B (part 2)

Barbed Wire, wire-rope for fencing or other purposes, having fixed in it short bent pieces of wire with sharp projecting points, which serve to keep animals from pressing against it. There is an Act of Parliament (1893) to prevent the use of barbed-wire fences that form a nuisance on a public road or path; and a person employing barbed wire for fencing may render himself liable for damages caused by it to another person who is legitimately using the adjoining ground. Barbed wire plays an important part in the construction of obstacles in modern warfare. During the European War, all systems of trenches were protected by thick belts of wire. This wire was laid out in various different ways, two of the best being known as the Concertina Fence and the Double-apron Fence.

Barbel (Barbus), a genus of freshwater fishes of the carp family, distinguished by the four fleshy filaments growing from the lips, two at the nose and one at each corner of the mouth, forming the kind of beard to which the genus owes its name. Of the several species the European Barbus vulgāris, common in most rivers, has an average length of from 12 to 18 inches, and in form and habits strongly resembles the pike. Its body is elongated and rounded, olive-coloured above and bluish on the sides, and covered with small scales. The upper jaw, which is much longer than the lower, forms a snout, with which it bores into the mud for worms, insects, aquatic plants, &c. It is common in the Thames, where it gives good sport to the angler; but its flesh is very coarse, and at the time of spawning the roe is dangerous to eat.

Barber, one whose occupation is to shave or trim the beard, or to cut and dress hair. The practice of surgery was formerly a part of the craft, and by an Act of Henry VIII the Company of Barbers was incorporated with the Company of Surgeons—the company being then known as the Barber-surgeons—with the limitation, however, that the surgeons were not to shave or practise 'barbery', and the barbers were to perform no higher surgical operation than blood-letting and tooth-drawing. This continued till the time of George II. The signs of the old profession—the pole which the patient grasped, its spiral decoration in imitation of the bandage, and the basin to catch the blood—are still sometimes retained. The barbers' shops, always notorious for gossip, were in some measure the news centres of classic and mediæval times. The ancient hall in London, formerly used by the Barber-surgeons, is still standing in Markwell Street, Cripplegate.

Barberini (ba˙r-be-rē´nē), a celebrated Florentine family, which, since the pontificate of Maffeo Barberini (Urban VIII, 1623-44), has occupied a distinguished place among the nobility of Rome. During his reign Urban was chiefly intent on the aggrandizement of his three nephews, of whom two were appointed cardinals, and the third Prince of Palestrina.

Bar´berry, a genus of shrubs, nat. ord. Berberidaceæ. The common barberry (Berbĕris vulgāris) has serrate, pointed leaves (the primary ones reduced to tripartite spines), hanging clusters of yellow flowers, and small, orange-red berries, which are sometimes made into preserves. The inner bark and roots yield a fine yellow dye (berberine). The shrub is a native of temperate Asia, but is now generally diffused through Europe and N. America. In Britain it has been almost universally banished from hedgerows, owing to its connection with the black rust of wheat. Numerous other species inhabit Asia and America; those of the section Mahonia have pinnate leaves. B. aristata is an erect bush, with furrowed red-brown branches, and pendulous clusters of yellow flowers; it thrives best in the south. See Irritability and Rust.

Bar´berton, the chief mining-centre of De Kaap gold-fields, Transvaal, about 80 miles from Lydenburg, and 150 to 160 from Delagoa Bay. British prisoners were confined here in the Boer War (1899-1902). Pop. about 2000 (whites).

Bar´bets (Bucconidæ), a family of climbing birds with a thick conical beak, having tufts of bristles at its base. Their wings are short and their flight somewhat heavy. They have been divided into three sub-genera: The barbicans (Pogonias), inhabiting India and Africa, and feeding chiefly on fruit; the barbets proper (Bucco), found in Africa and America, and nearly related to the woodpeckers; and the puff-birds (Tamatia), inhabiting America, and feeding on insects.

Barbette (ba˙r-bet´), an elevation of earth behind the breastwork of a fortification, from which the artillery may be fired over the parapet instead of through an embrasure. In ships of war the name is given to a strong breastwork of armour over which heavy guns are fired. See Fortification.

Barbeyrac (ba˙r-bā-ra˙k), Jean, an able writer on jurisprudence and natural law, translator of Grotius and Cumberland, and translator and annotator of Pufendorf. Born 1674; professor of law at Lausanne and Groningen; died 1744.

Barbican. See Barbacan.

Barbié du Bocage (ba˙rb-yā dü bō-käzh), Jean Denis, a distinguished geographer, born in Paris in 1760, who laid the foundation of his fame in 1788 by his Atlas to Barthélemy's Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis. His maps and plans to the works of Thucydides, Xenophon, &c., exhibit much erudition, and materially advanced the science of ancient geography. He also prepared many modern maps, and published various excellent dissertations. He held many honourable posts, and died in 1825.

Barbier (ba˙rb-yā), Antoine Alexandre, bibliographer (1765-1825). He was appointed keeper of the library of the Conseil d'État in 1798; Napoleon made him his librarian in 1807; and he was afterwards librarian to Louis XVIII. His Catalogue de la Bibliothèque du Conseil d'État (1801-3), and Dictionnaire des Ouvrages Anonymes et Pseudonymes (1806-9), are both valuable works.

Barbieri (ba˙r-bē-ā´rē), Giovanni Francesco (otherwise known as Guercino (the squinter) da Cento), an eminent and prolific historical painter, born near Bologna 1590, died in 1666. His style showed the influence of Caravaggio and of the Caracci, his best work being of the latter school. Chief work, a St. Petronilla in the Capitol at Rome; but most of the large galleries have pictures by him.

Barbieri, Paolo Antonio, a celebrated still-life and animal painter, was a brother of Guercino; born 1596, died 1640.

Barbitone. See Veronal.

Barbizon (ba˙r-bē-zōn), a French village about 25 miles south by east of Paris, on the borders of the Forest of Fontainebleau, and 6 miles north-west of the town of that name. It has given its name to a French school of painters, including Corot, Millet, Rousseau, Jules Dupré, and Daubigny.

Bar´bour, John, an ancient Scottish poet, contemporary with Chaucer, born about 1316. By 1357 he was Archdeacon of Aberdeen, and in the following year was appointed a commissioner to treat for the ransom of David II. He appears as Auditor of the Exchequer more than once; he travelled through England on several occasions, and was pensioned by Robert II. His chief poem, The Bruce (Brus), written about 1375, was first published in 1571, and the chief manuscripts of the poem are those in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, dated 1489, and in St. John's College, Cambridge. Of another long poem, setting forth the Trojan origin of the Scottish kings, no MS. remains, unless a portion of two Troy books in the Cambridge and Bodleian libraries may be ascribed to Barbour. He has also been credited with having compiled a Book of Legends of Saints, existing in a single MS. at Cambridge, and published in 1881-2 by Horstman in his Legenden Sammlung. He died in 1395. He was the father of Scottish poetry and history, and his Bruce is linguistically of high value. Though wanting in the higher qualities of poetry, it is truthful and natural, and often exhibits a high moral dignity.—Bibliography: Andrew Lang, History of Scotland; Irving, History of Scottish Poetry.

Barbuda (ba˙r-bö´da), one of the West Indies, annexed by Britain in 1628; about 15 miles long and 8 miles wide; lying north of Antigua; pop. 580. It is flat, fertile, and healthy. Corn, cotton, pepper, and tobacco are the principal produce, but the island is only partially cleared for cultivation. There is no harbour, but a well-sheltered roadstead on the west side. It is a dependency of Antigua.

Barbusse, Henri, a French author born at Asnières in 1874. He served in the French army during the European War, and his descriptions of the realities of modern warfare have made him famous. His works include Le Feu and Clarté.

Barby (bär´bē), a German town on the Elbe, in the government of Magdeburg, with an old castle. Pop. 5202.

Bar´ca, a division of N. Africa, between the Gulf of Sidra and Egypt, annexed by Italy in 1911-2; capital, Bengazi. It formed a portion of the ancient Cyrenaica, and from the time of the Ptolemies was known as Pentapolis from its five Greek cities. It became part of Tripoli, and later a separate province under Turkish dominion. On 18th Oct., 1912, it was formally recognized as a dependency of Italy, and forms with Tripoli the Italian colony of Libya. The country consists of a rocky plateau. A large portion of it is desert, but some parts, especially near the coast, are fertile, and yield abundant crops and excellent pasture, the chief being wheat, barley, dates, figs, and olives. Flowering shrubs, roses, honeysuckles, &c., occur in great variety. There are hardly any permanent streams, but the eastern portion is tolerably well watered by rains and springs. The exports are grain and cattle, with ostrich feathers and ivory from the interior. Next to Bengazi (pop. 35,000), the seaport of Derna is the chief town (pop. 8000). The population probably does not exceed 300,000. See Cyrenaica and Tripoli.

Barcarolle (-rol´), a species of song sung by the barcaruoli, or gondoliers, of Venice, and hence applied to a song or melody composed in imitation. A very well-known example is to be found in Offenbach's Tales of Hoffmann.

Barcellona (ba˙r-chel-ō´na˙), seaport, Sicily, province of Messina, immediately contiguous to Pozzo di Gotto, and practically forming one town with it. Joint pop. 26,172.

Barcelona (ba˙r-thel-ō´na˙), next to Madrid the chief city of Spain, capital of the province of Barcelona, and formerly capital of the kingdom of Catalonia; finely situated on the northern portion of the Spanish Mediterranean coast. It is divided into the upper and lower town; the former modern, regular, stone-built, and often of an English architectural type, the latter old, irregular, brick-built, and with traces of Eastern influence in the architecture. The harbour is suited to accommodate large vessels. The principal manufactures are cottons, silks, woollens, machinery, paper, glass, chemicals, stoneware, soap; exports manufactured goods, wine and brandy, fruit, oil, &c.; imports coals, textile fabrics, machinery, cotton, fish, hides, silks, timber, &c. The city contains a university, several public libraries, a museum, a large arsenal, cannon-foundry, &c. Barcelona was, until the twelfth century, governed by its own counts, but was afterwards united with Arragon. In 1640, with the rest of Catalonia, it placed itself under the French Crown; in 1652 it submitted again to the Spanish Government; in 1697 it was taken by the French, but was restored to Spain at the Peace of Ryswick. It has had several severe visitations of cholera and yellow fever, and has been the scene of many serious and sanguinary revolts, as in 1836, 1840, and 1909. Pop. 618,766.—The province has an area of 2968 sq. miles; pop. 1,191,386 (1918). It is generally mountainous, but well cultivated, and among the most thickly peopled in Spain.

Barcelona, a town of Venezuela, near the mouth of the Neveri, which is navigable for vessels of small size, but larger vessels anchor off the mouth of the river. Pop. 13,000.

Barcelona Nuts, hazel-nuts exported from the Barcelona district of Spain.

Bar´clay, Alexander, a poet of the sixteenth century, most probably a native of Scotland, born about 1475; for some years a priest and chaplain of St. Mary Ottery, in Devonshire; afterwards a Benedictine monk of Ely; subsequently a Franciscan, and also the holder of one or two livings; died 1552. His principal work was a satire, entitled The Shyp of Folys of this Worlde, part translation and part imitation of Brandt's Narrenschiff (Ship of Fools), and printed by Pynson in 1509. He also wrote The Myrrour of Good Maners, and some Egloges (Eclogues), both printed by Pynson, as well as translations, &c.

Barclay, John, poet and satirist, son of a Scottish father, born at Pont-à-Mousson (Lorraine) in 1582, and probably educated in the Jesuits' College there. Having settled in England, he published a Latin politico-satirical romance, entitled Euphormionis Satyricon, having as its object the exposure of the Jesuits. In 1616 he left England for Rome, received a pension from Pope Paul V, and died in 1621. His chief work is a singular romance in Latin, entitled Argenis (Paris, 1621), thought by some to be an allegory bearing on the political state of Europe at the period. Several seventeenth-century romances were indebted to this work, among others Fénelon's Télémaque and Calderon's Argenis y Poliarco. It has been translated into several modern languages. His shorter poems appeared in the Delitiæ Poetarum Scotorum,

Barclay, Robert, the celebrated apologist of the Quakers, born in 1648 at Gordonstown, Moray, and educated at Paris, where he became a Roman Catholic. He was recalled home by his father, whose example he followed in becoming a Quaker. His first treatise in support of his adopted principles, published at Aberdeen in the year 1670, under the title of Truth Cleared of Calumnies, together with his subsequent writings, did much to rectify public sentiment in regard to the Quakers. His chief work, in Latin, An Apology for the True Christian Divinity, was soon reprinted at Amsterdam, and quickly translated into German, Dutch, French, and Spanish, and, by the author himself, into English. His fame was now widely diffused; and, in his travels with William Penn and George Fox through England, Holland, and Germany, to spread the opinions of the Quakers, he was received everywhere with the highest respect. The last of his productions, On the Possibility and Necessity of an Inward and Immediate Revelation, was not published in England until 1686; from which time Barclay lived quietly with his family. He died, after a short illness, at his own house of Ury, Kincardineshire, in 1690. He was a friend of and had influence with James II.

Barclay, Sir Thomas, British barrister, born in 1853. Educated at the Universities of London, Paris, Bonn, and Jena, he was sent to Paris in 1876 as correspondent of The Times. He has been greatly instrumental in bringing about a better understanding between England and France. He was knighted in 1904, and entered Parliament in 1910. His works include: Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; The Turco-Italian War and its Problems; Law and Usage of War.

Barclay de Tolly, Michael, Prince, a distinguished general and field-marshal of Russia, born in 1755. His family, of Scottish origin, had been established in Livonia since 1689. He entered the army at an early age, served in various campaigns against the Turks, Swedes, and Poles, and in 1811 was named Minister of War. On the invasion of Napoleon he was transferred to the chief command of the army, and adopted a plan of retreat; his forces did not greatly exceed 100,000 men, but the Court became impatient, and after the capture of Smolensk by the French he was superseded by Kutusov. Sinking all personal feeling, he asked leave to serve under his successor, commanded the right wing at the battle of the Moskwa, maintained his position, and covered the retreat of the rest of the army. After the battle of Bautzen, in 1813, he was reappointed to the chief command, which he had soon after to resign to Prince Schwarzenberg. He forced the surrender of General Vandamme after the battle of Dresden, took part in the decisive battle of Leipzig, and was made a field-marshal in Paris. In 1815 he received from the emperor the title of prince, and from Louis XVIII the badge of the Order of Military Merit. He died in 1818.

Bar-cochba (ba˙r-koh´ba˙), or Bar-cochebas, Simon, a Jewish impostor, who pretended to be the Messiah, raised a revolt, and made himself master of Jerusalem about A.D. 132, and of about fifty fortified places. Hadrian sent to Britain for Julius Severus, one of his ablest generals, who gradually regained the different forts and then took and destroyed Jerusalem. Bar-cochba retired to a mountain fortress, and perished in the assault of it by the Romans three years after, about 135.

Bar´coo. See Cooper's Creek.

Bard, one of an order among the ancient Celtic tribes, whose occupation was to compose and sing verses in honour of the heroic achievements of princes and brave men, generally to the accompaniment of the harp. Their verses also frequently embodied religious or ethical precepts, genealogies, laws, &c. Their existence and function was known to the Romans two centuries B.C.; but of the Gallic bards only the tradition of their popularity survives. The first Welsh bards of whom anything is extant are Taliesin, Aneurin, and Llywarch, of the sixth century. A considerable lacuna then occurs in their history until the order was reconstituted in the tenth century by King Howel Dha, and again in the eleventh by Gryffith ap Conan. Edward I is said to have hanged all the Welsh bards as promoters of sedition. Some modern attempts have been made in Wales to revive bardism, and the Cambrian Society was formed in 1818, for this purpose and for the preservation of the remains of the ancient literature. The revived Eisteddfodau, or bardic festivals, have been so far exceedingly popular. In Ireland there were three classes of bards: those who sang of war, religion, &c., those who chanted the laws, and those who gave genealogies and family histories in verse. They were famous harpists. In the Highlands of Scotland there are considerable remains of compositions supposed to be those of their old bards still preserved.—Bibliography: E. Jones, Relics of the Welsh Bards; Walker, Memoirs of the Irish Bards; Dottin, Manuel de l'Antiquité Celtique; John Rhys and D. Brynmor-Jones, The Welsh People; D. D. Evans, Ancient Bards of Britain.

Bardesa´nes, a Syrian Gnostic, poet, astrologer, and philosopher, born 154 or 164 at Edessa, died 222. His system started with the statement that from the union of God with matter sprang Christ and a female Holy Ghost, from whom in turn sprang various existences. He propagated his doctrines in Syrian hymns (Hymn on the Soul), the first in the language. His son, Harmonius, was also an able hymn-writer. The Bardesanists maintained themselves till the twelfth century, the later adherents having practically adopted Manichæism.

Bardwan´, or Burdwan´, a division of Bengal, upon the Hugli, comprising the six districts of Bardwan, Hugli, Howrah, Midnapur, Bankura, and Birbhum. Area, 13,850 sq. miles; pop. 8,245,000.—The district Bardwan has an area of 2697 sq. miles, and a pop. of 1,532,500. Apart from its products, rice, grain, hemp, cotton, indigo, &c., it has a noted coal-field of about 500 sq. miles in area, with an annual output of about half a million tons.—The town of Bardwan has a fine palace of the Maharajah and a pop. of 35,022.

