C. Inflection (part 1)

. Inflection is the change which nouns, pronouns, and verbs undergo, to indicate their relation in a sentence.

The inflection of a noun or pronoun is often called Declension, and that of a verb, Conjugation.

(A.) Inflection of the Noun.

. The noun or pronoun is inflected by attaching case endings to the stem.

The endings, which are called case endings for brevity, indicate number as well as case, and serve also to distinguish gender words from neuters in the nominative and accusative singular of some stems, and of all plurals. These endings are nearly the same for stems of all kinds.

The Stem.

. The stem contains the meaning of the noun. Noun stems are arranged in the following order: (1.) stems in -ā-, in -o-, in a consonant, or in -i-; these are substantive, including proper names, or adjective; (2.) stems in -u- or -ē-; these are substantive only, and include no proper names.

. In some instances, a final stem vowel is retained before a case ending which begins with a vowel: as, urbi-um, ācri-a, cornu-a, portu-ī, portu-um (116, c); in others the stem vowel blends inseparably with the vowel of the case ending: as, mēnsīs, dominīs (108, a).

. Some nouns have more than one form of the stem: as,

sēdēs ; femur, iecur ; vās, mēnsis ; vīrus, volgus ; iter, nix, senex, &c. ; vīs ; caedēs ; famēs, plēbēs ; domus ; angiportus, &c. . Many nouns have a consonant stem in the singular, and an -i- stem in the plural: see ; most substantives in -iē- or -tiē- have a collateral form in -iā- or -tiā- . Some adjectives have two different stems: as, hilarus, hilara, hilarum, and hilaris, hilare; exanimus and exanimis.

Gender.

. There are two genders, Masculine and Feminine. Masculine and feminine nouns are called Gender nouns. Nouns without gender are called Neuter.

. Gender is, properly speaking, the distinction of sex. In Latin, a great many things without life have gender in grammar, and are masculine or feminine.

. Some classes of substantives may be brought under general heads of signification, as below, like the names of rivers and winds , which are usually of the masculine gender, or of plants , which are usually of the feminine. When the gender cannot be determined thus, it must be learned from the special rules for the several stems and their nominatives.

GENDER OF SOME CLASSES OF SUBSTANTIVES.

MASCULINES.

. Names of male beings, rivers, winds, and mountains, are masculine: as,

Caesar, Gāius, Sūlla, men’s names; pater, father; erus, master; scrība, scrivener; Tiberis, the Tiber; Aquilō, a Norther; Lūcrētilis, Mt. Lucretilis.

. The river names: Allia, Dūria, Sagra, Lēthē, and Styx are feminine. Also the mountain names Alpēs, plural, the Alps, and some Greek names of mountains in -a or -ē: as, Aetna, Mt. Etna; Rhodopē, a Thracian range. A few are neuter, as Sōracte.

FEMININES.

. Names of female beings, plants, flowers, shrubs, and trees, are feminine: as,

Gāia, Glycerium, women’s names; mālus, apple-tree; quercus, oak; īlex, holm-oak; abiēs, fir.

. Masculine are: bōlētus, mushroom, carduus, thistle, dūmī, plural, brambles, intibus, endive, iuncus, rush, oleaster, bastard olive, rubus, bramble, rumex, sorrel, scirpus, bulrush, and rarely fīcus, fig. Also some of Greek origin: as, acanthus, amāracus, asparagus, and crocus. Neuter are: apium, parsley, balsamum, balsam-tree, rōbur, heart of oak, and some names with stems in -er- .

MOBILE, COMMON, AND EPICENE NOUNS.

. Mobile Nouns have different forms to distinguish sex: as, Iūlius, a man, Julius, Iūlia, a woman, Julia; cervus, stag, cerva, hind; socer, father-in-law, socrus, mother-in-law; victor, conqueror, victrīx, conqueress. Adjectives ‘of three endings’ , belong to this class.

. Some nouns have one ending, but are applicable to either sex. Such are said, to be of Common Gender: as, adulēscēns, young man or young woman; dux, leader; īnfāns, baby, child; and many other consonant stems or stems in -i-, denoting persons. Adjectives ‘of two endings’ or ‘of one ending’ , belong to this class.

. Epicenes have one ending and one grammatical gender, though applicable to animals of either sex. Thus, aquila, eagle, is feminine, though it may denote a he-eagle as well as a she-eagle; anatēs, ducks, feminine, includes drakes.

NEUTERS.

. Infinitives, words and expressions quoted or explained, and letters of the alphabet, are neuter: as,

vīvere ipsum, mere living; istūc ‘taceō,’ your ‘I won’t mention;’ longum vale, a long goodbye; o Graecum, Greek O. But the letters have sometimes a feminine adjective, agreeing with littera understood.

VARIABLE GENDER.

. Some substantives have different genders in the two numbers; the different gender is sometimes indicated by a difference of stem: as, epulum, neuter, epulae, feminine, feast. See balneum, frēnum, jocus, locus, margarīta, ostrea, rāstrum, in the dictionary.

Number.

. There are two numbers, the Singular used of one, the Plural of more than one.

. ambō, both, and duo, two, nominative and accusative masculine and neuter, are the only remnants of an old Dual number, denoting two.

. Some substantives, from their meaning, have no plural.

Such are: proper names: as, Cicerō, Cicero; Rōma, Rome; material and abstract substantives: as, oleum, oil, vīnum, wine, iūstitia, justice; and gerunds: as, regendī, of guiding. For the occasional use of the plural, 1105-1110.

. Some substantives, from their meaning, have no singular.

Such are: names of persons of a class: as, maiōrēs, ancestors; superī, the beings above; mānēs, ghosts; of feasts, sacrifices, days: as, Sāturnālia, festival of Saturn; kalendae, first of the month; of things made of parts or consisting of a series of acts: as, arma, arms; artūs, joints; quadrīgae, four-in-hand; exsequiae, funeral rites; of some places: as, Faleriī; Vēī; Pompēī; Athēnae, Athens; Alpēs, the Alps.

. Some substantives have different meanings in the two numbers: as,

aedis, temple, aedēs, house; auxilium, aid, auxilia, auxiliaries; carcer, jail, carcerēs, race-barriers; Castrum, Castle, castra, camp; comitium, meeting-place, comitia, election; cōpia, abundance, cōpiae, troops; facultās, ability, facultātēs, wealth; fīnis, end, fīnēs, boundaries; grātia, favour, grātiae, thanks; impedīmentum, hindrance, impedīmenta, baggage; littera, letter (of the alphabet), litterae, epistle; rōstrum, beak, rōstra, speakers stand. See also aqua, bonum, fortūna, lūdus, opera, pars, in the dictionary.

Case.

. Nouns have five cases, the Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative.

The nominative represents a noun as subject, the accusative as object; the genitive denotes the relation of of, the dative of to or for, and the ablative of from, with, in, or by. But the meanings of the cases are best learnt from reading. All cases but the nominative and vocative are called Oblique Cases.

. Town names and a few appellatives have also a case denoting the place where, called the Locative. Masculine stems in -o- and some Greek stems with other endings have still another form used in addressing a person or thing, called the Vocative.

. The stem of a noun is best seen in the genitive; in the genitive plural it is preserved without change, except that o of -o- stems is lengthened . In dictionaries the stem ending is indicated by the genitive singular, thus: -ae, -ī, -is, -ūs (-ĕī), indicate respectively stems in -ā-, -o-, a consonant or -i-, -u-, and -ē-, as follows:

Genitive Singular. Genitive Plural. Stems in.

-ae, mēnsae, table -ārum, mēnsā-rum -ā-, mēnsā-, N. mēnsa

-ī, dominī, master -ōrum, dominō-rum -o-, domino-, N. dominus

-is, rēgis, king -cons. um, rēg-um -consonant, rēg-, N. rēx

-is, cīvis, citizen -ium, cīvi-um -i-, cīvi-, N. cīvis

-ūs, portus, port -uum, portu-um -u-, portu-, N. portus

(ĕ̄ī, rĕ̄ī), thing (-ērum, rē-rum) -ē, rē-, N. rēs

. Gender nominatives usually add -s to the stem: as, servo-s or servu-s, slave, rēx (164, 1), cīvi-s, portu-s, rē-s. But stems in -ā- or in a continuous consonant (-l-, -n-, -r-, or -s-) have no -s: as, mēnsa, cōnsul, consul, flāmen, special priest, pater, father, flōs, flower.

. Neuters have the nominative and accusative alike; in the singular the stem is used: as nōmen, name; or a shortened stem: as, exemplar, pattern; but stems in -o- take -m: as, aevo-m or aevu-m, age. In the plural -a is always used: as, rēgna, kingdoms, nōmina, cornua, horns. For -s in adjectives ‘of one ending,’ see .

. Gender accusatives singular add -m to the stem: as, mēnsa-m, servo-m or servu-m, nāvi-m, ship, portu-m, die-m. The consonant stems have the ending -em: as, rēg-em; most substantive stems in -i- and all adjectives also drop -i- and take -em: as, nāv-em, trīst-em, sad. In the plural, gender stems add -s before which the vowel is long: as, mēnsā-s, servō-s, rēgē-s, nāvī-s or nāvē-s, portū-s, rē-s.

. The ablative singular usually ends in the long vowel of the stem: as, mēnsā, dominō, nāvī, portū, rē. The ablative of consonant stems usually has -e (rarely -ī-, see ): as, patre, father; and that of substantive -i- stems has -e more commonly than -ī: as, nāve.

. The ablative singular of -ā- and -o- stems ended anciently in -ād and -ōd respectively: as, PRAIDAD, PREIVATOD; that of consonant stems in -īd: as, AIRID, COVENTIONID. But -d is almost entirely confined to inscriptions and disappeared early .

. The genitive plural adds -rum to -ā-, -o-, and -ē- stems: as, mēnsā-rum, dominō-rum, rē-rum; and -um to consonant stems, -i- stems, and -u- stems: as, rēg-um, cīvi-um, portu-um.

. The dative and ablative plural are always alike: stems in -ā- and -o- take -is, which blends with the stem vowel : as, mēnsīs, dominīs; other stems have -bus, before which consonant stems are extended by i: as, rēgi-bus, nāvi-bus, portu-bus or porti-bus, rē-bus.

. Some pronouns and a few adjectives have some peculiar case endings; see 618-694.

. Many nouns are defective in case.

Thus, many monosyllables have no genitive plural: as, aes, copper, cor, heart, cōs, whetstone, dōs, dowry, ōs, face, pāx, peace, pix, pitch, rōs, dew, sāl, salt, lūx, light; many words have no genitive, dative, or ablative plural: as, hiemps, winter; especially neuters: as, fār, spelt, fel, gall, mel, honey, pūs, matter, rūs, country, tūs, frankincense. Many words in -tu- (-su-) have only the ablative . For -ē- stems, see . Other words more or less defective are exlēx, exspēs, fās and nefās, īnfitiās, inquiēs, īnstar, luēs, nēmō, opis and vicis genitives, pondō and sponte ablatives, secus, vīs. Many adjectives ‘of one ending’ want the nominative and accusative neuter plural and genitive plural.

. Some adjectives are altogether indeclinable: as, frūgī, thrifty, an old dative; nēquam, naughty, an old accusative; quot, how many; tot, so many; and most numerals . These adjectives are attached to any case of a substantive without varying their own forms.

The Substantive.

Stems in -ā-.

The First Declension.

Genitive singular -ae, genitive plural -ā-rum.

. Stems in -ā- include substantives and adjectives; both substantives and adjectives are feminine.

. Names of males are masculine : as, scrība, writer; also Hadria, the Adriatic, and rarely damma, deer, and talpa, mole.

. The nominative of stems in -ā- ends in the shortened stem vowel -a.

. Stems in -ā- are declined as follows:

Example
Stem mēnsa, table, mēnsā-, F. Stem and case endings

Singular

Nom. mēnsa table, a (or the) table -a

Gen. mēnsae a table’s, of a table -ae

Dat. mēnsae to or for a table -ae

Acc. mēnsam a table -am

Abl. mēnsā from, with, or by a table -ā

Plural

Nom. mēnsae tables (or the) tables -ae

Gen. mēnsārum tables’, of tables -ārum

Dat. mēnsīs to or for tables -īs

Acc. mēnsās tables -ās

Abl. mēnsīs from, with, or by tables -īs

SINGULAR CASES.

. -ā- of the stem was shortened in the nominative and accusative singular at an early period (, ). A few apparent examples of the nominative in -ā, found in the oldest writers, seem due to metrical causes: as, aquilā́ (Enn.). But -ā occurs in Greek proper names . A couple of old masculine nominatives in -ās are quoted : pāricīdās, murderer, and hosticapās, taker of enemies. In the accusative singular -ām occurs once: inimīcitiā́m (Enn.).

. The genitive sometimes ends (1.) in -āī in poetry: as, aulāī, of the hall; pīctāī, embroidered; (2.) in -ās: as, molās, of a mill. This genitive is rare, but was always kept up in the word familiās with pater or māter, sometimes with fīlius or fīlia: pater familiās, the goodman, māter familiās, the housewife. But pater familiae, or in the plural patrēs familiārum, is equally common.

. Town names and a few appellatives have a locative case in -ae: as, Rōmae, at Rome, in Rome; mīlitiae, in war, in the field, in the army.

PLURAL CASES.

. Compounds ending with -cola, inhabiting, and -gena, born, and patronymics, sometimes have the genitive plural in -ū̆m in poetry: as, caelicolū̆m, of occupants of heaven; Graiugenū̆m, of Greek-born men; Aeneadū̆m, of Aeneas’s sons; also names of peoples: as, Lapithū̆m, of the Lapithae. With these last -ū̆m occurs even in prose: as, Crotōniātū̆m, of the Crotona people. Others in -ŭm are drachmŭm, amphorū̆m.

. In the dative and ablative plural, -eis sometimes occurs : as, tueis ingrātieis, against your will (Plaut.). Nouns in -ia have rarely a single ī: as, pecūnīs, by moneys (Cic.); taenīs, with fillets (Verg.); nōnīs Iūnīs, on the fifth of June (Cic.). See .

. In the dative and ablative plural, words in -āia, or plural -āiae, have -āīs, and those in -ēia have -ēīs (127, 7): as KAL. MAIS, on the calends of May (inscr.); Bāīs, at Bajae (Hor.); plēbēīs, plebeian.

. The dative and ablative plural sometimes end in -ābus, particularly in deābus, goddesses, and fīliābus, daughters, to distinguish them from deīs, gods, and fīliīs, sons. ambae, both, and duae, two, regularly have ambābus and duābus.

. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows:

G. -ai, which may be monosyllabic or disyllabic in pronunciation: PVLCHRAI; LAVERNAI; -āēs, after 80 B.C., chiefly in proper names, mostly Greek: HERAES; rarely in appellatives: DOMINAES; -ēs: MINERVES; -ā, VESTA; COIRA, i.e. Cūrae. D. -ai, in all periods : FILIAI; -ā: FORTVNA; -ē : FORTVNE. Ac. -a : TAVRASIA; MAGNA SAPIENTIA. Ab. -ād : PRAIDAD. Loc. -ai: ROMAI. Plural: N. -ai : TABELAI DATAI; -ā, rare: MATRONA; -ē, rare and provincial : MVSTE, i.e. mystae. D. and Ab. -eis, very often : SCRIBEIS; D. -ās, once: DEVAS CORNISCAS, i.e. dīvīs Cornīscīs. Ab. -ēs once : NVGES, i.e. nūgīs.

GREEK NOUNS.

. Greek appellatives always take a Latin form in the dative singular and in the plural, and usually throughout: thus, poēta, M., poet, and aula, F., court, are declined like mēnsa. Masculines have sometimes a nominative -ēs and accusative -ēn: as, anagnōstēs, reader, anagnōstēn; rarely an ablative -ē: as, sophistē, sophist. Greek feminines in -ē sometimes have Greek forms in late writers: as, N. grammaticē, philology, G. grammaticēs, Ac. grammaticēn, Ab. grammaticē (Quintil.).

. Greek proper names sometimes have the following forms. Nominative masculine -ās, -ēs: as, Prūsiās, Atrīdēs; feminine -ā: as, Gelā, Phaedrā; -ē: as, Circē. Genitive feminine -ēs: as, Circēs. Accusative masculine -ān, -dēn: as, Aenēān, Pēlīdēn; feminine -ēn: as, Circēn. Ablative feminine -ē: as, Tīsiphonē. Vocative -ā or -a: as, Atrīdā, Atrīda, Thyesta; -tē: as, Boōtē; -dē: as, Aeacidē.

Stems in -o-.

