Upon the current passing through the circuit, the armature of the electro-magnet is attracted, and the abutment from the armature lever caused to short-circuit the coils of the electro-magnet, releasing the armature. The armature being released, the short-circuit is removed from the coils of the electro-magnet, and the cycle of movement repeated; in this manner an oscillatory motion is given to the armature lever, which by the spring pawl actuates the ratchet wheel, the train of clockwork, and the racks of the carbon holders, forcing the carbons apart until the distance between their points sufficiently weakens the current, so that it no longer attracts the armature of the electro-magnet. Thus, by the combined action of gravitation of the top carbon in drawing the carbons together, and of the current to separate the carbons when they approach too closely, a working distance is maintained between the points with perfect automatism.”

Siemens’ lamp is at the present time employed in the Lizard Lighthouse, in Messrs Siemens’ Engineering Works in England and Wales, as well as in other localities or buildings requiring powerfully lighting up.

An interesting illustration of the value of the electric light to the sailor is furnished by the ‘Telegraph Journal’ of April 5th, 1878. This publication contains a letter from the captain of the S.S. ‘Faraday,’ narrating how that vessel was by its means prevented from running into another vessel during a dense fog.

Siemens’ magneto-electric apparatus and lamp were used on the occasion above referred to.

In every form of contrivance for electrical illumination the lamp or lighting apparatus consists of carbon points separated by a very slight interval, through which the current of electricity passes by means of terminal wires attached to the dynamo-electrical machine.

The lighting effect is produced by the passage of the electric spark through the small gap which separates the carbon points, in which interval extremely minute but solid particles of carbon, given off by the points, are heated up to incandescence in the path of the spark, and thus give rise to the intensely luminous focus known as ‘the electric light.’ The brilliancy of the light of course depends upon the quantity of electricity employed.

A very large number and variety of designs and patents for electric lamps have made their appearance in England, America, France, and Russia within the period following the invention of the small, powerful, and economic dynamo-electric machines of Siemens and Gramme.

The lighting apparatus generally attached to and worked by that variety of Gramme’s machine generating the continuous current is that known as the ‘Serrin Lamp.’ Two carbon electrodes placed vertically one above the other (the positive being the upper one) are fixed on brass holders, which are so connected by a suitably contrived clockwork movement, combined with the working of an electro-magnet in connection with the electric circuit, as to maintain the two carbon poles during their combustion at the necessary distance from each other. Serrin’s lamp differs in detail from Siemens’, but, like this latter, is automatic in principle. In Paris it was the one in general use until the introduction of the Jablochkoff candle, and, with the Duboscq lamp, may be looked upon as the precursor of the various lamps and regulators now employed in electric lighting. Serrin’s lamp or regulator, with some slight modification in the machinery, is also used in the Lontin system of electric illumination, by which separate lights are supplied by separate circuits of electricity. Lontin’s method is that by which the Gaiety Theatre in the Strand is lighted; and is also used at the Western Railway Station (Gare, St Lazare) at Paris. The Jablochkoff candle, which in Paris has lately superseded the Serrin lamp, probably because its use renders unnecessary the use of automatic machinery, is the invention of a Russian engineer, whose name it bears.

It consists of two sticks of gas carbon, about 9 inches long and ⁄5th of an inch thick, which are placed vertically side by side, and insulated from one another by a very thin strip of kaolin or china clay (a silicate of alumina and potash), the whole forming a candle. Each carbon rod is connected with one of the terminal wires of a Gramme dynamo-electric machine, the electric current from which, however, not being continuous, sets up an alternate current between the tips or poles of the candles, which are gradually consumed like an ordinary taper, and with this only difference in action between Serrin’s and Siemens’ lamps, that whereas in these latter the spark passes from the top to the bottom carbon point, in the Jablochkoff candle it jumps from side to side. The inventor contends that the kaolin by becoming heated diminishes the resistance of the circuit, and thus permits of the passage of the electric spark more easily through the carbons, and also, we believe, asserts that the kaolin being electrolytically decomposed as the carbons are consumed, becomes converted into silica, which melts and drops down, whilst the aluminium liberated contributes luminosity during combustion to the flame.

One of the chief advantages, however, claimed by M. Jablochkoff is, that he can divide the circuit into a number of different lights, as the resistance of the circuit is uniform.

A large number of Jablochkoff candles are employed in the celebrated ‘Magasins du Louvre,’ one of the most extensive commercial establishments in Paris for the sale of silks, ribbons, gloves, &c., and clothing of every description.

The pure white light diffused by electricity admirably adapts it for viewing colours of all kinds at night, whether seen in pictures or on fabrics and raiments, and more particularly blues and greens, the hues of which are frequently indistinguishable from each other by gaslight. The candle is also used to light the courtyard of the Hotel du Louvre, a large building contiguous to, and with its apartments running over, the Magasins, as well as in several shops.

Jablochkoff’s system is also in work in Paris in front of many public buildings, and by its means the Place and Avenue de l’Opera, together occupying a space 900 yards long by 30 wide, are brilliantly illuminated every night.

That celebrated circus, so well known to every visitor to Paris, the Hippodrome, is also lighted by it.

Another form of electric lamp is that of M. Rapieff, now in use in the machine-room of the ‘Times’ newspaper office. In this lamp there are four carbon points instead of two. M. Rapieff, like M. Jablochkoff, states that by means of his system he is enabled to supply several lamps with the same electric current. In the Wallace-Farmer lamp slabs of carbon instead of points are had recourse to.

In the lamps of M. Regnier in one variety two revolving carbon discs are used, whilst in another a rod of carbon descends upon a disc of the same material, an arrangement which the inventor states leads to the subdivision of the current and its separate utilisation by a number of such lights.

One of the latest and apparently most successful methods for dividing the electric current, so that one and the same current shall be made simultaneously to supply and render incandescent a series of carbon points, and in so doing give rise to as many effective electric illuminators, is that of Mr Werdermann. Mr Werdermann, observing the disparity of consumption between the positive and negative poles of the electrodes, found by experiment that when the sectional area of the negative pole was sixty-four times greater than the positive one, the electric arc was so far reduced, that the two carbons were in contact. Under these conditions the electric arc was infinitely small, the negative electrode was not consumed, whilst the positive one was incandescent. Two supplies of electric light, therefore, ensued, one by the electric arc, and the other by the incandescent carbon of the positive electrode. Under these circumstances, if it were possible to devise a plan by which the positive pole as it consumed should be kept in uniform contact with the negative pole, the difficulty which had hitherto proved the stumbling-block to using a series of lights from one current would be annihilated.

Mr Werdermann demonstrated the correctness of his premises by a practical illustration of his plan very lately (November, 1878) at the British Telegraph Manufactory, 374, Euston Road. The current from a dynamo-electric Gramme machine of 2-horse power was conducted to two electric lamps, each having an illuminating value equal to 360 candles each. The light so produced is described by a spectator as “being soft and sun-like, and as being capable of being looked at without discomfort, though it was not shaded.” These being extinguished, ten smaller lamps were ignited by means of the same current, each one having an illuminating power equal to forty candles. “The lamps burned steadily with a beautiful soft and clear white light. First one of the ten lights was then extinguished, and afterwards a second, the only effect on the remainder being that they became slightly more brilliant.”

Unlike Mr Edison, Mr Werdermann does not believe in the indefinite divisibility of the electric light. It will be observed that the candle power of the light becomes diminished by subdivision. Two lights gave a light equal to 700 candles, whereas the same current divided into ten lights gave an aggregate light of only 400 candles.

The following extract from the ‘Times’ of December 5th, 1878, illustrates the financial aspect of the electric light question:—

“At the usual weekly meeting of the Society of Arts, held last evening, Dr C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., in the chair, a paper on electric lighting was read by Mr J. N. Shoolbred, M. Inst. C.E. The object of the author was to present some results of the application of electric lighting to industrial purposes, especially as regards cost. He noticed first the Holmes and the Alliance magneto-electric machines, giving alternating currents and single lights for lighthouse use. Secondly, he referred to the dynamo-electric machines, producing single lights for general industrial purposes, as well as for lighthouses, and including the Siemens and the Gramme machines. In his third group the author included the machines used for producing divided lights, each group indicating a marked period representing a clearly defined stage of progress in electric lighting. With regard to cost, Mr Shoolbred stated that in every instance his figures and particulars were those afforded by the users of the various lights, and not by the inventors or their representatives. In the case of the Holmes machine the annual cost per lighthouse was about £1035, inclusive of interest, repairs, and wages. With the Siemens machine the annual cost was about £494 per lighthouse, including interest and the other expenses. With the Alliance machine as used at Havre the cost was about £474 per annum per lighthouse, interest, &c., included. The single-light Gramme machine has been in use in the Paris goods station of the Northern of France Railway for two years. Six machines have been kept going with one light each, and the cost is found to be 5d. per light per hour, or with interest on outlay at 10 per cent., 8d. per hour. The same light at the ironworks of Messrs Powell at Rouen was stated to cost 4d. per light per hour, exclusive of interest and charge for motive power, the latter being derived from one of the engines on the works. In 1877 a series of experiments were carried out with the Lontin light at the Paris terminus of the Paris, Lyons, and Mediterranean Railway. The passenger station was lighted, and the results were so satisfactory that the company have entered into a permanent contract with the proprietors of the Lontin light for lighting their Paris goods station with 12 lights, at a cost of 5d. per light per hour. The Western of France Railway Company have had 6 Lontin lights in the goods station at the Paris terminus, St Lazare, since May last, and 12 lights in the passenger station since June. Careful experiments have shown the cost to be 8d. per light per hour, inclusive of interest. Referring to the Jablochkoff light, Mr Shoolbred placed before the meeting some particulars with regard to its application in the Avenue de l’Opéra, Paris, which were afforded him by M. J. Allard, the chief engineer of the lighting department of the City of Paris. It appears that the authorities pay the Société Générale d’Électricité 37f. 2c. per hour for the 62 lamps in use there. These 62 lamps supersede 344 gas-jets which were previously used, and which cost the authorities 7·244f. per hour. The electric illumination, however, is considered as equal to 682 gas-jets, or about double the original illumination—that is, to a cost of 14·45f. per hour as against 37·2f. for the electric light, the cost of which, therefore, is 2·6 times that of the gas. The contract for lighting by electricity was terminated by the City of Paris on the 30th ult., and the authorities have declined to renew it except at the price paid for gas, namely, 7·224f. (or about 6s.) per hour, and that only until the 15th of January next. These terms have been accepted by the Société, so that the price paid to them will be at the rate of about 1⁄8d. per light per hour. Mr Shoolbred stated that the Société place their expenses at 1·06f. (or just 11d.) per light per hour, which, however, they hope shortly to reduce by one half. A series of careful photometric experiments carried out by the municipal authorities with the Jablochkoff lights, above referred to, showed each naked light to possess a maximum of 300 candles of intensity. With the glass globe this was reduced to 180 candles, showing a loss of 40 per cent., while during the darker periods through which the lights passed the light was as low as 90 candles. The foregoing were the only authenticated particulars which the author could obtain as regards the working of the various electric systems of electric lighting. In conclusion, Mr Shoolbred referred to the Rapieff light at the ‘Times’ office, which, he observed, worked fairly and with regularity, which could not be said of all others, and it might therefore be entitled to take rank as an established application of electric illumination. The paper was illustrated by the Siemens, Rapieff, Serrin, and other forms of electric light, which were shown in operation.”

That the electric light is eventually destined to supplant coal gas in illuminating the fronts of large buildings, open spaces, squares, assembly rooms, public halls, theatres, picture galleries, workshops and factories, &c., seems no very extravagant prediction. We have already seen that it has for some years been employed in one lighthouse; and we have the testimony of Mr Douglas, of the Trinity House, at a very recent meeting of the Society of Arts, that at the Souter Point Lighthouse there had been only two stoppages in eight years, once through a bad carbon breaking, and once through the lighthouse-keeper going to sleep.

In addition to places above specified, amongst other localities in which it is in work, we may mention the chocolate factories of M. Menier, at Noiselle, his india-rubber works at Grenelle, his sugar refinery at Nice, and Messrs Caille’s works at Paris. In this country it was employed in the erection of the Tay Bridge, as well as in the works of Messrs Head, at Stockton-on-Tees, and in London it may be nightly seen burning before the Gaiety Theatre in the Strand, at Billingsgate Market, and frequently lighting up the front of the Stereoscopic Company’s premises in Regent Street. Further, we may add that the Metropolitan Board of Works are making the experiment of lighting the Victoria Embankment and the City authorities the Holborn Viaduct, with the Jablochkoff candle. The former have placed a dynamo-electric apparatus, worked by a steam engine of 20-horse power, close to the foot of Hungerford Bridge, from whence wires will be carried right and left towards Westminster and Blackfriars respectively.

We believe the main conducting wire is carried under the coping-stone of the parapet running along the Embankment, and that the carbon points are fixed on the top of a certain number of gas standards which now surmount the wall of the Embankment.

That electricity is more economical as a method of artificial lighting than coal-gas the figures previously given seem to demonstrate, and there can be no question as to the much greater luminosity and purity of the light over the gas flame, qualities which render it an admirable substitute for the sunlight, the absence of which it may be said to supply at night. One disadvantage urged against its employment in weaving rooms is, that it casts such dark and distinct shadows that these are frequently mistaken for the threads themselves, an objection which is said to have been remedied by placing the light as near the ceiling as possible. The non-generation of carbonic acid and sulphurous products such as are given off by burning gas, although of slight importance when the light is employed in the open air, becomes a great advantage when it is used in crowded assembly rooms or theatres, since the atmospheric contamination caused by carbonic acid becomes of course considerably reduced. The absence of sulphur compounds especially qualifies the light for use in large libraries. If it be true that the light gives rise to an appreciable amount of ozone, this constitutes another point in its favour. Opinion is at variance as to the possibility of the practical application of the electric light for illuminating private houses and dwellings in such a manner as to supply the place of the gas we now burn in them. One serious impediment to the probable accomplishment of this result certainly seems to be the fact that electricity for lighting purposes can only practically be conveyed to short distances from its source, which would necessitate the establishment and supervision of a number of generating machines near the houses to be lighted. Another obstacle, which hitherto has not been overcome, is the circumstance that the current when subdivided yields proportionately a greatly diminished amount of light. For instance, one light which had a certain photometric candle valve would yield when divided into two an aggregate amount of light considerably less than the one; and if divided into three still less, and so on. This has been pointed out when noticing Mr Werdermann’s invention for the divisibility of the light. Mr Edison, an American inventor, asserts that he has conquered this difficulty, and additionally perfected a machine for measuring the current used in the electric light. He states that it consists of an apparatus placed in every house lighted by electricity, which registers the quantity of electricity consumed, and uses for the purpose 1000th part of the quantity employed in the building.

Dr Siemens, no mean authority, doubts the practicability of applying electric lighting to household illumination.

A matter of primary importance in connection with the successful working of the electric light is the quality of the carbon points. In their manufacture gas carbon obtained from the necks of the retorts used in gas-making, as being the hardest and purest, is employed.

Superior, however, as this form of carbon is to every other description of the substance, it is never chemically pure, and as any foreign substance imparts to the light the irregularity or flickering that sometimes accompanies it, it is necessary the impurities should be removed. To effect their separation the carbon has to undergo several processes, such as soaking in caustic potash to remove the silica, treatment with strong acids, several washings, grinding, &c. It is then kneaded and put into moulds, in which it is subjected to a pressure as high as 12 tons to the square foot. Subsequently the points so made are baked.

LIGHTNING. See Accidents.

LIG′NIN. C6H10O5. Syn. Cellulose. This is woody fibre deprived of all foreign matter. It forms about 95 per cent. of baked wood, and constitutes the woody portion of all vegetable substances. Fine linen and cotton are almost entirely composed of lignin, the associated vegetable principles having been removed by the treatment the fibres have been subjected to during the process of their manufacture.

Pure lignin is tasteless, inodorous, insoluble in water and alcohol, and absolutely innutritious; dilute acids and alkaline solutions scarcely affect it, even when hot; oil of vitriol converts it into dextrin or grape sugar, according to the mode of treatment. When concentrated sulphuric acid is added very gradually to about half its weight of lint, linen rag, or any similar substance shredded small, and contained in a glass vessel, with constant trituration, the fibres gradually swell up and disappear, without the disengagement of any gas, and a tenacious mucilage is formed, which is entirely soluble in water. If, after a few hours, the mixture be diluted with water, the acid neutralised by the addition of chalk, and, after filtration, any excess of lime thrown down by the cautious addition of a solution of oxalic acid, the liquid yields, after a second filtration, and the addition of alcohol in considerable excess, a gummy mass, which possesses all the characters of pure dextrin. If, instead of at once saturating the diluted acid solution with chalk, we boil it for 4 or 5 hours, the dextrin is entirely converted into grape sugar, which, by the addition of chalk and filtration, as before, and evaporation by a gentle heat to the consistence of a syrup, will, after repose for a few days, furnish a concrete mass of crystallised sugar. By strong pressure between folds of porous paper or linen, redissolving it in water, agitation with animal charcoal, and recrystallisation, brilliant colourless crystals of grape sugar may be obtained. Hemp, linen, or cotton, thus treated, yield fully their own weight of gum, and 1 per cent. of their weight of grape sugar. During the above transformation, the sulphuric acid is converted into sulpholignic acid, and may be procured in a separate state. A solution of oxide of copper in ammonia, or solution of basic carbonate of copper in strong ammonia, dissolves cotton, which may then be precipitated by acids in colourless flakes.

LIG′NITE. Syn. Brown coal. Wood and other matter more or less mineralised and converted into coal. The lignites are generally dark brown, and of obvious woody structure. They are distinguished from true coals by burning with little flame and much smoke. Those of Germany are largely used as a source of paraffin and burning oils.

LIG′NUM VI′TÆ. See Guaiacum Wood.

LIME. CaO. Syn. Oxide of calcium; Chaux, Fr.; Kalk, Ger. Lime, when pure, and as a chemical and medical reagent, will be found treated of under Calcium (Oxide of). It is prepared on the large scale for commerce by calcining chalk, marble or limestone, in kilns, and is called quicklime, caustic lime, burnt lime, stone lime, &c. The lime kilns are usually of the form of an inverted cone, and are packed with alternate layers of limestone and fuel, and the burnt lime raked out from the bottom. The lime thus obtained is a pale yellow powder, combining eagerly with water, and crumbling to a light white powder, “slaked lime,” with the evolution of much heat. Lime which slakes well is termed “fat lime,” while if it slakes badly is termed “poor lime.” The slaked lime, the Calcis hydras of the B. P., is fresh lime sprinkled with water till it falls to powder.

Lime, Salts of. See under Calcium.

Lime, Pyrolignite of. An impure acetate of calcium used for making mordants in dyeing and calico printing, as a substitute for the more expensive acetate of lead.

Lime, Chloride of. Syn. Bleaching powder, Chlorinated lime, Hypochlorite of calcium.

This article was formerly believed to be a compound of lime and chlorine (CaO.Cl), and consequently received the name of ‘chloride of lime.’ We now know, however, that it is not a definite substance, but a mixture of calcium hypochlorite, calcium chloride, and calcium hydrate. The value of this preparation is due to the readiness with which the calcium hypochlorite is decomposed by acids, even by the carbonic acid of the air, with the evolution of hypochlorous acid which abstracts hydrogen from many vegetable colouring matters, badly smelling gases, &c.: the former are thereby bleached and the latter deodorised.

Chloride of lime is most extensively used for bleaching linen, calico, and similar fabrics, thousands of tons being made near Newcastle alone every year. It is also largely employed as a deodoriser.

Prep. Freshly slaked lime is thinly spread out in a proper vessel and exposed to an atmosphere of chlorine gas until it is saturated. Now included in the Materia Medica.

Slaked lime (fresh), 20 parts, common salt, 1 part, are mixed together, and the powder placed in long earthenware vessels into which chlorine is passed until the mixture begins to grow damp, or until one part of it, dissolved in 130 parts of water, is capable of decolouring 4⁄2 parts of sulphate of indigo (see Chlorimetry), when the whole is transferred to dry bottles.

(Wholesale.) The chlorine is generated from the usual materials mixed in leaden vessels, heated by steam, and the gas, after passing through water, is conveyed by a leaden tube into an apartment built of siliceous sandstone, and arranged with shelves or trays, containing dry fresh slaked lime, placed one above another, about an inch asunder. The process, to produce a first-class article, is continued for 4 or 5 days. During this time the lime is occasionally agitated by means of iron rakes, the handles of which pass through boxes of lime placed in the walls of the chamber, which thus act as valves.

The successful manufacture of bleaching powder is dependent upon the careful observance of a number of conditions, such as the quality of the limestone, which should be free from iron; the presence of magnesia at the time is also very objectionable, since it gives rise to the formation and presence in the bleaching powder of deliquescent chloride of magnesium; the apportionment of the water in slaking the lime is also a matter of no inconsiderable importance, the lime forming into balls, which fail to properly absorb the gas if the water be insufficient, whilst if it be in excess, it yields a powder deficient in chlorine. When slaked, the lime is passed through a sieve to free it from small pebbles. After being slaked it is kept for 2 or 3 days before being used, as it is found that under these circumstances it absorbs chlorine more readily than when recently prepared. Previous to its entrance into the lime chamber, the chlorine is passed through water, to free it from vapour, and solid particles of chloride of manganese.

The temperature of the chamber into which the chlorine is passed ought not to exceed 62° F. An excess of chlorine has been found to yield a powder deficient in hypochlorite.

Bleaching powder, unless protected from the air (carbonic acid), slowly parts with its chlorine. In summer it has been estimated that it loses as much as 86 per cent. of the gas, and in winter about 26 per cent.

Prop., &c. Chloride of lime is a pale, yellowish-white powder, generally more or less damp, and evolving a chlorine-like odour of hypochlorous acid. Its soluble constituents dissolve in about 20 parts of water. It is decomposed by acids with the evolution of chlorine and oxygen (hypochlorous acid). Good chloride of lime should contain from 32% to 36% of chlorine, of which, however, but 25% to 30% can be easily liberated by an acid.

Estim. See Chlorometry.

Uses. Chloride of lime is employed in medicine as a deodoriser and disinfectant. An ointment of chloride of lime has been used in scrofula, and a lotion or bath, moderately dilute, is one of the cleanest and readiest ways of removing the ‘itch,’ and several other skin diseases. It is also in great use as a disinfectant, and may be used either in substance or solution. A small quantity of the powder spread on a flat dish or plate, and placed on the chimney-piece, and a like quantity in an opposite part of the room, will continue to evolve sufficient chlorine or hypochlorous acid to disinfect (? Ed.) the air of an apartment for several days. The evolution of chlorine is promoted by occasionally renewing the exposed surface, by stirring it with a piece of stick, and after it becomes scentless, by the addition of a little acid, as strong vinegar, or hydrochloric acid, or oil of vitriol, largely diluted with water. Of late, however, it has been partly superseded by sulphurous acid, carbolic acid, &c. The most extensive consumption of chloride of lime is, however, for bleaching textile fabrics. When employed for this purpose, the goods are first immersed in a dilute solution of this substance, and then transferred to a vat containing dilute sulphuric acid. The chlorine thus disengaged in contact with the cloth, causes the destruction of the colouring matter. This process is generally repeated several times, it being unsafe to use strong solutions. White patterns may thus be imprinted upon coloured cloth; the figures being stamped with tartaric acid thickened with gum water, the stuff is immersed in the chloride bath, when the parts to which the acid has been applied remain unaltered, while the printed portions are bleached white.

Concluding Remarks.—Chloride of lime is now scarcely ever made on the small scale, as it can be purchased of the large manufacturer of better quality and cheaper than it could possibly be made by the druggist. The chief precaution to be observed in the manufacture of good bleaching powder is to maintain the ingredients at a rather low temperature.

LIME. The fruit of Citrus limetta. It resembles the lemon, but is smaller and has a smoother skin. It is imported into Great Britain in a preserved state for use as a dessert. Its juice is also largely imported for the preparation of CITRIC ACID, and for the prevention of scurvy on board ship (see below).

LIME JUICE. Syn. Lemon Juice. The juice of the fruits of various species of Citrus, principally LIMES, is known in commerce under these names. It is very variable as to quality, which depends upon the method of extraction, the quality of the fruit, and the honesty of the shipper.