Barebone, or Barbone, Praise-God, the name of a leather-seller in Fleet Street, London, who obtained a kind of lead in the convention which Cromwell substituted for the Long Parliament, and which was thence nicknamed the Barebone Parliament. After its dissolution he disappeared till 1660, when he presented a petition to Parliament against the restoration of the monarchy. In 1661 he was committed to the Tower for some time, but his subsequent history is unknown.

Barefooted Friars. See Monasticism.

Barége (ba-rāzh´), a light, open tissue of silk and worsted, or cotton and worsted, for women's dresses, originally manufactured near Baréges. It is now made chiefly at Bagnères-de-Bigorre.

Baréges (ba˙-rāzh), a watering-place, south of France, department Hautes-Pyrénées, about 4000 feet above the sea, celebrated for its thermal springs, which are frequented for rheumatism, scrofula, &c. The place is hardly inhabited except in the bathing season, June till September.

Baregine (ba-rāzh´in; from Baréges), a gelatinous product of certain algæ growing in sulphuric mineral springs, and imparting to them the colour and odour of flesh-broth.

Bareilly (ba-rā´li), a town of Hindustan, in the United Provinces, capital of a district of same name, on a pleasant and elevated site. It has a fort and cantonments, a Government college, and manufactures sword-cutlery, gold and silver lace, perfumery, furniture and upholstery. On the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny the native garrison took possession of the place, but it was retaken by Lord Clyde in May, 1858. Pop. 129,462.—The district has an area of 1595 sq. miles; pop. 1,089,550.

Bar´ents, William, a Dutch navigator of the end of the sixteenth century, who, on an expedition intended to reach China by the North-East Passage, discovered Novaya Zemlya. He wintered there in 1596-7, and died before reaching home.

Baret´ti, Joseph, an Italian writer, born at Turin, 1719. In 1748 he came to England, and in 1753 published in English a Defence of the Poetry of Italy against the Censures of M. Voltaire. In 1760 he brought out a useful Italian and English Dictionary. After an absence of six years, during part of which he edited the Frusta Letteraria (Literary Scourge) at Venice, he returned to England, and in 1768 published an Account of the Manners and Customs of Italy. Not long after, in defending himself in a street brawl, he stabbed his assailant and was tried for murder at the Old Bailey but acquitted, Johnson, Burke, Goldsmith, Garrick, Reynolds, and Beauclerk giving testimony to his good character. An English and Spanish Dictionary, and various other works, followed before his death in 1789.

Barfleur (ba˙r-fleur), at one time the best port on the coast of Normandy, and the reputed port from which William the Conqueror sailed. It was destroyed in the year 1346 by Edward III. Present pop. 1304.

Barfrush´, or Barfurush´, Same as Balfroosh.

Bargain and Sale, a legal term denoting the contract by which lands, tenements, &c., are transferred from one person to another. See Conveyancing.

Barge, a term similar in origin to barque, but generally used of a flat-bottomed boat of some kind, whether used for loading and unloading vessels, or as a canal-boat, or as an ornamental boat of state or pleasure.

Barge-board (perhaps a corruption of verge-board), in architecture, a board generally pendent from the eaves of gables, so as to conceal the rafters, keep out rain, &c. They are sometimes elaborately ornamented. The portion of the roof projecting from the wall at the gable-end, and beneath which the barge-board runs, is termed the barge-course.

Barham (bar'am), Rev. Richard Harris, a humorous writer, born in 1788 at Canterbury; educated at St. Paul's School, London, and at Brasenose, Oxford; appointed in succession curate of Ashford, curate of Westwell, rector of Snargate in Romney Marsh, and one of the minor canons of St. Paul's Cathedral. He published two novels, Baldwin and My Cousin Nicholas, wrote nearly a third of the articles in Gorton's Biographical Dictionary, and contributed to Blackwood's Magazine. In 1824 he was appointed priest in ordinary of the Chapel Royal, and afterwards rector of St. Mary Magdalene and St. Gregory-by-St.-Paul, London. In 1837, on the starting of Bentley's Miscellany, he laid the main foundation of his literary fame by the publication in that periodical of the Ingoldsby Legends. He died in 1845.

Barhebræ´us. See Abulfaragius.

Bari (bä'rē; ancient, Barium), a seaport, S. Italy, on a small promontory of the Adriatic, capital of the province Terra di Bari. It was a place of importance as early as the third century B.C., and has been thrice destroyed and rebuilt. The present town, though poorly built for the most part, has a large Norman castle, a fine cathedral and priory, &c. It manufactures cotton and linen goods, hats, soap, glass, and liqueurs; has a trade in wine, grain, almonds, oil, &c., and is now an important seaport. In 1915 the town suffered considerably from floods. Pop. 109,218.—The province has an area of 2048 sq. miles, and is fertile in fruit, wine, oil, &c.; pop. 935,982.

Bari, a negro people of Africa, dwelling on both sides of the White Nile, between lat. 3° 30' and 6° N. They practise agriculture, cattle-rearing, smithwork, &c. Their country was conquered by Baker for Egypt.

Baril´la, is the commercial name for impure sodium carbonate imported from Spain and the Levant. At one time all sodium carbonate required for industrial purposes was prepared from barilla obtained by burning various marine plants (Salsola, Salicornia, and others). Only 25 per cent of the weight of the ash contained soda, and consequently its import was expensive and considerably added to the price of the manufacture of glass and soap. During the Napoleonic wars the price of barilla rose to such a height that Napoleon offered a reward for the discovery of a process for the manufacture of sodium carbonate. A chemist, Leblanc, in 1791 invented a new process by which sodium carbonate could be obtained from common salt, and this entirely superseded barilla. Plants are still grown in Southern France and Spain to obtain soda and other substances from the ash; but almost all the sodium carbonate of the present day is manufactured chemically.

Baring, the name of a famous English family of bankers and financiers, statesmen and diplomats, from which has arisen the financial house of Baring Brothers & Co., and of which members now hold four peerages, namely, two earldoms—Northbrook and Cromer—and two baronies—Ashburton and Revelstoke. The founder of the house was Francis Baring (1740-1810), whose father was a cloth manufacturer near Exeter, and grandfather pastor of the Lutheran Church at Bremen, the family being thus of German origin. Francis Baring settled in London, attained a high position in the mercantile and financial world, was long a member of Parliament and a director of the East India Company, and was made a baronet in 1793. Of his sons, one, Alexander, was created Baron Ashburton (in 1835), and rendered important political services in connection with the boundary treaty concluded between Britain and the United States, and known by his title (see Ashburton, Ashburton Treaty). His son, the second Lord Ashburton (1799-1864), held a position of some note in politics, and his first wife, a daughter of the sixth Earl of Sandwich, was fond of the society of both politicians and literary men, among those who were on friendly terms with her being Carlyle and Thackeray. Sir Francis Baring's eldest son, Thomas, was father of Francis Thornhill Baring, first Lord Northbrook (1796-1866), whose eldest son, Thomas, was created Earl of Northbrook in 1876, and held successively a number of high positions, among them that of Viceroy of India (1872-6) and First Lord of the Admiralty (1880-5). (See Northbrook.) Another son of Sir Francis, Henry Baring, was father of Edward Baring, the first Baron Revelstoke (born in 1828, died in 1897), who was long one of the most conspicuous members of the financial world of London, and was raised to the peerage as baron in 1885. He had full management of the great house of Baring Brothers, which under him was long most prosperous, but in 1890 fell into temporary difficulties. Henry Baring was father also of Evelyn Baring, Earl Cromer (q.v.).

Baring-Gould (bā-ring-gōld´), Sabine, English clergyman and author, born at Exeter, 1834. Educated at Cambridge, he held several livings in the English Church, and in 1881 became rector of Lew Trenchard, Devon. After publishing several books on theological and miscellaneous subjects, he distinguished himself as a novelist. Among his works are: Iceland, its Scenes and Sagas; Curious Myths of the Middle Ages; The Origin and Development of Religious Belief; Lives of the Saints (in 15 vols.); Village Sermons; The Vicar of Morwenstowe (an account of the Rev. R. S. Hawker); The Mystery of Suffering; History of the Church in Germany; The Tragedy of the Cæsars; Cliff Castles and Cave Dwellings; The Church Revival; &c.; besides the novels Mehalah, John Herring, Richard Cable, The Gaverocks, Court Royal, The Pennycomequicks, &c.; and short stories or novelettes.

Baringo, a lake in Africa, N.E. of the Victoria Nyanza, about 20 miles long.

Bar´itone, or Bar´ytone, a male voice, the compass of which partakes of those of the common bass and the tenor, but does not extend so far downwards as the one, nor to an equal height with the other. Its best tones are from the lower A of the bass clef to the lower F in the treble.

Ba´rium (from the Gr. barys, heavy), the metal of which baryta is the oxide; specific gravity 4; symbol Ba. It is only found in compounds, such as the common sulphate (or barytes) and carbonate, and was isolated by Davy in 1808. It is a yellow malleable metal, which readily oxidizes, decomposes water, and fuses at a low temperature. Its nitrate and chlorate are used in pyrotechny. Barium salts, when brought into a non-luminous flame, burn with a yellowish-green colour. See Baryta.

Bark, properly the periderm, or outer covering, of woody stems and roots, composed of dead tissues cut off from the living parts of the organ by one or more layers of impervious cork. It serves to prevent loss of water, and also affords protection against animals and fungi. The outermost bark is continually sloughed in the form of scales (Scots Pine) or sheets (Common Birch), being regenerated from within by the activity of the cork-cambium (phellogen). Bark is usually rich in waste-products, many of which are of economic value, such as tannin, gums, &c. Bottle-cork is the bark of the cork-oak. Bark for tanning is obtained from oak, hemlock-spruce, species of acacia, &c. Peruvian and Angostura barks, cinnamon, &c., are other useful barks. As commonly used, bark denotes all the tissues external to the cambium.

Bark. See Barque.

Bark, Peruvian. See Cinchona.

Barker, Granville, playwright, was born in London in 1877. His principal plays are: The Voysey Inheritance (1905), Waste (1907), The Madras House (1910). He has published a book (in which William Archer collaborated) called A National Theatre, and another entitled The Red Cross in France. His revivals of Shakespeare have introduced some new ideas of mounting and stage-effects.

Barker's Mill, also called Scottish turbine, a hydraulic machine on the principle of what is known as the hydraulic tourniquet. This consists of an upright vessel free to rotate about a vertical axis, and having at its lower end two discharging pipes projecting horizontally on either side and bent in opposite directions at the ends, through which the water is discharged horizontally, the direction of discharge being mainly at right angles to a line joining the discharging orifice to the axis. The backward pressures at the bends of the tubes, arising from the two issuing jets of water, cause the apparatus to revolve in an opposite direction to the issuing fluid. The machine was invented by a Dr. Barker towards the end of the seventeenth century.

Barking, a town, England, county of Essex, on the Roding, 7 miles N.E. of London, with some important manufacturing works. Near it is the outfall of the sewage of a large part of London. Pop. (1921), 35,543.

Barkston Ash, a parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire.

Bark-stove, or Bark-bed, a sort of hothouse for forcing or for growing plants that require a great heat combined with moisture, both of which are supplied by the fermentation that sets up in a bed of spent tanner's bark contained in a brick pit under glass.

Bar´laam and Jos´aphat, a famous mediæval spiritual romance, which is in its main details a Christianized version of the Hindu legends of Buddha. The story first appeared in Greek in the works of Joannes Damascenus in the eighth century. It is, however, more probably the work of a monk of the Sabbas monastery, near Jerusalem, and written at the beginning of the seventh century. The compilers of the Gesta Romanorum, Boccaccio, Gower, and Shakespeare have all drawn materials from it.—Bibliography: Max Müller, Chips from a German Workshop; J. Jacobs, Barlaam and Josaphat, (There is a translation by Rev. G. R. Woodward and H. Mattingly in the Loeb Library).

Bar-le-duc (ba˙r-l-du˙k), a town of North-East France, capital of department Meuse, with manufactures of cotton and woollen stuffs, leather, confectionery, &c. Pop. 17,068.

Barlet´ta, a seaport in South Italy, province of Bari, on the Adriatic, with a fine Gothic cathedral; it has a considerable export trade in grain, wine, almonds, &c. Pop. 44,233.

Bar´ley, the name of several cereal plants of the genus Hordeum, ord. Gramineæ: (grasses), yielding a grain used as food and also for making malt, from which are prepared beer, porter, and whisky. Barley has been known and cultivated from remote antiquity, and beer was made from it among the Egyptians. It is mentioned in Exodus, in connection with the ten plagues; and it is referred to in ancient Chinese records. Excellent barley is produced in Britain. The species principally cultivated are Hordĕum distĭchum, two-rowed barley; H. vulgāre, four-rowed barley; and H. hexastichum, six-rowed, of which the small variety is the sacred barley of the ancients. The varieties of the four- and six-rowed species are generally coarser than those of the two-rowed, and adapted for a poorer soil and more exposed situation. Some of these are called bere or bigg. In Britain barley occupies more than 22½ per cent of the land under corn, but in N. America the extent of it as a crop is comparatively small, being in Canada, however, relatively greater than in the States, and the Canadian barley is of very high quality. Barley is better adapted for cold climates than any other grain, and some of the coarser varieties are cultivated where no other cereal can be grown. Russia devotes a surface of over 20,000,000 acres to barley, i.e. a little under 11 per cent of the cereal area of the country. Germany has 4,000,000 and France 1,800,000 acres of barley. Some species of the genus, three of which are natives of Britain, are mere grasses. Pot or Scotch barley is the grain deprived of the husk in a mill. Pearl barley is the grain polished and rounded and deprived of husk and pellicle. Patent barley is the farina obtained by grinding pearl barley. Barley-water, a decoction of pearl barley, is used in medicine as possessing emollient, diluent, and expectorant qualities.

Barley-sugar. See Confectionery; Sugar.

Bar´low, Joel, an American poet and diplomatist, born 1755. After an active and changeful life as chaplain, lawyer, editor, land-agent, lecturer, and consul, he went to Paris and acquired a fortune. On his return to America he was appointed Minister Plenipotentiary to France (1811), but died near Cracow in 1812 on his way to meet Napoleon. His principal poem, The Columbiad (The Vision of Columbus), dealing with American history from the time of Columbus, was published in 1807.

Barm. See Yeast.

Bar´mecides (-sīdz), a distinguished Persian family, whose virtues and splendour form a favourite subject with Mahommedan poets and historians. Two eminent members of this family were Khaled-ben-Barmek, tutor of Haroun al Rashid, and his son Yahya, grand vizier of Haroun. The expression Barmecide Feast, meaning a visionary banquet or make-believe entertainment, originates from the Barber's story of his Sixth Brother in the Arabian Nights' Entertainments.

Bar´men, a German city on the Wupper, in the Prussian Rhine Province, government of Düsseldorf, and forming a continuation of the town of Elberfeld, in the valley of Barmen. It has extensive ribbon and other textile manufactures; also dyeworks, manufactures of chemicals, metal wares, buttons, yarns, iron, machines, pianos, organs, soap, &c. In 1919 Barmen was the scene of Spartacist disorders. Pop. 169,214.

Barmouth, Welsh name Abermaw, a small seaport and watering-place of Wales, in Merionethshire, at the entrance of Barmouth Bay, a fine estuary. It is picturesquely situated, and has become a favourite resort of tourists and others. Pop. (1921), 3559.

Bar´nabas, the surname, according to Acts, iv, 36-7, given by the apostles to Joseph, a fellow-labourer of St. Paul, and, like him, ranked as an apostle. He is said to have founded at Antioch the first Christian community, to have been first Bishop of Milan, and to have suffered martyrdom at Cyprus. His festival is held on the 11th June.

Barnabas, Saint, Epistle of, an epistle in twenty-one chapters unanimously ascribed to Barnabas by early Christian writers, but without any support of internal evidence. It was probably written about A.D. 130 (or, according to others, between A.D. 70 and 79) by one who was not a Jew, and under the influence of Alexandrian Judaistic thought. See Codex (Sinaiticus).

Barnabites, an order of monks founded in Milan in 1530 and named after the Milan church of St. Barnabas which was allotted them to preach in. On their expulsion from France in 1905, the majority of the Barnabites sought refuge in England. A few monasteries of the order still exist in Italy, Belgium, Austria, and Spain.

Bar´nacle, the name of a family (Lepadidæ) of marine crustaceous animals, ord. Cirripedia. They are enveloped by a mantle and shell, composed of five principal valves and several smaller pieces, joined together by a membrane attached to their circumference; and they are furnished with a long, flexible, fleshy stalk or peduncle, provided with muscles, by which they attach themselves to ships' bottoms, submerged timber, &c. They feed on small marine animals, brought within their reach by the water and secured by their tentacula. Some of the larger species are edible. According to an old fable, these animals produced barnacle geese.

Barnacle Goose (Anser Bernicla or leucopsis), a summer visitant of the northern seas, in size rather smaller than the common wild goose, and having the forehead and cheeks white, the upper body and neck black. A fable asserts that the crustaceans called barnacles changed into geese, and various theories have been framed to account for its origin. Max Müller supposes the geese were originally called Hiberniculæ or Irish geese, and that barnacle is a corruption of this; but the resemblance of a barnacle to a goose hanging by the head may account for it. The Brent Goose is also sometimes called the Barnacle Goose, but the two should not be confused.