The Second Declension.

Genitive singular -ī, genitive plural -ō-rum.

. Stems in -o- include substantives and adjectives, masculine or neuter.

. Most names of plants in -us are feminine ; also the following: alvos or alvus, belly, colus, distaff, domus, house, humus, ground, vannus, fan.

. The nominative of masculines ends, including the stem vowel, in -o-s, or usually -u-s; some end in -r; neuters end in -o-m, or usually -u-m.

. (1.) Stems in -o- with the nominative in -us or -um are declined as follows:

Examples
Stems dominus, master,
domino-, M. rēgnum, kingdom,
rēgno-, Ne. Stem and
case endings

Singular M. Ne.

Nom. dominus, a (or the) master rēgnum -us -um

Gen. dominī, a master’s rēgnī -ī -ī

Dat. dominō, to or for a master rēgnō -ō -ō

Acc. dominum, a master rēgnum -um -um

Abl. dominō, from, with, or by a master rēgnō -ō -ō

Voc. domine, master -e

Plural

Nom. dominī, (the) masters rēgna -ī -a

Gen. dominōrum, of masters rēgnōrum -ōrum -ōrum

Dat. dominīs, to or for masters rēgnīs -īs -īs

Acc. dominōs, masters rēgna -ōs -a

Abl. dominīs, from, with, or by masters rēgnīs -īs -īs

. deus, god, is declined as follows: N. deus, G. deī, D. and Ab. deō, Ac. deum. Plural: N. deī, di͡i, commonly dī, G. deōrum or deŭm, D. and Ab. deīs, di͡is, commonly dīs, Ac. deōs.

. (2.) Stems in -o- with the nominative in -r or in -āius, -ēius, or -ōius are declined as follows:

Examples
Stems puer, boy,
puero-, M. ager, field,
agro-, M. Pompēius, Pompey,
Pompēio-, M.

Singular

Nom. puer, a (or the) boy ager Pompēius

Gen. puerī, a boy’s, of a boy agrī Pompēī

Dat. puerō, to or for a boy agrō Pompēiō

Acc. puerum, a boy agrum Pompēium

Abl. puerō, from, with, or by a boy agrō Pompēiō

Voc. Pompēī, Pompe͡i

Plural

Nom. puerī, (the) boys agrī Pompēī

Gen. puerōrum, boys’, of boys agrōrum Pompēiōrum

Dat. puerīs, to or for boys agrīs Pompēīs

Acc. puerōs, boys agrōs Pompēiōs

Abl. puerīs, from, with, or by boys agrīs Pompēīs

SINGULAR CASES.

. -us and -um were originally -os and -om. But -us was used in the earliest times, -um somewhat later, and both became prevalent between 218 and 55 B.C. (107, c). After u or v, however, the -os and -om were retained till toward 50 A.D. (107, c); also after qu; but -cus and -cum often displaced -quos and -quom : as, equos, equom, or ecus, ecum, horse; antīquos, antīquom, or antīcus, antīcum, ancient. In the vocative -e was always used, and is retained by Plautus in puere, thou boy.

. Words in -rus with a long penult, as, sevērus, stern, and the following substantives with a short penult are declined like domimus :

erus, master

iūniperus, juniper

numerus, number

umerus, shoulder

uterus, womb

For adjective stems in -ro- with nominative -rus, see .

. Masculine stems in -ro- preceded by a short vowel or a mute, except those above , drop -os in the nominative, and have no vocative: as, stem puero-, N. puer, boy (111, b). Most masculines in -ro- have a vowel before r only in the nominative -er (111, b): as agro-, N. ager. But in compounds ending in -fer and -ger, carrying, having, and the following, the vowel before -r is a part of the stem, and is found in all the cases:

adulter, Līber, paramour, Liber

gener, socer, son-in-law, father-in-law

puer, vir, boy, man

līberī, vesper, children, evening

For Mulciber, Hibēr, and Celtibē̆r, see the dictionary; for adjective stems in -ro- with nominative -r, see . Once socerus (Pl.).

. nihilum, nothing, usually drops -um in the nominative and accusative, becoming nihil or nīl, and similarly nōn, not, may be for noenum, naught . famul is used for famulus, slave, by Ennius and Lucretius, once each (111, b).

. Substantives ending in -ius or -ium (but never adjectives), have commonly a single -ī in the genitive singular: as,

Vergilius, G. Vergílī ; fīlius, son, G. fīlī; cōnūbium, marriage, G. cōnūbī.

. Vergil has once a genitive -iī, fluviī, river’s. Propertius has -iī two or three times; with Ovid, Seneca, and later writers, -iī is common: as, gladiī, of a sword; even in proper names, which were the last to take -iī: as, Tarquiniī; but family names almost always retain a single -ī. Locatives have -iī: as, Iconiī (Cic.).

. Proper names ending in -āius, -ēius, or -ōius have -āī, -ēī, or -ōī in the genitive and vocative singular and nominative plural, and -āīs, -ēīs, or -ōīs in the dative and ablative plural (127, 7): as,

Gāius, G., V., and N. Pl. Gāī, D. and Ab. Pl. Gāīs; Pompēī, Pompēīs; Bōī, Bōīs. In verse -ēī of the vocative is sometimes made one syllable : as, Pompe͡i; Volte͡i (Hor.).

. Latin proper names in -ius have the vocative in -ī only: as,

Vergilius, V. Vergílī; Mercurius, V. Mercúrī . So, also, fīlius, fīlī, son; genius, genī, good angel; volturius, volturī, vulture; meus, mī, my.

. Town names and a few appellatives have a locative case in -ī: as, Ephesī, in Ephesus; humī, on the ground; bellī, in war.

PLURAL CASES.

. In the nominative plural masculine, -ei sometimes occurs : as, nātei geminei, twins born (Plaut.); -eis or -īs is rare : as, Sardeis, Sardians; oculīs, eyes; not infrequently hīsce, these here (Plaut.); masculine stems in -io- have rarely a single -ī: as, fīlī, sons. For -āī, -ēī, or -ōī, see . The nominative and accusative plural of neuters ended anciently in -ā (130, 2). But -ā was shortened at an early period.

. In the common genitive plural -ōrum, the -o- of the stem is lengthened . A genitive plural in -ū̆m (or, after v, in -ŏ̄m) is common from dīvos, dīvus, and deus, god; from dēnārius, denar, modius, peck, nummus, money, sēstertius, sesterce, and talentum, talent, with numerals; and from cardinals and distributives : as, dīvŏ̄m, divū̆m, deū̆m; mīlle sēstertiŭm; ducentū̆m; bīnŭm. The u was originally long ; but it was shortened before 100 A.D.

. Other masculine substantives have occasionally this genitive: as, līberū̆m, of children; particularly in set phrases and in verse: as, centuria fabrū̆m, century of mechanics; Graiū̆m, of Greeks. With neuter substantives, as oppidū̆m, for oppidōrum, of towns, and with adjectives it is rare.

. In the dative and ablative plural, -eis is rare : as, Epidamnieis (Plaut.). Stems in -io- have rarely a single ī: as, fīlīs, for sons. For -āīs, -ēīs, or -ōīs, see . ambō, both, and duo, two, have ambōbus and duōbus .

. Other case forms are found in inscriptions as follows:

N. -os, -om, with o retained (107, c): FILIOS, TRIBVNOS; POCOLOM; in proper names -o : CORNELIO; -u, rare: LECTV; -is, or -i, for -ius (135, 2): CAECILIS; CLAVDI; neuter -o : POCOLO. G. oldest form -ī: VRBANI; -ei, from 146 B.C. to Augustus: POPVLEI; CONLEGEI; -iī from stems in -io- not before Tiberius: COLLEGII. Ac. -om (, c): VOLCANOM; -o : OPTVMO VIRO; -u: GREMIV. Ab. -od, not after 186 B.C. : POPLICOD, PREIVATOD. Plural: N. -ei, always common : VIREI; FILEI; -ēs, -eis, -īs : ATILIES; COQVES; LEIBEREIS, i.e. līnerī; MAGISTREIS; MAGISTRIS; -ē, rare: PLOIRVME, i.e. plūrumī. G. -ōm or -ō ROMANOM; ROMANO; -ōro : DVONORO. D. and Ab. -eis, the only form down to about 130 B.C. : ANTIQVEIS; PROXSVMEIS; -ēs, twice: CAVATVRINES.

GREEK NOUNS.

. Greek stems in -o- are generally declined like Latin nouns, but in the singular sometimes have -os in the nominative, -on in the nominative or accusative neuter, rarely -ū in the genitive, or -ō in the feminine ablative. Plural, nominative sometimes -oe, masculine or feminine, and genitive, chiefly in book-titles, -ōn: as,

Nominative Īlios; Īlion or Īlium. Genitive Menandrū, of Menander. Ablative feminine adjective lectīcā octōphorō, in a sedan with eight bearers. Plural: nominative Adelphoe, the Brothers; canēphoroe, basket-bearers, feminine. Genitive Geōrgicōn liber, book of Husbandry. For Androgeōs, Athŏ̄s and Panthūs, see the dictionary.

Consonant Stems.

The Third Declension.

Genitive singular -is, genitive plural -um.

. Consonant stems are mostly substantive, and include both gender words and neuters.

Comparatives and a few other words are adjective. For the gender of substantives, see .

. The nominative of consonant stems ends in -s (or -x); or in -n (-ō), -l, -r, or -s of the stem, rarely in -c or -t.

. Most consonant stems have one syllable less in the nominative than in the genitive.

Such words are called Imparisyllabic words or Imparisyllables: as, nominative rēx, king, one syllable; genitive rēgis, of a king, two syllables.

. Many consonant stems have a double form: one form used in the nominative singular (neuters have this form in the accusative also), another form in the other cases: as,

iūdex, juror, stem of nominative iūdec- (136, 2), of other cases iūdic-; flāmen (103, a), special priest, flāmin- (103, a); virgō, maid, virgin- (105, g); auceps (107, d), fowler, aucup- (104, c); ebur (107, c), ivory, ebor-; genus, race, gener- (; 107, c); trīstius , sadder, trīstiōr- ; corpus (107, c), body, corpor- (105, i); pater (135, 2), father, patr-. In such instances the stem of the oblique cases is taken for brevity to represent both forms of the stem.

I. MUTE STEMS.

. (1.) Stems in a guttural mute, -g- or -c-, are declined as follows:

Examples
Stems rēx, king,
rēg-, M. dux, leader,
duc-, M. iūdex, juror,
iūdic-, M., F. Case
endings

Singular

Nom. rēx, a (or the) king dux iūdex -s (-x)

Gen. rēgis, a king’s, of a king ducis iūdicis -is

Dat. rēgī, to or for a king ducī iūdicī -ī

Acc. rēgem, a king ducem iūdicem -em

Abl. rēge, from, with, or by a king duce iūdice -e

Plural

Nom. rēgēs, (the) kings ducēs iūdicēs -ēs

Gen. rēgum, kings’, of kings ducum iūdicum -um

Dat. rēgibus, to or for kings ducibus iūdicibus -ibus

Acc. rēgēs, kings ducēs iūdicēs -ēs

Abl. rēgibus, from, with, or by kings ducibus iūdicibus -ibus

In the nominative and accusative, neuters have no case ending in the singular, and -a in the plural. In the other cases they have the same case endings as gender stems.

. (a.) Examples of stems in -g-, with nominative -x, genitive -gis, are:

-ex, -egis grex, M., (F.), herd; aquilex, M., spring-hunter, hydraulic engineer.

-ēx, -ēgis rēx, M., king; interrēx, regent; lēx, F., law; and N. and Ac. exlēx, exlēgem, beyond the law, adjective.

-ex, -igis rēmex, M., oarsman.

-ī̆x, -ī̆gis strī̆x, F., screech-owl.

-ūnx, -ūgis coniūnx (122, e) or coniux, M., F., spouse.

-ūx, -ūgis frūx, F., fruit.

. (b.) Examples of stems in -c-, with nominative -x, genitive -cis, are:

-ax, -acis fax, F., torch, no G. Pl. in good writers .

-āx, -ācis pāx, F., peace, Pl. only N. and Ac. pācēs; līmāx, F., snail.

-ex, -ecis faenisex, M., haycutter; nex, F., murder; precī, D., F., prayer, no N., usually plural.

-ēx, -ēcis vervēx, M., wether; allēx, F., fish-pickle, also allēc, Ne.

-ex, -icis Masculines mostly: apex, point; cārex, F., rush; caudex or cōdex, block, book; cīmex, bug; cortex, M., F., bark; culex, gnat; forfex, M., F., shears; frutex, shrub; īlex, F., holm-oak; illex, M., F., seducer; imbrex, tile; latex, fluid; mūrex, purple-shell; obice, Ab., M., F., bar, no N.; paelex, F., concubine, pollex, thumb; pūlex, flea; pūmex, pumice-slone; rāmex, blood-vessel; rumex, sorrel; silex, M., F., flint; sōrex, shrew-mouse; vortex or vertex, whirl; vītex, F., a shrub. Also some compounds: as, iūdex, juror; artifex, artisan; auspex, bird-viewer.

-ix, -icis Feminines mostly: appendix, addition; calix, M., cup; filix, fern; fulix, gull; fornix, M., arch; larix, larch; pix, pitch, no G. Pl. ; salix, willow; vārix, swollen vein; vicis, G., change, no N., D., or G. Pl. .

-īx, -īcis Feminines: cervīx, neck; cicātrīx, scar; cornīx, crow; cŏ̄turnīx , quail; lōdīx, blanket; rādīx, root; struīx, heap. Also coxendīx, hip, later coxendix, coxendicis.

-ōx, -ōcis vōx, F., voice.

-ux, -ucis crux, F., cross; dux, M., F., leader; nux, F., nut-tree, nut; trādux, M., vinelayer.

. (2.) Stems in a dental mute, -d- or -t-, are declined as follows:

Examples custōs, keeper,
custōd-, M. aetās, age,
aetāt-, F. virtūs, virtue,
virtūt-, F. mīles, soldier,
mīlit-, M.

Singular

Nom. custōs aetās virtūs mīles

Gen. custōdis aetātis virtūtis mīlitis

Dat. custōdī aetātī virtūtī mīlitī

Acc. custōdem aetātem virtūtem mīlitem

Abl. custōde aetāte virtūte mīlite

Plural

Nom. custōdēs aetātēs virtūtēs mīlitēs

Gen. custōdum aetātum virtūtum mīlitum

Dat. custōdibus aetātibus virtūtibus mīlitibus

Acc. custōdēs aetātēs virtūtēs mīlitēs

Abl. custōdibus aetātibus virtūtibus mīlitibus

. (a.) Examples of stems in -d-, with nominative -s, genitive -dis, are:

-as, -adis vas, M., F., personal surety, no G. Pl. .

-aes, -aedis praes, M., bondsman.

-es, -idis obses, M., F., hostage; praeses, M., F., overseer. *dēses, slothful, adjective.

-ēs, -edis pēs, M., foot.

-ēs, -ēdis hērēs, M., F., heir; exhērēs, disinherited, adjective; mercēs, F., reward.

-is, -idis Feminines: capis, cup; cassis, helmet; cuspis, spear-point; prōmulsis, appetizer; lapis, M., stone.

-ōs, -ōdis custōs, M., F., guard.

-aus, -audis laus, F., praise.

-us, -udis pecus, F., beast, head of cattle.

-ūs, -ūdis Feminines: incūs, anvil; palūs, swamp, nominative once in Horace palus, as from an -o- stem; subscūs, dovetail.

. sēdēs, F., seat, has an -s- stem, namely -ēs , in the nominative, and sēd- in the other cases ; G. Pl. sēdum, once sēdium (Vell. Pat.). The only example of a neuter stem in -d-, with nominative -r, genitive -dis, is cor (171, 2), heart, cordis, no G. Pl. .

. (b.) Examples of stems in -t-, with nominative -s, genitive -tis, are:

-as, -atis anas, F., duck; G. Pl. also anitum (Cic.), and Ac. Pl. anitēs (Plaut.).

-ās, -ātis aetās, F., age; also numerous other feminines in -tās .

-es, -etis interpres, M., F., go-between; seges, F., crop; teges, F., mat.

-es, -itis Masculines mostly: ames, net-pole; antistes, M., F., overseer; caespes, sod; comes, M., F., companion; eques, horseman; fōmes, tinder; gurges, whirlpool; hospes, M., F., guest-friend; līmes, path; merges, F., sheaf; mīles, M., F., soldier; palmes, vine-sprout; pedes, man afoot, infantry; poples, hough; stīpes, trunk; termes, bough; trāmes, by-path; dīves, rich; sōspes, safe; superstes, surviving; caelite, Ab., occupant of heaven, no N., adjectives.