We have examined the juice expressed from limes sent from the West Indies, from Jamaica, and from South Africa, with the following results:

W. Indies. Jamaica. S. Africa.

Specific gravity of juice 1041·30 1044·18 1044·90

Per cent. of citric acid 7·96 8·66 8·50

Per cent. of ash 0·321 0·401 0·364

The yield from limes is very small, and the freshly expressed juice contains a large amount of pulp. This, however, on standing a few weeks, separates, and a clear sherry-coloured liquid is obtained.

A concentrated lime or lemon juice is used by calico printers. It is a “dark, treacly-looking fluid, marking from 48° to 54° Twaddell,” and contains about 30 per cent. of pure citric acid.

Adult. See Lemon juice.

Estim. Lime juice is only valuable on account of the citric acid it contains. If of good quality, 100 gr. will neutralise from 70 to 76 gr. of pure crystallised carbonate of soda. “For commercial purposes each grain of carbonate of soda neutralised may represent a half grain of crystallised citric acid (equal to 38 gr. of dry acid), and the value of the lime juice be calculated in proportion.” (O’Neill.) As commercial lime juice contains variable proportions of vegetable extractive matter, the indications of the hydrometer cannot be depended upon. Acidimetry, Citric acid, &c.

LIME′STONE. A general term applied to a great variety of rocks in which carbonate of lime is the principal constituent.

Estim. The value of chalk, limestone, marble, &c., for hydraulic mortars and cements, may be determined as follows:

A given weight (say 100 gr.) of the sample is reduced to powder and digested in hydrochloric acid dilated with about an equal weight of water, with frequent agitation for an hour or longer; the mixture is then diluted with thrice its volume of water, thrown upon a filter, and the undissolved portion washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. This weight indicates the per-centage of clay and silica or sand, and the loss that of the lime or calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, and ferric oxide, present in the substance examined. In most cases these results will be sufficient to show the quality of the limestone for the purpose of making mortar or cement.

The filtrate and the washings are mixed together, and ammonia is added in excess; the bulky, reddish-brown precipitate is collected, washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. This gives the per-centage of ferric oxide.

The filtrate from last is then treated with oxalate of ammonium, and the quantity of lime determined in the manner described under the head of Calcium.

The liquid filtered from the precipitate in last is boiled for some time with carbonate of potassium until ammoniacal fumes are no longer evolved; the precipitate is then collected on a filter, washed with hot water, dried, and strongly ignited for 3 or 4 hours, and, lastly, weighed. This gives the per-centage of magnesium.

LINC′TUS. [L., Eng.] Syn. Loch, Lohoch, Lincture, Lambative; Looch, Fr. A medicine of the consistence of honey, intended to be licked off a spoon. This form of medicine is well adapted to females and children, but is not much used in England at the present time. Those employed in modern pharmacy and prescribing are included under the heads Confection, Conserve, or Electuary.—The Dose, when it is not otherwise stated, is a teaspoonful occasionally.

Linctus, Acid. (Dr Copland.) Syn. Linctus acidus. Prep. Honey of roses, 10 dr.; hydrochloric acid, 20 minims; syrup of red poppies, 2 dr. Mix.

Linctus of Borax. (Univ. Coll. Hosp.) Syn. Linctus boracis. Prep. Borax, 3 dr.; honey, 1 oz. Melt, and stir together, and then add syrup, 1 oz.

Linctus, Caca′o. Syn. Linctus cacao, L.; Crême de Tronchin, Fr. Prep. From cocoa-butter, 2 oz.; white sugar (in powder), syrup of capillaire, and syrup of tolu, of each 1 oz.; mix. Demulcent and pectoral; in coughs, sore throats, hoarseness, &c.

Linctus, Common. Prep. From oil of almonds and syrup of tolu, of each 1 oz.; powdered white sugar, 2 dr. As the last.

Linctus, Cough. Syn. Pectoral linctus; Linctus pectoralis, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Latham.) Compound ipecacuanha powder (Dover’s powder), ⁄2 dr.; compound tragacanth powder, 2 dr.; syrup of tolu, confection of hips, and simple oxymel, of each 1 oz.—Dose, 1 teaspoonful, 3 or 4 times a day. “This linctus has been extensively used, as a remedy for coughs, in the West-end of London, having been found to be a safe and generally efficacious remedy.” (Redwood.) The preceding as well as the following are also useful preparations.

Linctus, Demulcent. Syn. Linctus demulcens L.; Looch de Tronchin, Fr. Prep. From oil of almonds, syrup of capillaire, manna and cassia pulp, of each 2 oz.; powdered gum tragacanth, 20 gr.; orange-flower water, 2 fl. oz. As the last. The above is the quantity for two days, which is as long as it will keep.

Linctus of Egg. Syn. Linctus ovi; Lohoch ovi. Prep. Oil of almonds, ⁄2 dr.; yolk of 1 egg; syrup of marshmallow, 1 oz. Mix.

Linctus, Emol′lient. Syn. Oily emulsion; Lohoch oleosum, Emulsio oleosa, L.; Looch huileux, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Oil of almonds, powdered gum, and orange-flower water, of each 4 dr.; syrup of marshmallow, 1 oz.; water, 3 fl. oz. or q. s.; for an emulsion. In troublesome coughs.

Linctus, Expec′torant. Syn. Linctus expectorans, Lohoch e., L. Prep. 1. Oxymel of squills, confection of hips, syrup of marshmallow, and mucilage of gum Arabic (thick), equal parts. Demulcent and expectorant.

2. (Dr Copland.) Oil of almonds and syrup of lemons, of each 1 fl. oz.; powdered ipecacuanha 6 gr.; confections of hips, 1 oz.; compound powder of tragacanth, 3 dr.

3. (Zanetti.) Kermes mineral, 4 gr.; manna, 6 oz.; oil of almonds, syrup of squills, and syrup of senega, of each 2 dr. Laxative, demulcent, and expectorant. The above are useful in hoarseness, tickling coughs, sore throats, &c.

Linctus, Green. Syn. Linctus viride; Lohoch viride. Prep. Pistachio nuts (or sweet almonds), no. 14; syrup of violets, 1 oz.; oil of almonds, ⁄2 oz.; gum tragacanth, 15 gr.; tincture of saffron, 1 scruple; orange-flower water, 2 dr.; water, 4 oz. Mix.

Linctus of Linseed. (E. 1744.) Syn. Linctus lini; Lohoch lini. Prep. Fresh drawn linseed oil, 1 oz.; syrup of tolu, 1 oz.; sulphur, 2 dr.; white sugar, 2 dr. Mix.

Linctus of Manna. (E. 1744.) Syn. Linctus mannæ; Lohoch mannæ. Prep. Equal parts of manna, oil of almonds, and syrup of violets. Mix.

Linctus of Naphthalin. (Dupasquier) Syn. Linctus naphthalini; Lohoch naphthalini. Prep. To one common lohoch add from 8 gr. to 30 gr. of naphthalin. The latter must be well triturated with the gum.—Dose. One teaspoonful, as an expectorant.

Linctus, Pectoral. Syn. Fox lungs; Linctus pectoralis, Lohoch è pulmone vulpium, L. Prep. From spermaceti and Spanish juice, of each 8 oz.; water, q. s. to soften the liquorice; make a thin electuary, and add of honey, 3 lbs.; oil of aniseed, 1 oz.; mix well. A popular and excellent demulcent in coughs. It formerly contained the herb fox lungs, but spermaceti is now substituted for that article.

Linctus of Poppies. (Th. Hosp.) Syn. Linctus papaveris. Prep. Compound tincture of camphor, syrup of poppies, and syrup of tolu, of each equal parts. Mix.—Dose, 1 fl. dr.

Linctus of Spermaceti. (E. 1744.) Syn. Linctus cetacei; Lohoch cetacei. Prep. Spermaceti, 2 dr.; yolk of egg, q. s.; triturate, and add gradually oil of almonds, ⁄2 oz.; syrup of tolu, 1 oz. Mix.

Linctus of Syrup of White Poppies. (P. C.) Syn. Linctus syrupi papaveris albi; Lohoch syrupus papaveris albi. Prep. White lohoch, 5 parts; syrup of poppies (P. C.), 1 part. Mix.

Linctus, Turpentine. Syn. Linctus stimulans, L. terebinthinæ, Lohoch anthelminticum, L. Prep. (Recamier.) Oil of turpentine, 2 dr.; honey of roses, 3 oz.; mix.—Dose. A teaspoonful, night and morning, followed by a draught of any weak liquid; in worms, more especially tape-worm.

Linctus, White. Syn. Linctus albus, MISTURA ALBA, Lohoch album, L.; Looch blanc, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Jordon almonds, 4⁄2 dr.; bitter almonds, ⁄2 dr.; blanch them by steeping them in hot water and removing the skins; add of white sugar, ⁄2 oz.; gum tragacanth, 20 gr.; beat to a smooth paste, and further add of oil of almonds and orange-flower water, of each 4 dr.; pure water, 4 fl. oz. A pleasant demulcent in tickling coughs.

LIN′EN. Syn. Linteum, L. Linen is a textile fabric made of the libre-fibres of the Linum usitatissimum, or common flax, a plant which from time immemorial has been cultivated for this purpose. It is remarkable for the smoothness and softness of its texture, and is hence highly esteemed in temperate climates as an elegant and agreeable article of clothing to be worn next the skin. Its fibres are better conductors of heat, more porous, and more attractive of moisture, than those of cotton, which render it less adapted for body linen in cold weather, as well as in hot weather and hot climates, than calico. The latter, however, lacks the luxurious softness and freshness of linen, whilst the peculiar twisted and jagged character of its fibres render it apt to excite irritation in extremely delicate skins. The common prejudice in favour of old linen and flax lint for dressing wounds is thus shown to have reason on its side, and, like many other vulgar prejudices, to be supported by the investigations of science.

Identif. Linen fabrics are commonly sophisticated with cotton, which is a much less costly and a more easily wrought material. Various plans have been proposed to detect this fraud, many of which are too complicated and difficult for practical purposes. The following commend themselves for their simplicity and ease of application:—

1. A small strip (a square inch, for instance) of the suspected cloth is immersed for 2 or 3 minutes in a boiling mixture of about equal parts of hydrate of potassium and water, contained in a vessel of silver, porcelain, or hard glass; after which it is taken out and pressed between the folds of white blotting paper or porous calico. By separating 8 or 10 threads in each direction, their colour may be readily seen. The deep yellow threads are LINEN, the white or pale yellow ones are COTTON.

2. A small strip of the cloth, after having been repeatedly washed with rain water, boiled in the water, and dried, is immersed for 1 to 2 minutes in sulphuric acid; it is then withdrawn, carefully pressed under water with the fingers, washed, immersed for a few seconds in ammonia, solution of carbonate of potassium, or solution of carbonate of sodium, again washed with water, and dried between filtering paper. By this treatment the cotton fibres are dissolved, while the linen fibres are merely rendered thinner and more translucent according to the duration of the experiment; after a short immersion, the cotton fibres appear transparent, while the linen fibres remain white and opaque.

3. Böttger recommends the linen stuffs to be dipped into an alcoholic solution of rosolic acid, then into a concentration solution of sodium carbonate, and finally washed with water. The linen fibre assumes a pink colour, whilst the cotton fibre remains unaltered.

4. (By the MICROSCOPE.) The indications afforded by both the previous tests, although quite visible to the naked eye, are rendered still more palpable by the use of a magnifying glass of small power, as the common pocket lens. Under a good microscope the presence of cotton in a linen tissue is very perceptible. The fibres of cotton present a distinctly flat and shrivelled appearance, not unlike that of a narrow, twisted ribbon, with only occasional joints; whilst those of flax are round, straight, and jointed. The fibres of cotton, after being exposed to the action of strong alkaline lyes, untwist themselves, contract in length, and assume a rounded form, but still continue distinct in appearance from the fibres of linen. The engraving represents a fibre of linen (1) and a fibre of cotton (2), as they appear when magnified 155 diameters. The difference between the two may be perceived, although less distinctly through a good Stanhope or Coddington lens, provided the object be well illuminated.

Dyeing. Linen and cotton, from the similarity of their behaviour with dye-stuffs, are treated in nearly the same manner. The affinity of their fibres for colouring matter is very much weaker than that of the fibres of silk and woollen. On this account they are dyed with greater difficulty than those substances, and the colours so imparted are, in general, less brilliant and permanent under similar conditions. Linen shows less disposition to take dyes than cotton. The yarn or cloth, after being scoured and bleached in the usual manner, requires to have an additional tendency given to it, by chemical means, to condense and retain the materials of the dye-bath in its pores. This is effected by steeping the goods in solutions (mordants) which have at once an affinity for both the fibres of the cloth and the colouring matter. A similar process is employed in dyeing most other substances; but with cotton and linen, attention to this point is essential to the permanency of the dye. These matters are more fully explained under the heads Dyeing and Mordant.

The following new process for bleaching linen, having been omitted from our article on “Bleaching” is inserted here:—

Mr Hodges’ process, which is known in Ireland as the “Chemico-Mechanical Process,” owing to the patentee turning to account the advantages derivable from the employment of mechanical contrivances driven by steam, combined with the introduction of a new method of obtaining the hitherto little used hypochlorite of magnesia, may be said to date from the discovery of the substance, known as Kieserite (native sulphate of magnesia), which occurs as an essential constituent of the Abraumsalts of Stassfurth. For some time after the introduction of this substance into the market, it was considered of little value except for the production of Epsom salts; but Mr. Hodges, in the course of some investigations in bleaching jute, having had occasion to employ large quantities of hypochlorite of magnesia, it occurred to him that kieserite might be substituted for the more expensive crude sulphate of magnesia; and the importation into Ireland of the sample for this purpose was the first that was ever sent into that country for the manufacture of a bleaching liquor, or, indeed, for any other use. Mr. Hodges on experimenting with the kieserite, found that it not only supplied the place of the crude sulphate, but acted as a better precipitant for the lime of the bleaching powder, which is employed in the production of the hypochlorite of magnesia; and that it also produced a stronger and clearer solution. Without entering into a minute description of the process (which is at present successfully carried out in a factory erected for the purpose in the neighbourhood of Belfast), the following outline will be sufficient to show the nature of the methods adopted. The kieserite, which is imported from Germany in square blocks, on arriving at the works, is conveyed to a house, on the ground-floor of which it is stacked until required, when it is ground to a fine powder, and placed in barrels, is drawn up by means of a crane to a room at the top of the building, at one end of which is a row of three tanks furnished with water taps, agitators, and false bottoms. In one of the end tanks a definite quantity of the kieserite powder (varying according to its strength, is ascertained by analysis) is placed and dissolved in a given quantity of water, the solution being assisted by agitators, and on settling the clear liquor is siphoned over into the middle tank. In the third tank bleaching powder (hypochlorite of lime), varying in quantity according to the strength of the kieserite solution, is placed. The bleaching powder after being agitated with water is allowed to settle, and the clear solution is siphoned over into the middle tank containing the clear kieserite solution, the agitator being kept in motion, not only during the mixing of the liquids, but for some time after. The mixed liquids are then allowed to remain undisturbed all night, after which the clear hypochlorite of magnesia solution is siphoned into a large settling tank, which is situated in the room below. From this vessel it is conducted through wooden pipes (which are so contrived that they can be opened and cleansed at will), into a large cistern standing in the bleaching house. This cistern is fitted with a ball-cock, by which arrangement the liquid can be drawn off by a system of wooden pipes as required. The bleaching house in which the cistern is situated is fitted up in an original manner, and covers something more than an acre of ground; whilst the reeling-shed, which is the only part of the works our limits will permit us describe, is 240 feet long by 24 feet broad, and contains ten steeps and twelve reel boxes. Each box is provided with water, a solution of the bleaching agent, and steam pipes, and is capable of reeling at a time about 500 lbs. of yarn. Above the box is a line of rails or pillars. A travelling crane runs along the reels, and carries the reels from one box to another. Attached to this crane is a newly-invented hydraulic pump, by means of which the reels with the yarn on them can be lifted in a few seconds from one box to another.

After the yarn has been boiled, washed, and passed through the squeezers in the usual manner, it is put on to a wagon, in which it is carried, by means of a line of rails, down to the first reel box. Here it is placed on to the reels, which are made to revolve by means of steam; first in one direction and then in another, through a solution of carbonate of soda, previously heated by means of the steam-pipes before mentioned. The yarn having been sufficiently scalded and so saturated with soda, the reels to which it is attached are raised by the hydraulic pump out of the box, and the yarn allowed to drain for a few minutes, after which the travelling crane carries it on to the next box. Into this box the yarn is again lowered by the pump and made to revolve as before, but this time through a solution of the bleaching agent, which immediately re-acting on the carbonate of soda with which the yarn is charged, renders this bleaching agent free from the danger which attends the employment of chlorine, or the ordinary bleaching powder used in the older methods of bleaching. After the yarns have been brought to the desired shade in the solution of Hodges’ bleaching agent they are either removed as before to a new box, and there washed before being scoured, or they are thrown into one of the steeps filled with water for the night. These operations are repeated with weaker solutions in the remaining reel boxes, either once or twice according to the shade required.

Mr Hodges claims as the chief features of his invention that it consists, first, in the employment of a bleaching agent which has not hitherto been practically employed, and a cheap method for its production; second, in the preparation of the yarn prior to being submitted to the action of the bleaching agent, this preparation setting free not only the imprisoned chlorine of the hypochlorite, but also another powerful bleaching agent, oxygen; third, in new and improved machinery, by which the work of bleaching the yarn is greatly shortened; fourth, in doing away with the tedious and expensive operation of exposing the yarn on the grass; if this last were the only feature in Mr Hodges’ invention, the patentee would have greatly improved the process of bleaching, not only, however, does the new process supplant the old long and tedious one, but a great economy of time is additionally gained in other parts of the process, added to these advantages it is stated that a superior finish is given to the yarns, and that in consequence a much greater demand for them has arisen.

Mr Hodges contends that the absence of caustic lime from his new bleaching compound gives it great advantages over the old bleaching powder, particularly in its application to finely woven fabrics, such as muslins, &c. He also says that fabrics bleached by it receive an increased capacity for imbibing and retaining colouring matter, a fact of considerable importance to the dyer and calico-printer, as they are thus enabled to communicate to the fabrics tints which have heretofore been considered impossible. See Kieserite.

The domestic management of linen may here receive a few moments’ attention. Fruit stains, iron-moulds, and other spots on linen, may, in general, be removed by applying to the part, previously washed clean, a weak solution of chlorine, chloride of lime, spirits of salts, oxalic acid, or salts of lemons, in warm water, and frequently by merely using a little lemon juice. When the stain is removed the part should be thoroughly rinsed in clear warm water (without soap) and dried. Recent iron-moulds or ink spots on starched linen, as the front of a shirt, may be conveniently removed by allowing a drop or two of melted tallow from a common candle to fall upon them before sending the articles to the laundress. The oxide of iron combines with the grease, and the two are washed out together. If the spot is not entirely removed the first time, the process should be repeated. Linen that has acquired a yellow or bad colour by careless washing may be restored to its former whiteness by working it well in water to which some strained solution of chloride of lime has been added, observing to well rinse it in clean water both before and after the immersion in the bleaching liquor. The attempt to bleach unwashed linen should be avoided, as also using the liquor too strong, as in that case the linen will be rendered rotten.

LING. The Galus molua (Linn.), an inferior species of the cod-fish tribe, common in the Northern seas, and used as a coarse article of food by the poor.

LIN′IMENT. Syn. Linimentum, L. A semifluid ointment, or soapy application to painful joints, swellings, burns, &c. The term is also occasionally extended to various spirituous and stimulating external applications. A preparation of a thinner consistence, but similarly employed, is called an ‘EMBROCATION,’ These terms are, however, frequently confounded together, and misapplied. Liniments are generally administered by friction with the hand or fingers, or with some substance (as a piece of flannel) capable of producing a certain amount of irritation of the skin. Sometimes a piece of linen rag dipped in them is simply laid on the part. In most cases in which liniments are found beneficial, the advantage obtained from them is attributable rather to the friction or local irritation than to any medicinal power in the preparation itself. The greater number of cerates and ointments may be converted into liniments by simply reducing their consistence with almond or olive oil, or oil of turpentine.

Liniment, Ac′id. Syn. Linimentum acidum, L. acidi sulphurici, L. Prep. 1. (Sir B. Brodie.) Salad oil, 3 oz.; oil of vitriol, 1 dr.; mix, then add of oil of turpentine, 1 oz., and agitate the whole well together. As a counter-irritant, in rheumatism, stiff joints, &c. It closely resembles the ‘Gulltonian Embrocation,’

2. (Hosp. F.) Olive oil, 3 oz.; oil of turpentine, 2 oz.; sulphuric acid, 1 fl. dr. An excellent alterative, stimulant, discutient, and counter-irritant, in chronic rheumatism, stiff joints, indolent tumours, and various chronic diseases of the skin.

Liniment of Albumen. (Dr Christison.) Syn. Linimentum albuminis. Prep. Equal parts of white of egg and rectified spirit, agitated together. In excoriation from pressure.

Liniment of Am′ber-oil. Syn. Linimentum succini, L. Prep. 1. From olive oil, 3 parts; oils of amber and cloves, of each 1 part. Resembles ‘Roche’s Embrocation,’

2. (Opiated; Linimentum succini opiatum, L.) From rectified oil of amber and tincture of opium, of each 2 fl. oz.; lard, 1 oz. Anodyne, antispasmodic, and stimulant. A once popular remedy in cramp, stiff joints, &c.

Liniment of Ammo′′nia. Syn. Ammoniacal liniment, Volatile l., Oil and hartshorn; Linimentum ammoniæ (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Solution of ammonia, 1; olive oil, 3; mix.

2. (Ph. L. & E.) Liquor of ammonia (sp. gr. ·960), 1 fl. oz.; olive oil, 2 fl. oz.; shake them together until they are mixed.

3. (Ph. D.) To the last add of olive oil, 1 fl. oz. Stimulant and rubefacient. Used in rheumatism, lumbago, neuralgia, sore throat, spasms, bruises, &c. When the skin is irritable more oil should be added, or it should be diluted with a little water.

4. (Camphorated; Linimentum ammoniæ camphoratum, Embrocatio amm. camphorata, L.)—a. (Hosp. F.) Olive oil, 3 oz.; camphor, ⁄2 oz.; dissolve by a gentle heat, and when cold, add of liquor of ammonia, 1 fl. oz.

b. Soap liniment, 2 oz.; olive oil and liquor of ammonia, of each 2 dr. As the last; more especially for sprains, bruises, chilblains, &c.

5. (Compound; Dr Granville’s counter-irritant or antidynous lotion; Linimentum ammoniæ compositum, L.—Ph. E.)—a. (Stronger.) From liquor of ammonia (sp. gr. ·880), 5 fl. oz.; tincture of camphor, 2 fl. oz.; spirit of rosemary, 1 fl. oz.; mix. It should be kept in a well-stoppered bottle and in a cool situation.

b. (Weaker.) Solution of ammonia (·880), 5 fl. oz.; tincture of camphor, 3 fl. oz.; spirit of rosemary, 2 fl. oz.

Obs. The above formulæ are nearly identical with the original ones of Dr Granville; the principal difference being in his ordering liquor of ammonia of the sp. gr. ·872, instead of ·880. They are counter-irritant, rubefacient, vesicant, and cauterising, according to the mode and length of their application. The milder lotion is sufficiently powerful to produce considerable rubefaction and irritation in from 1 to 5 or 6 minutes; vesication, in 8 or 10 minutes; and cauterisation, in 4 or 5 minutes longer. For the latter purpose the stronger lotion is generally employed. According to Dr Granville, these lotions are prompt and powerful remedies in rheumatism, lumbago, cramp, neuralgia, sprains, swollen and painful joints, headache, sore throat, and numerous other affections in which the use of a powerful counter-irritant has been recommended. They are ordered to be applied by means of a piece of linen, 6 or 7 times folded, or a piece of thick, coarse flannel wetted with the lotion, the whole being covered with a thick towel, and firmly pressed against the part with the hand. The stronger lotion is only intended to be employed in apoplexy, and to produce cauterisation. See Counter-irritants.

6. (From SESQUICARBONATE OF AMMONIA;—Linimentum ammoniæ sesquicarbonatis—Ph. L.) Solution of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 1 fl. oz.; olive oil, 3 fl. oz.; shake them together until mixed. This preparation resembles ordinary liniment of ammonia in its general properties, but it is much less active, owing to the alkali being carbonated. It is the ‘oil and hartshorn’ and the ‘volatile liniment’ of the shops.