Barnard-Castle, a town, England, County Durham, giving name to a parliamentary division of the county. There are a large thread-mill and carpet manufactories; the Bowes Museum and Art Gallery, endowed by private munificence, and costing over £80,000; and the Northern Counties School, richly endowed. The castle was originally built about 1178 by Bernard Baliol, grandfather of John Baliol. Pop. 4737.

Barnar´do, Thomas John, philanthropist, born in Ireland in 1845, qualified as a medical practitioner, studying in London, Edinburgh, and Paris, established his first home for neglected London children in 1867, and for the rest of his life was engaged in the same class of work. Up to his death in 1905 he had nearly 60,000 destitute waifs cared for and trained in the institutions with which his name is connected, many of the children having been sent to Canada or other colonies. The Barnardo homes and institutions have become very numerous, being established in various English counties as well as in London, a few being in Canada. A naval training-school for boys is included among them. It was a rule of the founder that no destitute child should be refused admission. The homes have since 1899 been under a council or body incorporated under the title of the National Incorporated Waifs Association, but continue to be managed on the same lines as before. Dr. Barnardo published Something Attempted, Something Done; The Rescue of Waifs; &c.—Cf. J. H. Batt, Dr. Barnardo, the Foster-father of Nobody's Children.

Barnaul´, a town of Siberia, government of Tomsk, on the Barnaulski, near its influx into the Obi. The town is of wood but well built, with museum, observatory, &c. It is an important mining centre for lead, copper, and silver, has a copper-mint, kilns, and factories. Pop. 61,330.

Barnave (ba˙r-näv), Antoine-Pierre-Joseph-Marie, a distinguished French revolutionist, born 1761, died 1793. He successfully maintained against Mirabeau the right of the National Assembly, as against that of the king, to declare for peace or war, but afterwards asserted the inviolability of the king's person. He was impeached, condemned, and guillotined.

Barnes, an urban district of England, in Surrey, on the right bank of the Thames, a short distance above London, connected with Middlesex by Hammersmith Suspension Bridge. There is here a common of 120 acres, one of the preserved open spaces of the metropolitan area. Pop. (1921), 34,281.

Barnes (bärnz), Albert, theologian, born in the State of New York, 1798. In 1825 he was ordained pastor of the Presbyterian Church of Morristown, New Jersey, and from 1830 till his death in 1870 had charge of the first Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia. He is chiefly known by his Notes on the New Testament and Notes on the Old Testament.

Barnes, Rt. Hon. George Nicoll, British Labour leader, born at Dundee, in Scotland, in 1859. After working as an engineer he became assistant secretary of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers in 1892, and was general secretary from 1896 to 1906. He entered Parliament in 1906, became Minister for Pensions in 1916, member of War Cabinet in 1917, and was Minister without portfolio from 1919 to Jan., 1920. He was a British representative at the Peace Conference in Paris.

Barnes, William, English dialect poet and philologist, born in Dorsetshire in 1800, died 1886. Of humble birth, he first entered a solicitor's office, then taught at a school in Dorchester, and having taken orders became rector of Winterbourne Came in his native county and died there. He acquired a knowledge of many languages, and published works on Anglo-Saxon and English, as An Anglo-Saxon Delectus, A Philological Grammar (grounded upon English), Grammar and Glossary of the Dorset Dialect, &c., but is best known by his Poems of Rural Life in the Dorset Dialect and Poems of Rural Life in Common English.

Bar´net, a town of England, in Herts, 11 miles from London, where was fought in 1471 a battle between the Yorkists and Lancastrians, resulting in the defeat of the latter and the death of Warwick, Edward IV being thus established king. Pop. (1921), 11,772.

Barnett, John, musical composer, son of Bernhard Beer, a German, born at Bedford 1802, died 1890. He composed music as a lad, and his songs and ballads soon had great vogue. In 1834 his opera The Mountain Sylph was produced with success, and three years after was followed by the less successful Fair Rosamond. For many years before his death he was little heard of.

Barnett, John Francis, nephew of the former, born in 1837, died in 1916, was also a distinguished musician and teacher, author of cantatas: The Ancient Mariner, Paradise and the Peri, The Raising of Lazarus, The Building of the Ship, and of various other works.

Barneveldt (bär'ne-velt), Johan van Olden, grand pensionary of Holland during the struggle with Philip II of Spain, born in 1547. After the assassination of William of Orange, and the conquest of the south provinces by the Spaniards under Parma, he headed the embassy to secure English aid. Finding, however, that the Earl of Leicester proved a worse than useless ally, he secured the elevation of the young Maurice of Nassau to the post of Stadtholder, at the same time by his own wise administration doing much to restore the prosperity of the State. After serving as ambassador to France and England, he succeeded in 1607 in obtaining from Spain a recognition of the independence of the States, and two years later in concluding with her the twelve years' truce. Maurice, ambitious of absolute rule and jealous of the influence of Barneveldt, was interested in the continuance of the war, and lost no opportunity of hostile action against the great statesman. In this he was aided by the strongly-marked theologic division in the State between the Gomarites (the Calvinistic and popular party) and the Arminians, of whom Barneveldt was a supporter. Maurice, who had thrown in his lot with the Gomarites, encouraged the idea that the Arminians were the friends of Spain, and procured the assembly of a synod at Dort (1618), which violently condemned them. Barneveldt and his friends Grotius and Hoogerbeets were arrested, and subjected to a so-called trial; and Barneveldt, to whom the country owed its political existence and the Commons their retention of legislative power, was beheaded on 13th May, 1619. His sons, four years later, attempted to avenge his death; one was beheaded, the other escaped to Spain.

Barnoldswick, an urban district of England, West Riding of Yorkshire, 9 miles south-west of Skipton, with cotton manufactures and other industries. Pop. (1921), 11,951.

Barns´ley, a municipal borough of England, West Riding of Yorkshire. Its staple industries are the manufacture of linens, iron, and steel, and there are numerous collieries in the neighbourhood. Created a parliamentary borough in 1918, Barnsley returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1921), 53,670.

Barn´staple, a county and municipal borough in England, county of Devon, giving its name to a parliamentary division of the county on the right bank of the Taw, where it receives the Yeo; manufactures of lace, paper, pottery, furniture, toys and turnery, and leather. Pop. 14,409.

Baroach. See Broach.

Baro´da, a non-tributary State, but subordinate to the Indian Government, situated in the north of the Bombay presidency. It consists of a number of detached territories in the province of Guzerat, and is generally level, fertile, and well cultivated, producing luxuriant crops of grain, cotton, tobacco, opium, sugar-cane, and oil-seeds. There is a famous breed of large white oxen used as draught cattle. Area, 8182 sq. miles; pop. (1911) 2,032,798. The ruler is called the Gaekwár. The dissensions of the Baroda family have more than once called for British intervention, and in 1875 the ruling Gaekwár was tried and deposed in connection with the charge of attempting to poison the British Resident. Since 1908 there is a Legislative Council of 17 members.—Baroda, the capital, is the third city in the Bombay presidency. It consists of the city proper within the walls and the suburbs without, and is largely composed of poor and crowded houses, but has also some fine buildings, and is noted for its Hindu temples kept up by the State. Pop. 99,345.—Cf. E. St. C. Weeden, A Year with the Gaekwár of Baroda.

Barograph, a kind of aneroid barometer, which, by means of special mechanism and appliances, is made to furnish automatically a continuous record of the successive changes in atmospheric pressure. The paper that receives the record is made to move by clockwork while in contact with the index pencil, which rises and falls according to alterations of atmospheric pressure.

Barom´eter, an instrument for measuring the weight or pressure of the atmosphere and thus determining changes in the weather, the height of mountains, and other phenomena. It had its origin about the middle of the seventeenth century in an experiment of Torricelli, an Italian, who found that if a glass tube about 3 feet in length, open at one end only, and filled with mercury, were placed vertically with the open end in a cup of the same fluid metal, a portion of the mercury descended into the cup, leaving a column only about 30 inches in height in the tube. He inferred, therefore, that the atmospheric pressure on the surface of the mercury in the cup forced it up the tube to the height of 30 inches, and that this was so because the weight of a column of air from the cup to the top of the atmosphere was only equal to that of a column of mercury of the same base and 30 inches high. Pascal confirmed the conclusion in 1645; six years afterwards it was found by Perrier that the height of the mercury in the Torricellian tube varied with the weather; and in 1655 Boyle proposed to use the instrument to measure the height of mountains.

The common or cistern barometer, which is a modification of the Torricellian tube, consists of a glass tube 33 inches in length and about one-third of an inch in diameter, hermetically sealed at the top, and having the lower end resting in a small vessel containing mercury, or bent upwards and terminating in a glass bulb partly occupied by the mercury and open to the atmosphere. The tube is first filled with purified mercury, and then inverted, and there is affixed to it a scale to mark the height of the mercurial column, which comparatively seldom rises above 31 inches or sinks below 28 inches. In general the rising of the mercury presages fair weather, and its falling the contrary, a great and sudden fall being the usual presage of a storm. The weather-points on the ordinary barometric scale are as follows: At 28 inches, stormy weather; 28½, much rain or snow; 29, rain or snow; 29½, changeable; 30, fair or frost; 30½, settled fair or frost; 31, very dry weather or hard frost. Certain attendant signs, however, have also to be noted: thus, when fair or foul weather follows almost immediately upon the rise or fall of the mercury, the change is usually of short duration; while if the change of weather be delayed for some days after the variation in the mercury, it is usually of long continuance. The direction of the wind has also to be taken into account.

The siphon barometer consists of a bent tube, generally of uniform bore, having two unequal legs, the longer closed, the shorter open. A sufficient quantity of mercury having been introduced to fill the longer leg, the instrument is set upright, and the mercury takes such a position that the difference of the levels in the two legs represents the pressure of the atmosphere. In the best siphon barometers there are two scales, one for each leg, the divisions on one being reckoned upwards, and on the other downwards from an intermediate zero point, so that the sum of the two readings is the difference of levels of the mercury in the two branches.

The wheel barometer is the one that is most commonly used for domestic purposes. It is far from being accurate, but it is often preferred for ordinary use on account of the greater range of its scale, by which small differences in the height of the column of mercury are more easily observed. It usually consists of a siphon barometer having a float resting on the surface of the mercury in the open branch, a thread attached to the float passing over a pulley, and having a weight as a counterpoise to the float at its extremity. As the mercury rises and falls the thread and weight turn the pulley, which again moves the index of the dial.

The mountain barometer is a portable mercurial barometer with a tripod support and a long scale for measuring the altitude of mountains. To prevent breakage, through the oscillations of such a heavy liquid as mercury, it is usually carried inverted, or it is furnished with a movable basin and a screw, by means of which the mercury may be forced up to the top of the tube. For delicate operations, such as the measurement of altitudes, the scale of the barometer is furnished with a nonius or vernier, which greatly increases the minuteness and accuracy of the scale. For the rough estimate of altitudes the following rule is sufficient: As the sum of the heights of the mercury at the bottom and top of the mountain is to their difference, so is 52,000 to the height to be measured, in feet. (See also Heights, Measurement of.) In exact barometric observations two corrections require to be made, one for the depression of the mercury in the tube by capillary attraction, the other for temperature, which increases or diminishes the bulk of the mercury. In regard to the measurement of heights, the general rule is to subtract the ten-thousandth part of the observed altitude for every degree of Fahrenheit above 32°.

In the aneroid barometer, as its name implies (Gr. a, not, nēros, liquid), no fluid is employed, the action being dependent upon the susceptibility to atmospheric pressure shown by a flat circular metallic chamber from which the air has been partially exhausted, and which has a flexible top and bottom of corrugated metal plate. By an ingenious arrangement of springs and levers the depression or elevation of the surface of the box is registered by an index on the dial, by which means it is also greatly magnified, being given in inches to correspond with the mercurial barometer. Aneroids are, however, generally less reliable than mercurial barometers, with which they should be frequently compared. The illustration shows an aneroid without its case. At the centre of the partially exhausted metal chamber is a small pillar [M], connected with a steel spring [R]. The rise and fall of the top of the chamber, due to changing atmospheric pressure, is transmitted by means of the levers [L], and [m] to a metallic axis [r], and this axis carries a lever [t], whose end is attached to a chain [s], which turns a drum on whose axis the index needle is fixed.—Bibliography: C. Abbe, Meteorological Apparatus; Marvin, Barometers and the Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure.

Bar´on, originally, in the feudal system, the vassal or immediate tenant of any superior; but the term was afterwards restricted to the king's barons, and again to the greater of these only, who attended the Great Council, or who, at a later date, were summoned by writ to Parliament. It was the second rank of nobility, until dukes and marquesses were introduced and placed above the earls, and viscounts also set above the barons, who therefore now hold the lowest rank in the British peerage. The present barons are of three classes: (1) barons by writ, whose ancestors have long sat in the Upper House; (2) by patent; (3) by tenure, i.e. holding the title as annexed to land. The coronet is a plain gold circle with six balls or 'pearls' on its edge, the cap being of crimson velvet.

Baron and feme, a term used for husband and wife in English law.

Bar´onet, a hereditary dignity in Great Britain and Ireland, next in rank to the peerage, originally instituted by James I in 1611, nominally to promote the colonization and defence of Ulster, each baronet, on his creation, being then obliged to pay into the treasury a sum of £1095, exclusive of fees. Baronets of Ireland were instituted in 1620, and of Scotland in 1625, the latter being called baronets of Nova Scotia, because their creation was originally intended to further the colonization of Nova Scotia. But the baronets of Scotland and of England have been baronets of Great Britain if created since 1707; since 1801 all creations have been known as baronetcies of the United Kingdom. A baronet has the title of 'Sir' prefixed to his Christian and surname, and his wife is 'Lady' so-and-so. Baronets rank before all knights except Knights of the Garter, the Thistle, and St. Patrick. They have as their badge a 'bloody hand' (the arms of Ulster), that is, a left hand, erect and open, cut off at the wrist, and red in colour.—Bibliography: Pixley, History of the Baronetage; G. E. Cokayne, Complete Baronetage; The Baronetage under 27 Sovereigns, 1309-1910.

Baro´nius, or Baronio, Cæsar, Italian ecclesiastical historian, born 1538; educated at Naples; in 1557 went to Rome; was one of the first pupils of St. Philip of Neri, and member of the oratory founded by him; afterwards cardinal and librarian of the Vatican Library. He owed these dignities to the services which he rendered the Church by his Ecclesiastical Annals, comprising valuable documents from the papal archives, on which he laboured from the year 1580 until his death, 30th June, 1607. They were continued, though with less power, by other writers, of whom Raynaldus takes the first rank; others are Laderchi and Theiner.

Baron of beef, two sirloins not cut asunder.

Barons' War, the war carried on for several years by Simon de Montfort and other barons of Henry III against the king, beginning in 1263.

Barony, a manor or landed estate under a baron, who formerly had certain rights of jurisdiction in his barony and could hold special courts. In Ireland baronies are still the chief subdivisions of the counties.

Barosma. See Bucku.

Barot´seland, a former kingdom of South Africa, now a part of Rhodesia.

Barouche (ba-rösh'), a four-wheeled carriage with a falling top and two inside seats in which four persons can sit, two facing two.

Barque (bärk), a three-masted vessel of which the fore-mast and main-mast are square-rigged, but the mizzen-mast has fore-and-aft sails only.

Barquisimeto (ba˙r-kē-sē-mā'tō), a city in the north of the Republic of Venezuela, capital of the State of Lara. Pop. about 32,000.

Bar´ra, or Bar, a small kingdom in Africa, near the mouth of the Gambia. The Mandingoes, who form a considerable part of the inhabitants, are Mahommedans and the most civilized people on the Gambia. Pop. 200,000. The coast here belongs to Britain. The chief town is Barrinding, where the so-called king resides. See Gambia.

Barra, an island of the Outer Hebrides, west coast of Scotland, belonging to Inverness-shire; 8 miles long and from 2 to 5 miles broad, of irregular outline, with rocky coasts, surface hilly but furnishing excellent pasture. On the west coast the Atlantic, beating with all its force, has hollowed out vast caves and fissures. Large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep are reared on the island. The coasts of this and adjacent islands abound with fish, and fishing is an important industry. The inhabitants, about 2500, are Roman Catholics, and speak Gaelic.

Barra, a town about 3 miles east of Naples. Pop. 12,080.

Barracan´, or Barragan, strictly, a thick strong stuff made in Persia and Armenia of camel's hair, but the name has been applied, by Byron and others, to various wool, flax, and cotton fabrics.

Bar´rack (Sp. barraca), originally a small cabin or hut for troops, but now applied to the permanent buildings in which troops are lodged. Despite the obvious evils of the quartering system, the introduction of barracks by George III met with considerable opposition in the British Parliament as dangerous to liberty, by estranging the soldier from the citizen, and fitting him to become a tool of despotism.

Barrackpur (-pör'), a town and military cantonment, Hindustan, on the left bank of the Hughli, 10 miles N.N.E. of Calcutta. The suburban residence of the Viceroy is in Barrackpur Park. Pop. 31,907.