-ēs, -etis abiēs, F., fir; ariēs, M., ram; pariēs, M., wall.

-ēs, -ētis Feminines: quiēs and requiēs, rest, no D., Ac. often requiem, Ab. usually requiē ; inquiēs, unrest, N. only.

-os, -otis compos, master of, adjective.

-ōs, -ōtis nepōs, M., grandson, profligate; sacerdōs, M., priest; cōs, F., whetstone, no G. Pl. ; dōs, F., dowry, no G. Pl. in good writers ; dōtum once (Val. Max.), and dōtium in the jurists.

-ūs, -ūtis Feminines: iuventūs, youth; salūs, existence; senectūs, old age; servitūs, slavery, all singular only; and virtūs, virtue, with a plural.

. vātēs, bard, has an -s- stem, namely -ēs , in the nominative, and vāt- in the other cases ; G. Pl. vātum, but thrice vātium (Cic.). The only example of a neuter stem in -t-, with nominative -t, genitive -tis, is caput, head, capitis, and its compounds occiput, back of the head and sinciput, jole. lac, Ne., milk, lactis, has in old and late Latin nominative and accusative lacte, lact once in Varro (171, 2); acc. lactem occurs in Petronius once and later.

. (3.) Stems in a labial mute, -b- or -p-, are declined as follows:

mūniceps, burgess, stem mūnicip-, M., F.

Singular: N. mūniceps, G. mūnicipis, D. mūnicipī, Ac. mūnicipem, Ab. mūnicipe. Plural: N. mūnicipēs, G. mūnicipum, D. mūnicipibus, Ac. mūnicipēs, Ab. mūnicipibus.

. Examples of stems in -b- or -p-, with nominative -s, genitive -bis or -pis, are:

-ebs, -ibis caelebs, unmarried, adjective, the only stem in -b-.

——, -apis dapis, G., F., feast, N. and D. S., and G. Pl. not used .

-eps, -ipis adeps or adips, M., F., fat, no G. Pl; forceps, M., F., pincers; mūniceps, burgher. particeps, sharing, and prīnceps, first, adjectives.

-eps, -upis auceps, fowler; manceps, contractor, mancupis or mancipis.

——, -ipis stipis, G., F., small change, no N.

-ops, -opis Ops, F., old Opis (Plaut.), goddess of power; opis, G., F., help, no N., D. once only, Pl. opēs, means .

II. STEMS IN A CONTINUOUS CONSONANT.

. (1.) Stems in -l- and -n- are declined as follows:

Examples
Stems cōnsul, consul,
cōnsul-, M. leō, lion,
leōn-, M. imāgō, likeness,
imāgin-, F. nōmen, name,
nōmin-, Ne.

Singular

Nom. cōnsul leō imāgō nōmen

Gen. cōnsulis leōnis imāginis nōminis

Dat. cōnsulī leōnī imāginī nōminī

Acc. cōnsulem leōnem imāginem nōmen

Abl. cōnsule leōne imāgine nōmine

Plural

Nom. cōnsulēs leōnēs imāginēs nōmina

Gen. cōnsulum leōnum imāginum nōminum

Dat. cōnsulibus leōnibus imāginibus nōminibus

Acc. cōnsulēs leōnēs imāginēs nōmina

Abl. cōnsulibus leōnibus imāginibus nōminibus

. Examples of stems in -l-, with nominative -l, genitive -lis, are:

-āl, -alis sāl, M., salt, sometimes Ne. in the singular; no G. Pl. .

-el, -ellis fel (, ), Ne., gall; mel, Ne., honey; plural only fella, mella.

-il, -ilis mūgil, M., mullet; pūgil, M., boxer; vigil, M., watchman.

-ōl, -ōlis sōl, M., sun, no G. Pl. .

-ul, -ulis cōnsul, consul; praesul, head dancer; exsul, exile.

. (a.) Examples of stems in -n-, with nominative -en, genitive -inis, are:

flāmen, M., priest; pecten, M., comb; tībīcen, M., piper; tubicen, M., trumpeter; sanguen, Ne., blood. Many neuters in -men : as, certāmen, contest.

. (b.) Examples of stems in -n-, with nominative -ō, genitive -ōnis, are:

Many masculine concretes: as, pugiō, dagger; words of the agent : as, praedō, robber; and family names: as, Cicerō. Feminine abstracts in -iō , and many in -tiō or -siō : as, opīniō, notion; cōgitātiō, thought.

. (c.) Examples of stems in -n-, with nominative -ō, genitive -inis, are:

Masculines: Apollō; cardō, hinge; ōrdō, rank; turbō, whirlwind. homo, M., F., human being; nēmō, nobody; for G. and Ab., nūllī̆us and nūllō are generally used; margō, M., F., brink. Feminines: grandō, hail; harundō, reed; hirundō, swallow; hirūdō, leech; testūdō, tortoise; virgō, maiden. Many in -dō, -dinis , -gō, -ginis , and -tūdō, -tūdinis : as, cupīdō, also M., desire; imāgō, likeness; sōlitūdō, loneliness.

. sanguī̆s, M., blood, stem sanguin-, takes -s in the nominative (171, 4). canis, M., F., dog, stem can-, and īuvenis, M., F., young person, stem iuven-, have the nominative formed like that of -i- stems. For senex, old man, see .

. (2.) Stems in -r- and -s- are declined as follows:

Examples
Stems pater, father,
patr-, M. dolor, pain,
dolōr-, M. flōs, flower,
flōr-, M. genus, race,
gener-, Ne.

Singular

Nom. pater dolor flōs genus

Gen. patris dolōris flōris generis

Dat. patrī dolōrī flōrī generī

Acc. patrem dolōrem flōrem genus

Abl. patre dolōre flōre genere

Plural

Nom. patrēs dolōrēs flōrēs genera

Gen. patrum dolōrum flōrum generum

Dat. patribus dolōribus flōribus generibus

Acc. patrēs dolōrēs flōrēs genera

Abl. patribus dolōribus flōribus generibus

. Many stems in -r- ended originally in -s-, which became -r- between two vowels, and in some words in the nominative also : as, flōs, M., flower, G. *flōsis, flōris; honōs, M., honour, G. honōris, N. honor.

. (a.) Examples of stems in -r-, with nominative -r, genitive -ris, are:

-ar, -aris baccar, Ne., a plant; iūbar, Ne., rarely M., bright sky, no Pl.

-ār, -aris lār, M., household god; G. Pl. larum; two or three times larium.

-ār, -arris fār (, ), Ne., spelt; Pl. only N. and Ac. farra.

-er, -eris Masculines: acipēnser, sturgeon; agger, mound; ānser, rarely F., goose; asser, pole; carcer, jail; later, brick; mulier, F., woman; passer, sparrow; vōmer, ploughshare. Neuters: cadāver, corpse; tūber, swelling; ūber, breast; verberis, G., lash, no N., generally Pl.; acer, maple, and some other plant names: see . pauper, poor, adjective.

-ter, -tris accipiter, M., hawk; frāter, M., brother; māter, F., mother; pater, M., father.

-ēr, -ēris vēr, Ne.; no Pl.

-or, -oris aequor, Ne., sea; marmor, Ne., marble; arbor, F., tree.

-or, -ōris olor, M., swan; soror, F., sister; uxor, F., wife. Many masculines in -or for -ōs : as, odor, smell; and in -tor, -tōris : as, amātor, lover. Also gender comparatives of adjectives: as, trīstior , M., F., sadder.

-ur, -oris Neuters: ebur, ivory; Pl. only ebora; rōbur, heart of oak; Pl. rōbora common, rōborum and rōboribus twice each. Also femur, thigh, femoris or feminis, and iecur, liver, iecoris, iecineris, or iocineris.

-ur, -uris augur, M., F., augur; furfur, M., bran; turtur, M., F., turtle-dove; voltur or vultur, M., vulture. Neuters: fulgur, lightning; guttur, rarely M., throat; murmur, murmur; sulpur, sulphur. cicur, tame, adjective.

-ūr, -ūris fūr, M., thief.

. volucris, F., bird, stem volucr-, has its nominative formed like that of -i- stems.

. (b.) Examples of stems in -s-, or -r- for -s-, with nominative -s, genitive -ris, are:

-aes, -aeris aes, Ne., copper, bronze; in the Pl. only aera and aerum are usual.

-ēs, -eris Cerēs. pūbēs, mangrown; impūbēs, immature, adjectives; for the last more commonly impūbis, like brevis .

-is, -eris cinis, M., ashes; cucumis, M., cucumber, also with -i- stem; pulvis, M., dust; vōmis, M., ploughshare.

-ōs, -oris arbōs, F., tree.

-ōs, -ōris Masculines: flōs, flower; mōs, custom; rōs, dew, no G. Pl. ; lepōs, grace; honōs or honor, honour, and some old Latin words for later -or: as, odōs or odor, smell . ōs, Ne., mouth, face, no G. Pl. .

-us, -eris Neuters: acus, husk; foedus, treaty; fūnus, funeral; genus, race; glŏ̄mus , clew; holus, green stuff; latus, side; mūnus, gift; onus, burden; opus, work; pondus, weight; raudus or rūdus, piece of copper; scelus, crime; sīdus, constellation; ulcus, sore; vellus, fleece; vīscus, bowel, usually plural; volnus or vulnus, wound. Also Venus, F., and vetus, old, adjective.

-us, -oris Neuters: corpus, body; decus, grace; dēdecus, disgrace; facinus, deed; faenus, interest; frīgus, cold; lītus, shore; nemus, grove; pectus, breast; pecus, flock; penus, store; pignus, pledge; stercus, dung; tempus, time; tergus, back. Also lepus, M., hare.

-us, -ōris Neuter comparatives of adjectives: as, trīstius , sadder.

-ūs, -ūris Neuters: crūs, leg; iūs, right, Pl. iūra, G. Pl. twice only (Plaut.; Cato), no D. or Ab. Pl.; iūs, broth, pūs, pus, rūs, country, tūs, frankincense, Pl. only N. and Ac. iūra, &c. tellūs, F., earth.

. vās, Ne., vessel, utensil, retains the s between two vowels: G. vāsis, D. vāsī, Ab. vāse, plural N. and Ac. vāsa; the G. vāsōrum, and D. and Ab. vāsis, are formed from an -o- stem, vāso- . mēnsis, M., month, mēnsis, has its nominative formed like that of -i- stems; G. Pl. mēnsum, sometimes mēnsuum or mēnsium. os (171, 1) Ne., bone, ossis, has no G. Pl. in good writers : ossium late.

. The two neuters vīrus, gall, poison, and volgus or vulgus, the crowd, have -o- stems, except in the nominative and accusative , and no plural: thus, N. and Ac. volgus, G. volgī, D. and Ab. volgō. A masculine accusative volgum is sometimes found. The Greek neuter pelagus, the deep, has also G. pelagī, D. and Ab. pelagō, Pl. N. and Ac. pelagē .

III. STEMS IN -u- OR -v-.

. Four substantives with stems in -ū- or -v-, grūs, F., crane, gruis; sūs, M., F., sow, swine, suis; bōs, M., F., ox, cow, bovis; and nix, F., snow, nivis, follow the consonant declension; also the genitive Iovis, and the other oblique cases of Iuppiter . But sūs has in the plural dative and ablative suibus, sūbus, or subus; bōs has in the plural genitive boum or bovum, rarely bovom (107, c), and in the dative and ablative bōbus, or oftener būbus; nix has no genitive plural in good writers : nivium late, once nivum.

SINGULAR CASES.

. (1.) The nominative singular of gender stems in a mute is formed by adding -s to the stem : as,

rēg-, king, N. rēx (, ); duc-, leader, N. dux (135, 1); custōd-, guard, N. custōs (171, 5); aetāt-, age, N. aetās (171, 5); caelib-, unmarried, N. caelebs ; mūnicip-, burgher, N. mūniceps. hiem-, winter, the only stem in -m-, N. hiemps or hiems, also takes -s.

. (2.) Stems in a continuous consonant, -l-, -n-, -r-, or -s-, and neuters have no nominative suffix (, ): as,

cōnsul-, consul, N. cōnsul; flāmin-, special priest, N. flāmen; agger-, mound, N. agger; iūr- for iūs-, right, N. iūs.

For cor, heart, see ; lacte, lac, milk, ; sanguī̆s, blood, ; -s in neuter adjectives, .

. (a.) Stems in -ōn- drop -n- in the nominative; stems in -in- for -on- drop -n-, and end in -ō: as,

leōn-, lion, N. leō; imāgin- for imāgon-, likeness, N. imāgō.

. (b.) Stems of one syllable in -r- for -s- usually retain -s in the nominative: as, flōr- for flōs-, M., flower, N. flōs; iūr- for iūs-, Ne., right, N. iūs. Some of more than one syllable also retain -s: see ; but in others -s is changed to -r, and in masculines a preceding ō is shortened: as, odōs, smell, odor. lepōs, grace, retains -ōs.

. (c.) Four stems in -er- for -is- have the nominative singular in -is: cinis, ashes, cineris; cucumis, cucumber, cucumeris or cucumis; pulvī̆s, dust, pulveris; and vōmis, oftener vōmer, ploughshare, vōmeris.

. The following have the nominative singular formed from a different stem from that of the other cases :

iter, journey, itineris, stems iter-, itiner-; Iuppiter Iovis; supellēx, furniture, supellēctilis ; senex, old man, man of forty or more, senis, stems senec-, sen-. For sēdēs, seat, see ; vātēs, bard, . canis, dog, N. also canēs (Plaut. Enn., Lucil.), iuvenis, young or middle-aged person , volucris, bird , and mēnsis, month , have their nominatives formed like those of -i- stems.

. An old dative in -ē is sometimes retained in set phrases : as, aerē, money; iūrē, right. See .

. Substantives have rarely an ablative in -ī or -ei like -i- stems: as, capitī (Catull.), head, for capite; dōtei (Plaut.), dowry, for dōte. Substantives used as adjectives have sometimes -ī: as artificī manū, with artist hand; but often -e: as, ālite lāpsū, with winged glide. For -ē in old Latin there is no certain evidence.

. Adjectives in the comparative degree have sometimes an ablative in -ī: as, meliōrī, better, for meliōre. Adjectives ‘of one ending’ with consonant stems have always -e, except vetus, old, which has sometimes veterī.

. Town names and a few appellatives have a locative case in -ī: as, Karthāginī, at Carthage; rūrī, a-field, in the country.

PLURAL CASES.

. The nominative and accusative plural masculine and feminine have rarely -īs, like stems in -i-: as sacerdōtīs, priests; meliōrīs, better. For -ā in neuters in old Latin, see , 2.

. The genitive plural of stems in -tāt- is sometimes -ium, like that of -ī- stems: as, cīvitātium, communities; voluptātium, pleasures (Cic.); but chiefly in or after the Augustan age. mēnsis, month, has mēnsum, but often mēnsuum, sometimes mēnsium. āles, bird, has sometimes ālituum in hexameter verse. For the dative and ablative -būs, see 2505.

. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows:

N. MVNICIPES; -ō for -ōs : MAIO, i.e. maiōs or maior. G. -es, as early as 218 B.C.: SALVTES; -us, from 186 to 100 B.C.: NOMINVS; -u : CAESARV. D. -ei: VIRTVTEI, soon after 290 B.C.; HEREDEI, 45 B.C.; -ē, disappeared sooner than -ei except in set phrases , but is equally old: IVNONE; IOVRE. Ac. -e : APICE. Ab. -īd : CONVENTIONID, i.e. cōntiōne; -ei: VIRTVTEI; -ī: HEREDI. Plural: N. -īs: IOVDICIS. G. -om: POVMILIONOM; -ium: MVNICIPIVM. D. -ebus: TEMPESTATEBVS. Ac. -īs: MVNICIPIS.

GREEK NOUNS.

. Greek appellatives of the consonant declension occasionally retain Greek case endings: as, lampas, torch, G. lampados, Ac. lampada. Plural: N. lampades, Ac. lampadas. āēr, air, has usually the accusative āera, and aethēr, upper air, always has aethera. In the plural nominative and accusative, cētus, swimming monster, melos, strain of music, and pelagus , the deep, have -ē: as, cētē. Genitive -ōn, rare: as, epigrammatōn, epigrams. Dative and ablative -matīs from words in -ma, -matis: as, poēmatīs, poems .