7. (With Turpentine.) (Dr Copland.) Syn. Linimentum ammoniæ cum terebinthina. Prep. Liniment of ammonia, 1⁄4 fl. oz.; oil of turpentine, ⁄2 fl. oz.; mix.

Liniment, An′odyne. See Liniments of Belladonna, Morphia, Opium, Soap, &c.

Liniment, Antispasmod′ic. Syn. Linimentum antispasmodicum, L. cajeputi compositum, L. Prep. (Hufeland.) Oils of cajeput and mint, of each 1 part; tincture of opium, 3 parts; compound camphor liniment, 24 parts. Anodyne, stimulant, and rubefacient.

Liniment, Arceus’s. Compound elemi ointment.

Liniment of Arnica. Syn. Arnica opodeldoc, Linimentum arnicæ. Prep. Dissolve by heat Castile soap, 4 parts, and camphor, 1 part, in rectified spirit, 10 parts. Add tincture of arnica, 5 parts.

Liniment of Belladon′na. Syn. Linimentum belladonnæ, B. P. L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Prepared the same as Linimentum aconitii. A fluid ounce is equal to a solid ounce. Prescribed with equal parts of soap liniment, or compound camphor liniment, and is an excellent topical application for neuralgic pain.

2. Extract of belladonna, 1 dr.; oil of almonds, 2 oz.; lime water, 4 fl. oz. In eczema, and some other cutaneous affections, to allay irritation, &c.

3. (Cutan. Hosp.) Extract of belladonna, 4 dr.; glycerine, 1 oz.; soap liniment, 6 oz. As the last.

4. (Guy’s Hosp.) Extract of belladonna 1 oz.; soap liniment, 8 fl. oz.

5. (Phœbus.) Extract of belladonna, 40 gr.; rectified ether, 1 dr.; cherry-laurel water, 2 fl. oz. As a friction to the abdomen in lead colic.

Obs. The above are reputed excellent stimulants, anodynes, antispasmodics, and resolvents, in various diseases, as rheumatism, neuralgia, painful affections of the skin and joints, tumours, &c. &c.

Liniment of Belladonna and Chloroform. (Mr Squire.) Syn. Linimentum belladonnæ et chloroformi. Prep. Belladonna liniment, 7 fl. dr.; belladonna chloroform (made by percolating the root with chloroform) 1 fl. dr.; sprinkled on piline and applied to the loins, excellent in lumbago.

Liniment of Borax. (Swediaur). Syn. Linimentum Boracis. Prep. Borax, 2 dr.; tincture of myrrh, 1 oz., distilled water, 1 oz.; honey of roses, 2 oz. Mix.

Liniment of Caj′eput Oil. Syn. Linimentum olei cajeputi, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Copland.) Compound camphor liniment and soap liniment, of each 1⁄2 fl. oz.; oil of cajeput, 1 fl. oz.

2. (Dr Williams.) Oil of cajeput, ⁄2 fl. dr.; castor oil, 1 fl. dr.; olive oil, 4⁄2 fl. dr. A warm, antispasmodic, diffusible stimulant and rubefacient; in spasmodic asthma, colic, chronic rheumatism, spasms, chest affections, &c. See Antispasmodic L. (above).

Linimentum Calcis. (B. P.) Solution of lime, 1; olive oil, 1; mix. The best liniment for burns and scalds.

Liniment of Cam′phor. Syn. Camphorated oil, Camphor embrocation; Linimentum Camphoræ (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), Oleum camphoratum, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Camphor, 1; olive oil, 4; dissolve.

2. (Ph. L. & E.) Camphor, 1 oz.; olive oil, 4 fl. oz.; gently heat the oil, add the camphor (cut small), and agitate until dissolved. The Dublin College orders only ⁄2 the above camphor. Stimulant, anodyne, and resolvent; in sprains, bruises, rheumatic pains, glandular enlargements, &c.

3. (Compound; Linimentum camphoræ compositum—B. P., Ph. L. & D.)—a. (B. P.) Camphor, 5; English oil of lavender, ⁄4; strong solution of ammonia, 10; rectified spirit, 20. Dissolve the oil and camphor in the spirit and gradually add the ammonia.

b. (Ph. L.) Camphor, 2⁄2 oz.; oil of lavender, 1 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 17 fl. oz.; dissolve, then add of stronger liquor of ammonia, 3 fl. oz., and shake them together until they are mixed.

c. (Ph. L. 1836.) Liquor of ammonia, 7⁄2 fl. oz.; spirit of lavender, 1 pint; distil off 1 pint, and dissolve in it camphor, 2⁄2 oz. The formula of the Ph. D. 1826 was nearly similar.

d. (Wholesale.) Camphor (clean), 21 oz.; English oil of lavender, 3⁄4 oz.; liquor of ammonia, 2⁄4 lbs.; rectified spirit, 7 pints; mix, close the vessel, and agitate occasionally, until the camphor is dissolved. Powerfully stimulant and rubefacient. It closely resembles, and is now almost universally sold for, Ward’s ‘Essence for the Headache.’

e. (Ethereal.) Syn. Linimentum camphoræ ethereum. Prep. Camphor, 1 dr.; ether, 1 dr.; oil of vipers, 2 dr. Mix.

Liniment of Canthar′ides. Syn. Liniment of Spanish flies; Linimentum lyttæ, Lin. cantharidis (Ph. D. & U. S.), L. Prep. 1. (Dr Collier.) Tincture of cantharides and soap liniment, equal parts.

2. (Ph. D.) Cantharides (in fine powder), 3 oz.; olive oil, 12 fl. oz.; digest for 3 hours over a waterbath, and strain through flannel, with expression.

3. (Ph. U. S.) Spanish flies, 1 oz.; oil of turpentine, 8 fl. oz.; proceed as last. The above are irritant and rubefacient; but should be used cautiously, lest they produce strangury.

Liniment of Capsicum. 1. (Dr Copland.) Syn. Linimentum Capsici. Prep. Compound camphor liniment, 1 fl. oz.; volatile liniment, 1 fl. oz.; tincture of capsicum, 3 fl. oz.; mix.

2. (Dr Turnbull.) Capsicums, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 3 fl. oz. Macerate 7 days, and strain for use.

Liniment of Colchicum. (Ear Infirmary.) Syn. Linimentum colchici. Prep. Soap liniment, 1 fl. oz.; wine of colchicum seed, ⁄2 fl. oz.; mix.

Liniment of Colocynth. (Heim). Syn. Linimentum colocynthidis. Prep. Tincture of colocynth, ⁄2 fl. oz.; castor oil, 1⁄2 oz.

Liniment of Chlo′′ride of Lime. Syn. Linimentum calcis chlorinatæ, L. Prep. 1. Chloride of lime, 1 dr.; water (added gradually), 3 fl. oz.; triturate together in a glass mortar for 10 minutes, pour off the liquid portion, and add of oil of almonds 2 fl. oz.

2. (Kopp.) Solution of chloride of lime (ordinary), 1 part; olive oil, 2 parts.

3. (Waller.) Chloride of lime (in fine powder), 1 part; soft soap, 2 parts; soft water, q. s. to make a liniment.

Obs. The above are cleanly and excellent applications in itch, scald head, herpes, lepra, foul ulcers, &c.

Liniment of Chlo′′roform. Syn. Linimentum chloroformi, B. P. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Chloroform, 1; liniment of camphor, 1; mix. The oil in the camphor liniment prevents the evaporation of the chloroform. Stimulating on application to a tender skin.

2. Chloroform, 1 fl. dr.; almond oil, 7 fl. dr.; mix in a phial, and agitate it until the two unite.

3. (Tuson.) Chloroform, 1 fl. dr.; soap liniment, 2 fl. oz.; as the last. Used as an application in neuralgic pains, rheumatism, &c.

Liniment of Cod-liver Oil. Syn. Linimentum olei morrhuæ, L. o. jacoris aselli, L. Prep. (Dr Brach.) Cod-liver oil, 2 fl. oz.; liquor of ammonia, 1 fl. oz.; mix. Resolvent, dispersive; applied to glandular tumours, scrofulous enlargements, &c.

Liniment of Cro′ton Oil. Syn. Linimentum crotonis (B. P., Ph. D.), L. olei crotonis, L. o. tiglii, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Croton oil, 1; oil of cajeput, 3⁄2; rectified spirit, 3⁄2; mix.

2. (Ph. D.) Croton oil, 1 fl. oz.; oil of turpentine, 7 fl. oz.; mix by agitation.

3. (J. Allen.) Croton oil and liquor of potassa, of each, 1 fl. dr.; agitate until mixed, then add of rose water, 2 fl. oz.

4 (Pereira.) Croton oil, 1 part; olive oil, 5 parts.

Obs. The above are used as counter-irritants; in rheumatism, neuralgia, bronchial and pulmonary affections, &c. When rubbed on the skin, redness, and a pustular eruption ensue, and in general the bowels are acted on.

Liniment, Diuretic. Syn. Linimentum diureticum, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Calini.) Squills (in fine powder), 1 dr.; gastric juice of a calf, 2 oz.; mix.

2. (Dr Christison.) Soap liniment, tincture of foxglove, and tincture of squills, equal parts. In dropsies; rubbed over the abdomen or loins twice or thrice a day.

Liniment, Emol′lient. Syn. Linimentum album, L. emolliens, L. Prep. From camphor, 1 dr.; Peruvian balsam, ⁄2 dr.; oil of almonds, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve by heat, add of glycerin, ⁄2 fl. oz., agitate well, and, when cold, further add of oil of nutmeg, 15 drops. Excellent for chapped hands, lips, nipples, &c.

Liniment of Foxglove. (Dr Royle.) Syn. Linimentum digitalis. Prep. Infusion of digitalis, 2 fl. oz.; water of ammonia, 2 fl. dr.; oil of poppy seed, 4 fl. dr.; mix. To be rubbed on the abdomen 3 or 4 times a day.

Liniment of Gar′lic. Syn. Linimentum alii, L. Prep. From juice of garlic, 2 parts; olive oil, 3 parts; mix. In hooping-cough, infantile convulsions, &c.

Liniment of Gin′ger. Syn. Linimentum zingiberis, L. Prep. (Dr Turnbull.) Ginger, 1 part; rectified spirit, 2 parts; make a tincture or essence. For short-sightedness. A few drops are occasionally rubbed on the forehead for 8 or 10 minutes at a time. How this tincture came to be called a liniment we are at a loss to determine.

Liniment of Glycerin. (Mr Startin.) Syn. Linimentum glycerini. Prep. Soap liniment, 3 oz.; glycerin, 1 oz.; extract of belladonna, 1 oz.; mix. For gouty, rheumatic, and neuralgic pains. A little veratrine is sometimes added.

Liniment, Green. (Dr Campbell.) Syn. Linimentum viride. Camphor, 1 oz.; olive oil, 6 oz.; extract of hemlock, 1 oz.; spirit of ammonia, 2 oz. Mix.

Liniment of Hellebore. (Dornbleuth.) Syn. Linimentum hellebori. Prep. Soft soap, 4 oz.; hellebore powder, 2 oz.; hot water, q. s.

Liniment, Hunga′′rian. Syn. Linimentum Hungaricum, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Powdered cantharides and sliced garlic, of each 1 dr.; camphor, bruised mustard seed, and black pepper, of each 4 dr.; strong vinegar, 6 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 12 fl. oz.; macerate a week, and filter. An excellent rubefacient and counter-irritant.

Liniment of Hydrochlo′′ric Acid. Syn. Linimentum muriaticum, L. acidi muriatici, L. a. hydrochlorici, L. Prep. 1. (Hosp. F.) Olive oil, 2 oz.; white wax, 2 dr.; dissolve by a gentle heat, add of balsam of Peru, 1 dr.; hydrochloric acid, 2 dr.; mix well. An excellent application to chilblains before they break.

2. (W. Cooley.) Olive oil, ⁄4 pint; white spermaceti (pure) and camphor, of each ⁄2 oz.; mix with heat, add of hydrochloric acid, ⁄2 fl. oz., and proceed as before. Equal to the last, and cheaper. This was extensively employed among the seamen of the Royal Navy by Mr Cooley with uniform success.

Liniment of I′odide of Potas′sium. Syn. Linimentum ioduretum gelatinosum, L. Gelée pour le goitre, Fr. Prep. (Foy.) Iodide of potassium, 4 dr.; proof spirit, 2 oz.; dissolve, and add the liquid to a solution of curd soap, 6 dr., in proof spirit, 2 oz., both being at the time gently warmed; lastly, aromatise with rose or neroli, pour it into wide-mouthed bottles, and keep them closely corked. In goitre, &c.

Liniment of Iodide of Sulphur. (Prof. E. Wilson.) Syn. Linimentum sulphuris iodidi. Prep. Iodide of sulphur, 30 gr.; olive oil, 1 fl. dr.; triturate together.

Liniment of I′odine. Syn. Linimentum iodi (B. P.); Ioduretted liniment; Linimentum iodinii, L. ioduretum, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Iodine, 5; iodide of potassium, 2; camphor, 1; rectified spirit, 40; dissolve.

2. (Cutan. Hosp.) Compound tincture of iodine and laudanum, equal parts.

3. (Dr Copland.) Soap liniment, 1 oz.; iodine, 8 to 10 gr.

4. (Guibourt.) Iodide of potassium, 1 dr.; water, 1 fl. dr.; dissolve, and add to it white soap (in shavings) and oil of almonds, of each 10 dr., previously melted together. Some perfume may be added. In scrofula, glandular enlargements, rheumatism, &c.

Liniment of Ipecacuanha. (Dr Neligan.) Syn. Linimentum ipecacuanhæ. Prep. Ipecacuanha in fine powder, 4 dr.; lard, 2 dr.; olive oil, 1⁄2 fl. oz.

Liniment of Juniper. (Dr Sully.) Syn. Linimentum juniperi. Prep. Oil of juniper, 1⁄2 oz.; lard, 2 oz.; oil of aniseed, 6 drops. For scald-head.

Liniment of Labdanum. (Quincy.) Syn. Linimentum labdani; Linimentum criniscani. Prep. Labdanum, 6 dr.; bear’s grease, 2 oz.; honey, ⁄2 oz.; powdered southernwood, 3 dr.; oil of nutmeg, 1 dr.; balsam of Peru, 2 dr.; mix. To restore the hair.

Liniment of Lead. Syn. Linimentum plumbi, L. Prep. (Gaozey.) Acetate of lead, 40 gr.; soft water, 12 fl. oz.; olive oil, 6 oz.; mix, and agitate well. Astringent and refrigerant. Useful in excoriations, especially when accompanied with inflammation.

Liniment of Lime. Syn. Liniment for burns, Carron oil; Linimentum calcis (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. aquæ calcis, Oleum lini cum calcis, L. Prep. 1. From olive oil (linseed oil—Ph. E.) and lime water, equal parts, shaken together until they are mixed. Very useful in burns and scalds.

2. (Compound; Linimentum calcis compositum, L.)—a. (Camphorated—W. Cooley.) Camphor liniment and lime water, equal parts.

b. (Opiated—W. Cooley.) Lime water and camphor liniment, of each 1 oz.; extract of opium, 5 gr.; mix. Both are used as anodynes to allay pain and irritation in severe burns, chilblains, &c., for which purpose they are excellent. All the above liniments with lime water should be used as soon as possible after being prepared, as the ingredients separate by keeping.

Liniment of Mercury. Syn. Mercurial liniment; Linimentum hydrargyri (B. P., Ph. L.), Lin. h. compositum (Ph. L. 1836), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Ointment of mercury, 1; solution of ammonia, 1; liniment of camphor, 1. Melt the ointment in the liniment, add the ammonia, and shake them together.

2. (Ph. L.) Camphor, 1 oz.; spirit of wine, 1 fl. dr.; sprinkle the latter on the former, powder, add of lard and mercurial ointment (stronger), of each 4 oz.; rub them well together, then gradually add of liquor of ammonia, 4 fl. oz.; and mix well. Stimulant and discutient. It resembles mercurial ointment in its effects; but though milder in its operation, it more quickly produces salivation.

Liniment of Mor′phia. Syn. Linimentum morphiæ, L. Prep. (W. Cooley.) Pure morphia, 3 gr.; put it into a warm mortar, add very gradually, of oil of almonds (warm), 1 fl. oz., and triturate until the morphia is dissolved, then add of camphor liniment, 1 oz. An excellent topical anodyne and antispasmodic, which often allays pain when other means have failed.

Liniment of Mus′tard. Syn. Linimentum sinapis, L. Prep. 1. Flour of mustard (best), 1 oz.; water, tepid, 2 fl. oz.; mix, and add of glycerin, liquor of ammonia, and olive oil, of each 1 fl. oz.

2. (Béral.) Carbonate of ammonia (in fine powder), 1 part; camphor (in powder), 2 parts; oil of lavender, 4 parts; tincture of mustard, 6 parts; mix, dissolve by agitation, add of simple liniment (warm), 56 parts, and again agitate until the whole is perfectly incorporated.

3. Black mustard seed (ground in pepper-mill or otherwise well bruised), ⁄4 lb.; oil of turpentine, 1 pint; digest, express the liquid, filter, and dissolve it in camphor, ⁄2 lb. Stimulant and rubefacient. A popular and useful remedy in rheumatic pains, lumbago, colic, chilblains, &c. The last is a close imitation of Whitehead’s ‘Essence of Mustard.’

4. (Lin. olei volatilis sinapis.)—a. From volatile oil of black mustard seed, ⁄2 dr.; oil of almonds, 1 fl. oz. As a rubefacient.

b. From volatile oil, 1 part; alcohol (sp. gr. ·815), 1 to 2 parts. As a vesicant.

Liniment of Mustard (Compound). Linimentum sinapis compositum (B. P.). Oil of mustard, 1 dr.; ethereal extract of mezereon, 40 gr.; camphor, 2 dr.; castor oil, 5 dr.; rectified spirit, 32 dr.; dissolve.

Liniment, Narcotic. (P. Codex.) Syn. Liniment calmant; Linimentum narcoticum. Prep. Anodyne balsam, 8 parts; compound wine of opium, cold cream, of each 1 part. Mix.

Liniment of Ni′trate of Mercury. Syn. Citrine liniment; Linimentum hydrargyri nitratis, L. Prep. (Sir H. Halford.) Ointment of nitrate of mercury and olive oil, equal parts, triturated together in a glass mortar, or mixed by a gentle heat. This liniment is stimulant, discutient, and alterative, and in its general properties resembles the ointment of the same name. For most purposes the quantity of oil should be at least doubled.

Liniment of Nux Vom′ica. Syn. Linimentum nucis vomicæ, L. Prep. (Magendie.) Tincture of nux vomica, 1 fl. oz.; liquor of ammonia, 2 fl. dr.; mix. As a stimulating application to paralysed limbs. The addition of ⁄2 fl. dr. each of glycerin and salad oil renders it an excellent application in chronic rheumatism and neuralgia.

Liniment of Oil of Ergot. Syn. Linimentum olei ergotæ. Prep. Oil of ergot, 1 dr.; oil of almonds, or sulphuric ether, 3 dr.; mix.

Liniment of O′pium. Syn. Anodyne liniment; Linimentum opii (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. opii or L. anodynum (Ph. D.), L. saponis cum opio, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Tincture of opium, 1; liniment of soap, 1; mix.

2. Tincture of opium, 2 fl. oz.; soap liniment, 6 fl. oz.; mix.

3. (Ph. E.) Castile soap, 6 oz.; opium, 1⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; digest for three days, then filter, add of camphor, 3 oz., oil of rosemary, 6 fl. dr., and agitate briskly.

4. (Ph. D.) Soap liniment and tincture of opium, equal parts.

5. (Wholesale.) Soft soap, 1⁄4 lb.; powdered opium and camphor, of each ⁄4 lb.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; digest a week.

Obs. This preparation is an excellent anodyne in local pains, rheumatism, neuralgia, sprains, &c.

Liniment of Phos′phorus. Syn. Linimentum phosphoratum, L. Prep. (Augustin.) Phosphorus, 6 gr.; camphor, 12 gr.; oil of almonds, 1 oz.; dissolve by heat; when cold, decant the clear portion, and add of strongest liquor of ammonia 10 drops. A useful friction in gout, chronic rheumatism, certain obstinate cutaneous affections, &c.

Liniment de Rosen. (P. C.) Prep. Oil of mace, 4 parts; oil of cloves, 4 parts; oil of juniper, 9 parts. Mix.

Liniment, Sim′ple. Syn. Linimentum simplex (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) White wax, 1 oz.; olive oil, 4 fl. oz.; melt together, and stir the mixture until it is cold. Emollient; resembles spermaceti ointment in all except its consistence.

Liniment of Soap. Syn. Opodeldoc, Camphorated tincture of soap, Balsam of s.; Linimentum saponis (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.) L. saponaceum, Tinctura saponis camphorata, Balsamum saponis, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Hard soap (cut small), 2⁄2 oz.; camphor, 1⁄4 oz.; English oil of rosemary, 3 dr.; rectified spirit, 18 oz.; distilled water, 2 oz.; mix the water and spirit, add the other ingredients, digest at a temperature not exceeding 70° Fahr., agitating occasionally for seven days, and filter.

2. (Ph. L.) Castile soap (cut small), 2⁄2 oz.; camphor (small), 10 dr.; spirit of rosemary, 18 fl. oz.; water, 2 fl. oz.; digest with frequent agitation until the solid substances are dissolved.

3. (Ph. E.) Castile soap, 5 oz.; camphor, 2⁄2 oz.; oil of rosemary, 6 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart.

4. (Ph. D.) Castile soap (in powder), 2 oz.; camphor, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 16 fl. oz.

5. (Liniment savonneau—P. Cod.) Tincture of soap (P. Cod.) and rectified spirit (·863 or 41 o. p.), of each 8 parts; olive oil, 1 part.

Obs. This article, prepared according to the directions of the Pharmacopœia, from ‘soap made of olive oil and soda’ (Castile soap), is apt to gelatinise in cold weather, and to deposit crystals of elaidate and stearate of lime. This may be avoided, when expense is not an objection, by first well drying the soap, employing a spirit of at least 85%, and keeping the preparation in well-closed bottles. A cheaper and better plan is to substitute the ‘soft soap’ of the Ph. L. (‘soap made with olive oil and potassa’) for the Castile soap ordered by the College. The soft soap of commerce imparts to the liniment an unpleasant smell. The following formula, one of those commonly adopted by the wholesale druggists, produces a very good article, though much weaker than that of the Pharmacopœia.

6. (Wholesale.) Camphor (cut small), 1⁄2 lb.; soft soap, 7 lbs.; oil of rosemary, 3 fl. oz.; rectified spirit of wine and water, of each 3⁄2 galls.; digest with occasional agitation for a week, and filter. This is the ‘opodeldoc’ or ‘soap liniment’ of the shops.

Uses. Soap liniment is stimulant, discutient, and lubricating, and is a popular remedy in rheumatism, local pains, swellings, bruises, sprains, &c.

7. (With Opium.) See Liniment of Opium.

8. (Sulphuretted; Linimentum saponis sulphuretum, L. sulphuro-saponaceum—Jadelot, L.) Sulphuret of potassium, 3 oz.; soap, 12 oz.; water, q. s.; melt together, and add of olive oil, 12 oz.; oil of origanum, 1 fl. dr.; mix well. An excellent remedy for the itch, and some allied skin diseases.

Liniment of Strychnia. (Dr Neligan.) Syn. Linimentum strychniæ. Strychnia, 30 gr.; olive oil, 1⁄2 fl. oz. Ten drops to be rubbed over the temples in amaurosis.

Liniment of Sul′phide of Carbon. Syn. Linimentum carbonis sulphureti, L. Prep. 1. From bisulphide of carbon, 1 dr.; camphorated oil, 1 oz.; mix.

2. (Lampadius.) Camphor, 2 dr.; bisulphuret of carbon, 4 fl. dr.; dissolve, and add of rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz. In rheumatism, gouty nodes, &c.

Liniment of Sulphu′ric Acid. See Liniment, Acid.

Liniment, Tripharm′ic. Syn. Linimentum tripharmicum (Ph. L. 1746), L. Prep. Take of lead plaster and olive oil, of each 4 oz.; melt, add of strong vinegar, 1 fl. oz., and stir until cold. Cooling and desiccative; in excoriations, burns, &c.