Barracoon´, a negro barrack or slave depot, formerly plentiful on the west coast of Africa, in Cuba, Brazil, &c.

Barracu´da, a name for certain large and ferocious fishes of the genus Sphyræna, and allied to the mullets, inhabiting southern seas, and caught in abundance for food.

Barrafran´ca, a town of Sicily, province Caltanissetta. Pop. 11,170.

Barramun´da. See Ceratodus.

Barranquilla (ba˙r-ra˙n-kēl'ya˙), a port of S. America, in Colombia, on a branch of the River Magdalena, near its entrance into the Caribbean Sea, connected by rail with the seaport Puerto Colombia. Pop. 64,543.

Barras (ba˙-rä), Paul François Jean Nicholas, Comte de, member of the French National Convention and of the Executive Directory, born in Provence 1755, died 1829. After serving in the army in India and Africa, he joined the revolutionary party and was a deputy in the tiers état. He took part in the attack upon the Bastille and upon the Tuileries, and voted for the death of Louis XVI. In the subsequent events he displeased Robespierre, and on this account joined the members of the committee, who foresaw danger awaiting them, and being entrusted with the chief command of the forces of his party he made himself master of Robespierre. On 4th Feb., 1795, he was elected president of the Convention, and on 5th Oct., when the troops of the sections which favoured the royal cause approached, Barras for a second time received the chief command of the forces of the Convention. On this occasion he employed General Bonaparte, for whom he procured the chief command of the army of the interior, and afterwards the command of the army in Italy. From the events of the 18th Fructidor (4th Sept., 1797) he governed absolutely until the 13th June, 1799, when Siéyès entered the Directory, and in alliance with Bonaparte procured his downfall in the revolution of the 18th Brumaire (9th Nov., 1799). He afterwards resided at Brussels, Marseilles, Rome, and Montpellier under surveillance. His Memoirs (in four volumes) were published in French and in English in 1895-6.

Bar´ratry, in commerce, any fraud committed by the master or mariners of a ship, whereby the owners, freighters, or insurers are injured; as by deviation from the proper course of the voyage, by the captain, for his own private purposes; fraudulent negligence; embezzlement of any part of the cargo, &c.

Barratry, Common, in law, the stirring up of lawsuits and quarrels between other persons, the party guilty of this offence being indictable as a common barrator or barretor. The commencing of suits in the name of a fictitious plaintiff is common barratry. In old Scots law it denotes the taking of bribes by a judge.

Barrel, a well-known variety of wooden vessel; but the term is also used as a definite measure and weight. A barrel of beer is 36 gallons, of flour 196 lb., of beef or pork 200 lb. The Italian barile varies from 7 to 31 English gallons; the French barrique of Bordeaux contains 50 English gallons = 228 French litres.

Barrel-organ, a musical instrument usually carried by street musicians, in which a barrel, studded with pegs or staples, when turned round, opens a series of valves to admit air to a set of pipes, or acts upon wire strings like those of the piano, thus producing a fixed series of tunes.

Barren Grounds, a large tract in the North-West Territories of Canada, extending northwards from Churchill River to the Arctic Ocean between Great Bear and Great Slave Lake and Hudson's Bay. It largely consists of swamps, lakes, and bare rock.

Barrhead´, a town, Scotland, Renfrewshire, on the Levern, 7 miles S.W. of Glasgow; chief industries: printing of cottons, the spinning of cotton yarn, dyeing, bleaching, iron and brass founding, and sanitary ware. Pop. 11,387.

Barrie, a town of Canada, province Ontario, 55 miles N.W. Toronto, picturesquely situated on Lake Simcoe, a favourite summer resort. Pop. 6420.

Barrie, Sir James Matthew, a novelist and playwright, born in 1860 at Kirriemuir, Forfarshire; studied at Edinburgh University, graduating as M.A. in 1882. After working on a Nottingham journal he was a journalist in London. His first book, Better Dead (1887), a satire on London life, was followed by the highly successful Auld Licht Idylls (1888), with its sequel A Window in Thrums (that is, Kirriemuir) (1889). Among his novels and tales are When a Man's Single, My Lady Nicotine, The Little Minister, Sentimental Tommy, Tommy and Grizel, The Little White Bird. Successful plays are Peter and Wendy, The Professor's Love Story, The Little Minister (based on the novel), The Admirable Crichton, Quality Street, Little Mary, Peter Pan, What Every Woman Knows, Dear Brutus, A Kiss for Cinderella, Mary Rose. His plays on the whole have been even more successful than his other works. He was created a baronet in 1913, and elected Rector of the University of St. Andrews in 1919.—Cf. J. A. Hammerton, J. M. Barrie and his Books.

Barrier Reef, a coral reef, or rather series of reefs, extending for 1260 miles off the N. E. coast of Australia, at a distance from land ranging from 10 to 100 miles. In sailing along this coast, steamers generally take the route inside the reef, where there is a channel about 12 fathoms deep throughout, protected by the reefs themselves; the outer channel is safer for sailing vessels.

Barrier Treaty, the treaty (1718) by which, when the Spanish Netherlands were ceded to Austria, the Dutch secured the right to garrison several border fortresses of the country at the expense of Austria, to serve as a barrier against France. It was declared void in 1781 by Joseph II.

Bar´rington, Daines, son of Viscount Barrington, lawyer, antiquarian, and naturalist, born 1727, died 1800. He wrote many papers for the Royal Society and the Society of Antiquaries; published some separate works, and was a correspondent of White of Selborne, who addressed to him a number of the letters in The Natural History of Selborne.

Bar´rister, in England or Ireland, an advocate or pleader, who has been admitted by one of the Inns of Court, viz. the Inner Temple, Middle Temple, Lincoln's Inn, or Gray's Inn, to plead at the bar. It is they who speak before all the higher courts, being instructed in regard to the case they have in hand by means of the brief which they receive from the solicitor who may happen to engage their services, and which has a certain fee endorsed upon it as the sum to be paid for the barrister's services in the case. Before a student can be admitted to the bar he must have been a member of one of those societies, and have kept twelve terms there. The examinations, which had dwindled into mere forms, have been revived and made more stringent. Barristers are sometimes called utter or outer barristers, to distinguish them from the king's counsel, who sit within the bar in the courts and are distinguished by a silk gown. Barristers are also spoken of as counsel, as in the phrase opinion of counsel, that is, a written opinion on a case obtained from a barrister before whom the facts have been laid. All judges are selected from the barristers. A barrister cannot maintain an action for his fees, which are considered purely honorary. A revising barrister is a barrister appointed to revise the list of persons in any locality who have a vote for a member of Parliament. The term corresponding to barrister is in Scotland advocate, in the United States counsellor-at-law; but the position of the latter is not quite the same.—Cf. J. R. V. Marchant, Barrister-at-law.

Bar´ros, João de, Portuguese historian, born 1496. He was attached to the Court of King Emmanuel, who, after the publication in 1520 of Barros' romance, The Emperor Clarimond, urged him to undertake a history of the Portuguese in India, which appeared thirty-two years later. King John III appointed Barros Governor of the Portuguese settlements in Guinea, and General Agent for these colonies, further presenting him in 1530 with the province of Maranham, in Brazil, for the purpose of colonization. For his losses by the last enterprise the king indemnified him, and he died in retirement in 1570. Besides his standard work, the Decadas, a history of the Portuguese in India (a complete edition of which appeared at Lisbon between 1778 and 1788), he wrote a moral dialogue on compromise, and the first Portuguese Grammar.

Barro´sa, a village, Spain, near the S. W. coast of Andalusia, near which General Graham, when abandoned by the Spaniards, defeated a superior French force in 1811.

Bar´row, a river in the south-east of Ireland, province Leinster, rising on the borders of the King's and Queen's Counties, and after a southerly course joining the Suir in forming Waterford harbour. It is next in importance to the Shannon, and is navigable for vessels of 200 tons for 25 miles above the sea. Its principal tributary is the Nore.

Bar´row, Isaac, an eminent English mathematician and divine, born in London in 1630; studied at the Charterhouse and at Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in 1649. After a course of medical studies he turned to divinity, mathematics, and astronomy, and took his M. A. degree in 1652, and, failing to obtain the Cambridge Greek professorship, went abroad. In 1659 he was ordained; in 1660 elected Greek professor at Cambridge; in 1662 professor of geometry in Gresham College; and in 1663 Lucasian professor of mathematics at Cambridge, a post which he resigned to Newton in 1669. In 1670 he was created D. D., in 1672 master of Trinity College, and in 1675 vice-chancellor of Cambridge University. He died in 1677. His principal mathematical works (written in Latin) were: Euclidis Elementa (1655); Euclidis Data (1657); Mathematicæ Lectiones (1664-6); Lectiones Opticæ (1669); Lectiones Geometricæ (1670); Archimedis Opera; Apollonii Conicorum lib. iv; Theodosii Spherica, (1675). All his English works, which are theological, were left in MS., and published by Dr. Tillotson in 1685, the best edition being that prepared by the Rev. A. Napier in 1859. As a mathematician Barrow was deemed inferior only to Newton. The Latin edition of his mathematical works was prepared by Whewell in 1860.

Barrow, Sir John, Bart., geographer and man of letters, born in 1764 in Lancashire. At the age of sixteen he went in a whaler to Greenland; and later on was teacher of mathematics in a school at Greenwich. In 1792 he was sent with Lord Macartney, in his embassy to China, to take charge of philosophical instruments for presentation to the Chinese emperor. His account of this journey was of great value, and not less so was the account of his travels in South Africa, whither he went in 1797 as secretary to Macartney. In 1804 he was appointed second secretary to the Admiralty, a post occupied by him for forty years. In 1835 he was made a baronet; and he died in 1848, three years after his retirement. Besides the accounts of his own travels, he published lives of Earl Macartney, Lord Anson, and Lord Howe; Voyages of Discovery and Research within the Arctic Regions; an Autobiography written at the age of eighty-three, &c.

Bar´row-in-Fur´ness, a seaport, county and parliamentary borough of Lancashire, in the district of Furness, opposite the Island of Walney, a town that has increased from a fishing-hamlet with 100 inhabitants in 1848 to a town of 74,254 inhabitants in 1921. Its prosperity is due to the mines of red hematite iron-ore which abound in the district, and to the railway rendering its excellent natural harbour available. It has several large docks, besides graving-docks, a floating dock capable of receiving vessels of 3000 tons, a large timber pond, &c. There is an extensive trade in timber, cattle, grain, and flour; and iron-ore and pig-iron are largely shipped. It has numerous blast-furnaces, and one of the largest Bessemer-steel works in the world. Besides ironworks, a large business is done in shipbuilding, the making of railway wagons and rolling-stock, ropes, sails, bricks, &c. A town hall, erected at a cost of £60,000, was opened in 1887. Barrow-in-Furness returns one member to Parliament.

Bar´rows, mounds of earth or stones raised to mark the resting-place of the dead, and distinguished, according to their shape, as long, bowl, bell, cone, and broad barrows. The practice of barrow-burial is of unknown antiquity and almost universal, barrows being found all over Europe, in Northern Africa, Asia Minor, Afghanistan, Western India, and in America. In the earliest barrows the enclosed bodies were simply laid upon the ground, with stone or bone implements and weapons beside them. In barrows of later date the remains are generally enclosed in a stone cist. Frequently cremation preceded the erection of the barrow, the ashes being enclosed in an urn or cist. A detailed description of an ancient barrow-burial is given in the Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf.—Bibliography: Canon W. Greenwell, British Barrows; J. Anderson, Scotland in Pagan Times; W. C. Borlase, The Dolmens of Ireland.

Barrow Strait, the connecting channel between Lancaster Sound and Baffin's Bay on the east and the Polar Ocean on the west. Named after Sir John Barrow.

Barry, a seaport of S. Wales, Glamorganshire, 7 miles south-west of Cardiff, with large docks, exporting much coal. Pop. (1921), 38,927.

Bar´ry, Sir Charles, an English architect, born in London, 1795. After executing numerous important buildings, such as the Reform Clubhouse, London, St. Edward's School, Birmingham, &c., he was appointed architect of the new Houses of Parliament at Westminster, with the execution of which he was occupied for more than twenty-four years. He was elected a Royal Academician in 1844, was knighted in 1852, and died suddenly in 1860.

Barry, Comtesse Du. See Du Barry.

Barry, Edward Middleton, R.A. (1830-80), son of Sir Charles Barry, was also a distinguished architect, and designed many important buildings, though he was disappointed in regard to his plans for the Albert Memorial, National Gallery, and New Law Courts.

Barry, James, a painter and writer on art, born at Cork, 1741; studied abroad with the aid of Burke; was elected Royal Academician on his return; and worked seven years on the paintings for the hall of the Society for the Encouragement of the Arts. His first picture which attracted attention was St. Patrick baptizing the King of Cashel. In 1773 he published his Inquiry into the Real and Imaginary Obstructions to the Increase of the Arts in England, and in 1782 was elected professor of painting to the Academy. He was expelled in 1797 on the ground of his authorship of the Letter to the Society of Dilettanti. His chief painting was his Victors at Olympia. He died in 1806.

Barry Cornwall. See Procter, Bryan Waller.

Bar´sabbas, surnamed Justus, son of Alpheus, brother of James the Less and of Judas, and one of the candidates for the apostolical office left vacant by Judas Iscariot. According to tradition, he was afterwards Bishop of Eleutheropolis, near Jerusalem, and suffered martyrdom. Another Barsabbas, surnamed Judas, supposed to be the brother of the above, is mentioned in the Acts as a companion of St. Paul and Barnabas at Antioch. He is supposed to have died in Jerusalem at a very advanced age.

Bar-shot, a double-headed shot consisting of two pieces connected by a bar.

Barsi, a town of India, in Sholapur district, Bombay, 43 miles north of Sholapur and 128 miles east of Poona, with a trade in cotton, oil, &c. Pop. 21,000.

Bar-sur-Aube (ba˙r-su˙r-ōb), an ancient town, France, department Aube, where, in 1814, a hotly-contested action was fought between Napoleon and the Allies. Pop. 4533.

Bart, Barth, or Baert (bärt), Jean, a famous French sailor, born at Dunkirk, 1650, the son of a poor fisherman. He became captain of a privateer, and after some brilliant exploits was appointed captain in the royal navy. In recognition of his further services he was made commodore, subsequently receiving letters of nobility. Brusque, if not vulgar, in manner, and ridiculed by the Court for his indifference to ceremony, he made the navy of the nation everywhere respected, and furnished some of the most striking chapters in the romance of naval warfare. After the Peace of Ryswick he lived quietly at Dunkirk, and died there while equipping a fleet to take part in the War of the Spanish Succession, 1702.

Bartas (ba˙r-tä), Guillaume de Salluste du, a French poet, termed 'the divine' by contemporary English writers, born 1544. Principal work, La Semaine ou la Création du Monde, a poem on the creation, translated into English by Joshua Sylvester. It is said to have had a considerable influence on Milton's Paradise Lost. He died of wounds received at Ivry, 1590.

Bartfeld (ba˙rt´felt), an old town in Czecho-Slovakia, formerly Hungary, county of Saros, on the Tepl, with mineral springs in the neighbourhood. Pop. 6160, mostly Slovaks.

Barth (bärt), Heinrich, African traveller, born at Hamburg, 1821, died in 1865. He graduated at the University of Berlin as Ph.D. in 1844, and set out in 1845 to explore all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. The first volume of his Wanderungen durch die Küstenländer des Mittelmeeres was published in 1849, in which year he was invited by the British Government to join Dr. Overweg in accompanying Richardson's expedition to Central Africa. The expedition set out from Tripoli in Feb., 1850, and, in spite of the death both of Richardson and Overweg, Barth did not return to Tripoli till the autumn of 1855. His explorations, which extended over an area of about 2,000,000 sq. miles, determined the course of the Niger and the true nature of the Sahara. The English account of it was entitled Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa (5 vols., 1857-8). An important work on the African languages was left unfinished.

Barth, Jean. See Bart.

Barthélemy (ba˙r-tāl-mē), Jean Jacques, French author, born 1716. He was educated under the Jesuits, for holy orders, but declined all offers of clerical promotion above the rank of Abbé He gained considerable repute as a worker in philology and archæology; and after his appointment as Director of the Royal Cabinet of Medals, in 1753, spent some time travelling in Italy collecting medals and antiquities. His best-known work, not inaptly characterized by himself as an unwieldy compilation, was his Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grèce (1787). It was very popular and was translated into various tongues. Though taking no part in the revolution, he was arrested on a charge of being an aristocrat in 1793, but was set at liberty, and subsequently offered the post of librarian of the National Library. He died in 1795.

Barthélmy-Saint-Hilaire (ba˙r-tāl-mē-san-tē-lār), Jules, French scholar and statesman, born 1805, died in 1895. He was professor of Greek and Latin philosophy in the Collège de France, but resigned the chair after the coup d'état of 1852 and refused to take the oath. He was reappointed in 1862; and in 1869 was returned to the Corps Législatif. After the revolution he was a member of the National Assembly; and was elected Senator for life in 1876. He published a translation of Aristotle, and works on Buddhism, Mohammed and Mohammedanism, the Vedas, &c.