. Greek proper names of the consonant declension are usually declined like Latin ones in old Latin and prose. From Vergil and Propertius on, Greek case endings grow more and more frequent, especially in poetry; they are best learned for every name from the dictionary; the commonest forms are:

Genitive -os: as, Pān, Pānos; -ūs, with nominative -ō: as, Mantō, Mantūs. Dative -i, rare: as, Mīnōidi. Accusative -a, common with names of persons in poetry, not in prose, more common with those of places, and even in prose: as, Acheronta; always Pāna; -ō, with feminines in -ō, -ūs: as, Dīdō. Vocative: Pallās, Pallā; in old Latin the nominative is commonly used instead of the vocative. Plural: Nominative -es: as, Arcades. Dative -sin, rare: as, Lēmniasin. Accusative -as, very common: as, Lelegas; in prose, Macedonas; also in words not Greek: as, Allobrogas (Caes.).

. Names in -eus, like Orpheus, are usually declined like -o- stems . They have less frequently Greek forms: as, G. Orpheos, D. Orphei or Orphī, Ac. Orphea. Accusative rarely -ēa: as, Ī̆lonēa.

. Some names in -ēs have the genitive in -is or -ī and the accusative in -em or -ēn : as, Sōcratēs, G. Sōcratis or Sōcratī, Ac. usually Sōcratem, also Sōcratēn. Achillēs and Ulixēs have in the genitive -eī, -e͡i, or -ī. Names in -clēs have rarely the accusative -clea: as, Periclea.

. Some names in -is have forms either from a stem in -id-, or from one in -i-: as, Paris, G. Paridis, D. Paridī, Ac. Paridem, Parim or Parin, V. Pari.

Stems in -i- and Mixed Stems.

The Third Declension.

Genitive singular -is, genitive plural -i-um.

. Stems in -i- include both substantives and adjectives, gender words and neuters.

For the gender of substantives, see .

. The nominative of gender stems in -i- ends usually in -s (or -x), sometimes in -l or -r; that of neuter substantives has no suffix, and ends usually in -e, sometimes in -l or -r.

. Most stems in -i- have as many syllables in the nominative as in the genitive.

Such words are called Parisyllabic words, or Parisyllables: as, nominative cīvis, citizen, two syllables; genitive cīvis, of a citizen, also two syllables.

. Stems in -i- are declined in the main like consonant stems, but have -im in the accusative of some substantives, and -ī in the ablative of adjectives, of some gender substantives, and of neuters; in the plural they have -ium in the genitive, -īs often in the accusative of gender words, and -ia in the nominative and accusative neuter.

I. PARISYLLABLES.

. (1.) Parisyllabic gender stems in -i- with the nominative in -is are declined as follows:

Examples
Stems tussis, cough,
tussi-, F. turris, tower,
turri-, F. amnis, river,
amni-, M. hostis, enemy,
hosti-, M., F. Stem and
case endings

Singular

Nom. tussis turris amnis hostis -is

Gen. tussis turris amnis hostis -is

Dat. tussī turrī amnī hostī -ī

Acc. tussim turrim, -em amnem hostem -im, -em

Abl. tussī turrī, -e amne, -ī hoste -ī, -e

Plural

Nom. tussēs turrēs amnēs hostēs -ēs

Gen. turrium amnium hostium -ium

Dat. turribus amnibus hostibus -ibus

Acc. tussīs, -ēs turrīs, -ēs amnīs, -ēs hostīs, -ēs -īs, -ēs

Abl. turribus amnibus hostibus -ibus

. (a.) Like the singular of tussis are declined parisyllabic names of rivers and places, like Tiberis, Hispalis. Also cucumis, M., cucumber (but see ), and the defectives sitis, F., thirst, Ac. sitim, Ab. sitī, no plural; and vīs, F., power, Ac. vim, Ab. vī. Plural : N. vīrēs, G. vīrium, D. and Ab. vīribus, Ac. vīrīs or vīrēs. (The D. vī is only found twice; a N. and Ac. Pl. vīs is very rare.)

. (b.) The following feminines are declined like turris, with -im or -em in the accusative, and -ī or -e in the ablative:

clāvis, key

febris, fever

nāvis, vessel

puppis, stern

sēmentis, planting

strigilis, skin-scraper

So also in the oblique cases, Liger, the Liger. Arar, the Arar, has in the accusative -im, in the ablative -e or -ī.

. secūris, axe, messis, crop, and restis, rope, also have -im or -em in the accusative, but only secūrī, messe, and reste in the ablative. canālis, conduit, has only -em in the accusative, and only -ī in the ablative.

. (c.) The following are declined like amnis, with -em in the accusative, and -ī or -e in the ablative:

avis, bird

bīlis, bile

cīvis, citizen

classis, fleet

fūstis, club

ignis, fire

. (d.) Most parisyllabic stems in -i-, with the nominative in -is, are declined like hostis: as,

ēnsis, M., glaive; piscis, M., fish; aedis, F., temple, Pl. house ; vītis, F., vine; and a great many others. Also gender forms of adjectives in -i- ‘of two endings’ , except the ablative singular, which ends in -ī.

. (2.) Parisyllables in -i- with the nominative in -ēs have their other cases like those of hostis: such are:

caedēs, bloodshed; cautēs, rock; clādēs, disaster; indolēs, native disposition, no Pl.; lābēs, fall; mōlēs, pile; nūbēs, cloud; prōlēs, offspring, no Pl.; pūbēs, young population, no Pl.; rūpēs, crag; saepēs, hedge; strāgēs, slaughter; subolēs, offspring; tābēs, wasting, no Pl., feminines; and some others. Masculine: verrēs, boar; volpēs or vulpēs, fox.

. famēs, hunger, has G. twice famī (Cato, Lucil.), Ab. always famē , no Pl.; plēbēs, commons, N. also plēbs or plēps, has G. plēbe͡i , plēbī or plēbis, no Pl.

. (3.) A few stems in -bri-, -cri-, or -tri-, are declined as follows:

imber, shower, stem imbri-, M.

Singular: N. imber, G. imbris, D. imbrī, Ac. imbrem, Ab. imbrī, oftener imbre. Plural: N. imbrēs, G. imbrium, D. imbribus, Ac. imbrīs or imbrēs, Ab. imbribus. So also lunter or linter, F. (M.), tub, boat, ūter, M., leather bag, and venter, M., belly, but with only -e in the Ab.; and the masculine of adjectives in -bri-, -cri-, -tri-, N. -er ; these last have in the Ab. always -ī.

. (4.) Parisyllabic neuters in -i- with the nominative in -e are declined as follows:

Examples
Stems sedīle, seat,
sedīli-, Ne. mare, sea,
mari-, Ne. Stem and
case endings

Singular Plural Singular Plural S. Pl.

Nom. sedīle sedīlia mare maria -e -ia

Gen. sedīlis sedīlium maris -is -ium

Dat. sedīlī sedīlibus marī -ī -ibus

Acc. sedīle sedīlia mare maria -e -ia

Abl. sedīlī sedīlibus marī -ī -ibus

. mare has rarely the ablative mare in verse: in the plural only the nominative and accusative are usual; but a genitive marum is once quoted (Naev.), and the ablative maribus is once used by Caesar.

. Examples of parisyllabic neuters in -i-, with the nominative in -e, genitive -is, are:

ancīle, sacred shield; aplustre, ancient; conclāve, suite of rooms; īnsīgne, ensign; praesaepe, stall; rēte, net, Ab. rēte. Also the neuter of adjectives in -i- ‘of two endings’ , and some words in -īle, -āle, -āre, originally adjectives (, ): as, būbīle, ox-stall; fōcāle, neckcloth; cocleāre, spoon.

II. IMPARISYLLABLES.

. Sometimes a plural stem in -i- is combined, in the singular, with a stem in a mute, in -l, or -r, or rarely in -s. These mixed stems thus become imparisyllables. Gender stems of this class are like consonant stems in the singular, except the ablative of adjectives, which has usually -ī.

. Imparisyllabic stems in -i- are declined as follows:

Examples
Stems arx, citadel,
arci-, F. pars, part,
parti-, F. urbs, city,
urbi-, F. animal, animal
animāli-, Ne.

Singular

Nom. arx pars urbs animal

Gen. arcis partis urbis animālis

Dat. arcī partī urbī animālī

Acc. arcem partem urbem animal

Abl. arce parte urbe animālī

Plural

Nom. arcēs partēs urbēs animālia

Gen. arcium partium urbium animālium

Dat. arcibus partibus urbibus animālibus

Acc. arcīs, -ēs partīs, -ēs urbīs, -ēs animālia

Abl. arcibus partibus urbibus animālibus

. Examples of stems in -ci-, with nominative -x, genitive -cis, are:

-āx, -ācis fornāx, F., furnace. Many adjectives : as, audāx, daring.

-aex, -aecis faex, F., dregs, no G. Pl. .

-ex, -icis supplex, suppliant, Ab. -ī, sometimes -e, G. Pl. supplicum. Adjectives: duplex, twofold; multiplex, manifold; quadruplex, fourfold; septemplex, sevenfold; simplex, simple; triplex, threefold. The foregoing have Ab. -ī: as, duplicī; duplice once (Hor.), septemplice twice (Ov.; Stat.); G. Pl. -ium, Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. -ia.

-īx, -īcis fēlīx, happy; pernīx, nimble, adjectives. Also many feminines of the agent in -trīx : as, victrīx, victorious; these sometimes have a Ne. Pl. N. and Ac.: as, victrīcia; in the G. Pl. they have -ium, or, as substantives, -um: as, nūtrīcum, nurses.

-lx, -lcis calx, F. (M.), heel; calx, M., F., limestone, no G. Pl. ; falx, F., sickle.

-nx, -ncis lanx, F., platter, no G. Pl. ; deūnx, M., eleven twelfths; quīncunx, M., five twelfths.

-ox, -ocis praecox, over-ripe, older stem praecoqui-: as, G. praecoquis; rarely with -o- stem : as, praecoquam.

-ōx, -ōcis celōx, F., clipper. atrōx, savage; ferōx, wild; vēlōx, swift, adjectives.

-rx, -rcis arx, F., citadel, G. Pl. rare and late; merx, F., ware, N. in old Latin sometimes mercēs or mers.

-ux, -ucis Adjectives: trux, savage, Ab. -ī or -e, G. Pl. -ium; redux, returning, Ab. -ī or -e ; no G. Pl. and no Ne. N. or Ac. .

-aux, —— fauce, F., Ab., throat, N. faux once only and late, generally Pl.

-ūx, -ūcis lūx, F. , light, Ab. sometimes -ī, no G. Pl. .

. (a.) Examples of stems in -di-, with nominative -s, genitive -dis, are:

-ēs, -edis Compounds of pēs, foot: compede, F., Ab., fetter, no N., G. Pl. compedium; adjectives: as, ālipēs, wing-footed, bipēs, two-legged, quadrupēs, four-footed, &c., Ab. -ī, Pl. G. -um only , Ne. N. and Ac. -ia, rare and late.

-ns, -ndis Feminines: frōns, foliage; glāns, acorn; iūglāns, walnut.

-rs, -rdis concors, like-minded, adjective, and other compounds of cor, Ab. -ī Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. -ia, G. Pl. not usual: discordium, at variance, and vēcordium, frantic, once each.

-aus, -audis fraus, F., deceit, G. Pl. fraudium, later fraudum.

. (b.) Examples of stems in -ti-, with nominative -s (-x), genitive -tis, are:

-ās, -ātis Arpīnās, of Arpinum, and adjectives from other town names; optimātēs, good men and true, G. Pl. -ium, less often -um; penātēs, gods of the household store.

-es, -etis Adjectives: hebes, dull; teres, cylindrical, Ab. -ī , no G. Pl., Ne. Pl. hebetia, teretia, late and rare; perpes, lasting through, Ab. perpetī, late only; praepes, swift-winged, Ab. -ī or -e, G. Pl. -um, no Ne. Pl. N. or Ac.

-ēs, -ētis locuplēs, rich, adjective, Ab. usually -e of a person, -ī often of a thing, G. Pl. locuplētium, sometimes locuplētum, Ne. Pl. locuplētia once.

-īs, -ītis līs, contention; dīs, rich, adjective, Ab. always -ī , Pl. G. -ium, once -um (Sen.), Ne. N. and Ac. -ia. Quirīs, Samnīs.

-ls, -ltis puls, pottage, no G. Pl. .

-ns, -ntis Masculines: dēns, tooth: fōns, fountain; pōns, bridge; mōns, mountain, N. once montis (Enn.); factors of twelve: sextāns, one sixth; quadrāns, triēns, dōdrāns, dēxtāns. Feminines: frōns, forehead; gēns, clan; mēns, mind. Present participles: as, regēns, guiding. Many adjectives: as, ingēns, gigantic, Ab. -ī ; Vēiēns, of Vei; compounds of mēns: as, āmēns, out of one’s head; of dēns: as, tridēns, Ab. -ī, as substantive usually -e.

-eps, -ipitis Adjective compounds of caput, head: anceps , two-headed, once older ancipēs (Plaut.); biceps, two-headed; triceps, three-headed; praeceps, head-first, old praecipēs (Plaut.; Enn.), Ab. -ī , no G. Pl., Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. -ia.

-rs, -rtis Feminines: ars, art; cohors, cohort; fors, chance; mors, death; pars, part; sors, lot, N. twice sortis (Plaut.; Ter.). Adjectives: cōnsors, sharing, exsors, not sharing, no G. Pl.; expers, without part; iners, unskilled, sollers, all-skilled, Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. -ia.

-x, -ctis nox, F., night; Ab. also noctū ; an old adverb form is nox, nights.

. (a.) Stems in -bi-, with nominative -bs , genitive -bis, are:

trabs, F., beam, older N. trabēs (Enn.); plēbs, F., commons, N. sometimes plēps, for the older plēbēs , no Pl.; urbs, F., city.

. (b.) Stems in -pi-, with nominative -ps, genitive -pis, are:

inops, poor, adjective, Ab. -ī , G. Pl. -um, no Ne. Pl. N. or Ac. ; stirps, F. (M.), trunk.

. Examples of stems in -li-, with nominative -l, genitive -lis, are:

-al, -ālis Neuters, originally adjective : animal, animal; bacchānal, shrine or feast of Bacchus; cervīcal, bolster; puteal, well-curb; toral, valance; tribūnal, tribunal; vectīgal, indirect tax. Only N. or Ac.: cubital, elbow-cushion; minūtal, minced-fish; capital, capitālia, death, capital crime.

-il, -ilis vigil, wide-awake, adjective, Ab. -ī, as substantive -e , G. Pl. vigilum , no Ne. Pl. N. or Ac. .

. (a.) Examples of stems in -ri-, with nominative -r, genitive -ris, are:

-ar, -āris Neuters, originally adjective : calcar, spur; columbar, dove-cote; exemplar, pattern; lacūnar, panel-ceiling; pulvīnar, couch; subligar, tights; torcular, wine-press.

-ār, -aris Adjectives: pār, equal; dispār, impār, unequal, for Ab., see ; G. Pl. -ium, Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. -ia; compār, co-mate, as substantive has G. Pl. -um.

-er, -eris Adjectives: dēgener, degenerate, Ab. -ī , no Ne. Pl. N. or Ac. ; ūber, fruitful, Ab. -ī, late -e, Ne. Pl. ūbera once only (Acc.).

-or, -oris Adjectives: memor, remembering; immemor, forgetful, Ab. -ī , G. Pl. memorum once only (Verg.), no Ne. Pl. N. or Ac. .

-or, -ōris Adjective compounds of color: as, concolor, of like shade, discolor, of different shade, both with Ab. -ī only; versicolor, pied, Ab. -ī, rarely -e, Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. -ia; the G. Pl. of these words is not usual, but versicōlorum once.

. (b.) Stems in -ri-, with nominative -s of the stem, genitive -ris, are glīs, F., dormouse, glīris; mās, M., male, maris; mūs, F., mouse, mūris.

. The only imparisyllabic stem in -si- is ās (171, 1), M., unit, an as, G. assis, with its compounds bēs, two thirds, G. bessis, and sēmis, half an as, half, G. sēmissis.

SINGULAR CASES.

. (1.) The nominative singular of gender stems in -i- is usually formed by adding -s to the stem . But many gender substantives have the nominative in -ēs (, ): as,

amni-, river, N. amnis; aedi-, temple, N. aedis; brevi-, short, N. brevis. With N. -ēs: nūbi-, cloud, N. nūbēs; for other examples, see .

. Some substantives form the nominative in both these ways: as, vallēs and vallis, valley, equally common; aedis, temple, later aedēs; for caedēs, slaughter, clādēs, disaster, and mōlēs, pile, caedis, &c., occur exceptionally.