Liniment of Tur′pentine. Syn. Kentish’s liniment; Linimentum terebinthinæ (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), L. terebinthinatum (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Oil of turpentine, 16; camphor, 1; soft soap, 2; dissolve the camphor in the turpentine, then add the soap, and rub till thoroughly mixed.

2. (Ph. L.) Soft soap, 2 oz.; camphor, 1 oz.; oil of turpentine, 10 fl. oz.; shake them together until mixed. Stimulant; in lumbago, cholera, colic, &c.

3. (Ph. L. 1824.) Resin cerate, 6 oz.; oil of turpentine, 4 fl. oz.; mix. An excellent application to burns.

4. (Ph. E.) Resin ointment, 4 oz.; camphor, 4 dr.; dissolve by a gentle heat, and stir in oil of turpentine, 5 fl. oz.

5. (Ph. D.) Oil of turpentine, 5 fl. oz.; resin ointment, 8 oz.; mix by a gentle heat. This forms Dr Kentish’s celebrated application to burns and scalds. The parts are first bathed with warm oil of turpentine or brandy, and then covered with pledgets of lint, smeared with the liniment.

6. (Compound—a. B. Linimentum terebinthinæ aceticum.) Oil of turpentine, 1; acetic acid, 1; liniment of camphor, 1; mix.

b. (Linimentum terebinthinæ compositum, L.) Acetic: St John Long’s liniment; (Linimentum terebinthinæ aceticum, L.) Oil of turpentine, 3 oz.; rose water, 2⁄2 fl. oz.; acetic acid, 5 dr.; oil of lemons, 1 dr.; yolk of egg, 1; make an emulsion. As a counter-irritant in phthisis.

c. (Ammoniated—Debreyne.) Lard, 3 oz.; melt, and add, of oil of turpentine and olive oil, of each 1 oz.; when cold, further add of camphorated spirit, 4 fl. dr.; liquor of ammonia, 1 fl. dr. In sciatica, lumbago, &c.

d. (Opiated—Recamier.) Oil of turpentine, 1 fl. oz.; oil of chamomile, 2 fl. oz.; tincture of opium, 1 fl. dr. In neuralgia, &c.

e. (Sulphuric—Ph. Castr. Ruthena.) Oil of turpentine, 2 oz.; olive oil, 5 oz.; mix, and add of dilute sulphuric acid, 1⁄2 dr. See Acid liniment.

Liniment of Vera′trine. Syn. Linimentum veratriæ, L. Prep. (Brande.) Veratrine, 8 gr.; alcohol, ⁄2 fl. oz.; dissolve, and add of soap liniment, ⁄2 fl. oz. In neuralgic and rheumatic pains, gout, &c.

Liniment of Ver′digris. Syn. Oxymel of verdigris; Linimentum æruginis (Ph. L.), Oxymel æruginis (Ph. L. 1738), Oxymel cupri subacetatis (Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Verdigris (in powder), 1 oz.; vinegar, 7 fl. oz.; dissolve, filter, through linen, add of honey, 14 oz., and evaporate to a proper consistence.

Obs. This preparation is wrongly named a ‘liniment.’ The College, after ‘beating about the bush’ for nearly a century, found a right name for it in 1788; but, as in many other cases, soon abandoned it for another less appropriate.

Oxymel of verdigris is stimulant, detergent, and escharotic. It is applied to indolent ulcers, especially of the throat, by means of a camel-hair pencil; and, diluted with water, it is used as a gargle. Care must be taken to avoid swallowing it, as it occasions vomiting and excessive purging.

Liniment, Ver′mifuge. Syn. Linimentum anthelminticum, L. vermifugum, L. Prep. Castor oil, 1 oz.; essential oils of wormwood and tansy, of each ⁄2 oz.; Dr Peschier’s ethereal tincture of pennyroyal buds, 20 drops; mix. Employed in frictions on the abdomen in cases of worms in children. Its activity may be still further increased by the addition of a little garlic juice. (‘Journ. de Méd.’) An excellent medicine.

Liniment, Vesicating. (Dr Montgomery.) Syn. Linimentum vesicans. For children. Prep. Compound camphor liniment, 4 fl. dr.; oil of turpentine, 2 fl. dr. To produce immediate vesication in adults. Mix one part of the strongest liquor ammoniæ, with two of olive oil, and apply six drops on spongio-piline for ten minutes.

Liniment, Ware’s. Prep. From camphor liniment, 1 oz.; solution of carbonate of potassa, 1 dr. In amaurosis.

Liniment, White’s. The old name for spermaceti ointment.

Liniment, White. Syn. Linimentum album. Prep. Rectified oil of turpentine, 2 oz.; solution of ammonia, 2 oz.; soap liniment, 3 oz.; spirit of rosemary, 1 oz. Mix in the above order, and gradually add with continual agitation, distilled vinegar, 8 oz. For chapped hands.

Liniment, Wilkinson’s. Prep. (Phœbus.) Prepared chalk, 20 gr.; sulphur, lard, and tar, of each ⁄2 oz.; mix, and add of Boyle’s fuming liquor, 10 or 15 drops. In certain chronic skin diseases, neuralgia, &c.

Linimentum Aconiti. (B. P.) Aconite root, in powder, 20; camphor, 1; rectified spirit, to percolate, 30. Moisten the root for 3 days, then pack in a percolator, and pour sufficient rectified spirit upon it to produce with the camphor 20.

Strength, 1 in 1. Applied with a camel-hair pencil, alone or mixed in equal proportions, with a soap liniment or compound camphor liniment, and rubbed on the part. Seven parts of this, and 1 part of chloroformum belladonna, and sprinkled thinly on impermeable piline, is the best application for neuralgia or lumbago.

Linimentum Potassii Iodidi cum Sapone. (B. P.) Hard soap, in powder, 1⁄2; iodide of potassium, 1⁄2; glycerin, 1; oil of lemon, ⁄8; water, 1. Dissolve the soap in 7 of water by heat of a water bath; dissolve the iodide of potassium in the remainder of the water, and mix by trituration the two solutions, and when cold add the oil of lemon, and mix thoroughly.

LINOLEIC ACID. C16H28O2. This may be obtained by saponifying linseed oil. It is a liquid acid, and rapidly oxidizes when exposed to the air, becoming converted into oxylinoleic acid, which is incapable of solidification even at low temperatures.

LIN′SEED. Syn. Flax seed; Lini semina, L. The seed of Linum usitatissimum (Linn.), or common flax. (Ph. L.) Oily, emollient, demulcent, and nutritive. Ground to powder (linseed meal; farina lini), it is used for poultices. The cake left after expressing the oil (linseed cake) contains, when of average quality, in 100 parts, moisture, 12·70; oil, 11·32; albumenoids, 28·21; mucilage, &c., 29·42; indigestible fibre, 12·46; ash, 5·89. It is used for feeding cattle. Under the form of tea or infusion it is used as a diluent, and to allay irritation in bronchial, urinary, and other like affections. See Infusion of Linseed.

LINSEED CAKE. See Linseed.

LINT. Syn. Linteum, L. White linen-cloth, scraped by hand or machinery, so as to render it soft and woolly. The hand-made lint is now little used; it was prepared from pieces of old linen-cloth. The machine-made lint is prepared from a fabric woven on purpose. A lint made from cotton (cotton-lint) is now largely manufactured; it is much inferior to the true lint, being a bad conductor of heat. Lint is used for dressing ulcers, either alone or smeared with some suitable ointment or cerate.

Lint, Medica′ted. Syn. Linteum medicatum, L. nigrum, L. infernale, L. Prep. 1. Nitrate of silver, 20 to 30 gr.; distilled water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve, saturate dry lint, ⁄2 oz., with the solution, and expose it in a saucer or capsule to the light and air, until it has become black and dry.

2. Nitrate of silver and nitrate of copper, of each ⁄2 dr.; lint, 1 oz.; water, 1⁄2 fl. oz.; as the last. Used to dress old and indolent ulcers.

LIP SALVE. See Salve.

LIQUA′TION. The process of sweating out by heat the more fusible metals of an alloy. Metallurgists avail themselves of this method in assaying and refining the precious metals and procuring antimony and some other metals from their ores.

LIQUEFA′′CIENTS. Syn. Resolvents; Liquefacientia, Resolventia, L. In pharmacy, substances or agents which promote secretion and exhalation, soften and loosen textures, and promote the absorption or removal of enlargements, indurations, &c. To this class belong the alkalies, antimony, bromine, chlorine, iodine, mercury, sulphur, &c., and their preparations.

LIQUEFAC′TION. The assumption of the liquid form. It is usually applied to the conversion of a solid into the liquid state, which may arise from increase of temperature (fusion), absorption of water from the atmosphere (deliquescence), or the action of a body already fluid (solution).

Liquefaction of Gases. Under the combined influence of pressure and cold, all the gases may be liquefied, and some even solidified. The first satisfactory experiments in this direction were made by Faraday, who succeeded in reducing to the liquid condition eight bodies which had hitherto been regarded as permanent gases, namely, ammonia, carbonic anhydride, chlorine, cyanogen, hydrochloric acid, nitrous oxide, sulphuretted hydrogen, and sulphurous anhydride. His method of proceeding was very simple:—the materials were sealed up in a strong, narrow, glass tube, bent so as to form an obtuse angle, together with a little ‘pressure gauge,’ consisting of a slender tube closed at one end, and having within it, near the open extremity, a globule of mercury. The gas, being disengaged by the application of heat or otherwise, accumulated in the tube, and by its own pressure brought about liquefaction. The force required for this purpose was judged of by the diminution of volume of the air in the pressure gauge. By employing powerful condensing syringes, and an extremely low temperature, Faraday subsequently succeeded in liquefying olefiant gas, hydriodic and hydrobromic acids, phosphuretted hydrogen, and the gaseous fluorides of silicon and boron. He failed, however, with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, nitric oxide, carbonic oxide, and coal-gas, all of which refused to liquefy at the temperature of -166° Fahr., while subjected to pressures varying in different cases from 27 to 58 atmospheres.

Within the last year, however, viz. toward the end of 1877, these hitherto refractory gases have been reduced to the liquid, and, in the case of hydrogen, to the solid state. These results have been accomplished by subjecting the gases to a pressure considerably greater than that employed by Faraday, combined with the expedient of the sudden removal of this pressure, whereby the escaping gas (previously enormously reduced in temperature) in the act of expansion robs the remainder of so much of its heat as to leave it in the fluid condition.

The liquefaction of oxygen was accomplished independently by M. Cailletet, of Paris, and M. Pictet, of Geneva; the French chemist having effected it on December 2nd, 1877, and the Swiss one on the 22nd of the same month.

Simultaneously with Cailletet’s announcement of the liquefaction of oxygen, that of carbonic oxide was made by the same chemist; who, about three weeks after at a meeting in the Paris Academy of Sciences, stated that he had also reduced hydrogen, nitrogen, and atmospheric air to the fluid state.

In the previous November he had been equally successful in converting gaseous nitric oxide into a liquid.

M. Cailletet, in a communication to the Paris Academy of Sciences, read by M. Dumas at a meeting of that body on 24th December, 1877, thus describes the process by which he liquefied the gases oxygen and carbonic oxide.

“If oxygen or pure carbonic oxide be enclosed in a tube such as I have before described, and placed in an apparatus for compression like that which has already been worked before the Academy, and the gas be then lowered in temperature to 29° C., by means of sulphurous acid and at a pressure of about 300 atmospheres, the two gases preserve their gaseous state.

“But if they are allowed to suddenly expand, this expansion, according to the formula of Poisson, reducing them to a temperature at least 200° C. below their initial temperature, causes them immediately to assume the appearance of an intense fog, which is caused by the liquefaction and perhaps by the solidification of the oxygen or carbonic acid.

“The same phenomenon is also observed, upon the expansion of carbonic acid, and of protoxide and binoxide of nitrogen, when under strong pressure.

“This fog is produced with oxygen, even when the gas is at the ordinary pressure, provided time is allowed for it to part with the heat it acquires in the mere act of compression.

“This I demonstrated by experiments performed on Sunday, the 16th December, at the Chemical Laboratory of the Ecole Normale Supérieure, before a certain number of savants and professors, amongst whom were some members of the Academy of Sciences. I had hoped to find in Paris, together with the materials necessary for the production of a high degree of cold (protoxide of nitrogen or liquid carbonic acid), a pump capable of supplying the place of my compression apparatus at Châtillon-sur-Seine. Unfortunately a pump well fixed and suited to this sort of experiment could not be found in Paris, and I was obliged to send to Châtillon-sur-Seine for the refrigerating substances for collecting the condensed matters on the walls of the tube.

“To know whether oxygen and carbonic oxide are in a liquid or a solid state in the fog would necessitate an optical experiment more easy to imagine than to accomplish, because of the form and the thickness of the tubes containing them. Furthermore, chemical reactions will assure me that the oxygen is not transformed into ozone in the act of compression. I shall reserve the study of all these questions till the apparatus I am now having made is complete.

“Under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, even the most rapid expansion of pure hydrogen gives no trace of nebulous matter. There remains for me only nitrogen to study, the small solubility of which in water induces me to believe that it will prove very refractory to all change of condition.”

M. Pictet’s process for liquefying oxygen, although differing in the method of working, is similar in principle to that of M. Cailletet. His paper, which was read at the same sitting of the Academy as M. Cailletet’s, thus describes it:—

“A and B, in the accompanying figure, are two double section and force pumps, coupled together on the compound system, one causing a vacuum in the other in such a manner as to obtain the greatest possible difference between the pressures of suction and forcing.”

The pumps act on anhydrous sulphurous acid contained in the cylindrical receiver c. The pressure in this receiver is such that the sulphurous acid is evaporated from it at a temperature of 65° C. below zero.

The sulphurous acid is forced by the pumps into a condenser, d, cooled by a current of cold water; here it liquefies at the temperature of 25° above zero, and at a pressure of about 2⁄4 atmospheres.

The sulphurous acid returns to the receiver C as it liquefies by the little tube d.

E and F are two pumps resembling the preceding, and coupled in the same manner. They act upon carbonic acid contained in a cylindrical receiver H.

The temperature in this latter receiver is such that the carbonic acid evaporates from it at a temperature of 140° C. below zero.

The carbonic acid forced on by the pumps is driven into the condenser K, enclosed in the sulphurous acid receiver C, which has a temperature of 65° below zero; the carbonic acid here becomes liquefied at a pressure of five atmospheres.

The carbonic acid, in proportion as it liquefies, returns to the receptacle H by the small tube k.

L is a retort of wrought iron, sufficiently thick to resist a pressure of 500 atmospheres. It contains chlorate of potassium, and is heated in such a manner as to give off pure oxygen. It communicates by a tubulure with an inclined tube, M, made of very thick glass, one metre in length, which is enveloped by the receiver, H, containing carbonic acid at the temperature of 140° below zero.

A tap, N, situated upon the tubulure of the retort, permits of the opening of an orifice, P, which leads into the surrounding air.

After the four pumps have been worked for several hours by means of a steam engine of 15-horse power, and when all the oxygen has been disengaged, the pressure in the glass tube is 320 atmospheres, and the temperature at 140° below zero.

Upon suddenly opening the orifice, P, the oxygen escapes with violence, producing, in doing so, so considerable an expansion and absorption of heat as to cause a liquefied portion to appear in the glass tube, and to spirt out from the orifice when the apparatus is sloped.

It ought to be stated that the quantity of liquefied oxygen contained in the tube one metre long and 0·01 m. in internal diameter, occupied about a third of its length, and issued from the orifice P in the form of a liquid jet.

In a communication to M. Dumas, received two days after the above sitting, M. Pictet described his experiments more fully, prefacing the account by the following very interesting remarks:—“The end to which I have been tending for the last 3 years has been to seek to demonstrate experimentally that molecular cohesion is a general property of bodies without exception.

“If the permanent gases cannot be liquefied, it must be concluded that their constituent particles do not attract each other, and are therefore independent of this law.

“To succeed experimentally in bringing the molecules of a gas into the closest possible proximity, and thus to obtain its liquefaction, certain indispensable conditions are necessary, which I thus sum up:

“1. To have a gas that must be perfectly pure and without a trace of foreign gas.

“2. To have at one’s disposal very powerful means of compression.

“3. To obtain an intense degree of cold, and the abstraction of heat at these low temperatures.

“4. To have a large surface of condensation maintained at these low temperatures.

“5. To have the power of utilising the expansion of the gas under considerable pressure to the atmospheric pressure, which expansion added to the preceding means compels liquefaction.

“With these five conditions fulfilled, we may formulate the following problem.

“When a gas is compressed at 500 or 600 atmospheres, and kept at a temperature of -100° or 140°, and then let expand to the pressure of the atmosphere, one of two things must occur. Either the gas, obeying the action of cohesion, liquefies and yields its heat of condensation to the portion of the gas, which expands and is lost in the gaseous form; or under the hypothesis that cohesion is not a natural law, the gas passes beyond absolute zero, that is to say, it becomes inert, a dust without consistence. The work of expansion would be impossible, and the loss of heat absolute.”

Spite of M. Cailletet’s supposition that nitrogen would prove a very incoercible gas, his experiments showed the contrary, since he found that it easily condensed under a pressure of about 200 atmospheres and at a temperature of 13° C., the conditions as to its sudden expansion being observed.

Hydrogen, the lightest of all the gases, which M. Cailletet could only procure in the form of mist, was unmistakably liquefied by M. Pictet within less than a fortnight afterwards, under a pressure of 650 atmospheres and 140° of cold.

The tap which confined the gas at this pressure, being opened, a jet of a steel blue colour escaped from the orifice, accompanied by a hissing sound, like that given off when a red-hot iron is dipped into cold water. The jet suddenly became intermittent, and a shower of solid particles of the hydrogen fell to the ground with a crackling noise. The hydrogen was obtained by the decomposition of formiate of potash by caustic potash, the gas thus yielded being absolutely pure.

Cailletet states that he succeeded perfectly in liquefying atmospheric air, previously deprived of moisture and carbonic acid, but he omits to mention the pressure and reduction of temperature to which the air was subjected. He liquefied nitric oxide at the pressure of 104 atmospheres and at a temperature of -11° C.

Carbonic anhydride is liquefied on the large scale by condensing it in strong vessels of gun-metal or boiler-plate. Thilorier was the first to procure it in a solid condition. It requires a pressure of between 27 and 28 atmospheres at 32° F. (Adams.) The liquefied acid is colourless and limpid, lighter than water, and four times more expansible than air; it mixes in all proportions with ether, alcohol, naphtha, oil of turpentine, and sulphide of carbon; and is insoluble in water and fat oils. When a jet of liquid carbonic anhydride is allowed to issue into the air from a narrow aperture, such an intense degree of cold is produced by the evaporation of a part, that the remainder freezes to a solid (solid carbonic anhydride), and falls in a shower of snow. This substance, which may be collected, affords a means of producing extreme cold. Mixed with a little ether, and poured upon a mass of mercury, the latter is almost instantly frozen. The temperature of this mixture in the air was found to be -106° Fahr.; when the same mixture was placed beneath the receiver of an air-pump, and exhaustion rapidly performed, the temperature sank to -166°. This degree of cold was employed in Faraday’s last experiments on the liquefaction of gases.

LIQUEUR. [Fr.] Syn. Cordial. A stimulating beverage, formed of weak spirit, aromatised and sweetened. The manufacture of liqueurs constitutes the trade of the ‘compounder,’ ‘rectifier,’ or ‘liquoriste.’

The materials employed in the preparation of liqueurs or cordials are rain or distilled water, white sugar, clean flavourless spirit, and flavouring ingredients. To these may be added the substances employed as ‘finings,’ when artificial clarification is had recourse to.

The utensils and apparatus required in the business are those ordinarily found in the wine and spirit cellar; together with a copper still, furnished with a pewter head and a pewter worm or condenser, when the method ‘by distillation’ is pursued. A barrel, hogshead, or rum puncheon, sawn in two, or simply ‘unheaded,’ as the case may demand, forms an excellent vessel for the solution of the sugar; and 2 or 3 fluted funnels, with some good white flannel, will occasionally be found useful for filtering the aromatic essences used for flavouring. Great care is taken to ensure the whole of the utensils, &c., being perfectly clean and ‘sweet,’ and well ‘seasoned,’ in order that they may neither stain nor flavour the substances placed in contact with them.

In the preparation or compounding of liqueurs, one of the first objects which engages the operator’s attention is the production of an alcoholic solution of the aromatic principles which are to give them their peculiar aroma and flavour. This is done either by simple solution or maceration, as in the manufacture of tinctures and medicated spirits, or by maceration and subsequent distillation. The products, in this country, are called ESSENCES or SPIRITS, and by the French INFUSIONS, and are added to the solution of sugar (SYRUP or CAPILLAIRE) or to the dulcified spirit, in the proportions required. Grain or molasses spirit is the kind usually employed for this purpose in England. As before observed, it should be of the best quality; as, if this is not the case, the raw flavour of the spirit is perceptible in the liquor. Rectified spirit of wine is generally very free from flavour, and when reduced to a proper strength with clear soft water, forms a spirit admirably adapted for the preparation of cordial liquors. Spirit weaker than about 45 o. p., which has been freed from its own essential oil by careful rectification, is known in trade under the title of ‘pure,’ ‘flavourless,’ ‘plain,’ or ‘silent spirit.’ Before macerating the ingredients, if they possess the solid form, they are coarsely pounded, bruised, sliced, or ground, as the peculiar character of the substance may indicate. This is not done until shortly before submitting them to the action of the menstruum; as, after they are bruised they rapidly lose their aromatic properties by exposure to the air. When it is intended to keep them for any time in the divided state they should be preserved in well-corked bottles or jars. The practice of drying the ingredients before pounding them, frequently adopted by ignorant and lazy workmen for the sake of lessening the labour, is, of course, even more destructive to their most valuable qualities than mere exposure to the air. The length of time the ingredients should be digested in the spirit should never be less than 5 or 6 days, but a longer period is preferable when distillation is not employed. In either case the time may be advantageously extended to 10 days or a fortnight, and frequent agitation should be had recourse to during the whole period. When essential oils are employed to convey the flavour, they are first dissolved in a little of the strongest rectified spirit of wine, in the manner explained under Essence; and when added to the spirit, they are mixed up with the whole mass as rapidly and as perfectly as possible. In managing the still, the fire is proportioned to the ponderosity of the oil or flavouring substance, and the receiver is changed before the faints come over; as these are unfitted to be mixed with the cordial. In many cases the addition of a few pounds of common salt to the liquor in the still facilitates the process and improves the product. Ingredients which are not volatile are, of course, always added after distillation. The stronger spirit is reduced to the desired strength by means of either clear soft water or the clarified syrup used for sweetening. The sugar employed should be of the finest quality, and is preferably made into capillaire or syrup before adding it to the aromatised spirit; and not until this last has been rendered perfectly ‘fine’ or transparent, by infiltration or clarification, as the case may demand. Some spirits or infusions, as those of aniseed, caraway, &c., more particularly require this treatment, which is best performed by running them through a clean wine bag, made of rather fine cloth, having previously mixed them with a spoonful or two of magnesia; but in all cases clarification by simple repose should be preferred. Under proper management, liqueurs or cordials prepared of good materials will be found perfectly ‘clear’ or ‘bright’ as soon as made, or will become so after being allowed a few days for defecation; but in the hands of the inexperienced operator, and when the spirit employed is insufficient in strength or quantity, it often happens that they turn out ‘foul’ or ‘milky.’ When this is the case, the liquid may be ‘fined down’ with the whites of 12 to 20 eggs per hogshead; or a little alum, either alone or followed by a little carbonate of sodium or potassium, both dissolved in water, may be added, in the manner described under Finings.

An excellent and easy way of manufacturing cordial liquors, especially when it is inconvenient to keep a large stock on hand, is by simply ‘aromatising’ and ‘colouring,’ as circumstances or business may demand, spirit 60 or 64 u. p., kept ready sweetened for the purpose. To do this to the best advantage, two descriptions of sweetened spirit should be provided, containing respectively 1 lb. and 3 lbs. of sugar to the gallon. From these, spirit of any intermediate sweetness may be made, which may be flavoured with any essential oil dissolved in alcohol, or any aromatised spirit or ‘infusion’ (see below), prepared either by digestion or distillation. As a general rule, the concentrated essences, made by dissolving 1 oz. of the essential oil in 1 pint of the strongest rectified spirit of wine, will be found admirably adapted for this purpose. These essences, which should be kept in well-corked bottles, are employed by dropping them cautiously into the sweetened spirit until the desired flavour is produced. During this operation the liquor should be frequently and violently shaken to produce complete admixture. If by any accident the essence is added in too large a quantity, the resulting ‘milkiness’ or excess of flavour may be removed by the addition of a little more spirit, or by clarification. In this way the majority of the liqueurs in common use may be produced extemporaneously, of nearly equal quality to those prepared by distillation. For those which are coloured, simple digestion of the ingredients is almost universally adopted. The “process by distillation” should, however, be always employed to impart the flavour and aroma of volatile aromatics to the spirit, when expense, labour, and time are of less importance than the production of a superior article.