Barthez (ba˙r-tā), Paul Joseph, an eminent French physician, born at Montpellier 1734, died 1806. At Montpellier he founded a medical school, which acquired a reputation throughout all Europe. Having settled in Paris, he was appointed by the king consulting physician, and by the Duke of Orleans his first physician. The Revolution deprived him of the greatest part of his fortune, and drove him from Paris, but Napoleon brought him forth again, and loaded him in his advanced age with dignities. Among his numerous writings may be mentioned Nouvelle Mécanique des Mouvements de l'Homme et des Animaux; Traitement des Maladies Goutteuses; Consultation de Médecine, &c. His Traité du Beau was published posthumously (1807).

Bartholdi (ba˙r-tol´dē), Auguste, French sculptor, born 1834, died 1904; best known for his colossal statue of Liberty, now overlooking the harbour of New York.

Bartholin (bär´to-lin), Kaspar, Swedish writer, born 1585, died 1630. He studied medicine, philosophy, and theology; was made doctor of medicine at Basel in 1610, rector of the University of Copenhagen 1618, and professor of theology 1624. His Institutiones Anatomicæ was for long a standard textbook in the universities.—His son, Thomas, born at Copenhagen 1616, died 1680, was equally celebrated as a philologist, naturalist, and physician. He was professor of anatomy at Copenhagen, 1648; physician to the king, Christian V, in 1670; and Councillor of State, 1675.—His sons, Kaspar (born 1654, died 1704) and Thomas (born 1659, died 1690) were also highly distinguished—the former as an anatomist, the latter as an archæologist.

Bartholomew, Massacre of St., the brutal slaughter of the French Protestants, which began on 24th Aug., 1572, by secret orders from Charles IX, at the instigation of his mother, Catherine de' Medici, and in which, according to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, including women and children, were murdered throughout the country. During the minority of Charles and the regency of his mother, a long war raged in France between the Catholics and Huguenots, the leaders of the latter being the Prince of Condé and Admiral Coligny. In 1570 overtures were made by the Court to the Huguenots, which resulted in a treaty of peace. This treaty blinded the chiefs of the Huguenots, particularly Admiral Coligny, who was tired of the civil war. The king appeared to have entirely disengaged himself from the influence of the Guises and his mother; he invited Coligny to his Court, and honoured him as a father. The most artful means were employed to increase this delusion. The sister of the king was married to the Prince de Béarn (18th Aug., 1572) in order to allure the most distinguished Huguenots to Paris. On 22nd Aug. a shot from a window wounded the admiral. The king hastened to visit him, and swore to punish the author of the villainy; but on the same day he was induced by his mother to believe that the admiral had designs on his life. "God's death!" he exclaimed; "kill the admiral; and not only him, but all the Huguenots; let none remain to disturb us." The following night Catherine held the council, which fixed the execution for the night of St. Bartholomew, 24th Aug., 1572. After the assassination of Coligny, a bell from the tower of the royal palace at midnight gave to the assembled companies of burghers the signal for the general massacre of the Huguenots. The Prince of Condé and the King of Navarre saved their lives by going to mass and pretending to embrace the Catholic religion. By the king's orders the massacre was extended throughout the whole kingdom; and the horrible slaughter continued for thirty days in almost all the provinces.—Bibliography: Henry White, Massacre of St. Bartholomew and History of the Religious Wars; Lavisse, Histoire de France (vol. vi).

Barthol´omew, St., the apostle, is probably the same person as Nathanael, mentioned in the Gospel of St. John as an upright Israelite and one of the first disciples of Jesus. He is said to have taught Christianity in the south of Arabia, into which, according to Eusebius, he carried the Gospel of St. Matthew in the Hebrew language, and to have suffered martyrdom. The ancient Church had an apocryphal gospel bearing his name, of which nothing has been preserved. A festival is held in his memory on 24th Aug.

Bartholomew, St., or St. Barthélemy, an island, one of the West Indies, in the Leeward group, belonging to France, about 24 miles in circumference. It produces some tobacco, sugar, cotton, indigo, &c. Pop. 3000. The only town is Gustavia. The island, occupied by France in 1648, was ceded to Sweden in 1784, but was again acquired by France in 1877 at the cost of 275,000 francs.

Bartholomew Fair, a celebrated fair, established in the reign of Henry I (1133), formerly held in West Smithfield, London, on St. Bartholomew's Day (24th Aug., O. S.), but abolished since 1855.

Bartholomew's Hospital, St., one of the great hospitals of London, formerly the priory of St. Bartholomew, and made a hospital by Henry VIII in 1547. On an average over 6000 patients are annually admitted to the hospital, while about 150,000 out-patients are treated at its out-door dispensaries. A medical school is attached to it, attended by more than four hundred students.

Barthou, Louis, French statesman, born at Orloron-Sainte-Marie in 1862. He practised as an advocate until he entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1889. He was a member of several Cabinets, and was appointed Premier in March, 1913, but resigned in December of the same year. He was Minister of Foreign Affairs in Painlevé's Cabinet during the European War. In April, 1922, he headed the French delegation to the Genoa Conference. His works include Mirabeau; Lamartine, Orateur; Les Amours d'un Poète, &c.

Bar´tizan, a small overhanging turret pierced with one or more apertures for archers, projecting generally from the angles on the top of a tower, or from the parapet, or elsewhere, as in a mediæval castle. The word, probably a corruption of bratticing, was apparently first used by Sir Walter Scott.

Bart´lett, William Henry, an English artist, born 1809, died, on a voyage from Malta to Marseilles, 1854. He travelled extensively abroad, and the illustrated works descriptive of the countries visited by him (Switzerland, the Bosporus and the Danube, Syria and Palestine, Egypt, Canada, United States, &c.) obtained great success with the public, the engravings being from sketches by his own pencil.

Bartolini (ba˙r-to-lē´nē), Lorenzo, a celebrated Italian sculptor, born at Florence about 1778, died 1850. He studied and worked in Paris, and was patronized by Napoleon. On the fall of the Empire he returned to Florence, where he continued to exercise his profession. Among his greater works may be mentioned his groups of Charity, and Hercules and Lichas, a colossal bust of Napoleon, and the beautiful monument in the cathedral of Lausanne, erected in memory of Lady Stratford Canning. Bartolini ranks next to Canova among modern Italian sculptors.

Bartolommeo (-mā´o), Fra, or Baccio Della Porta (ba˙chō´), Italian painter, born at Florence 1475, died there 1517. He studied painting in Florence, and acquired a more perfect knowledge of art from the works of Leonardo da Vinci. He was an admirer and follower of Savonarola, on whose death he took the Dominican habit, and assumed the name of Fra Bartolommeo. He was the friend of Michael Angelo and Raphael; painted many religious pictures, among them a Saint Mark and a Saint Sebastian, which are greatly admired. His colouring, in vigour and brilliancy, comes near to that of Titian and Giorgione. His Holy Family is in the National Gallery, London.

Bartolozzi (-lot´sē), Francesco, a distinguished engraver, born at Florence in 1725, or, according to others, in 1730, died at Lisbon 1815. In Venice, in Florence, and Milan he etched several pieces on sacred subjects, and then went to London, where he received great encouragement. After forty years' residence in London, he went to Lisbon on the invitation of the Prince Regent of Portugal. He became director of the National Academy at Lisbon, where he remained till his death.

Bar´ton, Andrew, one of Scotland's first great naval commanders; flourished during the reign of James IV, and belonged to a family which for two generations had produced able and successful seamen. In 1497 he commanded the escort which accompanied Perkin Warbeck from Scotland. After doing considerable damage to English shipping, he was killed in an engagement with two ships which had been specially fitted out against him (1512).

Barton, Bernard, known as the Quaker poet, born at Carlisle 1784, died 1849. In 1806 he removed to Woodbridge, in Suffolk, where he was long clerk in a bank. He published Metrical Effusions (1812); Poems by an Amateur (1818); Poems (1820); Napoleon, and other Poems (1822); Poetic Vigils (1824); Devotional Verses (1826); A New-year's Eve, and other Poems (1828); besides many contributions to the annuals and magazines. His poetry, though deficient in force, is pleasing, fluent, and graceful. Barton is chiefly remembered as the friend of Charles Lamb, with whom he began to correspond in 1822.

Barton, Elizabeth, a country girl born in 1506 at Aldington, in Kent (commonly called the Holy Maid or the Nun of Kent), who gained some notoriety in the reign of Henry VIII. She was subject to epileptic fits, and was persuaded by certain priests that she was a prophetess inspired by God. Among other things she prophesied that Henry, if he persisted in his purpose of divorce and second marriage, would not be king for seven months longer, and would die a shameful death, and be succeeded by Catherine's daughter. On arrest the imposture was confessed, and Barton and six others were executed 5th May, 1534.

Barton-upon-Humber, a town of England, in Lincolnshire, on the Humber. It contains two old churches, one of which is an undoubted specimen of Anglo-Saxon architecture. Pop. (1921), 6454.

Bartsch (ba˙rch), Karl Friedrich, a German scholar, born in 1832, died in 1888, whose labours have been of immense service in elucidating the older literature and language of his native country as well as in the field of the Romance tongues. Among his publications were editions of the Nibelungenlied, Walther von der Vogelweide, Kudrun, &c.; Chrestomathie de l'ancien Français; Provençalisches Lesebuch; translations of Burns, of Dante, &c.

Bartsia, a genus of Scrophulariaceæ, green half-parasites upon roots of grasses. Three species are British; B. alpina has underground shoots, not unlike those of the allied Toothwort, with fleshy scale-leaves bearing water-secreting glands.

Baru (ba-rö´), a woolly substance used for caulking ships, stuffing cushions, &c., found at the base of the leaves of an East India sago palm.

Baruch (bā´ruk; literally, 'blessed'), a Hebrew scribe, friend and assistant to the prophet Jeremiah. At the captivity, after the destruction of Jerusalem, Jeremiah and Baruch were permitted to remain in Palestine, but were afterwards carried into Egypt, 588 B.C. His subsequent life is unknown. One of the apocryphal books bears the name of Baruch. The Council of Trent gave it a place in the canon, but its authenticity was not admitted either by the ancient Jews or the early Christian fathers.

Barwood, a dyewood obtained from Pterocarpus angolensis, a tall tree of West Africa. It is chiefly used for giving orange-red dyes on cotton yarns. See Camwood; Sandalwood.

Bary´ta, oxide of barium (BaO) is found in nature associated with sulphuric acid as barium sulphate, heavy-spar or Barytes (BaSO4), and with carbon dioxide as barium carbonate or witherite (BaCO3). Baryta is a heavy greyish powder of specific gravity 4.7, obtained by burning barium in oxygen or from barium nitrate or barium carbonate. It has a strong affinity for water, and combines with it in the evolution of lead and the formation of barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)2). Barium oxide is manufactured in quantity for the preparation of barium dioxide (BaO2), from which oxygen was at one time obtained. (See Oxygen.) Baryta forms white crystalline salts with acids, which are all poisonous with the exception of barium sulphate. Barium hydroxide is soluble in water, forming a strongly-alkaline solution, Baryta water, which is much used in chemical analysis. Barium sulphate is a white substance insoluble in water and in acids, and is the source of most of the barium compounds. Artificially-prepared barium sulphate is used as a pigment, Permanent White, also in the paper industry and in vulcanizing rubber. Other salts of barium of importance are barium chloride, barium nitrate, and barium carbonate, used in pyrotechny and in glass manufacture.

Barytes (American Barite), a rhombic mineral consisting of barium sulphate (specific gravity 4.5) occurring in veins and extensive masses as a subsequent deposit in various rocks. Colourless to brownish, the colourless massive examples being in great demand as a substitute for white lead in paint and for other purposes. Barytes is mined in the north of England and in County Cork.

Barytone. See Baritone.

Basalt (ba-sa¨lt´), a well-known igneous rock occurring in the ancient trap and the recent volcanic series of rocks, but more abundantly in the former. It is a fine-grained, heavy, crystalline rock, consisting of felspar, augite, and magnetic iron, and sometimes contains a little olivine. Basalt is amorphous, columnar, tabular, or globular. The columnar form is straight or curved, perpendicular or inclined, sometimes nearly horizontal; the diameter of the columns from 3 to 18 inches, sometimes with transverse hemispherical joints, in which the convex part of one is inserted in the concavity of another; and the height from 5 to 150 feet. The forms of the columns generally are pentagonal, hexagonal, or octagonal. When decomposed it is found also in round masses, either spherical or compressed and lenticular. These rounded masses are sometimes composed of concentric layers, with a nucleus, and sometimes of prisms radiating from a centre. Fingal's Cave, in the Island of Staffa, furnishes a remarkable instance of basaltic columns. The pillars of the Giant's Causeway, Ireland, composed of this stone, and exposed to the roughest sea for ages, have their angles as perfect as those at a distance from the waves. Basalt often assumes curious and fantastic forms, as, for example, those masses popularly known as 'Samson's Ribs' at Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh, and 'Lot' and 'Lot's Wife' near the south coast of St. Helena.

Baschi (ba˙s'kē), Matteo, an Italian Minorite friar of the convent of Montefalcone, founder and first general of the Capuchin branch of the Franciscans. He died at Venice, 1552.

Bas´cinet, or Bas´net, a light helmet, sometimes with, but more frequently without, a visor, in general use for English infantry in the reigns of Edward II and III and Richard II.

Base, in architecture, that part of a column which is between the top of the pedestal and the bottom of the shaft; where there is no pedestal, the part between the bottom of the column and the pavement. The term is also applied to the lower projecting part of the wall of a room, consisting of a plinth and its mouldings.

Base, in chemistry, a term applied to those compound substances which unite with acids to form salts. The most important bases are oxides of metals, and when brought in contact with acids their oxygen combines with the hydrogen of the acid to form water. They are divided into several sections, of which the most important are the alkalies. These substances are the hydrates of the so-called alkaline metals, and may be compared to water in which part of the hydrogen is replaced by a metallic radicle. Potash, for instance, is the hydrate of the metal potassium. The alkalies are readily soluble in water, restore the blue colour to reddened litmus, and give a green with red cabbage, dahlia, and other vegetable blues, and convert the yellow of turmeric into a brownish red. Most of the bases, however, are insoluble in water, and without any effect on vegetable colours. See Alkali; Acids.

Base, a term in tactics, signifying the original line on which an offensive army forms; or any safe position from which an army takes the field to invade an enemy's country; upon which it depends for its supplies, reinforcements, &c.; to which it sends back its sick and wounded; and upon which it would generally fall back in case of reverse and retreat.

Base-ball, the national game of the United States of America. It holds the position there that is held by cricket in England. It is a scientific development of the old English game of 'rounders', and is played by nine players a side. A diamond-shaped space of ground, 90 feet on the side, is marked out, the corners being the 'bases'. One side takes the field and the other sends a man to bat. When the field side takes its place, the 'pitcher', standing inside the ground near the centre and in front of the batsman, delivers a ball to the batsman, who stands at the 'home base' within a certain marked space, and who tries to drive it out of the reach of the fielders, and far enough out of the field to enable him to run round the bases, which scores a run. If he cannot run round all, he may stop at any one, and may be followed by another batsman. If the ball is caught by an opponent before touching the ground when the batsman is running, or if he is touched by the ball, he is out (also in several other cases), and when three on his side are put out, the field side take the bat. Nine of these innings make a game, which the highest score wins. The bat is of a cylindrical shape, not more than 2½ inches in diameter nor more than 42 inches long. The ball is about 9 inches in circumference and weighs 5 - 5¼ oz. Base-ball is not a very old game, having attained its present position only since about 1845. Many professional players now engage in it. Attempts have been made to introduce it into Britain and Australia, but with little success.—Bibliography: Official Base-ball Guide, in the Spalding Athletic Library (annually); R. H. Barbour, The Book of School and College Sports; A. G. Spalding, America's National Game; W. J. Clarke and F. T. Dawson, Base-ball.

Basedow (bä'ze-dō), John Bernhard, German educationalist, born in Hamburg 1723, died in 1790. After having gained considerable experience as a teacher, especially at the gymnasium of Altona, he published a number of works dealing with mental and moral philosophy, the teaching of religion and morality, &c., some of which roused a great amount of discussion. His watchword was "Everything according to nature". In 1771 he was called to Dessau by Prince Leopold, and in 1774 took charge of an educational institution in which his views were to receive practical exemplification. This institution, which he called the Philanthropinum, was a school free from sectarian bias, and in which the pupils were to be disciplined in all studies—physical, intellectual, and moral. This school led to the establishment of some similar ones, though Basedow retired from it in 1776, not having been very successful in the practical working out of his theories. His place was taken by Joachim Heinrich Campe (1746-1818). He henceforth devoted himself to authorship, writing especially on religious subjects. The chief feature of Basedow's system is the full development of the faculties of the young, in pursuance of the notions of Locke and Rousseau. His name still lives in the history of education, and his efforts were not without result.—Bibliography: J. C. Meyer, Leben, Charakter und Schriften Basedows (2 vols., 1791-2); A. Pinloche, La Réforme de l'Education en Allemagne au dix-huitième Siècle; O. H. Lang, Basedow, His Life and Work.