. A few stems in -bri-, -cri-, or -tri-, drop -i- in the nominative. The endings brs, crs, trs, then change to -ber, -cer, -ter (111, b): as, imbrī-, shower, N. imber .

. Of gender imparisyllables, some have lost -i- of the stem before -s in the nominative; others have originally a consonant stem in the nominative (529-535).

Thus, monti-, mountain, and sorti-, lot, have N. mōns and sors for an older montis and sortis; but dēns, tooth, and regēns, ruling, have as original stems dent- and regent-. Adjectives in -cipiti- have N. -ceps .

. A few adjective stems in -li- or -ri- drop -i- in the nominative without taking -s (, ): as, vigili-, wide-awake, N. vigil; pari-, equal, N. pār; so also Arar and Liger. Three substantives in -ri- for -si- likewise drop -i-, and end in the original -s : glīri- for glīsi-, dormouse, N. glīs; mās, male; mūs, mouse.

. For carō, F., flesh, carnis (Ab. -ī, usually -e, no G. Pl.) see 135, 2. supellēx, F., furniture, supellēctilis (Ab. -ī or -e, no Pl.), has the nominative formed from a different stem from that of the other cases .

. (2) Neuter stems in -i- have no nominative suffix, and end in -e for -i- of the stem (107, b): as,

mari-, sea, N. mare; brevi-, short, N. breve. In some words, originally neuter adjectives in -āle and -āre, the -e is dropped and the ā shortened: as, animāle, living thing, animal ; exemplāre (Lucr.), pattern, exemplar . Some neuter adjectives end in -l or -r (, ); and some ‘of one ending’ end in -s .

. The accusative singular of gender substantives usually has -em, like consonant stems ; but a few substantives with the nominative in -is have -im only, and some have either -im or -em.

. (a.) Accusatives in -im

Are sitim, tussim, vim, thirst, cough, strength

And būrim, cucumim. ploughtail, cucumber

. The accusative in -im is found in many adverbs : as, partim, in part; in some adverbial expressions: as, adamussim, examussim, to a T, adfatim, to satiety, ad ravim, to hoarseness; in some names of rivers and cities: as, Tiberim, Hispalim; and in some Greek words .

. (b.) Six have the accusative commonly in -im, sometimes in -em:

febrim, -em, fever

pelvim, -em, basin

puppim, -em, stern

restim, -em, rope

secūrim, -em, axe

turrim, -em, tower

. Six have the accusative commonly in -em, sometimes in -im:

bipennem, -im, two-edged axe

clāvem, -im, key

messem, -im, crop

nāvem, -im, ship

sēmentem, -im, planting

strigilem, -im, skin-scraper

. In the ablative, gender substantives have usually -e, and neuters and adjectives have -ī: as,

hoste, enemy; marī, sea; ācrī, sharp, brevī, short, audācī, daring.

. (1.) Of gender substantives with the nominative in -is, a few have only -ī in the ablative, and many have either -ī or -e.

. (a.) These ablatives have only -ī:

secūrī, sitī, tussī, vī, axe, thirst, cough, strength

canālī, cucumī, conduit, cucumber

Some names of rivers and cities have only -ī: as, Tiberī, Hispalī. The locative also ends in -ī: as, Neāpolī, at Neapolis.

. (b.) These ablatives of gender substantives with the nominative in -is have -ī or -e:

amne, -ī, river

ave, -ī, bird

bīle, -ī, bile

cīvī, -e, citizen

classe, -ī, fleet

clāvī, -e, key

febrī, -e, fever

fūstī, -e, club

ignī, -e, fire

nāvī, -e, ship

orbī, -e, circle

puppī, -e, stern

sēmentī, -e, planting

strigilī, -e, skin-scraper

turrī, -e, tower

. A few other words in -is have occasionally an ablative in -ī: as, anguis, snake, collis, hill, fīnis, end, postis, post, unguis, nail, &c. sors, lot, imber, shower, and lūx, light, have also -e or -ī; supellēx, furniture, has supellēctilī or -e; Arar has -e or -ī; Liger, -ī or -e.

. Neuter names of towns with the nominative in -e have -e in the ablative: as, Praeneste. rēte, net, has only rēte; mare, sea, has rarely mare .

. (2.) Adjectives ‘of two endings’ with stems in -i- often have -e in the ablative when they are used as substantives, and sometimes in verse, when a short vowel is needed: as,

adfīnī, -e, connection by marriage; aedīle, -ī, aedile; familiārī, -e, friend. But some, even as substantives, have -ī: as, aequālī, of the same age, cōnsulārī, ex-consul, gentīlī, tribesman. Adjectives of place in -ēnsis usually have -ī, but sometimes -e: as, Tarquiniēnse. Proper names have usually -e: as, Iuvenāle.

. Adjectives ‘of one ending’ with stems in -i- , have commonly -ī in the ablative. The following ablatives have only -ī:

āmentī, frenzied, ancipitī, two-headed, praecipitī, head-first, concolōrī, of like hue, concordī, harmonious, discordī, at variance, sōcordī, imperceptive, dēgenerī, degenerate, dītī, rich, teretī, rounded, ingentī, huge, inopī, without means, memorī, remembering, immemorī, forgetful.

. Present participles, when used as adjectives, have -ī in the ablative, otherwise -e: as,

ā sapientī virō, by a wise man; adulēscente, youth, substantive; Rōmulō rēgnante, in the reign of Romulus, ablative absolute (1362).

. Other adjectives ‘of one ending’ occasionally have -e in the ablative when used as substantives or as epithets of persons, or in verse when a short syllable is needed: as,

cōnsortī, sharing, parī, equal, vigilī, wide-awake, fēlīcī, happy, as adjectives; but cōnsorte, &c., as substantives; in prose, imparī, disparī, unequal; in verse, impare, dispare. Proper names have -e: as, Fēlīce.

PLURAL CASES.

. In the plural, gender nominatives have -ēs, rarely -īs or -eīs, and gender accusatives have -īs or -ēs indifferently, sometimes -eis; after about 50 A.D., -ēs was the prevalent ending for both cases. Neuters add -a to the stem, making -ia; for -iā́ in old Latin, cf. 2505.

. In the genitive plural, present participles, some substantive stems in -nt(i)-, and some adjectives ‘of two endings’ have occasionally -um: as,

amantum, lovers; rudentum, rigging; agrestum, country folk; caelestum, heaven’s tenantry. apis, bee, has commonly -um; caedēs, slaughter, and fraus, deceit, have rarely -um. For -um in some adjectives ‘of one ending,’ see ; for -bū́s in the dative and ablative in old Latin, see 2505.

. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows:

N. without -is: VECTIGAL, i.e. vectīgālis, adjective; -e for -is (, ): MILITARE, i.e. mīlitāris, adjective; -ēs : AIDILES, i.e. aedīlis; CIVES, i.e. cīvis. G. -us, from 186 to 100 B.C.: PARTVS, i.e. partis. D. -ei: VRBEI. Ac. -i : PARTI, i.e. partem; -e: AIDE, i.e. aedem. Ab. -ei: FONTEI; -e: SERVILE, i.e. servīlī. Plural: N. -ēs: FINES; -eis: FINEIS; -īs: FINIS.

GREEK NOUNS.

. Greek stems in -i- are usually declined like Latin ones, with the accusative in -im, and ablative in -ī. But the accusative sometimes has -n: as, poēsin, poetry, Charybdin; similarly Capyn; and a vocative occurs: as, Charybdi. The plural genitive Metamorphōseōn, and as ablative Metamorphōsesin, occur as titles of books.

CHARACTERISTICS OF STEMS IN -i-.

. Parisyllables with nominatives in -is, -ēs, or -e, and a few in -er; and imparisyllables with nominatives in -al, and in -ar for -āre, have stems in -i-.

But canis, iuvenis , volucris , mēnsis , sēdēs , and vātēs , have consonant stems.

. Under -i- stems may also conveniently be grouped the following classes, which have usually a consonant form in the singular, and an -i- form in the plural:

. (a.) Imparisyllabic adjectives with the genitive in -is, except comparatives and the dozen with consonant stems , and imparisyllables with a nominative in -s or -x preceded by any consonant except p. But cōniūnx and caelebs have consonant stems.

. (b.) The following monosyllables: ās, unit, an as, faex, dregs, fraus, deceit, glīs, dormouse, līs, strife, lūx, light, mās, male, mūs, mouse, nox, night, stirps, trunk, vīs, strength. Also fauce, throat, and compede, fetter, both Ab., no N., and fornāx, furnace.

GENDER OF CONSONANT STEMS AND -i- STEMS.

. The gender of many of these substantives is determined by their meaning (404-412); that of participles used as substantives follows the gender of the substantive understood; Greek substantives follow the Greek gender. The gender of other words may be conveniently arranged for the memory according to the nominative endings as follows.

MASCULINE.

. Imparisyllables in -es or -ēs and substantives in -er, -ō, -or, and -ōs are masculine: as,

caespes, sod; pēs, foot; agger, mound; sermō, speech; pallor, paleness; flōs, flower.

. These imparisyllables in -es or -ēs are feminine: merges, sheaf, seges, crop, teges, mat; requiēs and quiēs, rest; compedēs, plural, fetters; mercēs, reward. aes, copper, bronze, is neuter.

. These substantives in -er are neuter: cadāver, corpse, iter, way, tūber, swelling, truffle, ūber, udder, verberis, lash, genitive, no nominative; also names of plants in -er: as, acer, maple, cicer, chickpea, papāver, poppy, piper, pepper, siler, osier, siser, skirret, sūber, corktree. linter, tub, boat, is feminine, once masculine. vēr, spring, is neuter.

. Substantives in -ō, with genitive -inis , are feminine; as, imāgō, imāginis, likeness; also carō, carnis, flesh, and words of action in -iō and -tiō (, ). But cardō, hinge, ōrdō, rank, and turbō, whirlwind, are masculine. margō, brink, and cupīdō, desire, are sometimes masculine.

. These substantives in -or are neuter: ador, spelt, aequor, sea, marmor, marble, cor, heart. arbor, tree, is feminine.

. These substantives in -ōs are feminine: cōs, whetstone, arbōs, tree, dōs, dowry. ōs, ōris, mouth, face, is neuter, also os, ossis, bone.

FEMININE.

. Parisyllables in -ēs, and substantives in -ās, -aus, -is, -s preceded by a consonant, and -x, are feminine: as,

nūbēs, cloud; aetās, age; laus, praise; nāvis, ship; urbs, city; pāx, peace.

. ās, assis, penny, is masculine. vās, vessel, utensil, and the defectives fās, right, and nefās, wrong, are neuter.

. Substantives in -nis are masculine; also twenty-nine others in -is, as follows:

axis, callis, caulis, anguis, axle, path, cabbage, snake

fascis, fūstis, lapis, sanguī̆s, bundle, club, stone, blood

piscis, postis, pulvī̆s, ēnsis, fish, post, dust, glaive

torquis, torris, unguis, mēnsis, twisted collar, firebrand, nail, month

vectis, vermis, vōmis, collis, lever, worm, ploughshare, hill

glīs, canālis, also follis, dormouse, conduit, ball

cassēs, sentēs, veprēs, orbis, nets, brambles, thorns, plurals, circle

cucumis, and sometimes corbis. cucumber, basket

būrim, ploughtail, accusative only, is also masculine. A few of the above are sometimes feminine: as, amnis, anguis, callis, canālis, cinis, fīnis, fūnis, torquis, veprēs, &c.

. Four in -s preceded by a consonant are masculine: dēns, tooth, fōns, fountain, pōns, bridge, mōns, mountain; also factors of twelve: sextāns, one sixth, quadrāns, triēns, dōdrāns, dēxtāns; rudēns, rope, once. adeps, fat, and forceps, pincers, are masculine or feminine. stirps, stock, is sometimes masculine.

. calix, cup, fornix, arch, and trādux, vinelayer, are masculine; also substantives in -ūnx and -ex; except nex, murder, and precī, prayer, dative, no nominative, which are feminine; also rarely grex, herd. cortex, bark, forfex, scissors, silex, flint, and obice, barrier, ablative, no nominative, are either masculine or feminine. calx, heel, and calx, lime, are sometimes masculine, also lūx, light, in the ablative in old Latin.

NEUTER.

. Substantives in -c, -e, -l, -n, -t, in -ar, -ur, -us, and -ūs, are neuter: as,

lac, milk; mare, sea; animal, animal; carmen, song; caput, head; calcar, spur; fulgur, lightning; corpus, body; iūs, right.

. sōl, sun, pecten, comb, liēn, spleen, rēnēs, kidneys, plural, and furfur, bran, are masculine. So usually sāl, salt, but sometimes neuter in the singular. fār, spelt, is neuter.

. pecus, beast, is feminine; also tellūs, earth, and the substantives in -ūs which have -ūdis or -ūtis in the genitive: as, palūs, marsh; iuventūs, youth.

Stems in -u-.

The Fourth Declension.

Genitive singular -ūs, genitive plural -u-um.

. Stems in -u- are substantive only, and mostly masculine.

. There are only three neuters in common use, cornū, horn, genū, knee, and verū, a spit. But some cases of other neuters are used: as, ablative pecū, flock; plural nominative and accusative artua, limbs (Plaut.); OSSVA, bones (inscr.).

. The nominative of stems in -u- ends, including the stem vowel, in -u-s in gender words, and in lengthened -ū of the stem in neuters.

. Most substantives in -u- are masculines in -tu- or -su-, often defective in case . The following words are feminine: acus, pin, needle, domus, house, manus, hand, porticus, colonnade; tribus, tribe; and the plurals īdūs, ides, and quīnquātrūs, feast of Minerva; rarely penus, store, and specus, cave.

. Stems in -u- are declined as follows:

Examples
Stems flūctus, wave,
flūctu-, M. cornū, horn,
cornu-, Ne. Stem and
case endings

Singular M. Ne.

Nom. flūctus, a (or the) wave cornū -us -ū

Gen. flūctūs, a wave’s, of a wave cornūs -ūs -ūs

Dat. flūctuī, -ū, to or for a wave cornū -uī, -ū -ū

Acc. flūctum, a wave cornū -um -ū

Abl. flūctū, from, with, or by a wave cornū -ū -ū

Plural

Nom. flūctūs, (the) waves cornua -ūs -ua

Gen. flūctuum, waves’, of waves cornuum -uum -uum

Dat. flūctibus, to or for waves cornibus -ibus -ibus

Acc. flūctūs, waves cornua -ūs -ua

Abl. flūctibus, from, with, or by waves cornibus -ibus -ibus

SINGULAR CASES.

. In the genitive, the uncontracted form -uis sometimes occurs: as, anuis, old woman (Ter.). A genitive in -tī is rather common: as, adventī, arrival; ōrnātī, embellishment (Ter.); senātī, senate. In the dative, -ū is regularly found for -uī in neuters and often in gender words.

PLURAL CASES.

. In the genitive plural, a shorter form in -um is occasionally found: as, passum, steps (Plaut., Mart.); currum, chariots (Verg.); EXERCITVM. The quantity of the u and the origin of this ending are uncertain.

. In the dative and ablative plural, the following retain -u-bus: acus, pin, needle, arcus, bow, partus, birth, tribus, tribe. The following have -u-bus or -i-bus : artūs, plural, joints, lacus, lake, portus, haven, specus, cave, genū, knee, verū, a spit. All other words have -i-bus only.

. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows:

G. -uos: SENATVOS; -ū SENATV; -uus, in the imperial age (29, 1): EXERCITVVS. D. -uei (29, 2): SENATVEI. Ac. -u : MANV. Ab. -uu (29, 1): ARBITRATVV; -uō, once, by some thought to be for -ūd ; MAGISTRATVO. Plural: N. -uus (29, 1): MAGISTRATVVS.

. domus, house, F., has stems of two forms, domu- and domo- ; it is declined as follows: N. domus, G. domūs, rarely domī, D. domuī or domō, Ac. domum, Ab. domō or domū, Locative domī, rarely domuī. Plural: N. domūs, G. domuum, later domōrum, D. and Ab. domibus, Ac. domōs, less commonly domūs.

. Some other substantives have an -u- stem in some of their cases, and an -o- stem in others: see angiportus, arcus, caestus, colus, cornū, cornus, cupressus, fīcus, fretus, gelus, laurus, murtus, penus, pīnus, quercus, rīctus, tonitrus, in the dictionary.

Stems in -ē-.

The Fifth Declension.

Genitive singular -ē̆ī, genitive plural -ē-rum.

. Stems in -ē- are substantive only, and feminine.

. diēs, day, is always masculine in the plural, and commonly in the singular; but the feminine is common when diēs denotes length of time or a set day. merīdiēs, midday, is masculine and singular only.