The French liqueuristes are famed for the preparation of cordials of superior quality, cream-like smoothness, and delicate flavour. Their success chiefly arises from the employment of very pure spirit and sugar (the former in a larger proportion than that adopted by the English compounder), and in the judicious application of the flavouring ingredients. They distinguish their cordials as ‘eaux’ and ‘extraits’ (waters, extracts), or liqueurs which, though sweetened, are entirely devoid of viscidity; and ‘baumes,’ ‘crêmes,’ and ‘huiles’ (balms, creams, oils), which contain sufficient sugar to impart to them a syrupy consistence. The greatest possible attention is given to the preparation of the aromatised or flavouring essences, in France called ‘infusions.’ These are generally made by macerating the aromatic ingredients in spirit at about 2 to 4 u. p. (sp. gr. ·922 to ·925), placed in well-corked glass carboys, or stoneware jars or bottles. The maceration is continued, with occasional agitation, for 3, 4, or even 5 weeks, when the aromatised spirit is either distilled or filtered; generally the former. The outer peel of cedrats, lemons, oranges, limettes, bergamottes, &c., is alone used by our Continental neighbours, and is obtained either by carefully peeling the fruit with a knife, or by ‘oleo-saccharum,’ by rubbing it off with a lump of hard white sugar. Aromatic seeds and woods are bruised by pounding before being submitted to infusion. The substances employed in France to colour liqueurs are, for—blue, soluble Prussian blue, sulphate of indigo (nearly neutralised with chalk), and the juice of blue flowers and berries;—amber, fawn, and brandy colour, burnt sugar or spirit colouring;—green, spinach or parsley leaves (digested in spirit), and mixtures of blue and yellow;—red, powdered cochineal or brazil wood, either alone or mixed with a little alum;—violet, blue violet petals, litmus, or extract of logwood;—purple, the same as violet, only deeper;—yellow, an aqueous infusion of safflower or French berries, and the tinctures of saffron and turmeric.

A frequent cause of failure in the manufacture of liqueurs and cordials is the addition of too much flavouring matter. Persons unaccustomed to the use of strong aromatic essences and essential oils seldom sufficiently estimate their power, and, consequently, are very apt to add too much of them, by which the liqueur is rendered not only disagreeably high flavoured, but, from the excess of oil present, also ‘milky,’ or ‘foul,’ either at once, or, what is nearly as bad, on the addition of water. This source of annoyance, arising entirely from bad manipulation, frequently discourages the tyro, and cuts short his career as a manufacturer. From the viscidity of cordials they are less readily ‘fined down’ than unsweetened liquor, and often give much trouble to clumsy and inexperienced operators. The most certain way to prevent disappointment in this respect is to use too little rather than too much flavouring; for if the quantity proves insufficient, it is readily ‘brought up’ at any time, but the contrary is not effected without some trouble and delay.

A careful attention to the previous remarks will render this branch of the rectifier’s art far more perfect and easy of performance than it is at present, and will, in most cases, produce at once a satisfactory article, ‘fine, sweet, and pleasant.’

The cordials of respectable British ‘compounders’ contain fully 3 lbs. of white lump sugar per gallon, and are of the strength of 60 to 64 u. p. The baumes, crêmes, and huiles imported from the Continent are richer both in spirit and sugar than ours, and to this may be referred much of their superiority. Mere sweetened or cordialised spirits (eaux, of the Fr.) contain only from 1 to 1⁄2 lb. of sugar per gallon.

The purity of liqueurs is determined in the manner noticed under Brandy, Wine, &c.

The following list embraces nearly all the cordials and liqueurs, both native and imported, met with in trade in this country:—

Absinthe. Syn. Extrait d’absinthe de Suisse; Swiss extract of wormwood. Prep. From the tops of Absinthum majus, 4 lbs.; tops of Absinthum minus, 2 lbs.; angelica root, Calamus aromaticus, Chinese aniseed, and leaves of dittany of Crete, of each 15 gr.; brandy or spirit at 12 u. p., 4 galls.; macerate for 10 days, then add water, 1 gall.; distil 4 galls. by a gentle heat, and dissolve in the distilled spirit, of crushed white sugar, 2 lbs. Tonic and stomachic.

Alker′mes. This liqueur is highly esteemed in some parts of the South of Europe.

Prep. 1. Bay leaves and mace, of each 1 lb.; nutmegs and cinnamon, of each 2 oz.; cloves, 1 oz. (all bruised); cognac brandy, 3⁄2 galls.; macerate for 3 weeks, frequently shaking, then distil over 3 galls., and add of clarified spirit of kermes, 18 lbs.; orange-flower water, 1 pint; mix well, and bottle. This is the original formula for the ‘alkermes de Santa Maria Novella,’ which is much valued.

2. Spice, as last; British brandy, 4 galls. water, 1 gall.; macerate as before, and draw over 4 galls., to which add, of capillaire, 2 galls., and sweet spirit of nitre, ⁄4 pint. Cassia is often used for cinnamon. Inferior to the last.

An′iseed Cordial. Prep. 1. From aniseed, 2 oz. (or essential oil, 1⁄2 dr.), and sugar, 3 lbs. per gall. It should not be weaker than about 45 u. p., as at lower strengths it is impossible to produce a full-flavoured article without its being milky, or liable to become so.

2. (Anisette de Bordeaux.)—a. (Foreign.) Aniseed, 4 oz.; coriander and sweet fennel seeds, of each 1 oz. (bruised); rectified spirit, ⁄2 gall.; water, 3 quarts; macerate for 5 or 6 days, then draw over 7 pints, and add of lump sugar, 2⁄2 lbs.

b. (English.) Oil of aniseed, 15 drops; oils of cassia and caraway, of each 6 drops; rub them with a little sugar, and then dissolve it in spirit (45 u. p.), 3 quarts, by well shaking them together; filter, if necessary, and dissolve in the clear liquor sugar, 1⁄2 lb. See Peppermint (below).

Balm of Molucca. Prep. From mace, 1 dr.; cloves, ⁄2 oz.; clean spirit (22 u. p.), 1 gall.; infuse for a week in a well-corked carboy or jar, frequently shaking, colour with burnt sugar q. s., and to the clear tincture add of lump sugar, 4⁄2 lbs.; dissolved in pure soft water, ⁄2 gall. On the Continent this takes the place of the ‘cloves’ of the English retailer.

Bit′ters. These have generally from 1 to 1⁄2 lb. of sugar per gallon.

Car′away Cordial. Prep. Generally from the essential oil, with only 2⁄2 lbs. of sugar per gall. 1 fl. dr. of the oil is commonly reckoned equal to ⁄4 lb. of the seed. The addition of a very little oil of cassia, and about half as much of essence of lemon or of orange, improves it. See Brandy (Caraway).

Ce′drat Cordial. Prep. From essence (oil) of cedrat, ⁄4 oz.; pure spirit (at proof), 1 gall.; dissolve, add of water, 3 pints, agitate well; distil 3 quarts, and add an equal measure of clarified syrup. A delicious liqueur. See Crême and Eau (below).

Cin′namon Cordial. Prep. This is seldom made with cinnamon, owing to its high price, but with either the essential oil or bark of cassia, with about 2 lbs. of sugar to the gall. It is preferred coloured, and therefore may be very well prepared by simple digestion. The addition of 5 or 6 drops each of essence of lemon and orange peel, with about a spoonful of essence of cardamoms per gall., improves it. 1 oz. of oil of cassia is considered equal to 8 lbs. of the buds or bark. 1 fl. dr. of the oil is enough for 2⁄2 galls. It is coloured with burnt sugar.

Cit′ron Cordial. Prep. From the oil or peel, with 3 lbs. of sugar per gall., as above. (See below.)

Citronelle. Syn. Eau de Barbades. Prep. 1. From fresh orange peel, 2 oz.; fresh lemon peel, 4 oz.; cloves, ⁄2 dr.; corianders and cinnamon, of each 1 dr.; proof spirit, 4 pints; digest for 10 days, then add of water, 1 quart, and distil ⁄2 gall.; to the distilled essence add of white sugar, 2 lbs., dissolved in water, 1 quart.

2. Essence of orange, ⁄2 dr.; essence of lemon, 1 dr.; oil of cloves, and cassia, of each 10 drops; oil of coriander, 20 drops; spirit (58 o. p.), 5 pints; agitate until dissolved, then add of distilled or clear soft water, 3 pints; well mix, and filter it through blotting paper, if necessary; lastly add of sugar (dissolved), q. s.

Clairet. Syn. Rossalis des sin graines. Prep. From aniseed, fennel seed, coriander seed, caraway seed, dill seed, and seeds of the candy-carrot (Athamantia cretensis—Linn.), of each (bruised) 1 oz.; proof spirit ⁄2 gall.; digest for a week, strain, and add of loaf sugar, 1 lb., dissolved in water, q. s.

Cloves. Syn. Clove cordial. Prep. From bruised cloves, 1 oz., or essential oil, 1 fl. dr., to every 3 galls. of proof spirit. If distilled, some common salt should be added, and it should be drawn over with a pretty quick fire. It requires fully 3 lbs. of sugar per gall., and is generally coloured with poppy flowers or burnt sugar. The addition of 1 dr. of bruised pimento, or 5 drops of the oil for every oz. of cloves, improves this cordial. See Balm of Molucca (above).

Coriander Cordial. Prep. From corianders, as the last. A few sliced oranges improve it.

Crême d’Anis. As ANISEED CORDIAL, only richer.

Crême des Barbades. As CITRONELLE, adding some of the juice of the oranges, and an additional lb. of sugar per gall.

Crême de Cacao. Prep. Infuse roasted caracca-cacao nuts (cut small), 1 lb., and vanilla, ⁄2 oz., in brandy, 1 gall., for 8 days; strain, and add of thick syrup, 3 quarts.

Crême de Cedrat. Syn. Huile de Cedrat. Prep. From spirit of citron, 1 pint; spirit of cedrat, 1 quart; proof spirit, 3 quarts; white sugar, 16 lbs., dissolved in pure soft water, 2 galls.

Crême de Macarons. Prep. 1. From cloves, cinnamon, and mace, of each (bruised) 1 dr.; bitter almonds (blanched and beaten to a paste), 7 oz.; spirit (17 u. p.), 1 gall.; digest a week, filter, and add of white sugar, 6 lbs., dissolve in pure water, 2 quarts.

2. Clean spirit (at 24 u. p., sp. gr. ·945), 2 galls.; bitter almonds, ⁄4 lb.; cloves, cinnamon, and mace, of each in coarse powder, 1⁄2 dr.; infuse for 10 days, filter, and add of white sugar, 8 lbs.; dissolved in pure water, 1 gall.; lastly, give the liqueur a violet tint with infusion or tincture of litmus and cochineal. An agreeable, nutty-flavoured cordial, but, from containing so much bitter almonds, should be only drank in small quantities at a time. The English use only one half the above quantity of almonds.

Crême de Naphe. Prep. From sweetened spirit (60 u. p.) containing 3⁄2 lbs. of sugar per gall., 7 quarts; orange-flower water (foreign), 1 quart. Delicious.

Crême de Noyeau. See Noyeau.

Crême d’Orange. Prep. From oranges, (sliced), 3 dozen; rectified spirit, 2 galls.; digest for 14 days; add, of lump sugar, 28 lbs. (previously dissolved in water, 4⁄2 galls.); tincture of saffron, 1⁄2 fl. oz.; and orange-flower water, 2 quarts.

Crême de Portugal. Flavoured with lemon, to which a little oil of bitter almonds is added.

Curaçao. Prep. From sweetened spirit (at 56 u. p.), containing 3⁄2 lbs. of sugar per gall., flavoured with a tincture made by digesting the ‘oleo-saccharum’ prepared from Seville oranges, 9 in number; cinnamon, 1 dr.; and mace, ⁄4 dr., in rectified spirit, 1 pint. It is coloured by digesting in it for a week or 10 days Brazil-wood (in powder), 1 oz., and afterwards mellowing the colour with burnt sugar, q. s.

Delight of the Mandarins. From spirit (22 u. p.), 1 gall.; pure soft water, ⁄2 gall.; white sugar (crushed small), 4⁄2 lbs.; Chinese aniseed and ambrette or musk seed, of each (bruised) ⁄2 oz.; safflower, ⁄4 oz.; digested together in a carboy or stone bottle capable of holding double, and agitated well every day for a fortnight.

Eau de Cedrat. Syn. Cedrat water. As CRÊME DE CEDRAT, but using less sugar.

Eau de Chasseurs. See Peppermint (below).

Eau de Vie d’Andaye. Syn. Eau de vie d’Anis; Aniseed liqueur brandy. Prep. From brandy or proof spirit, 1 gall.; sugar, ⁄4 lb.; dissolved in aniseed water, 1 pint.

Gold Cordial. Prep. From angelica root (sliced), 1 lb.; raisins, ⁄2 lb.; coriander seeds, 2 oz.; caraway seeds and cassia, of each 1⁄2 oz.; cloves, ⁄2 oz.; figs and sliced liquorice root, of each 4 oz.; proof spirit, 3 galls.; water, 1 gall.; digest 2 days, and distil 3 gallons by a gentle heat; to this add, of sugar, 9 lbs., dissolved in rose water and clean soft water, of each 1 quart; lastly, colour the liquid by steeping in it of bay saffron, 1⁄4 oz. This cordial was once held in much esteem. It derives its name from a small quantity of gold leaf being formerly added to it.

Huile d’Anis. See Crême d’Anis (above).

Huile de Vanille. Flavoured with essence or tincture of vanilla. It is kept in a decanter, and used to flavour liqueurs, grog, &c.

Huile de Venus. Prep. From the flowers of the wild carrot, 2⁄2 oz., and sugar, 3 lbs. to the gall. It is generally coloured by infusing a little powdered cochineal in it.

Jargonelle. Syn. Jargonelle cordial. Flavoured with essence of jargonelle pear (acetate of amyl). Pine-apple cordial and liqueurs from some other fruits are also prepared from the new fruit essences. See Essence.

Lem′on Cordial. Prep. Digest fresh and dried lemon peel, of each 2 oz., and fresh orange peel, 1 oz., in proof spirit, 1 gall., for a week; strain with expression, add of clear soft water q. s. to reduce it to the desired strength, and lump sugar, 3 lbs. to the gallon. The addition of a little orange-flower or rose water improves it.

Liquodilla. Flavoured with oranges and lemons, of each, sliced, 3 in number; with sugar 2⁄2 lbs. per gall.

Lov′age Cordial. Prep. From the fresh roots of lovage, 1 oz. to the gallon. A fourth of this quantity of the fresh roots of celery and sweet fennel are also commonly added. In some parts a little fresh valerian root and oil of savine are added before distillation. It is much valued by the lower classes in some of the provinces for its stomachic and emmenagogue qualities.

Oil of Ce′drat. See Crême de Cedrat (above).

Orange Cordial. Like LEMON CORDIAL or CRÊME D’ORANGE, from fresh orange peel, ⁄2 lb., to the gallon.

Parfait Amour. Syn. Perfect Love. Prep. Flavoured with the yellow rind of 4 lemons, and a teaspoonful of essence of vanilla to the gallon, with sugar, 3 lbs., and powdered cochineal q. s. to colour.

Pep′permint. Syn. Peppermint cordial, Sportsman’s c., X. mint; Eau de chasseurs, Fr. This well-known compound is in greater demand in every part of the kingdom than all the other cordials put together.

Prep. 1. From peppermint water and gin or plain spirit (22 u. p.), of each 1 pint; lump sugar, ⁄4 lb.

2. (Wholesale.) English oil of peppermint, 5 oz., is added to rectified spirits of wine, 3 pints, and the mixture is agitated well together for some time in a corked bottle capable of holding 4 pints or more; it is then emptied into a cask having a capacity of upwards of 100 galls., and perfectly white and flavourless proof spirit, 36 galls., is poured in, and the whole well agitated for ten minutes; a solution of the best double refined lump sugar, 2⁄4 cwt., in about 35 galls. of pure filtered rain water, is then added, and the contents of the cask well ‘rummaged up’ in the usual manner for at least 15 minutes; sufficient clear rain water to make up the whole quantity to exactly 100 gallons, and holding in solution alum, 5 oz., is next added, and the whole is again well agitated for at least a quarter of an hour, after which the cask is bunged down, and allowed to repose for a fortnight before it is ‘broached’ for sale.

Obs. The last formula produces a beautiful article provided the ingredients are of good quality. Care on this point is particularly necessary in reference to the essential oil, which should only be purchased of some known respectable dealer. The sugar should be sufficiently pure to dissolve in a wine-glassful of clear soft water without injuring its transparency, and the cask should be a fresh-emptied gin pipe, or one properly prepared for gin, as, if it gives colour, it will spoil the cordial. When these particulars are attended to, the product is a bright transparent liquor as soon as made, and does not require fining. Should there be the slightest opacity, the addition of 2 oz. of salt of tartar, dissolved in a quart of hot water, will have the effect of ‘clearing it down’ in the course of a few days. The product is 100 galls. of cordial at 64 u. p.

Pimen′to. Syn. Pimento cordial, Pimento dram. Rather strongly flavoured with allspice or pimento. It has obtained a great repute in the West Indies in diarrhœa, cholera, and bowel complaints generally.

Rasp′berry Cordial. Prep. From raspberry brandy, capillaire, and water, equal parts. A similar article is prepared by flavouring sweetened spirit with the new ‘raspberry essence.’

Rat′ifia. The numerous liqueurs bearing this name are noticed in another part of this volume. See Ratifia.

Shrub. See the article Shrub in another part of this work.

Sighs of Love. Prep. 1. From proof spirit flavoured with otto of roses and capillaire, equal parts.

2. From sugar, 6 lbs., pure soft water, q. s. to produce a gallon of syrup, to which add, of eau de rose, 1 pint; proof spirit, 7 pints. It is stained of a pale pink by powdered cochineal. A very pleasant cordial. A drop or two (not more) of essence of ambergris or vanilla improves it.

Tears of the Widow of Malabar. Prep. As balm of Molucca, but employing cloves (bruised), ⁄2 oz., mace (shredded), 1 dr., and a teaspoonful of essence of vanilla for flavouring. Some add of orange-flower water, ⁄4 pint. It is slightly coloured with burnt sugar.

Tent. From plain spirit (22 u. p.) and port wine, of each 1 quart; sherry and soft water, of each 1 pint; orange-flower water and lemon juice, of each ⁄4 pint; essence of ambergris, 2 drops (not more); sugar, 2 lbs. See Wine.

Us′quebaugh. See the article Usquebaugh in another part of this work.

LIQUEUR DE LA MOTTE. [Fr.] See Drops (Golden) and Tincture.

LIQUEUR DORÉE. [Fr.] Prep. Take of cinnamon, bitter orange peel, and Peruvian bark, of each ⁄2 oz.; hay saffron, ⁄4 oz.; brandy and Malaga wine, of each 3 quarts; digest for a week, strain, and add of lump sugar, 2 lbs. Tonic, stomachic, and stimulant; chiefly used as an agreeable alcoholic dram.

LIQUEUR DE PRESSAVIN. [Fr.] Prep. From oxide of mercury (freshly precipitated) and cream of tartar, of each 1 oz.; hot water, 1 quart; dissolve and filter. For use 2 spoonfuls of this liquor are added to 1 quart of water.—Dose. A wine-glassful 3 or 4 times a day, avoiding the use of common salt. This is simply a solution of potassio-tartrate of mercury, and may be taken in the usual cases in which mercury is administered.

LIQUODIN′NA. See Liqueur.

LIQUID-AMBAR. Syn. Copaibæ balsam. A fluid balsamic juice obtained from the Liquidamber styraciflua, an American tree. It closely resembles LIQUID STORAX in its properties, and may be applied to the same purposes. See Styrax.

LIQ′UOR. Syn. Liquor, L.; Liqueur, Fr. This term is given in the London Pharmacopœia to those aqueous solutions commonly though improperly called ‘WATERS,’ ammoniæ liquor potassæ, &c. It is now more correctly applied to the ‘WATERS’ of the British Pharmacopœia. See Solution.

The term ‘liquor’ has also, of late years, been applied to certain concentrated preparations, most of which would be more correctly termed ‘FLUID EXTRACTS,’ as they merely differ from good extracts in their consistence, and from ordinary extracts in containing less starchy matter, albumen, and gum. There is also usually a little spirit added to them to prevent decomposition. Liquors of this kind may be prepared of the finest quality by the same processes that are required for the preparation of good soluble extracts; observing to stop the evaporation as soon as the consistence of treacle is acquired, and when cold, to add 1-4th or 1-5th part of their weight (after evaporation) in rectified spirit. The addition of 3 or 4 drops of the oils of cloves and mustard seed, dissolved in the spirit, will secure them from any risk of ‘moulding’ or fermenting; in fact, with this addition many of them will keep well without spirit, provided they are evaporated sufficiently, and kept in a cool place. The liquors, which are merely concentrated infusions or decoctions, and which, in their consistence, do not even approximate to extracts, may be made in the manner directed under those heads.

Much confusion would be prevented if the terms ‘concentrated decoction,’ ‘concentrated infusion,’ &c., were adopted for those vegetable preparations possessing eight times the usual strength; ‘liquors’ for those of a higher strength, but still sufficiently liquid to be treated as such in dispensing, &c.; and ‘fluid extracts’ for those possessing considerable consistence, and approaching the common extracts in their degree of concentration and mode of preparation. See Decoction, Infusion, Essence, Extract, Solution, &c.

⁂ The following formulæ present some illustrations of the preparation of this class of medicines.

Liquor of Ammonia. Syn. Liquor Ammoniæ. Prep. Strong solution of ammonia, 1 pint; distilled water, 2 pints; mix and preserve in a stoppered bottle. Sp. gr. ·959.

Liquor of Ammonia, Stronger. Syn. Liquor Ammoniæ Fortior. Prep. Mix chloride of ammonium in coarse powder 3 lbs., and slaked lime 4 lbs., and introduce the mixture into an iron bottle, placed in a metal pot surrounded by sand. Connect the iron tube which screws air-tight into the bottle in the usual manner, by corks, glass tubes, and caoutchouc collars, with a Woulf’s bottle capable of holding a pint; connect this with a second Woulf’s bottle of the same size, the second bottle with a matrass of the capacity of three pints, in which 22 oz. of distilled water are placed, and the matrass by means of a tube bent twice at right angles, with an ordinary bottle containing distilled water 10 oz. Bottles 1 and 2 are empty, and the latter and the matrass which contains the 22 oz. of distilled water are furnished each with a siphon safety-tube charged with a very short column of mercury.

The heat of a fire, which should be very gradually raised, is to be now applied to the metal pot, and continued until bubbles of condensible gas cease to escape from the extremity of the glass tube which dips into the water of the matrass.

The process being terminated, the matrass will contain about 43 fl. oz. of strong solution of ammonia. Bottles 1 and 2 will now include the first, about 16, the second, about 10 fl. oz. of a coloured ammoniacal liquid.

Place this in a flask closed by a cork, which should be perforated by a siphon safety-tube containing a little mercury, and also by a second safety-tube bent twice at right angles, and made to pass to the bottom of the terminal bottle used in the preceding process. Apply heat to the flask until the coloured liquid it contains is reduced to three fourths of its original bulk. The product now contained in the terminal bottle will be nearly of the strength of solution of ammonia, and may be made exactly so by the addition of the proper quantity of distilled water, or of strong solution of ammonia. Density ·191, contains 32·5 per cent. of ammonia.

Antidotes.—Vinegar and water followed by acidulated demulcent drinks.

Liquor, Anodyne. See Spirit of Ether.

Liquor, Antinephritic. Syn. Liquor antinephriticus, L. Prep. (Adams.) Poppy heads, 6 oz.; water, 1⁄2 pint; boil to one third, strain with pressure, and add of nitrate of potassa, 1 oz.—Dose, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls night and morning; in gravel and painful affections of the kidneys and bladder.