Basel (bä'zl; Fr. Bâle), a canton and city of Switzerland. The canton borders on Alsace and Baden, has an area of 177 sq. miles, and a pop. of 222,000 (1916), nearly all speaking German. It is divided into two half-cantons, Basel city (Basel-Stadt) and Basel country (Basel-Land). The former consists of the city and its precincts, the remainder of the canton forming Basel-Land, the capital of which is Liestal. The whole canton belongs to the valley of the Rhine. The soil is generally well cultivated; and the climate in the low grounds allows of the cultivation of the vine and other fruits.—The city of Basel is 43 miles N. of Bern, and consists of two parts on opposite sides of the Rhine, and communicating by three bridges, one of them an ancient wooden structure, besides a railway bridge. The older portions are irregularly built with narrow streets, and are now surrounded with pleasant promenades where the old fortifications existed. Basel has an ancient cathedral, founded 1010, containing the tombs of Erasmus and other eminent persons; the fine modern church of St. Elizabeth; town hall (1508); a university, founded by Pius II in 1460; a seminary for missionaries; a bible society; a museum containing the valuable public library, pictures, &c. The industries include silk ribbons (8000 hands), metal articles, tanning, paper, aniline dyes and other chemicals, brewing, &c.; and the position of Basel, a little below where the Rhine becomes navigable and at the terminus of the French and German railways, has made it the emporium of a most important trade. At Basel was signed the treaty of peace between France and Prussia, 5th April, and that between France and Spain, 22nd July, 1795. Pop. (with suburbs), 137,000 (latest estimate).

Basel, Council of, a celebrated œcumenical council of the Church, convoked by Pope Martin V and his successor Eugenius IV. It was opened 14th Dec., 1431, under the presidency of the Cardinal Legate Juliano Cesarini of St. Angelo. The objects of its deliberations were to extirpate heresies (that of the Hussites in particular), to unite all Christian nations under the Catholic Church, to put a stop to wars between Christian princes, and to reform the Church. But its first steps towards a peaceable reconciliation with the Hussites were displeasing to the Pope, who authorized the Cardinal Legate to dissolve the Council. That body opposed the pretensions of the Pope, and, notwithstanding his repeated orders to remove to Italy, continued its deliberations under the protection of the Emperor Sigismund, of the German princes, and of France. On the Pope continuing to issue bulls for its dissolution, the Council commenced a formal process against him, and cited him to appear at its bar. On his refusal to comply with this demand the Council declared him guilty of contumacy, and, after Eugenius had opened a counter-synod at Ferrara, decreed his suspension from the papal chair (24th Jan., 1438). The removal of Eugenius, however, seemed so impracticable that some prelates, who till then had been the boldest and most influential speakers in the Council, including the Cardinal Legate Juliano, left Basel, and went over to the party of Eugenius. The Archbishop of Arles, Cardinal Louis Allemand, was now made first President of the Council, and directed its proceedings with much vigour. In May, 1439, it declared Eugenius, on account of his disobedience of its decrees, a heretic, and formally deposed him. Excommunicated by Eugenius, they proceeded, in a regular conclave, to elect the Duke Amadeus of Savoy to the papal chair. Felix V—the name he adopted—was acknowledged by only a few princes, cities, and universities. After this the moral power of the Council declined; its last formal session was held 16th May, 1443, though it was not technically dissolved till 7th May, 1449, when it gave in its adhesion to Nicholas V, the successor of Eugenius. The decrees of the Council of Basel are admitted into none of the Roman collections, and are considered of no authority by the Roman lawyers. They are regarded, however, as of authority in points of canon law in France and Germany, as their regulations for the Reformation of the Church have been adopted in the pragmatic sanctions of both countries, and, as far as they regard clerical discipline, have been actually enforced.

Base-line, in surveying, a straight line measured with the utmost precision to form the starting-point of the triangulation of a country or district. See Geodesy.

Bash. See Mining.

Ba´shan, the name in Scripture for a singularly rich tract of country lying beyond the Jordan between Mount Hermon and the land of Gilead. At the time of the Exodus it was inhabited by the Amorites, who were overpowered by the Israelites, and the land assigned to the half-tribe of Manasseh. The district was, and yet is, famous for its oak forests and its cattle. Remains of ancient cities are common.

Bashaw, or Basha. See Pasha.

Bashee´ Islands, a group of islands in the Chinese Sea between Luzon and Formosa, long. 122° E.; lat. 20° 28´ to 20° 55´ N. They were discovered by Dampier in 1687, and belong to the United States. The largest island is Batan, with a population of 8000.

Bashi-Bazooks´, irregular troops in the Turkish army. They are mostly Asiatics, and have had to be disarmed several times by the regular troops on account of the barbarities by which they have rendered themselves infamous.

Bash´kirs, a tribe of Finno-Tartar origin, inhabiting the Russian governments of Ufa, Orenburg, Perm, and Samara. They formerly roamed about under their own princes in Southern Siberia, but in 1556 they voluntarily placed themselves under the Russian sceptre. They are nominally Mahommedans, and live by hunting, cattle-rearing, breeding of cattle and horses, and keeping of bees. They are rude and warlike and partially nomadic. They number about 1,000,000.—Cf. Ujfalvy, Les Bashkirs.

Bashkirtsev, Marie, Russian painter and authoress, born 1860, died 1884; educated mostly outside of Russia, in France, Germany, and Italy; became an accomplished linguist and musician, and studied art in Paris, attaining high success, but overtaxing her system, with fatal results. She is best known from her journal, an intimate personal record, interesting not only as revealing her own peculiar character and intellectual gifts, but also for notices of the notable personages with whom she came in contact. It has been translated into various languages—into English by Mathilde Blind (1890), who has also published A Study of Marie Bashkirtsev (1892). A number of her letters were also published in 1891.—Cf. The Journal of Marie Bashkirtsev, an Exposure and a Defence.

Basic Slag, the slag or refuse-matter which is got in making basic steel, and which, from the phosphate of lime it contains, is a valuable fertilizer. See Manures (Phosphatic).

Basic Steel. See Steel.

Basi´diomycetes, one of the two sub-classes of the Eumycetes or septate Fungi, including the bulk of the larger and more familiar saprophytic types, such as the Mushroom, Toad-stools, Shelf-fungi, Puff-balls, and Earth-stars, and also the important parasites known as the Rusts. They are characterized by their principal spores being produced externally, usually in fours, upon an organ called a basidium. The basidia are arranged in a continuous layer (hymenium), and are usually massed together upon a specialized fruit-body, of which an ordinary mushroom is a good example. The principal subdivisions of the group, with representative genera, are as follows:—

A. Basidia septate (Proto-Basidiomycetes).

1. Family Uredineæ (Rusts). Basidia transversely septate; teleutospores present; parasites. Puccinia, Phragmidium, Melampsora.

2. Family Auricularineæ. Basidia transversely septate; no teleutospores; saprophytes. Auricularia.

3. Family Tremellineæ. Basidia longitudinally septate; saprophytes. Tremella.

B. Basidia not septate (Auto-Basidiomycetes).

4. Family Exobasidiineæ. Parasites without fruit-body; basidia exposed on surface of host. Exobasidium.

5. Family Dacryomycetineæ. Fruit-body soft; hymenium on its surface; saprophytes. Dacryomyces, Calocera.

6. Group Hymenomycetes (several families). Hymenium generally on gills, in tubes, &c.; saprophytes or, less often, parasites. Agaricus Polyporus, Hydnum.

7. Group Gastromycetes (several families). Hymenium within a closed fruit-body, which does not open until the spores are ripe; saprophytes. Ithyphallus, Lycoperdon.

The Ustilagineæ (Smuts) are often regarded as Basidiomycetes of a low type, but it is more probable that they are allied to the Unicellular Chytridineæ. The Basidiomycetes are the highest members of the Fungoid alliance; their relations to the lower groups are obscure.

Basi´dium, the characteristic spore-producing organ of the Basidiomycetes. Typically, e.g. in the Toad-stools, it is a club-shaped structure, produced at its free end into four slender processes, the sterigmata, each of which bears a basidiospore at its tip. The young basidium contains two nuclei, which later fuse; the fusion-nucleus then undergoes two successive divisions, involving a reduction of chromosomes, and each of the four resultant nuclei passes through a sterigma into a basidiospore. These latter are thus seen to be carpospores, comparable to those of Red Algæ, and to the ascospores of Ascomycetes. The basidia of Uredineæ (Rusts) and of some other primitive Basidiomycetes are septate, but otherwise agree with the type described above. See Basidiomycetes; Carpospore; Rusts.

Basil. See Basilius.

Bas´il, a labiate plant, Ocĭmum basilĭcum, a native of India, much used in cookery, especially in France, and known more particularly as sweet or common basil. Bush or lesser basil is O. minimum; wild basil belongs to a different genus, being the Calamintha Clinopodium.

Basil, St., called the Great, one of the Greek fathers, was born in 329, and made in 370 Bishop of Cæsarea in Cappadocia, where he died in 379. He was distinguished by his efforts for the regulation of clerical discipline, and, above all, his endeavours for the promotion of monastic life. The Greek Church honours him as one of its most illustrious saints, and celebrates his festival on 1st Jan. The vows of obedience, chastity, and poverty framed by St. Basil are essentially the rules of all the orders of Christendom, although he is particularly the father of the Eastern, as St. Benedict is the patriarch of the Western orders.

Basilan´, the principal island of the Sulu Archipelago, now belonging to the Philippines, off the S.W. extremity of Mindanao, from which it is separated by the Strait of Basilan. It is about 30 miles in length by 20 miles in breadth. Pop. about 8000.

Basile´an Manuscripts, two manuscripts of the Greek New Testament now in the library of Basel. (1) A nearly complete uncial copy of the Gospels of the eighth century; (2) a cursive copy of the whole New Testament except the Apocalypse, tenth century.

Basil´ian Liturgy, that form for celebrating the Eucharist drawn up towards the close of the fourth century by Basil the Great, still used in the Greek Church.

Basilian Monks, monks who strictly follow the rules of St. Basil, chiefly belonging to the Greek Church.

Basil´ica, originally the name applied by the Romans to their public halls, either of justice, of exchange, or other business. The plan of the basilica was usually a rectangle divided into aisles by rows of columns, the middle aisle being the widest, with a semicircular apse at the end, in which the tribunal was placed. The ground-plan of these buildings was generally followed in the early Christian churches, which, therefore, long retained the name of basilica, and it is still applied to some of the churches in Rome by way of distinction, and sometimes to other churches built in imitation of the Roman basilicas.

Basilica´ta, also called Potenza, an Italian province, extending north from the Gulf of Taranto, and corresponding pretty closely with the ancient Lucania. Area, 3855 sq. miles; pop. 489,574 (1915).

Basil´icon, a name of several ointments, the chief ingredients of which are wax, pitch, resin, and olive-oil.

Basil´icon Do´ron (the royal gift), the title of a book written by King James I in 1599, containing a collection of precepts of the art of government. It maintains the claim of the king to be sole head of the Church. Printed at Edinburgh, 1603.

Basil´ides (dēz), one of the most famous Gnostic teachers, a native of Alexandria, who lived under the reigns of Adrian and Antoninus Pius about A.D. 120-40. He was well acquainted with Christianity, but mixed it up with the wildest dreams of the Gnostics, peopling the earth and the air with multitudes of æons. He was also greatly influenced by Platonism and Zoroastrianism. His disciples (Basilidians) were numerous in Syria, Egypt, Italy, and Gaul, but they are scarcely heard of after the fourth century.

Bas´ilisk, a fabulous creature formerly believed to exist, and variously regarded as a kind of serpent, lizard, or dragon, and sometimes identified with the cockatrice. It inhabited the deserts of Africa, and its breath and even its look was fatal. The name is now applied to a genus of saurian reptiles (Basiliscus), belonging to the family Iguanidæ;, distinguished by an elevated crest or row of scales, erectable at pleasure, which, like the dorsal fins of some fishes, runs along the whole length of the back and tail. The mitred or hooded basilisk (B. mitrātus) is especially remarkable for a membranous bag at the back of the head, of the size of a small hen's egg, which can be inflated with air at pleasure. The other species have such hoods also, but of a less size. To this organ they owe their name, which recalls the basilisk of fable, though in reality they are exceedingly harmless and lively creatures. The B. amboinensis is a native of the Indian Archipelago, where it is much used for food. It frequents trees overhanging water, into which it drops when alarmed.

Basil´ius I, a Macedonian, Emperor of the East, born A.D. 820, died 886. He was of obscure origin, but having succeeded in gaining the favour of the Emperor Michael III, he became his colleague in the Empire, 866. After the assassination of Michael, 867, Basilius became emperor. Though he had worked his way to the throne by a series of crimes, he proved an able and equitable sovereign. The versatility, if not the depth, of his intellect is strikingly displayed in his Exhortations to his Son Leo, which are still extant.

Basilius II, Emperor of the East, born 958, died 1025. On the death of his father, the Emperor Romanus the Younger, in 963, he was kept out of the succession for twelve years by two usurpers. He began to reign in conjunction with his brother Constantine, 975. His reign was spent in almost perpetual warfare, his most important struggle being that which resulted in the conquest of Bulgaria, 1018.

Ba´sin, in physical geography, the whole tract of country drained by a river and its tributaries. The line dividing one river basin from another is the water-shed, and by tracing the various water-sheds we divide each country into its constituent basins. The basin of a loch or sea consists of the basins of all the rivers which run into it.—In geology a basin is any dipping or disposition of strata towards a common axis or centre, due to upheaval and subsidence. It is sometimes used almost synonymously with 'formation' to express the deposits lying in a certain cavity or depression in older rocks. The 'Paris basin' and 'London basin' are familiar instances.

Ba´singstoke, a town of England, county of Hants, 18 miles N.N.E. of Winchester. It has a good trade in corn, malt, &c., and now gives its name to one of the parliamentary divisions of the county. Pop. (1921), 12,718.

Bas´kerville, John, celebrated English printer and type-founder, born in 1706, died 1775. He settled at Birmingham as a writing-master, subsequently engaged in the manufacture of japanned works, and in 1750 commenced printing. From his press came highly-prized editions of ancient and modern classics, Bibles, prayer-books, &c., all beautifully-printed works. His first work was a Virgil, published in 1757, followed by his famous edition of Milton in 1758.

Basket, a vessel or utensil of wicker-work, made of interwoven osiers or willows, rushes, twigs, grasses, &c. The process of basket-making is very simple, and appears to be well known among the very rudest peoples. The ancient Britons excelled in the art, and their baskets were highly prized in Rome.—Cf. T. Okey, Introduction to the Art of Basket-making.

Basking-shark (Selăchē maxima or Cetorhīnus maximus), a species of shark, so named from its habit of basking in the sun at the surface of the water. It reaches the length of 40 feet, and its liver yields a large quantity of oil. It frequents the northern seas, and is known also as the sail-fish or sun-fish.

Basle. See Basel.

Basoche. See Bazoche.

Basques (ba˙sks), or Biscayans (in their own language, Euscaldunac), a remarkable race of people dwelling partly in the south-west corner of France (Basses-Pyrénées), but mostly in the north of Spain adjacent to the Pyrenees. They are probably descendants of the ancient Iberi, who occupied Spain before the Celts. They preserve their ancient language, former manners, and national dances, and make admirable soldiers, especially in guerrilla warfare. Their language is highly polysynthetic, and stands isolated from other tongues of Europe. There are eight principal dialects, which are not only distinguished by their pronunciation and grammatical structure, but differ even in their vocabularies. The Basques, who number about 600,000 (450,000 in Spain, and 150,000 in France), occupy in Spain the provinces of Biscay, Guipuzcoa, and Alăva; in France parts of the departments of the Upper and Lower Pyrenees, Ariége, and Upper Garonne. The Basques are very religious and conservative in their religious practices. Ignatius Loyola and Francis Xavier de Navarre were Basques.—Bibliography: Julien Vinson, Les Basques et le pays Basque; Le Folk-lore du pays Basque; Michel, Le pays Basque, sa population, sa langue, ses mœurs, sa littérature, et sa musique; Van Eys, Outlines of a Basque Grammar.

Basra, Bassora, or Basrah, a city in Lower Mesopotamia, on the west bank of the Shat-el-Arab (the united stream of the Tigris and Euphrates), about 50 miles from its mouth, and nearly 300 miles south-east of Bagdad. It is surrounded by a wall about 10 miles in circuit, from 20 to 25 feet thick; but much of the area enclosed is occupied by gardens, &c. The houses are generally mean. A considerable transit trade is carried on here between the Turkish and Persian dominions and India, and since communication by steamer has been established with Bagdad and Bombay the prosperity of the town has greatly increased. The chief exports are: dates, camels and horses, wool and wheat; imports: coffee, indigo, rice, tissues, &c. The inhabitants are estimated at 80,000; but in the eighteenth century they were said to number 150,000. The substitution of date and wheat cultivation for that of rice has rendered the place much more healthy. The ruins of the ancient and more famous Bassora—founded by Caliph Omar in 636, at one time a centre of Arabic literature and learning and regarded as 'the Athens of the East'—lie about 9 miles south-west of the modern town. The town was occupied by the British on 22nd Nov., 1914. The first through-train from Basra to Bagdad was run in Jan., 1920.

Bas-relief (bä´rē-lēf or bas´rē-lēf) or Basso-Rilievo, low-relief, a mode of sculpturing figures on a flat surface, the figures having a very slight relief or projection from the surface. It is distinguished from haut-relief (alto-rilievo), or high-relief, in which the figures stand sometimes almost entirely free from the ground. Bas-relief work has been described as 'sculptured painting', from the capability of disposing of groups of figures and exhibiting minor adjuncts, as in a painting. The finest specimen of bas-relief is the frieze around the cella of the Parthenon; large portions of it are to be seen in the British Museum.