. The nominative of stems in -ē- ends, including the stem vowel, in -ē-s.

. Stems in -ē- are of two classes:

. (1.) Stems of the first class have one or two syllables; there are four of them: rēs, thing, spēs, hope, diēs, day, and fidēs, faith.

Of this class, rēs and diēs have a plural throughout; spēs has only the nominative and accusative plural, and fidēs has no plural.

. Stems in -ē- of the first class are declined as follows:

Examples
Stems rēs, thing,
rē-, F. diēs, day,
diē-, M. Stem and
case endings

Singular

Nom. rēs, a (or the) thing diēs -es

Gen. rĕ̄i, re͡i, a thing’s, of a thing diēī, die͡i -ē̆ī, -ēī, -e͡i

Dat. rĕ̄i, re͡i, to or for a thing diēī, die͡i -ē̆ī, -ēī, -e͡i

Acc. rem, a thing diem -em

Abl. rē, from, with, or by a thing diē -ē

Plural

Nom. rēs, (the) things diēs -ēs

Gen. rērum, things’, of things diērum -ērum

Dat. rēbus, to or for things diēbus -ēbus

Acc. rēs, things diēs -ēs

Abl. rēbus, from, with, or by things diēbus -ēbus

. fidēs is declined like rēs; it has once a genitive fidēs (Plaut.). For rēī, reī, or re͡i, and fidēī, fideī, or fide͡i, see 127, 4. diēs has rarely a genitive diēs (Enn.) or diī (Verg.). spēs has only the genitive and dative spe͡i in verse. A genitive or dative in -ē is sometimes found: as, rē, diē, fidē.

. A few cases of other words sometimes follow this class : as, plēbēs , commons, G. plēbe͡i or plēbī; famēs , hunger, Ab. always famē; requiēs , rest, G. requiē (Sall.), Ac. requiem, Ab. requiē; tābēs , waste, Ab. tābē, *contāgēs, contact, Ab. contāgē (Lucr.), &c.

. (2.) Stems of the second class are formed by the suffix -iē- or -tiē-, and have three or more syllables.

This class, which is parallel to stems in -iā-, has usually no genitive, dative, or plural. Many stems, especially those in -tiē-, have also a collateral form in -iā-, and the genitive and dative, when used at all, are commonly from a stem in -iā-.

. Stems in -ē- of the second class are declined as follows:

lūxuriēs, extravagance, stem lūxuriē-, F.

Nom. lūxuriēs, Acc. lūxuriem, Abl. lūxuriē.

. A few examples of the genitive of these stems are found: as, perniciī, perniciēs, or perniciē, ruin (Cic.); rabiēs, fury (Lucr.); aciē, edge of battle (Sall., Caes., auct. B. Afr.), faciē, make (Plaut., Lucil.), speciē, looks (Caes.); aciēī (auct. B. Afr.). And a very few of the dative: as, aciēī twice (Caes.); perniciēī, perniciī (Nep.); perniciē (Liv.).

. ēluviēs, offscouring, wash, has the nominative of the plural, and glaciēs, ice, has the accusative of the plural. Five words only have the nominative and accusative plural:

seriēs, aciēs, row, edge,

speciēs, faciēs, look, make,

effigiēs, likeness.

The Adjective.

. Adjectives are declined like substantives, and it has been shown already how their cases are formed. But they differ from substantives in having different forms in some of their cases to denote different genders; it is convenient therefore to put their complete declension together.

. Adjective stems end in -o- and -ā-, in a consonant, or in -i-.

. An accusative plural of a stem in -u-, anguimanūs, with a serpent for a hand, is once used (Lucr.). There are no adjective stems in -ē-.

. Adjectives are often conveniently said to be ‘of three endings,’ ‘of two endings,’ or ‘of one ending.’

By the ‘ending’ is meant the ending of the nominative singular: thus, bonus, bona, bonum, good, and ācer, ācris, ācre, sharp, are ‘of three endings’ ; brevis, breve, short, is ‘of two endings’ ; and audāx, bold, is ‘of one ending’ .

. Adjectives ‘of one ending’ which form a gender nominative in -s, retain the -s irrationally in the nominative and accusative neuter singular: as, N. M. and F. audāx, N. and Ac. Ne. also audāx.

Stems in -o- and -ā-.

. Most adjectives with stems in -o- and -ā- are declined as follows:

Example
Stems M. bonus, F. bona, Ne. bonum, good
bono-, bonā-.

Singular. Plural.

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut.

Nom. bonus bona bonum boni bonae bona

Gen. bonī bonae bonī bonōrum bonārum bonōrum

Dat. bonō bonae bonō bonīs bonīs bonīs

Acc. bonum bonam bonum bonōs bonās bona

Abl. bonō bonā bonō bonīs bonīs bonīs

Voc. bone

. Stems in -io- and -iā- have no consonant i in cases ending in -i or -īs (153, 3): as plēbēius, plebeian, G. S. M. and Ne., and N. Pl. M. plēbēī, D. and Ab. Pl. plēbēīs.

. Stems in -ro- preceded by a long vowel retain -us in the nominative singular masculine and are declined like bonus : as, sevērus, stern; also

ferus, merus, wild, unmixed

mōrigerus, complaisant

praeposterus, reversed

properus, hasty

prōsperus, lucky

triquetrus, three-cornered

. (1.) Some stems in -ro- preceded by a short vowel end in -r in the nominative singular masculine and have no vocative ; they are declined as follows:

Example
Stems M. līber, F. lībera, Ne. līberum, free,
lībero-, līberā-.

Singular. Plural.

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut.

Nom. līber lībera līberum līberī līberae lībera

Gen. līberī līberae līberī līberōrum līberārum līberōrum

Dat. līberō līberae līberō līberīs līberīs līberīs

Acc. līberum līberam līberum līberōs līberās lībera

Abl. līberō līberā līberō līberīs līberīs līberīs

Such are: compounds, chiefly poetical, ending in -fer and -ger, bearing, carrying, having: as, caelifer, heaven-upholding; corniger, horned; also the following:

(alter, ), asper, other, rough

lacer, līber, torn, free

gibber, miser, hump-backed, forlorn

satur, sēmifer, full, half-beast

tener, Trēver, tender, Treveran

dexter, right, has dextera, dexterum, or dextra, dextrum, G. dexterī, or dextrī, &c. sinister, left, has usually sinistra, &c., rarely sinisteram (Plaut., Ter.). asper has a plural accusative asprōs (Stat.), and ablative asprīs (Verg.).

. (2.) Other stems in -ro- have a vowel before r only in the nominative singular masculine -er ; they are declined as follows:

Example
Stems M. aeger, F. aegra, Ne. aegrum, ill,
aegro-, aegrā-.

Singular. Plural.

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut.

Nom. aeger aegra aegrum aegrī aegrae aegra

Gen. aegrī aegrae aegrī aegrōrum aegrārum aegrōrum

Dat. aegrō aegrae aegrō aegrīs aegrīs aegrīs

Acc. aegrum aegram aegrum aegrōs aegrās aegra

Abl. aegrō aegrā aegrō aegrīs aegrīs aegrīs

. Nine adjectives or adjective pronouns have the pronoun form -ī̆us in the genitive singular and -ī in the dative singular, for masculine, feminine, and neuter alike; they are the following:

alius, another

sōlus, alone

tōtus, whole

ūnus, one

ūllus, any at all

nūllus, no

alter, the other

uter, which of the two

neuter, neither

. Of the above words, those with the nominative in -us are declined like ūnus . But alius has N. and Ac. Ne. aliud ; for the G., alterī̆us is mostly used, except in the combination alīus modī, of another sort; the N. M. is rarely alis, Ne. alid, D. rarely alī. alter is declined like līber , except in the genitive singular alterī̆us (127, 6) and dative alterī. For uter and its derivatives, see .

. The ordinary genitive and dative of -o- and -ā- stems, from some of the above words, is sometimes found: G. and D. aliae, sōlae, alterae, D. aliō, alterae, &c.

Consonant Stems.

OF TWO ENDINGS.

. The only consonant stems of two endings are comparatives ; they are declined as follows:

Example
Stems M. and F. trīstior, Ne. trīstius, sadder,
trīstiōr-, trīstius-.

Singular. Plural.

Masc. and Fem. Neut. Masc. and Fem. Neut.

Nom. trīstior trīstius trīstiōrēs trīstiōra

Gen. trīstiōris trīstiōris trīstiōrum trīstiōrum

Dat. trīstiōrī trīstiōrī trīstiōribus trīstiōribus

Acc. trīstiōrem trīstius trīstiōres trīstiōra

Abl. trīstiōre trīstiōre trīstiōribus trīstiōribus

. The ablative rarely has -ī for -e: as, meliōrī ; the accusative plural masculine and feminine rarely have -īs: as, meliōrīs .

. plūs, more, has in the singular only Ne. N. and Ac. plūs, G. plūris, and Ab. plūre. Plural: N. M. and F. plūrēs, Ne. plūra, G. plūrium, D. and Ab. plūribus, Ac. M. and F. plūrēs or plūrīs, Ne. plūra. complūrēs, a good many, plural only, has N. M. and F. complūrēs, Ne. N. and Ac. complūria or complūra, G. complūrium, D. and Ab. complūribus, Ac. M. and F. complūrēs or complūrīs.

OF ONE ENDING.

. A dozen adjectives ‘of one ending,’ mostly words applying to persons, with consonant stems throughout, have no nominative or accusative neuter plural; they are:

caelebs, compos, unmarried, master of

*dēses, dīves, lazy, rich

particeps, prīnceps, sharing, first

pūbēs, impūbēs, mangrown, immature

sōspes, superstes, safe, surviving

pauper, cicur, poor, tame

. When these adjectives have a neuter, it is the same as the gender forms, except in the accusative singular; they are declined as follows:

M. F. and Ne. dīves, rich, stem dīvit-.

Singular: N. dīves, G. dīvitis, D. dīvitī, Ac. M. and F. dīvitem, Ne. dīves, Ab. dīvite. Plural: N. and Ac. M. and F. dīvitēs, G. dīvitum, D. and Ab. dīvitibus.

. The plural caelitēs, heavenly, occupants of heaven, is also declined like the plural of dīves; the singular Ab. caelite occurs a couple of times. vetus, old, G. veteris, is also declined like dīves, but has a Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. vetera; the Ab. S. is regularly vetere, but veterī is sometimes used.

Stems in -i-.

OF THREE ENDINGS.

. A dozen adjectives with stems in -bri-, -cri-, or -tri-, have a distinctive form in -er for the masculine nominative singular; they are:

celeber, thronged

salūber, healthy

ācer, keen

alacer, lively

volucer, winged

campester, of a plain

equester, cavalry-

palūster, of a swamp

pedester, foot-

puter, rotten

silvester, woody

terrester, land-

So also celer, swift. The names of months, September, Octōber, November, December, are also adjectives with stems in -bri-, but are not used in the neuter. Other adjectives with stems in -bri-, -cri-, or -tri-, have no distinctive form for the masculine nominative singular: as, muliebris, mediocris, inlūstris.

. These adjectives are declined as follows:

Example
Stem M. ācer, F. ācris, Ne. ācre, sharp
ācri-.

Singular. Plural.

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut.

Nom. ācer ācris ācre ācres ācres ācria

Gen. ācris ācris ācris ācrium ācrium ācrium

Dat. ācrī ācrī ācrī ācribus ācribus ācribus

Acc. ācrem ācrem ācre ācrīs, -ēs acrīs, -ēs ācria

Abl. ācrī ācrī ācrī ācribus ācribus ācribus

. In all cases but the masculine nominative singular these adjectives are just like those in -i- ‘of two endings’ . But the ablative always has -ī, never -e, and the genitive plural always has -ium, never -um. In celer the second e belongs to the stem: M. celer, F. celeris, Ne. celere; the genitive plural, which is celerum, is found only as a substantive. Most of these adjectives have now and then a masculine in -is, like adjectives ‘of two endings’ , and in old Latin the nominative -er is rarely feminine.

OF TWO ENDINGS.

. Adjectives ‘of two endings’ with stems in -i- are declined as follows:

Example
Stem M. and F. brevis, Ne. breve, short
brevi-.

Singular. Plural.

Masc. and Fem. Neut. Masc. and Fem. Neut.

Nom. brevis breve brevēs brevia

Gen. brevis brevis brevium brevium

Dat. brevī brevī brevibus brevibus

Acc. brevem breve brevīs, -ēs brevia

Abl. brevī brevī brevibus brevibus

. The ablative is sometimes -e when these adjectives are used substantively or in verse . The genitive plural is rarely -um for -ium .

OF ONE ENDING.

. Most adjectives ‘of one ending’ have a consonant form of the stem in the singular, except usually in the ablative , and an -i- stem in the plural; they are declined as follows:

Examples
Stems M. F. and Ne. audāx, bold,
audāc(i)- M. F. Ne. regēns, ruling,
regent(i)-

Singular Masc. & Fem. Neut. Masc. & Fem. Neut.

Nom. audāx audāx regēns regēns

Gen. audācis audācis regentis regentis

Dat. audācī audācī regentī regentī

Acc. audācem audāx regentem regēns

Abl. audācī audācī regente, -ī regente, -ī

Plural Masc. & Fem. Neut. Masc. & Fem. Neut.

Nom. audācēs audācia regentēs regentia

Gen. audācium audācium regentium regentium

Dat. audācibus audācibus regentibus regentibus

Acc. audācīs, -ēs audācia regentīs, -ēs regentia

Abl. audācibus audācibus regentibus regentibus

. Present participles have -ī in the ablative, when they are used as adjectives, otherwise -e . For -ī or -e in other words, see , . For -ium or -um in the genitive plural, .

. Most adjectives ‘of one ending’ in -i- are declined as above ; some of them have peculiarities in some of their cases, as follows:

. (1.) trux , savage, has Ab. -ī or -e, G. Pl. -ium, no Ne. Pl. N. or Ac. redux , returning, has Ab. -ī or -e, no G. Pl. or Ne. Pl. N. or Ac. hebes, dull, teres, cylindrical , and compounds of caput, head, as anceps, , two-headed, have Ab. -ī, no G. Pl.; a Ne. Pl. N. or Ac. -ia is rare. For locuplēs, rich, see .

. (2.) The following have -ī in the ablative, but -um of consonant stems in the genitive plural, and no nominative or accusative neuter plural: inops , without means, vigil , wide-awake, memor , remembering, dēgener, degenerate, ūber , prolific, has Ab. -ī, twice -e, Ne. Pl. once -a (Acc.). Compounds of pēs, as, bipēs , two-legged, have a late and rare Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. -ia.

The Numeral Adjective.

. Of the cardinals, ūnus, duo, trēs, and the hundreds except centum are declined. The other cardinals are not declined.

. ūnus, one, is declined as follows:

Singular. Plural.

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut.

Nom. ūnus ūna ūnum ūnī ūnae ūna

Gen. ūnīus ūnīus ūnīus ūnōrum ūnārum ūnōrum

Dat. ūnī ūnī ūnī ūnīs ūnīs ūnīs

Acc. ūnum ūnam ūnum ūnōs ūnās ūna

Abl. ūnō ūnā ūnō ūnīs ūnīs ūnīs

Voc. ūne

In verse, the genitive singular is often ūnius.

. duo, two, and trēs, three, are declined as follows:

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. & Fem. Neut.

Nom. duo duae duo trēs tria

Gen. duōrum duārum duōrum trium trium

Dat. duōbus duābus duōbus tribus tribus

Acc. duo or duōs duās duo trēs or trīs tria

Abl. duōbus duābus duōbus tribus tribus

. In dramatic verse, du͡o, &c., is common. In the genitive plural, duo sometimes has duū̆m . ambō, both, is declined like duo, but has -ō in the nominative and accusative, and only ambōrum and ambārum in the genitive plural. For the forms duo, ambō, see ; duōbus, duābus, , .

. Hundreds are declined like the plural of bonus : as, ducentī, ducentae, ducenta, two hundred, G. ducentōrum or ducentū̆m , &c.

. The adjective mīlle, thousand, is not declined. The substantive has in the singular only N. Ac. Ab. mīlle, or Ab. mīllī; plural: N. and Ac. mīllia (mīlia), G. mīllium (mīlium), D. and Ab. mīllibus (mīlibus).

. Ordinals, as prīmus, first, and distributives, as bīnī, two each, are declined like bonus . But distributives seldom have a singular, and often have the genitive plural -ū̆m : as, bīnū̆m.

The Pronoun.

(A.) the Personal and Reflexive Pronoun.