Liquor, Antipodag′ric (Beguin’s). Syn. Hoffmann’s gout liquid; Liquor antipodagricus Hoffmannii, L. Prep. From Boyle’s fuming liquor, 1 part; spirit of wine, 3 parts. Sudorific.—Dose, 20 to 30 drops; or externally, in gout, and other painful affections, either alone or combined with camphor. See Ammonium, Persulphide of.

Liquor Antipsor′ic. Syn. Liquor antipsoricus, Lotio a., L. Prep. (Van Mons.) Sulphuret of sodium, 1⁄2 dr.; hydrochlorate of ammonia, 75 gr.; dissolve each separately in water, ⁄2 pint, mix the solutions, and filter. In itch and other moist skin diseases.

Liquor, Bleaching. See Solution of Chloride of Lime.

Liquor, Blistering. B. Syn. Liquor Epispasticus, Linimentum cantharides. Prep. Mix cantharides in powder, 8 oz.; and acetic acid, 4 fl. oz. Pack in a percolator, and after 24 hours pass ether slowly through until 20 fl. oz. are obtained. Keep in a stoppered bottle.

Liquor, Boyle’s Fu′′ming. The perhydrosulphate of ammonia.

Liquor of Calum′ba. Syn. Liquor calumbæ, L. Same as CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF CALUMBA.

Liquor of Cam′phor. See Essence.

Liquor of Chiret′ta. Same as Concentrated infusion of chiretta.

Liquor of Cincho′na. Syn. Liquor of bark; Concentrated infusion of bark, Inspissated i. or B.; Inspissated i. of b.; Infusum cinchonæ spissatum (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Yellow cinchona bark (bruised), 3 lbs., is macerated in distilled water, 6 pints, at two successive operations, as directed under EXTRACT OF CINCHONA—Ph. L.; the mixed infusions are evaporated by the heat of a water bath to one fourth, and placed aside to settle; the clear portion is decanted, the remainder strained, and the mixed liquid again evaporated until its sp. gr. reaches 1·200; to this, when cold, rectified spirit is dropped in, by degrees, “so that 3 fl. dr. may be added to each fl. oz. of the liquor;” lastly, allow it to repose for 20 days, that the dregs may subside.

Obs. It is not at all clear whether the College means 3 fl. dr. of spirit to be added to each fl. oz. of the liquid before its addition, or that it is to be added so that each fl. oz. of the product shall contain that quantity. We presume the former. 1 fl. dr. of this preparation is said to represent fully 4 fl. oz. of the INFUSION OF CINCHONA—Ph. L.; but it is obvious that it must be liable to great variations in strength. “In a general way 1 fl. dr. may be considered equal to 3 fl. oz. of the infusion.” (Pereira.) As commonly met with, this preparation is nearly destitute of the cinchona alkaloids.

2. Yellow cinchona bark, bruised, 56 lbs., and water holding in solution sulphuric acid, 1⁄2 lb., are macerated together, with occasional agitation, in a covered earthen vessel, for 48 hours, after which the liquor is expressed, and the residuum or marc is treated with fresh water; the mixed strained liquid is then evaporated as rapidly as possible in earthenware, to exactly 6 lbs.; to this rectified spirit, 1⁄4 lb., is added, and the whole is set aside for a week or 10 days; the clear portion is, lastly, decanted and preserved in well-closed bottles. The product is very rich in quinine. It is 96 times as strong as the DECOCTION OF CINCHONA—Ph. L., and 12 times as strong as the above preparation of the Ph. L. This preparation resembles the ‘LIQUOR CINCHONÆ’ sold by certain houses in the trade at 24s. per lb., wholesale.

3. Exhaust the bark as above by maceration in 3 successive waters without acid, filter, evaporate the mixed liquors to 7 lbs., and proceed as before. Inferior to the last, and less rich in the cinchona alkaloids. Very thick; scarcely liquid.

4. From PALE BARK:—(Liquor cinchonæ pallidæ; Infusum cinchonæ spissatum—Ph. L.) From pale bark, as the last. See Infusion of Cinchona.

Liquor, Disinfect′ing. See Solution (Chlorides of Lime, Soda, and Zinc), and Disinfecting compounds.

Liquor of Er′got. Syn. Essence of ergot of rye, Concentrated infusion of e.; Essentia secalis cornuti, Liquor ergotæ, Infusum ergotæ concentratum, L. Prep. Recent ergot of rye (reduced to coarse powder by pounding, or preferably by grinding it in a pepper-mill), 1⁄2 lb., and boiling distilled water, 4 lbs., are digested together in a closed vessel, with frequent agitation until cold, and then put into a wide-mouthed bottle, along with rectified spirit, 2 lbs.; the whole is then allowed to macerate for a week, after which the liquor is expressed and filtered. Obs. 4 fl. dr. of this essence are equal to 1 dr. of ergot in substance. It is 8 times the strength of the INFUSION (as usually prepared according to the formula of Pereira and others), and 2⁄2 times the strength of the TINCTURE OF ERGOT of the London Apothecaries’ Hall. This is the only ESSENCE OF LIQUOR OF ERGOT known in the wholesale trade.

Liquor of Flints. See Solution.

Liquor of Gutta Percha. B. Syn. Liquor Gutta percha. Gutta percha in thin slices, 1 oz.; carbonate of lead in fine powder, 1 oz.; chloroform, 8 fl. oz. Add the gutta percha to 6 fl. oz. of chloroform in a stoppered bottle, and shake them frequently till solution has been effected. Then add the carbonate of lead previously mixed with the remainder of the chloroform, and having several times shaken the whole together set the mixture aside, and let it remain at rest until the soluble matter has subsided. Lastly, decant the clear liquid and keep in a well-stoppered bottle.

Liquor, Libavius’s. Bichloride of tin.

Liquor of Mat′ico. Syn. Concentrated infusion of matico; Liquor maticonis, Infusum maticonis concentratum, L. Prep. From matico leaves, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, ⁄2 pint; distilled water, 32 fl. oz.; digest 10 days, express, and filter. 1 fl. dr. added to 7 fl. dr. of water is equal to 1 fl. oz. of the common INFUSION.

Liquor of Myrrh. Syn. Solution of myrrh; Liquor myrrhæ, Loco liquaminis myrrhæ, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Extract of myrrh (Ph. Bor.), 1 oz.; distilled water, 5 fl. oz.; mix thoroughly, decant, and strain. It should be of a brownish-yellow colour, and turbid.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1 fl. dr.

Liquor of O′pium. Syn. Liquor opii, L. o. concentratus, L. opiatus, L. See Black drop.

1. (Messrs Smith.) Opium, 4 oz., is made into an extract, and ‘denarcotised’ by ether; it is then dissolved in alcohol, filtered, evaporated nearly to dryness, and redissolved in water q. s. to furnish 12 oz. of solution; to this is added, of rectified spirit, 2⁄4 oz., with water q. s. to make the whole up to 16 oz.—Dose, 3 to 12 drops.

2. (Acetic; Liquor opii aceticus, L.) See Laudanum (Houlton’s).

3. (Citric; Liquor opii citricus, L.)—a. Powdered opium, 1⁄2 oz.; lemon juice, 1⁄2 pint; evaporate to one half, cool, add of rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz., and the next day decant or filter; same strength as ‘LAUDANUM,’

b. (Liquor morphiæ citratis—Dr Porter.) Opium, 4 oz.; citric acid, 2 oz.; triturate, and add of boiling water, 15 fl. oz.; digest with agitation for 24 hours, and filter. This last has above three times the strength of ‘LAUDANUM,’ It is sadly misnamed.

4. (Hydrochloric; Solution of Muriate of Opium; Liquor opii hydrochloricus, L.—Dr Nichol.) Powdered opium, 1⁄2 oz.; distilled water, 1 pint; hydrochloric acid, 1⁄2 fl. oz.; digest a fortnight, and strain with expression. Same strength as ‘LAUDANUM,’ According to Dr Nichol, this is preferable to every other preparation of opium.

5. (Sedative; Battley’s Sedative solution of Opium; Liquor opii sedativus, L.)—a. Hard aqueous extract of opium (bruised), 3 oz., is boiled in water, 1⁄2 pint, until dissolved; to the solution, when cold, rectified spirit, 6 oz. is added, together with water, q. s. to make the whole measure exactly 1 quart; the liquor is, lastly, filtered.

b. From hard extract of opium, 22 oz.; boiling water, 13 pints; rectified spirit, 3 pints; as the last.

c. From extract of opium—Ph. L., 4⁄4 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil till reduced to 34 fl. oz.; cool, filter, and add of rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz., and water, q. s. to make up exactly 1 quart.

Obs. The first two formulæ, which vary only in their quantities, are identical with that employed by Mr Battley. As hard extract of opium is not always at hand, we have introduced a formula in which the ordinary extract is ordered. It gives a precisely similar product to the others, provided the cold aqueous decoction is filtered before adding the spirit. Battley’s LIQUOR OPII SEDATIVUS is an excellent preparation, less exciting than opium or laudanum.—Dose, 10 to 30 drops. Dr Christison states that 20 drops of Battley’s solution are equal to 30 drops of the common tincture.

Liquor, Pancreatic (Van den Corput). Syn. Liquor Pancreatini. Pancreatin and carbonate of potash, of each 10 gr.; balm water, 2⁄2 fl. oz.; syrup of orange peel, 5 dr.—Dose, ⁄2 fl. oz. to 1 fl. oz.

Liquor of Pepsin. (Mr Squire.) Syn. Liquor pepsini. Prep. 1 drachm of Boudault’s pepsin in 1 oz. of distilled water. Salt must be added if it is to be preserved.—Dose. A teaspoonful.

Liquor of Rhu′barb. Syn. Liquor rhei, Infusum rhei concentratum, L. Prep. 1. Rhubarb (well bruised), 6⁄4 oz.; water, q. s.; rectified spirit, ⁄2 pint; proceed as for INFUSION OF CALUMBA (conc.); to produce a quart. 8 times the usual strength.

2. See Infusion of Rhubarb (Concentrated).

3. See Extract of Rhubarb (Fluid).

Liquor of Sarsaparil′la. Syn. Fluid extract of sarsaparilla; Liquor sarzæ, Essentia sarsaparillæ, L. Prep. Either the simple or the compound liquor of sarsaparilla may be made from the corresponding decoction, or, preferably, the infusion prepared with water at 125° Fahr., by carefully evaporating it until sufficiently concentrated, and then straining it through flannel, and adding a little spirit. Jamaica sarsaparilla should be alone employed, as the other varieties, especially the Honduras, not only possess less medicinal virtue, and yield less extract, but are very liable to ferment and get mouldy, unless an undue proportion of spirit is added to them. See Extract of Sarsaparilla (Fluid).

Liquor of Sen′na. Syn. Liquor sennæ, L. Both the FLUID EXTRACT and the CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF SENNA are called by this name, but more generally the former. The following are additional formulæ:—

1. (Duncan.) Senna, 15 lbs.; boiling water, 5 galls.; proceed by the method of displacement, evaporate the product to 10 lbs., add of molasses, 6 lbs. (previously concentrated over a water bath until it begins to congeal on cooling), dissolve, and further add of rectified spirit, 1⁄4 pint, together with water q. s. to make the whole measure exactly 12 pints. Every fl. oz. represents 1 oz. of senna.

2. (Dr Tweedy.) As the last, but using tincture of ginger (prepared with rectified spirit), 1⁄2 pint, instead of the spirit there ordered.

Liquor of Soap. Syn. Liquor saponis, L. See Tincture.

Liquor, Styp′tic. Syn. Liquor stypticus, L. Prep. (Ph. Slevico-Holsat. 1831.) Alum and sulphate of copper, of each 1⁄2 oz.; sulphuric acid, 1 oz.; water, 1 lb.; dissolve, and filter.

Liquor of Tarax′acum. Syn. Fluid extract of dandelion; Extractum taraxaci fluidum, Liquor taraxaci, L. Prep. 1. Dandelion roots (dried), 28 lbs., are rinsed in clean cold water to remove dirt, and then sliced small, and macerated in enough cold water to cover them for 24 hours; the liquid is next pressed out, and after the fecula has subsided the clear portion is decanted, and heated to 180° or 190° Fahr., to coagulate the albumen; the liquid is then filtered while hot and evaporated by steam, or preferably by a current of warm air, until it is reduced to 22⁄2 lbs.; to this rectified spirit, 6 lbs., is added, and after thorough agitation the vessel is set aside for a week or a fortnight, after which the clear portion is gently poured from the sediment and preserved in well-closed bottles in a cool place. A very fine article. It represents an equal weight of the root.

2. The expressed juice of dandelion is heated to near the boiling point, strained, and evaporated, as the last, to a proper consistence; ⁄4th or ⁄5th of rectified spirit is then added, and the liquid is otherwise treated as before. Very odorous and pale coloured.

3. Dried root (coarsely powered), 1 lb.; water, 1⁄4 pint; rectified spirit, ⁄2 pint; digest a week, express the liquor, pass it through a hair sieve into a bottle, and in 10 days decant the clear portion.

4. (Ph. Bor.) Extract of dandelion, 3 parts; water, 1 part (or q. s.); triturated together.

5. (W. Procter.) Fresh root, 2 lbs., is sliced and reduced to a pulp, and macerated with ⁄6th of its bulk of rectified spirit for 24 hours; it is then subjected to strong pressure, the marc is treated with water containing a little spirit, 1 pint, and the liquid is again expressed; the mixed product is evaporated to 12 fl. oz., and when cold, rectified spirit, 4 fl. oz. is added, and the whole filtered.

Obs. Liquor of taraxacum has a very large sale. The dose is 1 to 2 fl. dr. See Extract.

Liquor of Valer′ian. See Extract of Valerian (Fluid).

Liquor of Vanil′la. Syn. Fluid extract of vanilla; Liquor vanillæ, Extractum v. fluidum, L. Prep. 1. Vanilla (sliced), 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 3 pints; prepare a tincture either by displacement or maceration, and reduce it, by distillation at the lowest possible temperature, to 1⁄2 lb.; put this into a strong bottle whilst hot, add of white sugar candy (in powder), ⁄2 lb., cork down, and agitate the whole until it is nearly cold. Very fine. Used chiefly for its odour and flavour. It represents half its weight of vanilla.

2. (W. Procter.) Vanilla (cut into thin transverse slices), 1 oz.; sugar, 3 oz.; triturate until reduced to fine powder, put it into a strong pint bottle, along with syrup, ⁄2 pint; water, 2 oz.; tie down the cork, and set the bottle for half an hour in boiling water; cool, strain, and treat the residue in a like manner with a mixture of water, 6 fl. oz., and rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz.; lastly, mix the two products. Greatly inferior to the last.

LIQ′UORICE. Syn. Stick liquorice; Liquoritia, Glycyrrhizæ radix (B. P.), Glycyrrhizæ radix, Glycyrrhiza (Ph. L. & D.), G. glabra (Ph. E.), L. “The root or underground stem of the Glycyrrhiza glabra, fresh and dried, cultivated in Britain.” “The recent and the dried root of Glycyrrhiza glabra,” or common liquorice. “The fresh root is to be kept buried in dried sand for use.” (Ph. L.) It has a sweetish taste, and is slightly aperient, expectorant, and diuretic. It is a popular demulcent and pectoral. Its extract and solution are much used as a domestic remedy for cough. As a masticatory it allays thirst and irritation.

Composition of the fresh root of liquorice:

Glycyrrhizin 8·60

Gum 26·60

Matter soluble in alcohol, chiefly resin 0·75

Albumen 0·97

Starch 22·91

Woody fibre 13·36

Moisture 26·81

Ash, 3·07 per cent. —

100·00

(Hassall.)

Roussin asserts that the sweetness of liquorice root is not due to glycyrrhizin, as has been hitherto assumed, but to an ammoniacal compound of that substance. Glycyrrhizin, when purified four successive times by dissolving it in alcohol, and precipitating the foreign matter accompanying it by ether, is a yellowish substance, insoluble in cold water, and almost tasteless. Treated with dilute solution of potash or soda, it rapidly develops a sweet taste. In liquorice root, however, it is not contained in combination with either of these two alkalies, but appears to exist as an ammoniacal compound, for solutions of potash and soda liberate ammonia, both from the root and the extract. In its compounds with the alkalies glycyrrhizin plays the part of an acid, as it forms true salts capable of undergoing decomposition with most of the metallic salts, and also with the salts of the organic alkaloids. With ammonia it forms two compounds, a basic salt, which yields a deep yellow solution, and another containing less ammonia, the solution of which has an amber colour. The former is produced by dissolving glycyrrhizin in water with an excess of ammonia. Upon evaporating the resulting deep yellow solution to dryness it leaves a yellowish, scaly, shining, brittle, non-hygroscopic residue, which constitutes the second ammoniacal compound. This is readily soluble in cold water, to which it imparts a pale yellow colour and a very sweet taste. The solution turns deep yellow on the addition of a few drops of solution of ammonia, owing to the formation of the basic compound. The pale yellow solution possesses, in a marked degree, the taste of liquorice root, which, indeed, owes its sweetness to this glycyrrhizate of ammonia, or ammoniacal glycyrrhizin, as the author prefers to call it. One gram of this compound imparts the sweet taste of the root to two litres of water.

The author gives the following process for the preparation of the ammoniacal glycyrrhizin in the pure state: The carefully-selected roots, freed from all portions presenting a dark fracture, are scraped, and then well pounded, so as to reduce them to a kind of stringy tow. This substance is macerated in cold distilled water for some hours, pressed, and treated a second time in the same manner. The two liquors are mixed and allowed to stand for some time to deposit the starch. The supernatant liquor is then boiled and filtered, to separate the coagulated albumen. After cooling, sulphuric acid diluted with its weight of water is added gradually, with brisk stirring, until a precipitate is no longer formed. The precipitate, at first gelatinous and flocculent, after standing some time, forms a compact semi-solid mass at the bottom of the vessel. The supernatant liquor is rejected, and after roughly washing the precipitate several times with pure water it is finally kneaded repeatedly in distilled water until all trace of acidity has disappeared. The mass is then well drained and agitated in a flask with three times its weight of 90° alcohol until dissolved, when a similar quantity of 96° to 98° alcohol is added to the syrupy liquid so produced. A little pectic acid is thus precipitated, which is removed by filtration. Ether is then added to the alcoholic liquor as long as a precipitate is formed. After standing twenty-four or even forty-eight hours a blackish pitchy substance is deposited, which adheres to the glass, and allows of the clear liquor being decanted. To this clear liquor is added, in small quantities at a time, alcohol of 90° charged with gaseous ammonia, which determines the formation of a yellow, rather heavy, flocculent precipitate of glycyrrhizate of ammonia. This precipitate is washed rapidly on a fine cloth with a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and ether, pressed and dried in a current of warm air, or over sulphuric acid.

The author suggests the addition of ammoniacal glycyrrhizin to pill masses, powders, or mixtures, and states that its power of masking the taste of nauseous medicines is equal to 100 times its weight of sugar. Sulphate of quinine, sulphate of magnesia, iodide of potassium, and ipecacuanha, lose much of their taste by such an addition.

A dose of cod-liver oil or syrup of iodide of iron is rendered more palatable by being preceded by a small dose of the solid ammoniacal glycerin. Its extract is the common LIQUORICE, Spanish liquorice, or Spanish juice, of the shops. See Extract, &c.

LISBON DIET DRINK. 1. (Foy.) Prep. Guaiacum wood, rasped, 1 oz.; sarsaparilla, bruised, 3 oz.; mezereon, sliced, ⁄2 oz.; crude antimony (in a rag), 2 oz.; water, 12 pints. Boil down to 8 pints, and add—red sanders, rasped, white sandal, rasped, of each 3 oz.; rosewood, rasped sassafras bark, sliced, of each 1 oz.; liquorice root, sliced, ⁄2 oz. Infuse for four hours, strain, and add syrup according to taste.—Dose, 1 to 2 pints a day.

2. (Pearson.) Sarsaparilla, bruised, 4 oz.; dried walnut peel, 4 oz.; guaiacum, rasped, 1⁄2 oz.; crude antimony (in a rag), ⁄2 oz.; water, 4 pints. Boil down to 3 pints.

LIST. The border or selvage torn off a piece of cloth. It is used by the French polishers and law stationers to form their rubbers, and for numerous other purposes.

LITH′ARGE. Syn. Semi-vitrified oxide of lead; Plumbi oxydum (Ph. L.), Plumbi oxydum semi-vitreum (Ph. D.), Lithargyrum (Ph. E.), L. The litharge of commerce is semi-vitrified protoxide of lead, obtained chiefly by scraping off the drops that form on the surface of melted lead exposed to a current of air (dross of lead; plumbum ustum), and heating it to a full red, to melt out any undecomposed metal. The fused oxide, in cooling, forms a yellow or reddish semi-crystalline mass, which readily separates into scales; these, when ground, constitute the ‘powdered litharge’ of the shops. Litharge is also prepared by exposing red lead to a heat sufficiently high to fuse it, and ‘English litharge’ is obtained as a secondary product, by liquefaction, from argentiferous lead ore, when it is often called ‘silver stone.’

Pur. “Entirely, or almost entirely, soluble in dilute nitric acid. This solution is blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen. Potassa throws down a white precipitate, which is redissolved by adding the same in excess. If sulphate of soda be added to 100 gr. of this oxide dissolved in nitric acid, 135 gr. of sulphate of lead is precipitated.” (Ph. L.) “50 gr. dissolve entirely, and without effervescence, in 1⁄2 fl. oz. of pyroligneous acid, and the solution precipitated by 53 gr. of phosphate of soda remains precipitable by more of the test.” (Ph. E.) The solution in both acetic and nitric acid should be colourless. It is of great importance to the pharmaceutist to obtain pure litharge, as the slightest impurity will often colour and spoil his lead plaster (EMP. PLUMBI), and solution of diacetate of lead (LIQ. PLUMBI DIACETATIS).

Uses. Litharge is employed in pharmacy, to make plasters and several other preparations of lead; by painters as a ‘drier’ for oils; and for various other purposes in the arts.

Obs. The litharge of commerce is distinguished by its colour as LITHARGE OF GOLD (LITHARGYRUM AURI, L. AURIUM, L. CHRYSITIS), which is dark coloured and impure, and LITHARGE OF SILVER (SILVER STONE; LITHARGYRUM ARGENTI, L. ARGENTUM, L. ARGYRITIS), which is purer, and paler coloured. The dark colour of the former is generally said to be owing to the presence of red lead. Foreign litharge generally contains copper and iron; and, not infrequently, a little silver and silica. These are readily detected by the usual tests. In grinding litharge, about 1 lb. of olive oil is usually added to each 1 cwt. to prevent dust. The best solvents of litharge are nitric acid and acetic acid. As it slowly absorbs the carbonic acid of the air, it generally effervesces slightly when treated with acids, and this effervescence is stronger in proportion to its age. See Lead.

LITH′IUM. Li. The metallic base of LITHIA, first obtained by Sir H. Davy by exposing hydrate of lithium in contact with mercury to galvanic action, and decomposing the resulting amalgam by distillation. It is now obtained by fusing pure chloride of lithium in a small, thick, porcelain crucible, and decomposing it while in a fused state by a current of electricity. It is a white metal, like sodium, very oxidisable, fusing at 356°, and having a sp. gr. of ·59. It is the lightest metal known. It belongs to the ‘alkaline group,’ of which potassium, sodium, cæsium, and rubidium, are the other members.

Lithium forms salts analogous to those of sodium, but usually somewhat less soluble. They can be distinguished from those of potassium and sodium by the phosphate and carbonate, being only sparingly soluble in water,—from those of barium, strontium, and calcium, by forming crystallisable and soluble salts with sulphuric acid and oxalic acid,—and from those of magnesium, by the solution of its carbonate exhibiting an alkaline reaction. Heated on platinum, they tinge the flame of the blowpipe carmine red. The salts of lithium may generally be formed by dissolving the hydrate or carbonate in dilute acids.

Lithium, Benzoate. LiC7H5O2,H2O. (Paris Pharm. Society.) Benzoic acid, 122 grams; lithium carbonate, 37 grams. Suspend the benzoic acid in 10 parts of water, add the lithium carbonate, and heat. Solution takes place with effervescence, and upon evaporation, handsome, much flattened, more or less elongated prismatic crystals are obtained.