Bass (bās; from the It. basso, deep, low), in music, the lowest part in the harmony of a musical composition, whether vocal or instrumental. According to some it is the fundamental or most important part, while others regard the melody or highest part in that light. Next to the melody, the bass part is the most striking, the freest and boldest in its movements, and richest in effect.—Figured bass, a bass part having the accompanying chords suggested by certain figures written above or below the notes—the most successful system of shorthand scoring at present in use among organists and pianists.—Fundamental bass, the lowest note or root of a chord; a bass consisting of a succession of fundamental notes.—Thorough bass, the mode or art of expressing chords by means of figures placed over or under a given bass. Figures written over each other indicate that the notes they represent are to be sounded simultaneously, those standing close after each other that they are to be sounded successively. The common chord in its fundamental form is generally left unfigured, and accidentals are indicated by using sharps, naturals, or flats along with the figures.

Bass (ba˙s), the name of a number of fishes of several genera, but originally belonging to a genus of sea-fishes (Labrax) of the perch family, distinguished from the true perches by having the tongue covered by small teeth and the preoperculum smooth. L. lupus, the only British species, called also sea-dace, and from its voracity sea-wolf, resembles somewhat the salmon in shape, and is much esteemed for the table, weighing about 15 lb. L. lineātus (Roccus lineātus), or striped bass, an American species, weighing from 25 to 30 lb., is much used for food, and is also known as rock-fish. Both species occasionally ascend rivers, and attempts have been made to cultivate British bass in freshwater ponds with success. Two species of black bass (Microptĕrus salmoides and M. dolomieu), American freshwater fishes, are excellent as food and give fine sport to the angler. The former is often called the large-mouthed black bass, from the size of its mouth. Both make nests and take great care of their eggs and young. The Centropristis nigricans, an American sea-fish of the perch family, and weighing 2 to 3 lb., is known as the sea-bass.

Bass (ba˙s), The, a remarkable insular trap-rock, at the mouth of the Firth of Forth, 3 miles from North Berwick, of a circular form, about 1 mile in circumference, rising majestically out of the sea to a height of 313 feet. It pastures a few sheep, and is a great breeding-place of solan geese. During the persecution of the Covenanters its castle, long since demolished, was used as a State prison, in which several eminent Covenanters were confined. It was held from 1691 to 1694 with great courage and pertinacity by twenty Jacobites, who in the end capitulated on highly honourable terms.

Bass. See Basswood.

Bassa´no, a commercial city of North Italy, province of Vicenza, on the Brenta, over which is a covered wooden bridge. It has lofty old walls and an old castle, and has various industries and an active trade. Near Bassano, 8th Sept., 1796, Bonaparte defeated the Austrian general Wurmser. Pop. (commune) 17,130.

Bassa´no (from his birth-place; real name Giacomo da Ponte), an Italian painter, born 1510, died 1592. He painted historical pieces, landscapes, flowers, &c., and also portraits. He left four sons, who all became painters, Francesco being the most distinguished.

Bassano Dam. See Dams.

Bas´saris. See Cacomistle.

Bassein (bas-sān'), a town in Lower Burma, province of Pegu, on both banks of the Bassein River, one of the mouths of the Irawadi, and navigable for the largest ships. It has considerable trade, exporting large quantities of rice, and importing coal, salt, cottons, &c. Pop. 37,081.—Bassein District has an area of 4127 sq. miles and a pop. of 9598 (1911).

Bassein (bas-sān'), a town in Hindustan, 28 miles north of Bombay. At the beginning of the eighteenth century it was a fine and wealthy city, with over 60,000 inhabitants; it has now only about 9598 (1911).

Basselin (ba˙s-lan), Olivier, an old French poet or song-writer, born in the Val-de-Vire, Normandy, about the end of the fourteenth century, died about 1450. His sprightly songs, famous under the name Vaux-de-Vire, have given origin and name to the modern Vaudevilles.

Basselisse Tapestry. See Hautelisse.

Basses-Alpes (bäs-a˙lp; 'Lower Alps'). See Alpes.

Basses-Pyrénées (bäs-pē-rā-nā; 'Lower Pyrenees'). See Pyrénées.

Bass´et, the name of a game at cards, formerly much played, especially in France. It is very similar to the modern faro. See Lansquenet.

Basset, or Basset-hound, a smooth-haired dog with short crooked legs, rather large head, and large pendulous ears, thus somewhat resembling a bloodhound and a dachshund. It is sometimes used in packs for hunting hares, or in beating and covert work generally.

Basseterre (bäs-tār), two towns in the West Indies.—1. Capital of the Island of St. Christopher's, at the mouth of a small river, on the south side of the island. Trade considerable. Pop. about 9000.—2. The capital of the Island of Guadeloupe. It has no harbour, and the anchorage is unsheltered and exposed to a constant swell. Pop. 8650.

Basset-horn, a musical instrument, now practically obsolete, a sort of clarinet of enlarged dimensions, with a curved and bell-shaped metal end. The compass extends from F below the bass staff to C on the second ledger-line above the treble. Mozart wrote several pieces for the basset-horn, and Beethoven employed it in his Prometheus overture.

Bassetlaw, a parliamentary division of the county of Nottingham.

Bassia, a genus of tropical trees found in the East Indies and Australia, nat. ord., Sapotaceæ. The seeds of B. butyracea, the Indian butter tree, yield a butter-like substance, which makes good soap. B. latifolia, the Mahwa of Bengal, furnishes a valuable hard timber, and has edible flowers, from which a potent spirit is distilled; a gutta-percha is obtained from B. pallida.

Bassompierre (bä-son-pyār), Francois de, Marshal of France, distinguished both as a soldier and a statesman, born 1579, died 1646. In 1602 he made his first campaign against the Duke of Savoy, and he fought with equal distinction in the following year in the imperial army against the Turks. In 1622 Louis XIII appointed him Marshal of France, and became so much attached to him that Luynes, the declared favourite, sent him on embassies to Spain, Switzerland, and England. After his return he became an object of suspicion to Cardinal Richelieu, and was sent to the Bastille in 1631, from which he was not released till 1643, after the death of the cardinal. During his detention he occupied himself with writing his memoirs, which shed much light on the events of that time.

Basso´on, a musical wind-instrument of the reed order, blown with a bent metal mouthpiece, and holed and keyed like the clarinet. Its compass comprehends three octaves rising from B flat below the bass staff. Its diameter at bottom is 3 inches, and for convenience of carriage it is divided into two or more parts, whence its Italian name, fagotto, a bundle. It serves for the bass among wood wind-instruments, as hautboys, flutes, &c.

Bassora Gum, an inferior kind of gum resembling gum-arabic.

Bass Rock. See Bass.

Bass Strait, a channel beset with islands, which separates Australia from Tasmania, 120 miles broad, discovered by George Bass, a surgeon in the Royal Navy, in 1798.

Basswood, or Bass, the American lime tree or linden (Tilia americāna), a tree common in N. America, yielding a light, soft timber.

Bast, a term originally applied to fibrous tissue external to the cambium; now used in two senses: (1) for Phloem (q.v.); (2) commercially, for the fibre of the lime or linden. The manufacture of lime-bast into mats, ropes, &c., is in Russia a considerable industry, bast-mats for packing furniture, covering plants, &c., being largely exported.

Bastar´, a feudatory State in Upper Godavari district, Central Provinces of India; area, 13,062 sq. miles; pop. 433,310. Chief town, Jagdalpur; pop. 4294.

Bas´tard, a child begotten and born out of wedlock; an illegitimate child. By the civil and canon laws, and by the law of Scotland, a bastard becomes legitimate by the intermarriage of the parents at any future time. In some of the United States, bastards can be legitimized by subsequent marriage, in addition to which, however, the father must also recognize the child as his. By the laws of England a child, to be legitimate, must at least be born after the lawful marriage; it does not require that the child shall be begotten in wedlock, but it is indispensable that it should be born after marriage, no matter how short the time, the law presuming it to be the child of the husband. The only incapacity of a bastard is that he cannot be heir or next of kin to any one save his own issue. In England the maintenance of a bastard in the first instance devolves on the mother, while in Scotland it is a joint burden upon both parents. The mother is entitled to the custody of the child in preference to the father. See Legitimation; Illegitimacy.—Bibliography: Bacquet, Traité de la Bâtardise; Nicholls and Mackay, History of the English Poor Law.

Bastard Bar, more correctly baton sinister, the heraldic mark used to indicate illegitimate descent. It is a diminutive of the bend sinister, of which it is one-fourth in width, couped or cut short at the ends, so as not to touch the corners of the shield.

Bastard Fallow. See Fallow Land.

Bastard Saffron. See Safflower.

Bastia (ba˙s-tē´a˙), the former capital of the Island of Corsica, upon the N.E. coast, 75 miles N.E. of Ajaccio, on a hill slope; badly built, with narrow streets, a strong citadel, and an indifferent harbour; with some manufactures, a considerable trade in hides, soap, wine, oil, pulse, &c. Pop. 29,412.

Bas´tian, Adolf, German traveller and ethnologist, born in 1826, died in 1905. His travels embraced various parts of Europe, the United States, Mexico, Peru, Australia and New Zealand, Southern and Western Africa, Egypt, Arabia, India, South-Eastern Asia, the Asiatic Archipelago, Japan, China, Mongolia, Siberia, &c. His numerous writings throw light on almost every subject connected with ethnology or anthropology, as well as psychology, linguistics, non-Christian religions, geography, &c. Some of his chief works are: Die Völker des östlichen Asien (Peoples of Eastern Asia); Ethnographische Forschungen; Ideale Welten; Die Völkerkunde u. der Völkerverkehr; &c.

Bas´tian, Henry Charlton, English physician and biologist, born at Truro in 1837, died on 17th Nov., 1915. He was educated at Falmouth and at University College, London, where he was assistant curator in the museum from 1860 to 1863. He obtained the degree of M.A. in 1861 from the University of London, graduating subsequently in medicine at the same university (M.B. 1863, M.D. 1866). From 1864 to 1866 he was a medical officer in Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum, and in 1866 was appointed lecturer on pathology and assistant physician in St. Mary's Hospital. In 1867 he became professor of pathological anatomy in University College, subsequently he was also professor of clinical medicine, and in the period 1887-95 he occupied the chair of medicine and clinical medicine. Apart from numerous contributions to medical and other periodicals, and to Quain's Dictionary of Medicine, he published The Modes of Origin of Lowest Organisms (1871); The Beginnings of Life (1872); Evolution and the Origin of Life (1874); Lectures on Paralysis from Brain Disease (1875); The Brain as an Organ of Mind (1880); which has been translated into French and German; The Nature and Origin of Living Matter; Evolution of Life; Origin of Life; &c.

Bastiat (ba˙s-tē-a˙), Frédéric, French economist, advocate of free-trade, and opponent of protection, born at Bayonne 1801, died at Rome 1850. He became acquainted with Cobden and the English free-traders, whose speeches he translated into French. Whilst combating protectionism, Bastiat was also an opponent of socialism. His chief works are: Sophismes Économiques (1846); Propriété et Loi; Justice et Fraternité (1848); Protectionisme et Communisme (1849); Harmonies Économiques (1849).

Bastien-Lepage (ba˙s-tyan˙-lė-päzh), Jules, French painter, born 1848, died 1884. He studied at Paris under Cabanel, and about 1874 began to attract some notice as a realistic painter of subjects connected with the country and everyday life, among his first pictures of note being Song of Spring, Portrait of My Grandfather, and The First Communion. Among his most important works are The Hayfield, The Potato Harvest, Portrait of Mme Sarah Bernhardt, The Beggar, and The Forge.—Cf. Marie Bashkirtsev, Journal Intime; Arnic, J. Bastien-Lepage, lettres et souvenirs.

Bastille (ba˙s-tēl´), a French name for any strong castle provided with towers, but as a proper name the State prison and citadel of Paris, which was built about 1370 by Charles V. It was ultimately used chiefly for the confinement of persons of rank who had fallen victims to the intrigues of the Court or the caprice of the Government. (See Cachet, Lettres de.) The capture of the Bastille by the Parisian mob, 14th July, 1789, was the opening act of the Revolution. On that date the Bastille was surrounded by a tumultuous mob, who first attempted to negotiate with the Governor, Delaunay, but when these negotiations failed, began to attack the fortress. For several hours the mob continued their siege without being able to effect anything more than an entrance into the outer court of the Bastille; but at last the arrival of some of the Royal Guard with a few pieces of artillery forced the Governor to let down the second drawbridge and admit the populace. The Governor was seized, but on the way to the Hotel de Ville he was torn from his captors and put to death. The next day the destruction of the Bastille commenced. Not a vestige of it exists, but its site is marked by a column in the Place de la Bastille.—Bibliography: François Ravaisson, Les Archives de la Bastille; Arnold, Histoire de la Bastille; Bingham, The Bastille; Funck-Brentano, The Bastille; M.J. de Staal, La Bastille sous la Régence (edited by Funck-Brentano).

Bastina´do, an Eastern method of corporal punishment, consisting of blows upon the soles of the feet, applied with a bamboo cane.

Bas´tion, in fortification, a large mass of earth, faced with sods, brick, or stones, standing out from a rampart, of which it is a principal part. A bastion consists of two flanks, each commanding and defending the adjacent curtain, or that portion of the wall extending from one bastion to another, and two faces making with each other an acute angle called the salient angle, and commanding the outworks and ground before the fortification. The distance between the two flanks is the gorge, or entrance into the bastion. The use of the bastion is to bring every point at the foot of the rampart as much as possible under the guns of the place.

Bast´wick, John, English physician and ecclesiastical controversialist, born in 1593, died 1654. He settled at Colchester, but, instead of confining himself to his profession, entered keenly into theological controversy, and was condemned by the Star Chamber for his books against Prelacy: Elenchus Religionis Papisticæ, Flagellum Pontificis, and The Letanie of Dr. J. Bastwick. With Prynne and Burton he was sentenced to lose his ears in the pillory, to pay a fine of £5000, and to be imprisoned for life. He was released by the Long Parliament, and entered London in triumph along with Prynne and Burton. He appears to have continued his controversies with the Independents and others to the very last.

Basu´toland, a native province and British South African possession, situated between the Orange Free State, Natal, Griqualand East, and the Cape Province. The Basutos belong chiefly to the great stem of the Bechuanas, and have made greater advances in civilization than perhaps any other South African race. In 1866 the Basutos, who had lived under a semi-protectorate of the British since 1848, were proclaimed British subjects, their country placed under the government of an agent, and in 1871 it was joined to Cape Colony. In 1879 the attempted enforcement of an Act passed for the disarmament of the native tribes caused a revolt under the chief Moirosi, which the Cape forces were unable to put down. When peace was restored Basutoland was separated from Cape Colony (1884), and is now governed by a Resident Commissioner under the High Commissioner for South Africa. Basutoland has an area of about 11,716 sq. miles, much of it covered with grass, and there is but little wood. The climate is pleasant. The natives keep cattle, sheep, and horses, cultivate the ground, and export grain. The Basuto ponies, which originally were brought from Batavia by the Dutch in the eighteenth century, are famous. It is divided into eight districts, each under a magistrate. Capital, Maseru. Pop. (European), 1396; (native), 404,507.—Bibliography: J. Widdicombe, Fourteen Years in Basutoland; M. Martin, Basutoland: Its Legends and Customs; Sir G. Lagden, The Basutos; Rev. D. F. Ellenberger, History of the Basuto.

Bat, one of the group of wing-handed, flying mammals, having the fore-limb peculiarly modified so as to serve for flight, and constituting the order Cheiroptera. Bats are animals of the twilight and darkness, and are common in temperate and warm regions, but are most numerous and largest in the tropics. All European bats are small, and have a mouse-like skin. The body of the largest British species, Vespertilio noctŭla, is less than that of a mouse, but its wings stretch about 15 inches. During the day it remains in caverns, in the crevices of ruins, hollow trees, and similar lurking places, and flits out at evening in search of food, which consists of insects. Several species of the same genus are common in North America. Many bats are remarkable for having a singular nasal cutaneous appendage, bearing in some cases a fancied resemblance to a horse-shoe. Bats may be conveniently divided into two sections—the insectivorous or carnivorous, comprising all European and most African and American species; and the fruit-eating, belonging to tropical Asia and Australia, with several African forms. An Australian fruit-eating bat (Pterŏpus edūlis), commonly known as the kalong or flying-fox, is the largest of all the bats; it does much mischief in orchards. At least two species of South American bats are known to suck the blood of other mammals, and thence are called 'vampire-bats'. All the British bats belong to the insectivorous group, the fruit-eating and blood-sucking bats being confined to warmer regions. There are fifteen species on the British list, but of these three are very rare. Among the most noteworthy forms are the greater and the lesser horse-shoe bats, in which the ears are nearly as long as the whole body. As winter approaches, in cold climates bats seek shelter in caverns, vaults, ruinous and deserted buildings, and similar retreats, where they cling together in large clusters, hanging head downwards by the feet, and remain in a torpid condition until the returning spring recalls them to active exertions. Bats generally bring forth two young. The parent shows a strong degree of attachment to her offspring, and, when they are captured, will follow them, and even submit to captivity herself rather than forsake her charge.