. The pronoun of the first person, ego, I, of the second person, tū, thou, and the reflexive pronoun, suī, sē, himself, herself, itself, themselves, are declined as follows:

ego, I tu, thou sui, self

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. Sing. & Plur.

Nom. ego nōs tū vōs

Gen. meī nostrum, -trī tuī vestrū̆m, -trī suī

Dat. mihī̆, mi nōbīs tibī̆ vōbīs sibī̆

Acc. mē nōs tē vōs sē

Abl. mē nōbīs tē vōbīs sē

. The nominatives ego and tū, and the accusatives mē, tē and sē, have no case ending. The last vowel of ego is rarely long in Plautus, long or short in Lucilius. The nominative ego has a different stem from that of its other cases, and the plurals of ego and tū have a different stem from that of the singular.

. meī, tuī, and suī, which are often monosyllables in old verse, were originally the genitive of the neuter possessives, used substantively. An old genitive mīs is quoted, and tīs occurs rarely in Plautus.

. The relation of the ending -bīs in vōbīs to -bī̆ in tibī̆ may be due to analogy with illīs, illī. nōbīs is formed after vōbīs.

. In old Latin, the ablative is mēd, tēd, sēd , which forms are also used irrationally for the accusative. But by Terence’s time the -d was no longer used .

. Older forms for vestrū̆m and vestrī are vostrūm and vostrī. The genitive plural was originally a genitive of the possessive: that in -ī being the neuter singular, that in -ū̆m the masculine or feminine plural. In old Latin, nostrōrum, nostrārum, vostrōrum, vostrārum also occur.

. Emphasis is given (1.) by reduplication : Ac. and Ab. mēmē, tētē, rare; sēsē, very common. (2.) by -te added to the N. of tū: tūte. (3.) by -met added to any case but the genitive plural: as, egomet; but tū has only tūtemet or tūtimet.

. In inscriptions, the datives MIHEI, TIBEI, and SIBEI occur, so written in verse sometimes even when the last syllable is short; and MIHE, TIBE. Plural: D. and Ab. VOBEIS. Ac. ENOS in an old hymn; SEESE (29, 1).

The Personal and Reflexive Possessive.

. The possessives of ego, tū, and suī, are meus, mine, tuus, thine, and suus, his, her, its, their (own), declined like bonus , except that meus has mī in the vocative singular masculine ; those of nōs and vōs are noster, our, and voster, later vester, your, declined like aeger .

. Old forms are tuos, tuom, and suos, suom . In old verse me͡us, me͡i, &c., tu͡os, tu͡i, &c., su͡os, su͡i, &c., often occur. sōs for suōs, sās for suās, and sīs for suīs, are old and rare.

. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows:

MEEIS, MIEIS, monosyllable; TOVAM; SVEI, SOVOM, SOVO, SVVO, SOVEIS, SVEIS, SVIEIS.

. Emphasis is given (1.) by -met added to suō, suā, suōs, and to mea and sua, neuter plural: as, suōmet; (2.) by -pte, which is oftenest found with the ablative: as, suōpte.

(B.) Other Pronouns.

. Some pronouns have a peculiar genitive singular in -ī̆us and dative singular in -ī, for masculine, feminine, and neuter alike.

These are: iste, ille, ipse, uter, and their derivatives. Some other words of a pronoun character also have this form of the genitive and dative: see .

. In verse, the -ī- of the genitive is often shortened, and always in utriusque; but neutrīus is not found with short i. In dramatic verse, the genitive singular of iste, ille, or ipse, is often two syllables.

. hīc, is, quī or quis, and their derivatives have the genitive singular in -ius, thus: huius, eius, and quoius or cuius; in dramatic verse, these genitives are often one syllable. Their datives are huic for hoice, ē̆ī or e͡i, and quoi or cui.

. Six words have a peculiar neuter nominative and accusative singular in -d: id, illud, istud, quid, quod, aliud, and derivatives. In manuscripts, -t is sometimes found for -d: as, it, illut, istut, &c.; sometimes also in inscriptions of the empire. In hoc for *hod-ce and in istuc and illuc for *istud-ce, *illud-ce, the d has vanished (166, 1; 171, 1).

The Demonstrative Pronoun.

. The demonstrative pronouns are hīc, this, this near me; iste, istic, that, that near you; and ille, illic, yonder, that.

. The demonstrative pronoun hīc, this, this near me, is declined as follows:

Singular. Plural.

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut.

Nom. hīc haec hoc hī hae haec

Gen. huius huius huius hōrum hārum hōrum

Dat. huic huic huic hīs hīs hīs

Acc. hunc hanc hoc hōs hās haec

Abl. hōc hāc hōc hīs hīs hīs

. The stem of hīc is ho-, hā-; to most of its cases a demonstrative -c for -ce is attached. The masculine and feminine nominative singular and nominative and accusative neuter plural take an -i-: hīc for *ho-i-ce (108, a); haec for ha-i-ce . hunc, hanc, are for *hom-ce, *ham-ce. For the quantity of the first syllable of huius, see 153, 2; of hoc, 171, 1.

. Old forms with the full ending -ce are rare except after -s: Plural Ne. Acc. haece (Enn.); G. F. hārumce (Cato); also G. hōrunc, hārunc (Pl., T.); hōsce, D. and Ab. hīsce (Pl., T.). After 100 B.C., the full form -ce is not found, except occasionally after -s: huiusce, hōsce, hāsce, hīsce. Before -ne interrogative it is retained in the weakened form -ci-: as, hīcine. But hīcne, hocne, huicne, &c., are found, though rarely.

. The nominative hic or hicine found in the dramatists and rarely later is probably for *ho-c, *he-c (103, a). A nominative plural feminine haec is found in writers of all ages. Other and rare forms are: Pl. N. M. hīsce , D. or Ab. hībus.

. Other case forms of hīc are found in inscriptions, as follows:

N. M. HEC, HIC. G. HOIVS, HVIIVS , HVIVS, HOIVSCE, HOIVSQVE, HVIVSQVE. D. HOICE, HOIC, HOI, HVIC, HVI. Ac. M. HONC, HOC; F. HANCE; Ne. HOCE, HVC. Ab. M. and Ne. HOCE; F. HACE, oftener than HAC in republican inscriptions; HAACE (29, 1). Loc. HEICE, HEIC. Plural: N. M. HEISCE, HEIS, or HEI, HISCE or HIS; HI, not before Augustus; Ne. N. and Ac. HAICE, HAECE. G. HORVNC. D. and Ab. HEISCE, HIBVS. Ac. F. HASCE.

. The demonstrative pronouns iste, that, that near you, and ille, yonder, are declined alike, as follows:

Singular. Plural.

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut.

Nom. ille illa illud illī illae illa

Gen. illī̆us illī̆us illī̆us illōrum illārum illōrum

Dat. illī illī illī illīs illīs illīs

Acc. illum illam illud illōs illās illa

Abl. illō illā illō illīs illīs illīs

. The first syllable of iste and ille is often short in the dramatists. Old forms of iste are: N. istus, G. istī, in istīmodī, D. F. istae. The initial i of iste and of istic , is sometimes not written: as, sta rēs (Cic.), stūc perīculum (Ter.). Old forms of ille are: N. olus ; ollus or olle, &c.: as, D. S. or N. Pl. ollī, D. Pl. ollīs. G. illī, in illīmodī, D. F. illae. The dramatists have eccistam, eccilla, eccillud, eccillum, eccillam, for ecce istam, &c., and ellum, ellam, for em illum, &c.

. Other case forms of ille are found in inscriptions, as follows:

D. F. ILLAE. Plural: N. M. ILLEI. G. OLORVM . D. and Ab. OLLEIS, ILLEIS.

. istic and illic, compounded of iste, ille, and -ce or -c, are declined alike, as follows:

Singular. Plural.

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut.

Nom. illic illaec illuc illīc illaec illaec

Acc. illunc illanc illuc illōsce illāsce illaec

Abl. illōc illāc illōc illīsce illīsce illīsce

. Rare forms are: N. and Ac. Ne. istoc, illoc, G. illīusce, D. illīc, Ab. F. istāce, illāce. Plural: N. M. illīsce , illīc, Ac. illōsce, illāsce. Before -ne interrogative, -ce becomes -ci-: N. illicine, istucine, Ac. illancine, Ab. istōcine, istācinē. Pl. Ac. istōscine.

The Determinative Pronoun.

. The determinative pronoun is, that, the aforesaid, the one, is declined as follows:

Singular. Plural.

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut.

Nom. is ea id eī, iī, or ī eae ea

Gen. eius eius eius eōrum eārum eōrum

Dat. ē̆ī ē̆ī ē̆ī eīs, iīs, or īs eīs, iīs, or īs eīs, iīs, or īs

Acc. eum eam id eōs eās ea

Abl. eō eā eō eīs, iīs, or īs eīs, iīs, or īs eīs, iīs, or īs

. is and id are formed from a stem -i-, and the other parts from a stem eo-, eā-. The genitive is sometimes written in Cicero and Plautus eiius; for the quantity of the first syllable of eius, see 153, 2; for ĕ̄i, see 127, 3, and 127, 4.

. In old verse, the genitive singular rarely has the first syllable short. Old and rare forms are: D. F. eae, Ac. M. im or em. Pl. D, and Ab. ī̆bus, F. eābus . In dramatic verse, e͡um, e͡am, e͡i, e͡o, e͡a, and e͡i, e͡orum, e͡arum, e͡os, e͡as, e͡is, are often found; also eccum, eccam, eccōs, eccās, ecca, for ecce eum, &c.

. Other case forms of is are found in inscriptions, as follows:

N. EIS, 124 B.C. G. EIVS, EIIVS, EIIVS or EIIVS . D. EIEI, 123 B.C.; EEI, IEI; EI, 123 B.C., and common in all periods. Plural: N. EEIS, EIS, IEIS, till about 50 B.C.; EEI, EI, IEI. D. and Ab. EEIS, EIEIS, IEIS, IS; after the republic, IIS, IIS.

. A rare and old pronoun equivalent to is is sum, sam, accusative singular, sōs, accusative plural, and sīs, dative plural.

The Pronoun of Identity.

. The pronoun of identity, īdem, the same, is declined as follows:

Singular. Plural.

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut.

Nom. īdem eadem idem eīdem or īdem eaedem eadem

Gen. eiusdem eiusdem eiusdem eōrundem eārundem eōrundem

Dat. eīdem eīdem eīdem

eīsdem or īsdem

eīsdem or īsdem

eīsdem or īsdem

Acc. eundem eandem idem eōsdem eāsdem eadem

Abl. eōdem eādem eōdem

eīsdem or īsdem

eīsdem or īsdem

eīsdem or īsdem

. In manuscripts and editions, the plural nominative masculine is often written iīdem, and the dative and ablative iīsdem. The singular nominative masculine is rarely eisdem or isdem (Plaut., Enn.), eidem (Cic., Varr.), neuter īdem (Plaut.). In verse, eundem, e͡andem, e͡idem, e͡odem, e͡adem, and e͡idem, e͡aedem, e͡orundem, e͡osdem, e͡asdem, are often found.

. Other case forms of īdem are found in inscriptions, as follows:

N. M. EISDEM, 123 B.C., ISDEM, 59 B.C., both common till Caesar’s time; EIDEM; Ne. EIDEM, 71 B.C. D. IDEM. Plural: N. M. EISDEM, ISDEM, EIDEM, till Caesar’s time; IIDEM, once only. D. and Ab. ISDEM, very rarely IISDEM.

The Intensive Pronoun.

. The intensive pronoun ipse, himself, stems ipso-, ipsā-, is declined like ille , but has the nominative and accusative neuter singular ipsum.

. In dramatic verse, ipse has rarely the first syllable short, and often has the older form ipsus. Plautus has these forms: N. F. eapse, Ac. eumpse, eampse, Ab. eōpse, eāpse, equivalent to ipsa, &c. So reāpse for rē ipsā.

The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronoun.

(1.) quī AND quis.

. The stem qui-, or quo-, quā-, is used in three ways: as a relative, who, which; as an interrogative, who? which? what? as an indefinite, any.

. (a.) The relative quī, who, which, is declined as follows:

Singular. Plural.

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut.

Nom. quī quae quod quī quae quae

Gen. cuius cuius cuius quōrum quārum quōrum

Dat. cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus

Acc. quem quam quod quōs quās quae

Abl. quō quā quō quibus quibus quibus

. (b.) The interrogative adjective quī, quae, quod, which? what? is declined like the relative quī .

. The interrogative substantive has in the nominative singular quis, quid, who? what? the rest is like quī .

In old Latin, quis is both masculine and feminine, but a separate feminine form quae is used three or four times.

. quis interrogative is sometimes used adjectively with appellatives: as, quis senātor? what senator? And quī is sometimes used substantively: as, quī prīmus Ameriam nūntiat? who is the first to bring the tidings to Ameria?

. (c.) The indefinite quis or quī, one, any, has the following forms:

quis and quid masculine and neuter substantives, quī and quod adjectives; feminine singular nominative and neuter plural nominative and accusative commonly qua, also quae. The rest is like quī .

. quis, quem, quid, and quibus come from the stem qui-; the other parts come from quo-, quā-. quae stands for an older quai . For quid and quod, see .

. Old forms of the genitive singular are quoius, and of the dative quoiei, quoiī, or quoi, also in derivatives of quī or quis. A genitive plural quōiūm is old and rare. The dative and ablative plural is sometimes quīs from quo-, quā-. A nominative plural interrogative and indefinite quēs is rare (Pacuv.).

. The ablative or locative is sometimes quī, from the stem qui-: as an interrogative, how? as a relative, wherewith, whereby, masculine, feminine, or neuter, in old Latin sometimes with a plural antecedent; especially referring to an indefinite person, and with cum attached, quīcum; and as an indefinite, somehow.

. Other case forms of quī or quis and their derivatives are found in inscriptions, as follows:

N. QVEI, prevalent in republican inscriptions; also QVI; once QVE. G. QVOIVS, regularly in republican inscriptions; cviivs, cviivs, cviivs , once QVIVS . D. QVOIEI, QVOI; once F. QVAI. Ab. QVEI. Plural: N. M. QVEI, but after 120 B.C., occasionally QVI; QVES, indefinite; F. and Ne. QVAI. G. QVOIVM.

DERIVATIVES OF quī AND quis.

. The derivatives of quī and quis have commonly quis and quid as substantives, and quī and quod as adjectives. Forms requiring special mention are named below:

. quisquis, whoever, whatever, everybody who, everything which, an indefinite relative, has only these forms in common use: N. M. quisquis, sometimes F. in old Latin, Ne. N. and Ac. quicquid or quidquid, Ab. M. and Ne. as adjective quōquō.

Rare forms are: N. M. quīquī, Ac. quemquem, once Ab. F. quāquā, as adverb quīquī, once D. quibusquibus. A short form of the genitive occurs in quoiquoimodī or cuicuimodī, of whatsoever sort.

aliquis or aliquī, aliqua, once aliquae (Lucr.), aliquid or aliquod, some one, some; Ab. M. sometimes, Ne. often aliquī . Pl. Ne. N. and Ac. only aliqua; D. and Ab. sometimes aliquīs .

ecquis or ecquī, ecqua or ecquae, ecquid or ecquod, any? Besides the nominative only these forms are found: D. eccui, Ac. ecquem, ecquam, ecquid, Ab. M. and Ne. ecquō. Pl. N. ecquī, Ac. M. ecquōs, F. ecquās.

quīcumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whichever, everybody who, everything which. The cumque is sometimes separated from quī by an intervening word. An older form is quīquomque, &c.

quīdam, quaedam, quiddam or quoddam, a, a certain, some one, so and so; Ac. quendam, quandam. Pl. G. quōrundam, quārundam.

quīlibet, quaelibet, quidlibet or quodlibet, any you please.

quisnam, rarely quīnam, quaenam, quidnam or quodnam, who ever? who in the world? Sometimes nam quis, &c.

quispiam, quaepiam, quippiam, quidpiam or quodpiam, any, any one; Ab. also quīpiam , sometimes as adverb, in any way.

quisquam, quicquam or quidquam, anybody at all, anything at all, generally a substantive, less frequently an adjective, any at all. There is no distinctive feminine form, and quisquam and quemquam are rarely, and in old Latin, used as a feminine adjective. Ab. also quīquam , sometimes as adverb, in any way at all. No plural.

quisque, quaeque, quicque, quidque or quodque, each. Sometimes ūnus is prefixed: ūnusquisque; both parts are declined. quisque and quemque are sometimes feminine. Ab. S. quīque rare, Ab. Pl. quīsque once (Lucr.).

quīvīs, quaevīs, quidvīs or quodvīs, which you will; Ab. also quīvīs .