Lithium benzoate is very soluble in water. One grain of the salt calcined, and then treated with slight excess of sulphuric acid, and heated to redness should give 0·376 gram of lithium sulphate.

Lithium, Bromide of. LiBr. To 37 grams of carbonate of lithium suspended in 200 grams of distilled water, 80 grams of bromine are added. A current of sulphuretted hydrogen is then passed through the mixture until the whole of the bromide has disappeared. Hydro-bromic acid is thus formed, which decomposes the carbonate of lithium, bromide of lithium being produced and sulphur set free. The mixture is then gently heated to drive off the excess of sulphuretted hydrogen and to agglutinate the sulphur. After filtration the liquor is concentrated, and if it be desired to obtain the bromide in crystals, the desiccation is finished under a bell jar by means of sulphuric acid.

Lithium, Car′bonate of. Li2CO3. Syn. Carbonate of lithia; Lithiæ carbonas (B. P.). Prep. To an aqueous solution of sulphate of lithium add a strong solution of carbonate of ammonium, collect the precipitate, drain, and press, wash with a little rectified spirit, and dry. By dissolving it in boiling water, and slowly evaporating the solution, crystals may be obtained.

Prop., &c. It resembles carbonate of magnesium in appearance; is soluble in about 100 parts of cold water, and in considerably less of boiling water, and is insoluble in alcohol. The tests for its purity given in the B. P. are—in giving no precipitate with oxalate of calcium or lime water, and leaving, when 10 grains are neutralised with sulphuric acid and ignited, 14·86 grains of dry sulphate. It has been proposed by M. Lipowitz, Dr Garrod, and others, as a solvent for uric acid calculi. According to Biswanger, 1 part of carbonate of lithia in 120 parts of water takes up, at blood-heat, nearly 4 parts of uric acid. Mr Alexander Ure recommends a dilute solution of this substance as an injection in lithic calculus, as it is a better solvent of uric acid than either borax or the alkaline carbonates. “Of all the various menstrua hitherto recommended, none appear to promise more favorably than the carbonate of lithia.” “If by means of injections” (of this solution) “we can reduce a stone at the rate of a grain or more an hour, we shall not merely diminish the bulk of the calculus, but further loosen its cohesion, disintegrate it, so to speak, causing it to crumble down, and be washed away in the stream of urine.” (Mr A. Ure.)—Dose, 2 to 5 gr., twice or thrice a day; as an injection, 1 gr. to water, 1 fl. oz.

Lithium, Citrate of. Li3C6H5O7. Syn. Lithiæ citras (B. P.). A white deliquescent amorphous powder, made by acting on 50 grains of lithium carbonate with 100 of citric acid, and is readily soluble in 2⁄2 parts of water.

Tests, &c. 20 grains burnt at a low red heat until white leave 10·6 grains of carbonate of lithium. Its medical properties are similar to those of the carbonate.—Dose, 5 to 16 grains, largely diluted.

Lithium, Citrate of, Effervescing. (Paris Pharm. Society.) Citric acid, 40 grams; sodium bicarbonate, 50 grams; lithium bicarbonate, 10 grams. Mix the powders and place them in a flat-bottomed vessel having a large surface; heat to about 100° C., stirring the powder continually until it takes the granular form, then by means of appropriate sieves obtain granules of suitable and uniform size, and preserve the preparation in well-closed bottles.

Lithium, Oxide of. Li2O. Syn. Lithia. An alkaline earth found in petalite, &c., and in small quantities in most mineral waters.

Prep. Petalite (a silicate of aluminum and lithium) in powder mixed with twice its weight of fluor spar is heated with strong sulphuric acid as long as acid vapours are given off. The residue is treated with ammonia, boiled, and filtered, evaporated to dryness, and heated to redness. The residue consists of sulphate of lithium, from which the oxide is obtained by decomposing it with acetate of barium, filtering and heating after having evaporated the solution to dryness.

This yields the so-called oxide, which is in reality the hydrate, LiHO, and is a white, non-volatile, soluble, caustic solid. The true oxide is a white powder decomposed by water forming the hydrate, and obtainable by igniting the metal in oxygen.

Lithia, Effervescing Solution of. Syn. Liquor lithiæ effervescens. Comp. Water charged with carbonic acid and holding in solution carbonate of lithium. 10 fl. oz. contain 5 grains of the carbonate.—Props. Colourless liquid, possessing powerful diuretic properties.—Use. Antilithic, for dissolving calculi of uric acid.—Dose, 5 to 10 fl. oz.

LITHOFRACTEUR. See Blasting powders.

LITHOG′RAPHY. The art of tracing letters, figures, and other designs, on stone, and transferring them to paper by impression. Our notice of this beautiful and useful art must necessarily be brief.

There are two methods of lithography in general use. In the one, a drawing is made on the stone with a lithographic crayon, or with lithographic ink; in the other method the design is made on lithographic paper, which, on being moistened and passed through the press, leaves its design on the surface of the stone, reversed. In either method, water acidulated with nitrous acid, oil of vitriol, or hydrochloric acid, is poured over the stone, and this, by removing the alkali from the chalk or ink, leaves the design on it in a permanent form, at the same time that it ‘etches’ away a portion of the lights, and renders the surface more absorbent of water.

The process of lithographic printing is as follows:—Water is thrown over the stone, the roller charged with printing ink is passed over the surface, the paper is applied, and a copy is obtained by the action of the lithographic press. The same process must be had recourse to for each copy. The nature of the stone is such that it retains with great tenacity the resinous and oily substances contained in the ink or crayon employed to form the design and also absorbs water freely; this, combined with the peculiar affinity between resinous and oily substances, and their mutual power of repelling water, occasions the ink on the printing roller to adhere to the design, and to leave untouched the lights.

The stones are prepared for lithography by polishing in the ordinary way; the style of work for which they are intended determining the degree of labour bestowed upon them. For crayon drawings the surface should have a fine grain, but the finish of the stone must depend upon the desired softness of the intended drawing; for writing or drawing on in ink the surface must receive a higher polish, and must be finished off with pumice-stone and water.

The best lithographic stones are obtained from Solenhofen, near Munich, and from Pappenheim, on the banks of the Danube. The white lias which lies immediately under the blue, near Bath, also yields good lithographic stones, and furnishes the principal portion of those employed in this country. See Crayons, Ink and Paper.

LITHONTRYP′TICS. Syn. Lithotryptics, Lithontryptica, L. Under this head are intended numerous substances (LITHICS; LITHICA, L.) used to prevent the formation of urinary calculi, or to dissolve them when already formed. Those employed with the former intention are more correctly termed ANTILITHICS (ANTILITHICA, L.), and those with the latter, LITHONTRYPTICS, or LYTHONLYTICS (LITHONTRYPTICA, LITHONLYTICA, L.).

The following are the principal substances included under this head by pharmacological writers:—Alkalies and their carbonates, benzoic acid, borax, carbonate of lithia, effervescing solution of lithia, carbonic acid, cinnamic acid, diluents (generally), diuretics (generally), juniper, malic acid, Malvern waters, mineral acids, nitrosaccharate of lead, opium, phosphate of soda, phosphoric acid, poppies, turpentines, uva ursi, vegetable acids, vegetable astringents, vegetable bitters, Vichy waters, wall pellitory, water (pure).

LIT′MUS. Syn. Turnsole; Lacmus, Lacca cærulea, L. musiva, L. musci, L. A blue substance prepared by the united influence of water, air, ammonia, and either potassa or soda, from Rocella tinctoria, Lecanora tartarea, or any of the other tinctorial lichens capable of yielding archil, by a process essentially similar to that adopted for the latter substance, except that chalk is generally used to form the paste, which is moulded into cakes and dried.

Pur., &c. “Soluble in both water and alcohol. Its blue colour is reddened by acids, and is restored by the addition of alkalies.” (Ph. L. 1836.) It is extensively used by the dyer as a red and crimson colouring matter, and by the chemist as a test for acids.

The colouring matter of litmus, when purified as much as possible, may be kept for an indefinite period unaltered in glycerin. Litmus is treated with hot water, and the solution, after concentration, is mixed with a sufficient quantity of alcohol (of 80 per cent.) to precipitate the colouring matter. After standing for twenty hours the alcohol is poured off, and carries with it a dirty blue foreign substance, which frequently occurs in litmus, and is not altered by acids. The sediment is treated with hot water, which dissolves it on account of the potassium carbonate which is present.

To remove this carbonate, sulphuric acid is added till the liquid assumes a faint wine tint; it is then heated to boiling for a few minutes, and again rendered blue by the addition of a few drops of lime water. After the lapse of twenty-four hours the liquid is filtered, and evaporated to a syrup, and left all night in a cool place, when the potassium sulphate crystallises out in the form of a crust. It is then filtered through a moist cotton mixed with glycerin, and carefully preserved from damp. See Archil, Cudbear, &c.

LIVE-LONG. Digestive candy. See Candying.

LIV′ER. Syn. Hepar, L. A large abdominal viscus, the exclusive duty of which, until recently, was stated by physiologists to be to secrete bile; but the secretion of sugar for combustion in the lungs or capillaries is now said to be one of its chief duties. The liver is subject to several diseases, both functional and organic, among which inflammation (hepatitis) holds the most prominent place. The acute form of this disease is ushered in with pain in the region of the liver, with sickness, costiveness, and a strong, hard, and frequent pulse, with great pain about the clavicle and shoulders. There is cough, oppressed breathing, and often vomiting of bilious matter. The urine is scanty, and of a saffron-yellow colour, and the skin and eyes are also tinged yellow. The treatment consists chiefly in purging with salines accompanied with mercurials, the use of antimonials, and a blister applied over the region of the liver. Bitter tonics, as calumba, cascarilla, and gentian may afterwards be had recourse to; and if the patient resides in a hot climate a change to a temperate one should be made, if possible. Chronic hepatitis requires similar treatment, but of a less active character. The more usual causes of diseases of the liver, besides those common to the other viscera, are residence in a hot climate, and the excessive use of highly seasoned food and alcoholic liquors.

Liv′er. Syn. Hepar, L. In chemistry and pharmacy, a term formerly applied to numerous substances, on account of their colour; as liver of antimony (HEPAR ANTIMONII), liver of sulphur (HEPAR SULPHURIS), &c.

Liver, Edible. The livers of animals, such as the bullock, the calf, and the sheep, contain a large amount of nitrogenous matter, as may be seen from the following analysis by Payen:

Composition of Calf’s Liver.

Nitrogenous matter 20·10

Fat 3·58

Carbo-hydrates (amyloid matter) 0·45

Saline matter 1·54

Water 72·33

98·03

They are generally regarded as indigestible articles of diet, and as such should be avoided by dyspeptics.

It is of great importance to have the livers of animals thoroughly cooked, so as to ensure the destruction of a dangerous parasite—the Distoma hepatica, the liver fluke—that frequently infests them.

The foie gras, of which the celebrated Strasbourg pie is made, is the abnormally enlarged or, rather, diseased liver of the goose, brought to its enormous size and fatty condition by subjecting the bird to close confinement in a hot place and overfeeding it.

LIVER AND BACON. The liver must be washed, not soaked, then wiped dry and cut into slices. Flour each slice. Remove the rind from the bacon, and cut it into rashers. Let the bacon be fried first, then stand it in a hot dish before the fire during the time the liver is being fried in the melted fat from the bacon. When the liver is cooked place it on the bacon. Next mix a dessert-spoonful of flour into a smooth paste with a cupful of water, stir in it a pinch of pepper and salt, and pour it into the frying-pan; let it just boil, stirring it meanwhile, and, lastly, strain it over the liver and bacon.

LIXIVIA′TION. The process of dissolving out or extracting the saline matter of bodies, more especially of ashes, the residua of distillations, &c., by means of ablution or digestion in water. The solution so obtained is called a ‘LYE,’ ‘LEY,’ or ‘LIXIVIUM,’ and the salts resulting from the evaporation of such solutions ‘LIXIVIAL SALTS,’

LLA′MA. Syn. Guanaco; Lama, L. A genus of animals of the family Bovidæ and tribe Camelina. The llama is confined to South America, and may be regarded as the representative of the camel in the New World. The most important species are Lama vicugna (the VICUNA) and L. Guanacus (the GUANACO). The wool of llamas is woven into stuffs for ponchos, and made into cords, sacks, &c. See Alpaca.

LOAD′STONE. Syn. Lodestone, Magnesian stone, Magnetic ironstone. Native magnetic oxide of iron (Fe3O4). It is often found massive, frequently crystallised, and occasionally in beds of considerable thickness. Its colour varies from reddish black to deep grey. Native magnets from Arabia, China, and Bengal are commonly of a reddish colour, and are powerfully attractive. Those found in Germany and England have the colour of unwrought iron; those from Macedonia are more black and dull.

LOAM. A native mixture of clay, sand, and oxide of iron, with more or less chalk. Loamy soils are of this description. They are called heavy or light, according to the proportion of clay; and sandy, calcareous, or gravelly, just as sand, gravel, or chalk, form a characteristic portion of them.

LOBEL′IA. Syn. Indian tobacco; Lobelia (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. “The flowering herb of Lobelia inflata” (B. P., Ph. L.), or bladder-podded lobelia. The herb has an unpleasant odour, and an acrid, burning, nauseous taste, somewhat resembling that of tobacco. In small doses (1 to 3 gr.) it is expectorant and diaphoretic; in larger doses (5 to 15 gr.) nauseant and emetic; and in excessive doses, poisonous. According to Dr Pereira, its principal value is that of an anti-spasmodic. It has been highly recommended by Dr Elliotson in spasmodic asthma. He commences with small doses, and gradually increases them unless headache or nausea occurs. Others give a full dose at or before the commencement of the fit. It has been also tried in croup, hooping-cough, and other diseases of the respiratory organs, with variable effect.

Lobelia is the panacea of Dr Coffin, the author of the pretended system of medicine irreverently called ‘Coffinism.’

LOBEL′IC ACID. The acid existing in decoction of lobelia. It closely resembles gallic acid. It reddens litmus, and is precipitated by several metallic salts.

LOBEL′INE. Syn. Lobelina, L. A light yellowish-brown oily substance, found by Calhoun, of Philadelphia, in Lobelia inflata. It is volatile, soluble in alcohol, ether, and water; and in oil of turpentine, oil of almonds, and some other fixed oils; with the acids it forms crystallisable salts, which are soluble. It may be obtained from the seeds by the action of alcohol acidulated with acetic acid, evaporating, treating with magnesia and then with ether, and again evaporating. 1 oz. of the seeds furnishes 2 gr. When perfectly pure, 1 gr. will kill a large dog.

LOB′STERS. See Shell fish.

LOCK′SOY. Rice boiled to a paste and drawn into threads. Used to thicken soups. It is imported from China.

LODGING-HOUSES. The following sections of the Public Health Act of 1875 embody the regulations in force with regard to common lodging-houses:

(S. 76.) Every local authority shall keep a register, in which shall be entered the names and residences of the keepers of all common lodging-houses within the district of such authority, and the situation of every such house, and the number of lodgers authorised according to this Act to be received therein.

A copy of any entry in such register certified by the person having charge of the register to be a true copy shall be received in all courts and on all occasions as evidence, and shall be sufficient proof of the matter registered without production of the register, or of any document or thing on which the entry is founded; and a certified copy of any such entry shall be supplied gratis by the person having charge of the register to any person applying at a reasonable time for the same.

(S. 77.) A person shall not keep a common lodging-house or receive a lodger therein until the house has been registered in accordance with the provisions of this Act, nor until his name as the keeper thereof has been entered in the register kept under this Act; provided that when the person so registered dies his widow or any member of his family may keep the house as a common lodging-house for not more than four weeks after his death without being registered as the keeper thereof.

(S. 78.) A house shall not be registered as a common lodging-house until it has been inspected and approved for the purpose by some officer of the local authority; and the local authority may refuse to register as the keeper of a common lodging-house a person who does not produce to the local authority a certificate of character in such form as the local authority direct, signed by three inhabitant house-holders of the parish respectively rated to the relief of the poor of the parish within which the lodging-house is situated, for property of the yearly rateable value of £6 or upwards.

(S. 79.) The keeper of every common lodging-house shall, if required in writing by the local authority so to do, affix and keep undefaced and legible a notice with the words, “Registered common lodging-house,” in some conspicuous place on the outside of such house.

The keeper of any such house who, after requisition in writing from the local authority, refuses or neglects to affix or renew such notice, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding £5, and to a further penalty of 10s. for every day that such refusal or neglect continues after conviction.

(S. 80.) Every local authority shall from time to time make bye-laws:

1. For fixing from time to time, varying the number of lodgers who may be received into a common lodging-house, and for the separation of the sexes therein; and—

2. For promoting cleanliness and ventilation in such houses; and—

3. For the giving of notices and taking precautions in the case of any infectious disease; and—

4. Generally for the well-ordering of such houses.

(S. 81.) Where it appears to any local authority that a common lodging-house is without a proper supply of water for the use of the lodgers, and that such a supply can be furnished thereto at a reasonable rate, the local authority may by notice in writing require the owner or keeper of such house, within a time specified therein, to obtain such supply, and to do all works necessary for that purpose; and if the notice be not complied with accordingly, the local authority may remove such house from the register until it is complied with.

(S. 82.) The keeper of a common lodging-house shall, to the satisfaction of the local authority, limewash the walls and ceilings thereof in the first week of each of the months of April and October in every year. Penalty for neglect, £2 or less.

(S. 83.) The keeper of a common lodging-house in which beggars or vagrants are received to lodge shall from time to time, if required in writing by the local authority so to do, report to the local authority or to such person as the local authority direct, every person who resorted to such house during the preceding day or night, and for that purpose schedules shall be furnished by the local authority to the person so ordered to report, which schedules he shall fill up with the information required, and transmit to the local authority.

(S. 84.) The keeper of a common lodging-house shall, when a person in such house is ill of fever or any infectious disease, give immediate notice thereof to the medical officer of health of the local authority, and also to the poor-law relieving officer of the union or parish in which the common lodging-house is situated.

(S. 85.) The keeper of a common lodging-house, and every other person having or acting in the care or management thereof, shall, at all times when required by any officer of the local authority, give him free access to such house or any part thereof. Penalty for refusing such access, £5 or less.

(S. 86.) Any keeper of a common lodging-house, or other person having or acting in the care or management thereof, who—

1. Receives any lodger in such house without the same being registered under this Act; or—

2. Fails to make a report after he has been furnished by the local authority with schedules for the purpose, in pursuance of this Act, of the persons resorting to such house; or—

3. Fails to give the notices required by this Act, where any person has been confined to his bed in such house by fever or other infectious disease,—

Shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding £5, and in the case of a continuing offence to a further penalty not exceeding £2 for every day during which the offence continues.

(S. 87.) In any proceedings under the provisions of this Act relating to common lodging-houses, if the inmates of any house or part of a house allege that they are members of the same family, the burden of proving such allegation shall lie on the persons making it.

(S. 88.) Where the keeper of a common lodging-house is convicted of a third offence against the provisions of this Act relating to common lodging-houses, the Court before whom the conviction for such third offence takes place may, if it thinks fit, adjudge that he shall not at any time within five years after the conviction, or within such shorter period after the conviction as the court thinks fit, keep, or have, or act in the care or management of a common lodging-house without the previous licence in writing of the local authority, may withhold or grant on such terms or conditions as they think fit.

(S. 89.) For the purposes of this Act the expression ‘common lodging-house’ includes, in any case in which only part of a house is used as a common lodging-house, the part so used of such house.

Bye-laws as to Houses let as Lodgings.

(S. 90.) The Local Government Board may, if they think fit, by notice published in the ‘London Gazette,’ declare the following enactment to be in force within the district or any part of the district of any local authority, and from and after the publication of such notice such authority shall be empowered to make bye-laws for the following matter (that is to say):

1. For fixing the number, and from time to time varying the number, of persons who may occupy a house or part of a house which is let in lodgings, or occupied by members of more than one family, and for the separation of the sexes in a house so let or occupied.

2. For the registration of houses so let or occupied.

3. For the inspection of such houses.

4. For enforcing drainage and the provision of privy accommodation for such houses, and for promoting cleanliness and ventilation in such houses.

5. For the cleansing and limewashing at stated times of the premises, and for the paving of the courts and courtyards thereof.

6. For the giving of notices and taking of precautions in case of any infectious disease.

This section shall not apply to common lodging-houses within the provisions of this Act, relating to such houses.

LOG′WOOD. Syn. Campeachy wood; Hæmatoxylum (Ph. L. E. & D.), Hæmatoxyli lignum (B. P.), Lignum Campechense, L. Campechianum, L. The heart-wood of Hæmatoxylon Campechianum, a native of the coast of Campeachy, but now common in the West Indies and India. It is a valuable astringent, and its decoction, extract, and infusion are useful remedies in chronic diarrhœa and dysentery, and in hæmorrhages, &c. The extract is an efficient substitute for catechu and kino.

Logwood is extensively employed in dyeing and calico printing, for the production of reds, violets, purples, blacks, drabs, &c. It readily yields its colour both to spirit and boiling water. The colouring matter requires a large quantity of water to dissolve it, but when dissolved can be concentrated to any degree by boiling down. The infusion is of a fine red, turning on the purple or violet; acids turn it on the yellow, and alkalies deepen it. To stuffs mordanted with alum it gives various shades of violet and purple, according to the proportions of the materials. By using solution of tin as the mordant, various shades of red, lilac, and violet, may be obtained. The addition of a little Brazil wood is commonly made to brighten the red. With a mordant of sulphate or acetate of iron it dyes black; and with the addition of a little sulphate of copper greys of various shades. It is, however, chiefly employed, in conjunction with gall-nuts, for blacks, to which it imparts a lustre and velvety appearance. Silk is usually turned through the cold decoction, but for wool the decoction is used either hot or boiling. Logwood is one of the cheapest and most easily managed of the dye stuffs. It is also used to make ink. See Hematoxylin, Ink, &c.

LO′HOCH. See Linctus.

LOR′ICA. A species of lute applied as a coating to chemical vessels before exposing them to the fire. Its application is called LORICATION. See Lute.

LO′TION. Syn. Lotio, L. An external application, or wash, consisting of water holding in solution medicinal substances. Lotions may be prepared of any soluble medicaments that are capable of exerting their action by contact with the skin. Writers on pharmacology have arranged them in classes, as sedative, anodyne, stimulant, &c., according to their effects. Sedative and refrigerant lotions are commonly employed to allay inflammation;—anodyne and narcotic lotions, to relieve pain;—stimulant lotions, to induce the maturation of tumours, &c.;—detergent lotions, to clean foul ulcers;—repellent and resolvent lotions, to discuss tumours, remove eruptions, &c.;—counter-irritant lotions, to excite a secondary morbid action, with the intention of relieving one already existing. Lotions are usually applied by wetting a piece of linen with them and keeping it on the part affected; or, in slight cases, by moistening the part with the fingers previously dipped into them. Lotions are more agreeable if made with rose water, but are not thereby rendered more efficacious. In all cases, distilled water, or filtered soft water, is alone admissible as the solvent.

As lotions are, in general, mere extemporaneous or magistral preparations, it will, of course, be only necessary here to give the formulæ for a few of those which are the most useful or the most frequently employed. These will serve as examples from which others may be prepared. As a general rule, the medium dose of any substance dissolved in a fluid ounce of distilled water, forms a lotion of the proper strength, under all ordinary circumstances; or, what is the same thing, the medium dose in grains, taken in scruples, is sufficient for a pint of such a lotion. Thus, the dose of sulphate of zinc is 1 to 3 gr., therefore— (1 + 3)/2 = 2 gr., which is the proportion of sulphate of zinc to be taken for 1 fl. oz. of water, or 40 gr. for 1 pint. Again, the dose of bichloride of mercury is ⁄8 to ⁄4 gr.; therefore— (⁄8+⁄4)/2 = ⁄16 gr.; or nearly ⁄2 gr. per fl. oz., and 8⁄2 gr. per pint. In this method extreme or unusual doses, as, for instance, those of sulphate of zinc, as an emetic, in poisoning, &c., are not taken into the calculation. In all cases in which lotions are intended for extremely susceptible parts, it is proper to dilute them with an equal bulk of water. When intended for eye-waters (COLLYRIA), they should be diluted with at least 3 to 4 times their bulk of water. See Embrocation, Liniment, &c.

Lotion of Ac′etate of Ammo′′nia. Syn. Lotio ammoniæ acetatis, L. Prep. 1. Solution of acetate of ammonia, 1 part; water, 2 parts.

2. (Hosp. F.) Solution of acetate of ammonia, rectified spirit, and water, equal parts. Discutient and refrigerant. In ordinary inflammations.

Lotion of Ac′etate of Lead. Syn. Lotio plumbi acetatis, L. Prep. 1. (Collier.) Acetate of lead, 1 dr.; distilled water, 8 fl. oz. Sometimes a little vinegar is added. In excoriations, burns, sprains, contusions, &c. See Solution of Diacetate of Lead.

2. Acetate of lead, 2 gr.; distilled water, 1 oz. (Ophthalmic Hospital.)

Lotion of Ac′etate of Mercury. Syn. Lotio Hydrargyri acetatis, L. Prep. Acetate of mercury, 1 scruple; distilled water, 1 pint. Mix.

Lotion of Ac′etate of Zinc. Syn. Lotio zinci acetatis, L. Prep. 1. (Béral.) Acetate of zinc, 1⁄2 dr.; water, 1 pint. Astringent; similar to lotion of sulphate of zinc.

2. Acetate of zinc, 1 to 2 gr.; water, 1 oz. An astringent collyrium in ophthalmia, and as injection in gonorrhœa after the acute stage has passed. Neither tincture nor wine of opium gives a precipitate with this lotion.

Lotion, Acetic. Syn. Lotio aceti, L. Prep. 1. Vinegar, 1 part; water, 2 or 3 parts. For bruises, contusions, &c., and as a general refrigerant application to sound parts.

2. Vinegar, 1 fl. oz.; cold water, ⁄2 pint; as a wash in chronic ophthalmia, &c.

Lotion, Acid. See Lotions of Acetic, Nitric, and Phosphoric acid, &c.

Lotion of Acon′itine. Syn. Lotio aconitinæ, L. Prep. (Turnbull.) Aconitine, 8 gr.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz. In neuralgia; applied by means of a small piece of sponge mounted at the end of a stick. It must never be employed when the skin is broken or abraded; and it would be wise, in most cases, to dilute it with double its volume of proof spirit.

Lotion, Al′kaline. Syn. Lotio alkalina, L. POTASSÆ CARBONATIS, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From salt of tartar, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint. Stimulant and detergent. Diluted with an equal bulk of water, it forms an excellent cosmetic wash to remove scurf from the hair. Sometimes it is made with almond milk instead of water.

Lotion, Almond, Alkaline. (Dr A. T. Thomson). Syn. Solution of potash, 4 fl. oz.; emulsion of bitter almonds, 5⁄2 fl. oz. To remove the scurf in porrigo furfurans, applied twice a day diluted with warm water.

Lotion of Al′um. Syn. Lotio aluminis, L. Prep. From alum, 1⁄2 dr.; distilled or rose water, 1 pint. Astringent. For sore gums, nipples, excoriations, &c.

Lotion, Ammonio-Camphorated. Syn. Aqua sedativa, L. Eau sedative de raspail; Eau, ou lotion ammoniacale camphrée. No. 1. Liquor ammoniæ (·923), 6 parts; camphorated spirit, 1 part; salt, 6 parts; water, 10 parts. No. 2 contains 8 parts, and No. 3 10 parts of ammonia.

Lotion, Ammoni′acal. Syn. Lotio ammoniæ, L. ammoniacalis, L. Prep. 1. Liquor of ammonia, 3 fl. dr.; cold water, 5 fl. oz. As a stimulant to indolent ulcers, and in certain skin diseases.

2. (Swediaur.) Liquor of ammonia, spirit of thyme, and spirit of camphor, equal parts. In headaches; applied to the forehead and temples, and in other cases, as a counter-irritant. In most cases it should be used diluted.

3. (Opiated—Dr Kirkland.) Sal volatile, 3⁄2 fl. oz.; tincture of opium, ⁄2 fl. oz.; water, 4 fl. oz. Anodyne, stimulant, and resolvent.

Lotion, Antiphlogis′tic. Syn. Lotio antiphlogistica, L. Prep. 1. (Copland.) Solution of diacetate of lead, 3 fl. dr.; solution of acetate of ammonia, 2 fl. oz.; distilled water, 1 pint. Refrigerant, sedative, and repellant. Used to allay inflammation, &c.

2. (A. T. Thomson.) Opium, 2 dr., distilled vinegar, ⁄2 pint. Anodyne and refrigerant; in swelled joints, &c.

Lotion of Ar′nica. Syn. Lotio arnicæ, L. Prep. 1. Tincture of arnica, 1 fl. dr.; rose water, 2⁄2 fl. oz. In contusions, bruises, extravasations, &c.

2. (Niemann.) Arnica flowers, ⁄2 oz.; hot vinegar, 3 fl. oz.; boiling water, 5 fl. oz., infuse until cold, and strain. In acute hydrocephalus; or with water, q. s. to measure a pint, as a common lotion.

Lotion, Arsenical. Syn. Lotio arsenicalis, L. acidi arseniosi, L. Prep. 1. Arsenious acid, 5 gr.; water, 1 pint. In psoriasis, &c.

2. (Compound—M. le Febre.) Arsenious acid, 8 gr.; boiling water, 16 fl. oz.; dissolve, and add of extract of hemlock, 1 oz.; solution of diacetate of lead, 3 fl. oz.; tincture of opium, 1 fl. dr. Every morning, in cancer.

Lotion, Astrin′gent. Syn. Lotio astringens, L. See Lotions of Alum, Sulphate of Zinc, &c.

Lotion, Barlow’s. Prep. From sulphuret of potassium (in powder), 3 dr.; soap (sliced), 1⁄2 dr.; lime water, 7⁄2 fl. oz.; proof spirit, 2 fl. oz. In itch, ringworm, &c.

Lotion, Bateman’s. Prep. From bichloride of mercury, 2 gr.; compound spirit of lavender, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve, and add of distilled water, 4 fl. oz. In obstinate cutaneous eruptions, more especially those of a papular character.

Lotion of Belladon′na. Syn. Lotio belladonnæ, L. Prep. (Graefe.) Extract of belladonna, ⁄2 dr.; dilute solution of diacetate of lead, ⁄2 pint. Applied to tumours and glandular enlargements.

Lotion of Benzoin. Lotio benzoini. Tincture of benzoin, 1; rose water, 40. A nice lotion to protect the face from the heat of the sun.

Lotion of Bichlo′′ride of Mercury. Syn. Lotio hydrargyri bichloridi, L. h. chloridi corrosivi, L. Prep. 1. Corrosive sublimate, 5 to 10 gr.; distilled water, 1 pint. The addition of 5 or 6 gr. of hydrochlorate of ammonia, or as many drops of hydrochloric acid, increases the solvent action of the water, and renders the preparation less liable to change. Some persons dissolve the sublimate in 1 or 2 fl. dr. of rectified spirit before adding it to the water; but this is unnecessary. In obstinate eruptions, glandular swelling, obstinate sores, &c.; also as an injection.

2. (Good.) Corrosive sublimate, 1 dr.; sal ammoniac, 2 dr.; nitre, 4 dr.; water, 6 fl. oz.; dissolve. In itch, &c. For use, it should be diluted with about 3 times its bulk of water.

3. (Lotio hydrargyri amygdalina—St B. Hosp.) Blanched bitter almonds, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; make an emulsion, and add of bichloride of mercury (dissolved in a little rectified spirit), 10 gr. This resembles Gowland’s lotion, and may be used for it.

Lotion of Bismuth. Lotio Bismuthi. Nitrate of bismuth, 6 gr.; corrosive sublimate, ⁄2 gr.; spirits of camphor, 1⁄2 minim; water, 1 oz. A soothing lotion in chronic skin affections.

Lotion, Black. See Lotion, Mercurial.

Lotion of Borax. Syn. Lotio boracis, L. boracica, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Abercrombie.) Borax, 2⁄2 dr.; distilled vinegar, ⁄4 pint. In ringworm.

2. (Copland.) Borax (in powder), 1 dr.; rose water and orange-flower water, of each 3 fl. oz.; dissolve. A fragrant and effective application to sore gums, sore nipples, excoriations, &c.

3. (Dr Johnson.) Borax, 2 dr.; precipitated chalk, 1 oz.; rose water and rectified spirit, of each 3 oz. For sore nipples.

4. (Dr Meigs.) Borax, ⁄2 oz.; sulphate of morphia, 6 gr.; rose water, 8 fl. oz. To allay itching and irritation, especially pruritus vulvæ.

5. Borax, 1; rose water, 24. Cosmetic.

Lotion, Bro′mine. Syn. Lotio brominii, L. Prep. (Dr Glover.) Bromine, 1 dr.; water, 1 pint. As an application to scrofulous ulcers.

Lotion for Burns. See Liniment.

Lotion, Camphora′ted. See Lotion, Evaporating.

Lotion of Cap′sicum. Syn. Lotio capsici, L. Prep. (Griffith.) Tinctures of capsicum and camphor, of each 4 fl. oz.; liquor of ammonia, 2 fl. oz. A powerful rubefacient and counter-irritant.

Lotion of Carbolic Acid. (Mr Lister.) Syn. Lotio acidi carbolici. Prep. 1 part of acid in 20 of water is used to promote the healing of wounds, abscesses, ulcers and burns. A weaker solution of 1 in 40 is in common use in the London hospitals. 5 drops to 1 fl. oz. of glycerin forms a good application to eruptions of the skin.

Lotion of Car′bonate of So′da. Syn. Lotio sodæ carbonatis, L. Prep. From carbonate of soda, ⁄2 oz.; water, 1 pint. To allay itching and irritation. See Lotion, Alkaline.

Lotion of Cher′ry Laurel. Syn. Lotio lauro-cerasi, L. Prep. 1. Cherry-laurel water (distilled), 1⁄2 fl. oz.; distilled water, ⁄2 pint. Anodyne; useful to allay irritation, &c. Some persons with delicate skin employ it as a wash after shaving.

2. Cherry-laurel water (distilled), 4 oz.; rectified spirit and ether, of each 1 fl. oz.; extract of belladonna, 2 dr.; agitate well together in the cold. An excellent application in neuralgia, painful tumours, &c.

Lotion for Chilblains. See Chilblain, Liniment, &c.

Lotion of Chlo′′rate of Soda. Syn. Lotio sodæ chloratis, L. Prep. (Darling.) Chlorate of soda, 5 dr.; water, ⁄2 pint. In pruritus, &c.

Lotion of Chlo′′ride of Ammonium. Lotio ammonii chloridi. Chloride of ammonium, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 oz.; water, 10 oz. To this vinegar is sometimes added. Used as a dressing for bruises. See also Lotion of Hydrochlorate of Ammonia.

Lotion of Chlo′′ride of Lead. Syn. Lotio plumbi chloridi, L. Prep. (Tuson.) Chloride of lead, 1 dr.; hot distilled water, 1 pint; dissolve. In cancerous ulcerations, painful neuralgic tumours, &c.

Lotion of Chloride of Tin. Syn. Lotio stanni chloridi, L. Prep. (Nauche.) Chloride of tin, 1 gr.; distilled water, 2 to 3 fl. oz. In cancerous ulcerations.

Lotion of Chloride of Zinc. Syn. Lotio zinci chloridi, L. Prep. 1. Chloride of zinc, 10 gr. (or solution, ⁄2 fl. dr.); water, 1 pint. As a disinfectant and preventive lotion.

2. (Voght.) Chloride of zinc, 8 gr.; extract of aloes, 40 gr.; distilled water, 4 fl. oz. In atonic and foul ulcers.

Lotion, Chlorina′ted. Syn. Lotio chlorinata, L. Prep. 1. (Lotio calcis chlorinatæ.)—a. From chloride of lime, 3 dr.; water, 1 pint; agitate together for some time, and strain through muslin.

b. (Derheims.) Chloride of lime, 1 oz.; water, 1 quart; triturate and filter.

2. (Lotio sodæ chlorinatæ.) From chloride of soda, as the last. They are both excellent washes for foul ulcers, the itch, &c.; and, when diluted for the teeth, to sweeten the breath, remove the smell of tobacco smoke, to prevent infection, and for various purposes. When intended for application to very tender or abraded surfaces, they must be largely diluted with water.

Lotion of Chlo′′roform. Syn. Lotio chloroformi, L. Prep. Chloroform (pure), 1⁄2 fl. oz.; rectified spirit and cold distilled water, of each ⁄2 pint. Anodyne. A piece of oiled silk should be laid over the rag to prevent evaporation. The lotion made with water, as commonly prescribed, is inert.

Lotion for Corns. See Corn.

Lotion of Crea′sote. Syn. Lotio creasoti, L. Prep. 1. Creasote, 2 fl. dr.; liquor of potassa, 3 fl. dr.; water, ⁄2 pint.

2. Creasote, 3 fl. dr.; vinegar and water, of each ⁄2 pint. In burns, itch, phagedenic ulcerations, ringworm, chancre, &c.

Lotion of Cy′anide of Potas′sium. Syn. Lotio potassi cyanidi, L. Prep. 1. (Cazenave.) Cyanide of potassium, 10 gr.; emulsion of bitter almonds, 6 fl. oz. In chronic eruptions and other cases attended with much itching or irritation.

2. (Foy.) Cyanide of potassium, 8 gr.; distilled water, 1 fl. oz. In neuralgia, acute rheumatism, &c.; applied by means of compresses of linen. Both the above are poisonous if swallowed.

Lotion of Delphin′ine. Syn. Lotio delphiniæ, Embrocatio d., L. Prep. (Dr Turnbull.) Delphinine, 20 to 60 gr.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz. Used as LOTION OF VERATRIA.

Lotion of Diac′etate of Lead. Syn. Goulard’s lotion; Lotio plumbi diacetatis, L. The dilute liquor of diacetate of lead (LIQ. PLUMBI DIACETATIS DILUTUS—Ph. L.). See Solution. Also Solution of subacetate of lead (B. P.), 3 minims, with 7 minims to 1 oz. water.

Lotion, Evap′orating. Syn. Lotio evaporans, L. vaporans, L. spiritus diluti, L. Prep. 1. (Copland.) Sulphuric ether, rectified spirit, and solution of acetate of ammonia, of each 1⁄2 fl. oz.; rose water, 3⁄2 fl. oz.

2. (Guy’s Hosp.) Rectified spirit, 1 part; water, 5 parts.

3. (Erasmus Wilson.) Rectified spirit, 1 part; water, 4 to 6 parts.

4. (Camphorated—Ware.) Camphor, ⁄2 dr.; elder flowers, ⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, 4 oz.; digest 24 hours, and strain.

Obs. The above are soothing and refrigerant, if allowed to evaporate by free exposure; stimulant, if the evaporation is prevented by covering the part with the hand, or a piece of oiled silk. They are useful applications in nervous headaches, restlessness, itching and irritability of the skin, &c. “A little rose water added to the simple water makes an agreeable addition, and sometimes camphor water (julep), or a little Goulard’s extract, may be deemed advantageous, when a greater degree of calming effect is required.” (Eras. Wilson.) Eau de Cologne, diluted with an equal quantity of water, is often used as an evaporating lotion.

Lotion of Gall-nuts. Syn. Lotio gallæ, L. Prep. From gall-nuts (bruised), ⁄2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse until cold, and strain. Astringent. An excellent application to sore nipples, or to strengthen them before suckling; spirit of wine, 3 fl. oz., may be advantageously added to the cold infusion, and a like portion of water omitted, See Decoction.

Lotion of Glyc′erin. Syn. Lotio glycerini, L. glyceriniæ, L. Prep. 1. Glycerin, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint. To allay itching, and remove dryness, &c., in various skin diseases; also in chaps of the nipples, lips, and hands. For the latter purpose the addition of 2 to 3 dr. of borax is recommended by some writers.

2. Glycerin, 1 oz.; thick mucilage, 2 oz.; lime water, 7 oz. In burns, scalds, chaps, excoriations, &c.

3. (Startin.) Glycerin, 1 oz.; extract of belladonna, 1 dr.; soap liniment, 3 oz.; triturate together. In bruises, sprains, and swelled joints; gouty, neuralgic, and rheumatic pains, &c.

4. (Startin.) Trisnitrate of bismuth, ⁄2 dr.; tincture of foxglove and dilute nitric acid, of each 1 fl. dr.; glycerin, 4 dr.; rose water, 8⁄2 fl. oz. To allay the itching in prurigo, and some other skin diseases.

Obs. Various lotions may be prepared by dissolving active medicinal substances in glycerin.

Lotion, Goulard’s. See Lotion of Diacetate of Lead.

Lotion, Gout. Syn. Lotio antarthritica, L. Prep. 1. Glycerin, 1 oz.; extract of belladonna, 3 dr.; veratrine, 10 gr., dissolved in rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz.; mix, and further add, of water, 17 fl. oz. It is poisonous if swallowed.

2. (‘Scudamore’s g. l.’) From camphor mixture, 9 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 3 fl. oz. The above are applied on rags or compresses, or are poured on the surface of poultices.

Lotion, Gowland’s. This celebrated nostrum is prepared as follows:—Take of Jordan almonds, 1 oz.; bitter almonds, ⁄2 oz.; blanch them, and make an emulsion in soft water, 1 pint; to this add of bichloride of mercury, 15 gr.; previously dissolved in rectified spirit, 2 fl. dr., together with enough water to make the whole measure 1 pint, and put it into bottles.

Obs. This preparation is chiefly used as a cosmetic to improve the complexion; and also as a wash for obstinate eruptions and minor glandular swellings and indurations. As a beautifier of the complexion, it is employed by simply wetting the skin with it, either by means of the corner of a napkin or the fingers dipped into it, after which it is gently wiped off with a dry cloth. Dr Paris represents this nostrum to contain ⁄2 dr. of corrosive sublimate in every pint, which is not the case.

Lotion, Granville’s Counter-irritant. See Liniment of Ammonia (Compound).

Lotion, Hem′lock. Syn. Lotii conii, L. Prep. (Mid. Hosp.) Extract of hemlock, 3 dr.; opium, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; digest until cold, and strain. Anodyne and resolvent; in glandular enlargements, painful ulcers, cancer, indurations, rheumatism, neuralgia, &c.

Lotion, Hooping-cough. (Struve’s.) Lotio antipertussica, L. Prep. (Paris.) Potassio-tartrate of antimony, 1 dr.; tincture of cantharides, 1 oz.; water, 2 oz. This is a powerful counter-irritant, and should be used with caution; as it is apt to induce a troublesome eruption on the parts to which it is frequently applied.

Lotion of Hydrochlo′′rate of Ammonia. Syn. Lotio ammoniæ hydrochloratis, L. Prep. 1. (Weaker.) From sal ammoniac, 1 to 4 dr.; water, 1 pint. As a wash in itch, ulcers, tender feet, swelled joints, &c.

2. (Stronger.) From sal ammoniac, 1 to 2 oz.; water, 1 pint. In contusions, chronic tumours, extravasations, chilblains, &c., when the skin is not broken. Both are stimulant and resolvent or discutient. Vinegar is often substituted for the whole or part of the water, and sometimes a fifth or sixth part of rectified spirit is added. See also Lotion of Chloride of Ammonium.

Lotion, Hydrochlo′′ric. Syn. Lotio acidi hydrochlorici, L. Prep. 1. Hydrochloric acid, 1 fl. oz.; water, 1 pint. In lepra, and several other skin diseases.

2. (Foy.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 part; water, 16 parts. In chilblains, when the skin is unbroken.

Lotion, Hydrocyan′ic. Syn. Lotio hydrocyanici, L. acidi hydrocyanici, L. Prep. 1. (Magendie.) Medicinal hydrocyanic acid, 1 to 2 fl. dr.; lettuce water, 1 pint. In hepatic affections.

2. (Sneider.) Medicinal acid, 1⁄2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit and water, of each 6 fl. oz.

3. (A. T. Thomson.) Medicinal acid and rectified spirit, of each 2 fl. dr.; acetate of lead, 16 gr.; distilled water, 7⁄2 fl. oz. In impetigo, &c.

Obs. Lotions of prussic acid are employed to allay pain and irritation in various chronic skin diseases, especially the scaly and itchy eruptions; and in cancer, &c., with variable success. See Hydrocyanic acid.

Lotion of Hyposul′phite of Soda. Syn. Lotio sodæ hyposulphitis, L. Prep. (Startin.) Hyposulphite of soda and alum, of each 1⁄2 dr.; eau de Cologne, ⁄2 fl. oz.; rose water, 7⁄2 fl. oz.; in the advanced stages of acne.

Lotion of I′odide of Ar′senic and Mer′cury. Syn. Lotio arsenici et hydrargyri hydriodatis, L. Prep. From Donovan’s solution, 1 part; water, 9 parts. In lepra, psoriasis, and other scaly skin diseases. See Solution.

Lotion of Iodide of Potas′sium. Syn. Lotio potassii iodidi, L. Prep. 1. From iodide of potassium, 1 to 2 dr.; water, 1 pint. In the usual cases in which ioduretted preparations are employed.

2. (Dr O. Ward.) Iodide of potassium, 1 dr.; water, ⁄4 pint. In itch. (See below.)

Lotion of Iodide of Zinc. Syn. Lotio zinci iodidi, L. Prep. (Ross.) iodine, 1⁄2 dr.; zinc filings, 1 dr.; water, 8 fl. oz.; digest with heat until the liquid becomes coloured, then filter. In enlarged tonsils.

Lotion of I′odine. Syn. Lotio iodinii, L. Prep. From iodine, 2 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 fl. dr.; dissolve, well agitate the solution with distilled water, 1 pint, and filter. An excellent wash for scrofulous ulcers, and in chronic ophthalmia, cutaneous scrofula, and several chronic skin diseases, particularly in highly sensitive habits.

Lotion of Iodine Compound. Syn. Lotio iodi comp., L. Prep. 1. Iodide of potassium, 80 gr.; iodine, 60 gr.; water, 1 oz.

2. (Cazenave.) Iodide of potassium and iodide of sulphur, of each 1 dr.; water, 1 pint. In itch; either alone or diluted with an equal bulk of water.

3. (Dauvergne.) Iodine, 3 dr.; iodide of potassium, 6 dr.; water, 3 fl. oz.; dissolve, and label the bottle No. 1. Sulphuret of potassium, 4 oz.; water, 8 fl. oz.; dissolve. For use, a teaspoonful of No. 1, and a table-spoonful of No. 2, are to be added to about a pint of water. In itch, and several other skin diseases.

4. (Lugol.) Iodine, 1 to 2 gr.; iodide of potassium, 3 to 6 gr.; water, 1 pint. In scrofulous ophthalmia, fistulas, &c.; and as a wash in numerous skin diseases.

5. (Righini.) Chloride of lime, 4 dr.; water, 2⁄2 fl. oz.; triturate together, filter into a stoppered bottle, and add of tincture of iodine, 1 dr. With a pint of water it forms an effective application in itch.

6. (Soubeiran.) Iodide of potassium, 1 oz.; iodine, ⁄2 oz.; water, 6 oz.; dissolve. Used as iodine paint; also as a caustic to touch the surfaces of scrofulous ulcers, and the eyelids in scrofulous ophthalmia.

7. Iodide of potassium, ⁄2 dr.; iodine, 16 gr.; water, 1 pint. This is the common and best form of iodine lotion, but for certain purposes it is used much stronger. (See above.)

Lotion of Iron with Conium. Lotio ferri cum conio. Sulphate of iron, 8 gr.; extract of conium, 8 gr.; water, 1 oz.

Lotion, Itch. Syn. Lotio antipsorica, L. Prep. (Cazenave.) Sulphuret of potassium, 1 dr.; soft soap, 2 dr.; water, 8 fl. oz.; dissolve. An excellent remedy for the itch. It leaves little smell behind, and does not soil the linen. (See above.)

Lotion, Kirkland’s. See Lotion of Myrrh.

Lotion of Lemon Juice. Syn. Lotio succi limonis, L. Prep. From the freshly expressed juice of lemon, diluted with 4 or 5 times its bulk of water. To render it more agreeable, rose water may be employed, or a few drops of eau de Cologne added. It is cooling and detergent, and forms an excellent application to foul ulcers, and to allay the itching in numerous cutaneous affections.

Lotion of Lime Wa′ter. Syn. Lotio calcis spirituosa, L. Prep. (Ph. Chirur.) Rectified spirit, 4 oz.; lime water, 8 fl. oz. See Evaporating lotion (above.)