(2.) uter.

. uter, utra, utrum, whether? which of the two? has the genitive singular utrīus, and the dative singular utrī.

The rest is like aeger . uter is sometimes relative, whichsoever, or indefinite, either of the two.

DERIVATIVES OF uter.

. The derivatives of uter are declined like uter; they are:

neuter, neither of the two, genitive neutrīus, always with ī . When used as a grammatical term, neuter, the genitive is always neutrī: as, generis neutrī, of neither gender.

utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, whichever of the two, either of the two.

uterlibet, whichever you please.

uterque, whichsoever, both. G. always utriusque .

utervīs, whichever you wish.

alteruter, F. altera utra, Ne. alterutrum or alterum utrum, one or the other, G. alterīus utrīus, once late alterutrīus, D. alterutrī, Ac. M. alterutrum or alterum utrum, F. alterutram once (Plin.) or alteram utram, Ab. alterutrō or alterō utrō, F. alterā utrā. No Pl., except D. alterutrīs once (Plin.).

Correlative Pronouns.

. Pronouns often correspond with each other in meaning and form; some of the commonest correlatives are the following:

Kind. Interrogative. Indefinite. Demonstrative,
Determinative, &c. Relative.

Simple

quis, quī, who?

quis, quī,
aliquis hīc, iste, ille
is, quisque quī

Alternative

uter, which of the two?

uter,
alteruter uterque uter, quī

Number

quot, how many?

aliquot tot quot

Quantity

quantus, how large?

aliquantus,
quantusvīs tantus quantus

Quality

quālis, of what sort?

quālislibet tālis quālis

The Adverb, the Conjunction, and the Preposition.

I. Nouns as Adverbs.

. Adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions are chiefly noun or pronoun cases which have become fixed in a specific form and with a specific meaning. Many of these words were still felt to be live cases, even in the developed period of the language; with others the consciousness of their noun character was lost.

. Three cases are used adverbially: the accusative, the ablative, and the locative.

698. The rather indeterminate meaning of the accusative and the ablative is sometimes more exactly defined by a preposition. The preposition may either accompany its usual case: as, adamussim, admodum, īlicō; or it may be loosely prefixed, with more of the nature of an adverb than of a preposition, to a case with which it is not ordinarily used: as, examussim, intereā. Sometimes it stands after the noun: as, parumper, a little while. Besides the three cases named above, other forms occur, some of which are undoubtedly old case endings, though they can no longer be recognized as such: see .

(1.) Accusative.

(a.) Accusative of Substantives.

. domum, homeward, home; rūs, afield; forās, out of doors (*forā-); vicem, instead; partim, in part; old noenum or noenu, common nōn, for ne-oenum, i.e. ūnum, not one, naught, not; admodum, to a degree, very; adamussim, examussim, to a T; adfatim, to satiety; invicem, in turn, each other.

. Many adverbs in -tim and -sim denote manner : as, cautim, warily, statim, at once, sēnsim, perceptibly, gradually; ōstiātim, door by door, virītim, man by man, fūrtim, stealthily.

(b.) Accusative of Adjectives and Pronouns.

. Neuters: all comparative adverbs in -ius : as, doctius, more learnedly; so minus, less, magis, more . prīmum, first, secundum, secondly, &c.; tum, then (to-, that): commodum, just in time; minimum, at least, potissimum, in preference, postrēmum, at last, summum, at most; versum, toward, rursum, russum, rūsum, back; facile, easily, impūne, scotfree, recēns, lately, semel, once (simili-), simul, together (simili-). Plural: cētera, for the rest; quia, because (qui-); in old Latin frūstra, in vain (fraud-).

. Feminines: bifāriam, twofold; cōram, face to face (com- or co-, *ōrā-); tam, so (tā-, that); quam, as, how. Plural: aliās, on other occasions.

(2.) Ablative.

(a.) Ablative of Substantives.

. domō, from home, rūre, from the country; hodiē, to-day (ho-, diē-), volgō, publicly, vespere, by twilight, noctū, by nights, nights, lūce, by light, tempore, in times, betimes; sponte, voluntarily, forte, by chance; quotannīs, yearly; grātiīs or grātīs, for nothing, ingrātiīs or ingrātīs, against one’s will; īlicō, on the spot (169, 4; 170, 2), forīs, out of doors (*forā-).

(b.) Ablative of Adjectives and Pronouns.

. Many adverbs in -ō are formed from adjectives of time: as, perpetuō, to the end, crēbrō, frequently, rārō, seldom, repentīnō, suddenly, sērō, late, prīmō, at first. Many denote manner: as, arcānō, privily, sēriō, in earnest. Some are formed from participles: as, auspicātō, with auspices taken; compositō, by agreement. A plural is rare: alternīs, alternately.

. Instead of -ō, neuter ablatives commonly have -ē: as, longē, far, doctē, wisely. So also superlatives: facillimē, most easily, anciently FACILVMED . Consonant stems have -e: as, repente, suddenly.

. From pronouns some end in -ī : as, quī, how? indefinite, quī, somehow; atquī, but somehow; quī-quam, in any way at all.

. Feminines: many in -ā: ūnā, together; circā, around; contrā, against (com-, ); extrā, outside (ex, ); in classical Latin, frūstrā, in vain (fraud-). So, especially, adverbs denoting the ‘route by which:’ hāc, this way; rēctā, straightway.

(3.) Locative.

. In -ī, from names of towns and a few other words: Karthāginī, at Carthage; Rōmae, for Rōmāī, at Rome; domī, at home; illī, commonly illī-c, there (illo-), istī, commonly istī-c, where you are, hī-c, here (ho-); old sei, common sī, at that, in that case, so, if; sīc, so (sī, -ce).

. In -bī̆, from some pronouns: ibī̆, there (i-); ubī̆ (for *quobī̆, ), where; alicubī̆, somewhere; sī-cubi, if anywhere, nē-cubi, lest anywhere.

Other Endings.

. Besides the above, other endings are also found in words of this class: as,

-s in abs, from, ex, out of; similarly us-que, in every case, ever, us-quam, anywhere at all. -tus has the meaning of an ablative: as, intus, from within, within; antīquitus, from old times, anciently; funditus, from the bottom, entirely. -ō denotes the ‘place to which’ in adverbs from pronoun stems: as, eō, thither; quō, whither; illō, or illūc, for illoi-ce, thither, after hūc; hōc, commonly hūc, perhaps for hoi-ce hither. -im denotes the ‘place from which:’ as, istim, commonly istinc, from where you are; illim, commonly illinc, from yonder; hinc, hence; exim, thereupon; also -de: as, unde, whence (quo-, ), sī-cunde, if from any place, nē-cunde, lest from anywhere. -ter: as comparative : praeter, further, beyond, inter, between; denoting manner: ācriter, sharply; amanter, affectionately; rarely from -o- stems: as, firmiter, steadfastly.

Correlative Adverbs.

. Adverbs derived from pronoun stems often correspond with each other in meaning and form; some of the commonest correlatives are the following:

Interrogative. Indefinite. Demonstrative,
Determinative, &c. Relative.

Place

ubī̆, where?

alicubī̆
usquam
uspiam
ubivīs hīc, istīc, illīc
ibī̆, ibī̆dem ubī̆

quō, whither?

aliquō
quōlibet
quōvīs hūc, istūc, illūc
eō, eōdem quō

quorsum, whitherward?

aliquōvorsum horsum, istorsum quorsum

unde, whence?

alicunde
undelibet hinc, istinc, illinc
inde, indidem unde

Time

quandō, when?

aliquandō
umquam nunc, tum, tunc

quom or cum

quotiēns, how often?

aliquotiēns totiēns quotiēns

Way

quā, by what way?

aliquā
quāvīs hāc, istāc, illāc
eā, eādem quā

Manner

utī or ut, how?

aliquā ita, sīc

utī or ut

Degree quam, how? aliquam tam quam

II. Sentences as Adverbs.

. Some adverbs are condensed sentences: as,

īlicet, you may go, straightway (īre licet); scīlicet, you may know, obviously, of course (scīre licet); vidē̆licet, you can see, plainly (vidēre licet); nūdiustertius, now is the third day, day before yesterday (num dius, i.e. diēs, tertius); forsitan, maybe (fors sit an); mīrum quantum, strange how much, astonishingly; nesciō quō pactō, nesciō quōmodo, somehow or other, unfortunately.

(B.) Inflection of the Verb.

713. The verb is inflected by attaching person endings to the several stems.

The Stem.

714. The stem contains the meaning of the verb, and also denotes the mode (mood) and the time (tense) of the action as viewed by the speaker.

715. There are three Moods, Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative.

716. There are six Tenses in the indicative, three of the present system, Present, Imperfect, and Future; and three of the perfect system, Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect. The subjunctive lacks the futures; the imperative has only the present.

717. The meanings of the moods and tenses are best learnt from reading. No satisfactory translation can be given in the paradigms, especially of the subjunctive, which requires a variety of translations for its various uses.

718. The verb has two principal stems: I. The Present stem, which is the base of the present system; II. The Perfect stem, which is the base of the perfect active system.

719. The perfect system has no passive; its place is supplied by the perfect participle with a form of sum, am, or less frequently of fuī, am become.

720. Many verbs have only the present system: as, maereō, mourn; some have only the perfect system: as, meminī, remember. Some verbs have a present and perfect system made up of two separate roots or stems: as, present indicative ferō, carry, perfect indicative tulī, and perfect participle lātus; present possum, can, perfect potuī.

The Person Ending.

721. The person ending limits the meaning of the stem by pointing out the person of the subject. There are three Persons, the First, used of the speaker, the Second, of what is spoken to, and the Third, of what is spoken of. The person ending furthermore indicates number and voice.

722. There are two Numbers: the Singular, used of one, and the Plural, used of more than one.

723. There are two Voices: the Active, indicating that the subject acts, and the Passive, indicating that the subject acts on himself, or more commonly is acted on by another.

724. Only transitive verbs have all persons of the passive. Intransitive verbs have in the passive only the third person singular, used impersonally; the participle in this construction is neuter.

725. Some verbs have only the passive person endings, but with a reflexive or an active meaning; such are called Deponents: see .

726. The person endings are as follows:

Voice. Active. Passive.

Mood. Ind. & Sub. Imperative. Ind. & Sub. Imperative.

Number. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.

First person. -m -mus not used not used -r -mur not used not used

Second person. -s -tis none, -tō -te, -tōte -ris, -re [-minī] -re, -tor [-minī]

Third person. -t -nt -tō -ntō -tur -ntur -tor -ntor

727. In the perfect indicative active, the second person singular ends in -tī, and the third person plural in -runt for an older -ront, or in -re. -re is most used in poetry and history, and by Cato and Sallust; -runt by Cicero, and almost always by Caesar.

728. In the indicative -m is not used in the present (except in sum, am, and inquam, quoth I), in the perfect or future perfect, or in the future in -bō. -s is not used in es for ess, thou art, and in ēs, eatest (171, 1).

729. In inscriptions, -d sometimes stands for -t (149, 2) in the third person singular, and sometimes -t is not used: as, FECID, made, for fēcit; DEDE, gave, for dedēt or dedit. And other forms of the third person plural of the indicative active are sometimes used: as, Pisaurian DEDROT, DEDRO (with syncope, ) for dederunt, gave; EMERV, bought, for ēmērunt; once DEDERI, probably for dedēre .

730. In the passive second person singular, Terence has always, Plautus commonly -re; later it is unusual in the present indicative, except in deponents; but in other tenses -re is preferred, especially in the future -bere, by Cicero, -ris by Livy and Tacitus. The second person plural passive is wanting; its place is supplied by a single participial form in -minī, which is used without reference to gender, for gender words and neuters alike .

731. Deponents have rarely -mino, in the imperative singular: as, second person, prōgredimino, step forward thou (Plaut.); in laws, as third person: FRVIMINO, let him enjoy; or -tō and -ntō for -tor and -ntor: as, ūtitō, let him use; ūtuntō, let them use. In a real passive, -ntō is rare: as, CENSENTO, let them be rated.

Nouns of the Verb.

732. The verb is accompanied by some nouns, which are conveniently, though not quite accurately, reckoned parts of the verb; they are:

Three Infinitives, Present Active and Passive, and Perfect Active, sometimes called the Infinitive Mood. For the future active and passive and the perfect passive, compound forms are used.

The Gerund and the Gerundive.

Two Supines.

Three Participles, Present and Future Active, and Perfect Passive.

Principal Parts.

733. The several verb stems can readily be found, when once the principal parts are known; these are given in the dictionary.

734. The Principal Parts of a verb are the Present Indicative Active, Present Infinitive Active, Perfect Indicative Active, and Perfect Participle: as,

Pres. Indic. Pres. Infin. Perf. Indic. Perf. Part.

regō, rule regere rēxī rēctus

laudō, praise laudāre laudāvī laudātus

moneō, advise monēre monuī monitus

audiō, hear audīre audīvī auditus

735. The Principal Parts of deponents are the Present Indicative, Present Infinitive, and Perfect Participle: as,

Pres. Indic. Pres. Infin. Perf. Part.

queror, complain querī questus

mīror, wonder mīrārī mīrātus

vereor, fear verērī veritus

partior, share partīrī partītus

Designation of the Verb.

736. A verb is usually named by the present indicative active first person singular: as, regō; laudō, moneō, audiō; or by the present infinitive active: as, regere; laudāre, monēre, audīre. Deponents are named by the corresponding passive forms: as, queror; mīror, vereor, partior; or querī; mīrārī, verērī, partīrī.

737. For convenience, verbs with -ere in the present infinitive active are called Verbs in -ere; those with -āre, -ēre, or -īre, Verbs in -āre, -ēre, or -īre, respectively. In like manner deponents are designated as Verbs in -ī; or Verbs in -ārī, -ērī, or -īrī, respectively.

Theme of the Verb.

738. The several stems of the verb come from a form called the Theme. In primitives, the theme is a root; in denominatives, the theme is a noun stem.

Thus, reg- in reg-ō is a root; while vesti- in vesti-ō, dress, is a noun stem. The noun stem is sometimes modified in form. Oftentimes the noun stem is only presumed: as, audi- in audi-ō.

739. Some verbs have a denominative theme in the present system, and a primitive theme in the perfect system, others have the reverse.

740. Most verbs with an infinitive of more than two syllables in -āre, -ēre, or -īre, or, if deponent, in -ārī, -ērī, or -īrī, are denominative; most other verbs are primitive.

Thus, laudāre, monēre, audīre; mīrārī, verērī, partīrī, are denominative; while esse, dare, (dē)lēre, regere, querī, are primitive. A few verbs, however, which have the appearance of denominatives, are thought to be primitive in their origin.

Arrangement of the Verb.

741. Verbs are divided into two classes, according to the form of the present system: I. Root verbs, and verbs in -ere, mostly primitive; II. Verbs in -āre, -ēre, or -īre, mostly denominative.

742. Verbs are sometimes arranged without regard to difference of kind, in the alphabetical order of the vowel before -s of the second person singular of the present indicative active, ā, ē, i, ī: thus, laudās, monēs, regis, audīs, sometimes called the first, second, third, and fourth conjugation respectively.

I. Primitive Verbs.

743. A few of the oldest and commonest verbs of everyday life have a bare root as stem in the present indicative or in parts of it; and some of them have other peculiarities; such are called Root Verbs, or by some, irregular (744-781). Most primitives are verbs in -ere, like regō .

(A.) Root Verbs.

Irregular Verbs.

(a.) With a Prevalent Bare Root.

744. Primitives with the bare root as present indicative stem in almost all their forms are sum, am, dō, give, put, and compounds; and with the root doubled, bibō, drink, serō, sow, and sistō, set.

(1.) sum, am (es-, s-).

745. sum, am, is used only in the present system . The perfect system is supplied by forms of fuī (fu-).

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Pres. Indic. Pres. Infin. Perf. Indic. Perf. Part.

sum esse (fuī) ——

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.

Singular. Plural.

sum, I am sumus, we are

es, thou art estis, you are

est, he is sunt, they are

Imperfect Tense.

eram, I was erāmus, we were

erās, thou wert erātis, you were

erat, he was erant, they were

Future Tense.

erō, I shall be erimus, we shall be

eris, thou wilt be eritis, you will be

erit, he will be erunt, they will be

Perfect Tense.

fuī, I have been, or was

fuimus, we have been, or were

fuistī, thou hast been, or wert

fuistis, you have been, or were

fuit, he has been, or was