Bataille, Henry, French poet and dramatist, born at Nîmes in 1872. His first volume of poems, La Chambre Blanche, appeared in 1895. His other works include Le Beau Rivage, Maman Colibri, La Marche Nuptiale, La Femme Nue, La Divine Tragédie, &c.

Batalha (ba˙-ta˙l'ya˙), a village in Portugal, 69 miles north of Lisbon, with a renowned convent of Dominicans, a splendid building.

Batan´gas, a town of the Philippines, in the Island of Luzon, capital of a province of same name, 58 miles south of Manila. Pop. 33,131.

Bata´tas. See Sweet-potato.

Bat´avi. See Batavians.

Bata´via, a city and seaport of Java, on the north coast of the island, the capital of the Dutch East Indies. It is situated on a wide, deep bay, the principal warehouses and offices of the Europeans, the Java Bank, the exchange, &c., being in the old town, which is built on a low, marshy plain near the sea, intersected with canals and very unhealthy; while the Europeans reside in a new and much healthier quarter. Batavia has a large trade, sugar being the chief export. It was founded by the Dutch in 1619, and attained its greatest prosperity in the beginning of the eighteenth century. Its inhabitants are chiefly Malay, with a considerable admixture of Chinese and a small number of Europeans. Pop. 234,697 (1918).

Batavian Republic. See Belgium; Netherlands.

Batavians, an old German nation which inhabited a part of the present Holland, especially the island called Batavia, formed by that branch of the Rhine which empties itself into the sea near Leyden, together with the Waal and the Meuse. Tacitus asserts that they were a branch of the Catti. They were subdued by Germanicus, and were granted special privileges for their faithful services to the Romans, but revolted under Vespasian. They were, however, again subdued by Trajan and Adrian, and at the end of the third century the Salian Franks obtained possession of the Island of Batavia.

Batchian. See Bachian.

Bates, Henry Walter, traveller and naturalist, born at Leicester 1825, learned the hosiery trade, but in 1847 went to the Amazon with Russel Wallace, and remained there for eleven years studying the natural history of the region. Returning to England, he published in 1862 his Naturalist on the River Amazons, a work regarded as a classic. He was assistant secretary to the Royal Geographical Society from 1864 till his death in 1892. A large part of his collections is in the British Museum.

Bath (ba˙th), a city of England, in Somersetshire, on the Avon, which is navigable for barges from Bristol; is beautifully placed among the hills, and the houses are built of freestone, obtained from the neighbourhood. The Abbey Church, dating from the fifteenth century, ranks as one of the finest specimens of Perpendicular Gothic architecture. Bath is remarkable for its medicinal waters, the four principal springs yielding no less than 184,000 gallons of water a day; and the baths are both handsome and roomy. The temperature of the springs varies from 109° to 117° F. They contain carbonic acid, chloride of sodium and of magnesium, sulphate of soda, carbonate and sulphate of lime, &c. Bath was founded by the Romans, and called by them Aquæ Solis (Waters of the Sun). Amongst the Roman remains discovered there have been some fine baths. The height of its prosperity was reached, however, in the eighteenth century, when Beau Nash was leader of the fashion and master of its ceremonies. Since then, though it still attracts large numbers of visitors, it has become the resort of valetudinarians chiefly. Jointly with Wells it is the head of a diocese, and since 1918 returns one member to the House of Commons. Pop. (1921), 68,648.

Bath, a town, United States, Maine, on the west side and at the head of the winter navigation of the Kennebec, 12 miles from the sea. Chief industries: shipbuilding and allied crafts. Pop. 9396.

Bath, the immersion of the body in water, or an apparatus for this purpose.

Ancient Baths.—The use of the bath as an institution, apart from occasional immersion in rivers or the sea, is, as might be anticipated, an exceedingly old custom. Homer mentions the bath as one of the first refreshments offered to a guest; thus, when Ulysses enters the palace of Circe, a bath is prepared for him, and he is anointed after it with costly perfumes. No representation, however, of a bath as we understand it is given upon the Greek vases, bathers being represented either simply washing at an elevated basin, or having water poured over them from above. In later times, rooms, both public and private, were built expressly for bathing, the public baths of the Greeks being mostly connected with the gymnasia. Apparently, by an inversion of the later practice, it was customary in the Homeric epoch to take first a cold and then a hot bath; but the Lacedæmonians substituted the hot-air sudorific bath, as less enervating than warm water, and in Athens at the time of Demosthenes and Socrates the warm bath was considered by the more rigorous to be an effeminate custom. The fullest details we have with respect to the bathing of the ancients apply to its luxurious development under the Romans. Their bathing establishments consisted of four main sections: the undressing room, with an adjoining chamber in which the bathers were anointed; a cold room with provision for a cold bath; a room heated moderately to serve as a preparation for the highest and lowest temperatures; and the sweating-room, at one extremity of which was a vapour-bath and at the other an ordinary hot bath. After going through the entire course both the Greeks and Romans made use of strigils or scrapers, either of horn or metal, to remove perspiration, oil, and impurities from the skin. Connected with the baths were walks, covered race-grounds, tennis-courts, and gardens, the whole, both in the external and internal decorations, being frequently on a palatial scale. The group of the Laocoon and the Farnese Hercules were both found in the ruins of Roman baths.

Modern Baths.—With respect to modern baths, that commonly in use in Russia consists of a single hall, built of wood, in the midst of which is a powerful metal oven, covered with heated stones, and surrounded with broad benches, on which the bathers take their places. Cold water is then poured upon the heated stones, and a thick, hot steam rises, which causes the sweat to issue from the whole body. The bather is then gently whipped with wet birch rods, rubbed with soap, and washed with luke-warm and cold water; of the latter, some pailfuls are poured over his head; or else he leaps, immediately after this sweating-bath, into a river or pond, or rolls in the snow. The Turks, by their religion, are obliged to make repeated ablutions daily, and for this purpose there is, in every city, a public bath connected with a mosque. A favourite bath among them, however, is a modification of the hot-air sudorific bath of the ancients introduced under the name of 'Turkish' into other than Mahommedan countries. A regular accompaniment of this bath, when properly given, is the operation known as 'kneading', generally performed at the close of the sweating process, after the final rubbing of the bather with soap, and consisting in a systematic pressing and squeezing of the whole body, stretching the limbs, and manipulating all the joints as well as the fleshy and muscular parts. Public baths are now common in Europe, but the first English public baths and wash-houses of the kind now common in all cities were established in Liverpool and near the London docks in 1844. In 1846 an Act was passed for their encouragement, and a series of statutes, known as 'The Baths and Wash-houses Acts 1846 to 1896', followed. The establishment of cheap swimming-baths was authorized in 1878.

The principal natural warm baths in England are at Bath, in Somersetshire (the hottest), and Buxton and Matlock, in Derbyshire. The temperature of the Bath springs ranges from 109° to 117° F., while that of the Buxton and Matlock waters scarcely exceeds 82°. The baths of Harrogate, which are strongly impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, are also of great repute for the cure of obstinate cutaneous diseases, indurations of the glands, &c. The most celebrated natural hot baths in Europe are those of Aix-la-Chapelle, and the various Baden, in Germany; Toeplitz, in Bohemia; Bagnières, Baréges, and Dax, in the south of France; and Spa, in Belgium. Besides the various kinds of water-bath with or without medication or natural mineral ingredients, there are also milk, oil, wine, earth, sand, mud, and electric baths, smoke-baths and gas-baths; but these are as a rule only indulged in after specific prescription.

The practice of bathing as a method of cure in cases of disease falls under the head of hydropathy; but even when it is employed simply for pleasure or purification due regard should be paid to the physiological condition of the bather. In many cases cold bathing should be avoided altogether, especially by those who have any tendency to spitting of blood or consumption, by gouty people, or by those who have any latent visceral disease or apoplectic tendency. Wherever the bath is followed by shivering instead of by a healthy reactionary glow, it is undesirable; and a cold bath in the morning after any debauchery or excess in eating or drinking on the previous evening is exceedingly imprudent. Delicate persons and children ought not to bathe in the sea before ten or eleven o'clock in the morning, and in no case should bathing be indulged in after a long fast. In cold streams and rivers additional precautions should be taken, the cold plunge, when heated or fatigued, being frequently attended with fatal results. Even warm baths are not wholly free from danger; apoplexy and death having been known to follow a hot bath when entered with a full stomach. As a rule the temperature should not exceed 105°, and they should not be too long continued. Frequent indulgence in them has an enervating effect, though the majority of people need as yet no renewal of Hadrian's prohibitive legislation in this matter. See also Douches; Thermæ.—Bibliography: W. A. Becker, Gallus; J. Farrar, Baths and Bathing; W. P. Gerhard, Modern Baths and Bath Houses; R. F. Fox, Principles and Practice of Medical Hydrology.

Bath, Knights of the, an order of England, supposed to have been instituted by Henry IV on the day of his coronation, but allowed to lapse after the reign of Charles II till 1725, when George I revived it as a military order. By the book of statutes then prepared the number of knights was limited to the sovereign and thirty-seven knights companions; but the limits of the order were greatly extended in 1815, and again in 1847, when it was opened to civilians. It now consists of three classes, each subdivided into (1) military members, (2) civil members, and (3) honorary members, consisting of foreign princes and officers. The first class consists of Knights of the Grand Cross (G.C.B.); the second of Knights Commanders (K.C.B.); and the third of Companions (C.B.). The Dean of Westminster is dean of the order. In 1917 the Companions of the order were given the privileges and precedence of Commanders, the badge being now worn round the neck. In 1918 the statutes were amended in order to admit officers of the Royal Air Force to the military division. The ribbon of the order is crimson; the military badge a gold cross of eight points, with the lion of England between the four principal angles, and having in a circle in the centre the rose, thistle, and shamrock between three imperial crowns; motto: Tria juncta in uno. Stars are worn by the two first classes, with additional motto, Ich dien, for the military members only. See Knighthood.

Bath-brick, a preparation of siliceous earth found in the River Parret, in Somersetshire, in the form of a solid brick, used for cleaning knives, &c. See Sand.

Bath´gate, a town, Scotland, Linlithgowshire, pleasantly situated, and having in the vicinity the paraffin-works known as Young's, a paper-mill and other works, and coal and iron-stone mines. Pop. (1921), 8504.

Batholite, a mass of igneous rock having no visible floor, and presumed to pass down into some region of the earth's crust where molten rocks at one time prevailed over all others. Granite blocks, like those of the Cairngorm Mountains in Scotland, or the long ridge of the Leinster Chain, which have intruded into their surroundings, are regarded as batholites the crests of which have become exposed by denudation. A batholite in its original molten condition may exist under any large area of volcanic activity, and the similarity of the igneous rocks sent to the surface over broad regions of the earth, constituting what are called 'petrographical provinces', points to the existence of very considerable continuous rock-cauldrons in the crust.

Bathom´eter, an instrument, invented by C. Williams Siemens, for measuring the depth of sea beneath a vessel without casting a line. It is based upon the fact that the attraction exerted upon any given mass of matter on the ship is less when she is afloat than ashore, because of the less density of sea-water as compared with that of earth or rock.

Bathonian Stage, a division of the middle Jurassic series of rocks, including the beds between the Inferior Oolite and the Oxford Clay. The name is derived from its excellent development near Bath, in Somersetshire, and the most important member is the Oolitic limestone known as Bath-stone (q.v.). The Bathonian stage includes the following beds in ascending order:—

1. Stonesfield Slate, named from a village near Woodstock; a flaggy limestone used for roofing, with remains of ferns and cycads washed in from the Jurassic land, and of some of the earliest-known mammals, allies of the monotremes or the marsupials. 2. The Great or Bath Oolite, with marine fossils, and also remains of the large reptiles known as dinosaurs. 3. Bradford Clay. 4. Forest Marble. 5. Cornbrash, so called from its 'brashy' or rubbly nature, an earthy oolite yielding fair land for corn.

Bathori (bä'to-rē), or Bathory, a Hungarian family, which gave Transylvania five princes, and Poland one of its greatest kings. The more important members were:—1. Stephen, born in 1532, elected Prince of Transylvania in 1571, on the death of Zapolya, and in 1575 King of Poland. He accomplished many internal reforms, recovered the Polish territories in possession of the Czar of Moscovy, and reigned prosperously till his death in 1586.—2. Sigismund, nephew of Stephen, educated by the Jesuits, became Prince of Transylvania in 1581, shook off the Ottoman yoke, and had begun to give hopes of reigning gloriously when he resigned his dominions to the Emperor Rudolph II, in return for two principalities in Silesia, a cardinal's hat, and a pension. Availing himself, however, of an invitation by the Transylvanians, he returned, and placed himself under the protection of the Porte, but was defeated by the Imperialists in every battle, and finally sent to Prague, where he died almost forgotten in 1613.—3. Elizabeth, niece of Stephen, King of Poland, and wife of Count Nadasdy, of Hungary. She is said to have bathed in the blood of 600 young girls in the hope of renewing her youth, and to have committed other enormities. She was afterwards seized and confined till her death in 1614.

Bat-horse. See Batman.

Ba´thos, a Greek word meaning depth, now used to signify a ludicrous sinking from the elevated to the mean in writing or speech. First used in this sense by Pope in The Art of Sinking in Poetry (Scriblerus Papers, 1729).

Bath-stone (also called Bath-oolite and Roe-stone, from the small rounded grains of which it is composed), a species of English limestone. It is extensively worked near Bath for building purposes. When just quarried it is soft; but though it soon becomes hard on exposure to the atmosphere, and is of handsome appearance, it is not very durable.

Bath´urst, a British settlement on the west coast of Africa, on the Island of St. Mary's, near the mouth of the Gambia, with a trade in gum, bees-wax, hides, ivory, gold, rice, cotton, and palm-oil. Pop. 8000.

Bathurst, a town in the western district of New South Wales, on the Macquarie River, with wide, well-laid-out streets at right angles, and a central square, tanneries, railway workshops, breweries, flour-mills, and other industries. Pop. 9200.

Bathurst, Allen Bathurst, First Earl, a distinguished statesman in Queen Anne's reign; born 1684. He took part with Harley and St. John in opposing the influence of Marlborough, was raised to the peerage in 1711, impeached the promoters of the South Sea scheme, opposed the Bill against Atterbury, and was a leading antagonist of Walpole. He was created earl in 1772. His name is also associated with those of the leading writers and wits of the day. Died 1775.

Bathurst, Henry Bathurst, Third Earl, son of the second earl, a prominent Tory statesman, after whom various capes, islands, and districts were named. Born 1762; in 1807, President of Board of Trade; in 1809, Secretary for Foreign Affairs; and in 1812, Secretary for the Colonies, a post held by him for sixteen years. He was also President of the Council under Wellington, 1828-30. Died 1834.

Bathurst Island, on the North Australian coast, belonging to S. Australia, separated from Melville Island by a narrow strait; triangular in shape, with a wooded area of about 1000 sq. miles.—Also an island in the Arctic Ocean discovered by Parry, E. of Cornwallis and W. of Melville Island, 76° N., 100° W.

Bathyb´ius (Gr. bathys, deep, bios, life), the name given by Huxley to what was regarded as granular slimy masses of animal matter found covering the sea-bottom at great depths.

Batiste (ba-tēst'), a fine linen cloth made in Flanders and Picardy, named after its inventor, Jean Baptiste of Cambrai.

Bat´ley, a municipal and parliamentary borough of England, West Riding of York, about a mile from Dewsbury; principal manufactures: heavy woollen cloths, such as pilot, beaver, police, army, and frieze cloths, flushings, and blankets. Batley and Morley unite in returning one member to Parliament. Pop. 36,151.

Batman (bat'man or bä'man; from Fr. bât, a pack-saddle), in the British army, a person allowed by the Government to every company of a regiment on foreign service. His duty is to take charge of the cooking utensils, &c., of the company, and he has a bat-horse to convey these utensils from place to place.

Ba´ton, a short staff or truncheon, in some cases used as an official badge, as that of a field-marshal. The conductor of an orchestra has a baton for the purpose of directing the performers as to time, &c. In heraldry, what is usually called the 'bastard bar', or 'bar sinister', is properly a baton sinister. See Bastard Bar.

Bat´on Rouge (rözh), the capital of Louisiana, United States, on the left bank of the Mississippi, with an arsenal, barracks, military hospital, State house, State university, &c. On 5th Aug., 1862, the Confederates under General Breckenridge suffered a severe defeat before it. Pop. (1920), 21,782.

Batoum, or Batum (ba˙-töm´), a port on the east coast of the Black Sea, acquired by Russia by the Treaty of Berlin, on condition that its fortifications were dismantled and it was thrown open as a free port. It rapidly grew to be the main outlet for Transcaucasia; its harbour was enlarged for commercial reasons; an arsenal was built outside it; it was connected by a military road with Kars; and finally, in July, 1886, the Russian Government declared it to be a free port no longer. Its importance as a naval and military station to Russia was unquestionably great; it is of most importance commercially as an outlet for the mineral oil of Baku. The water is of great depth close inshore, and the shipping lies under protection of the overhanging cliffs of the Gouriel Mountains. Batoum was abandoned by the Bolshevik Government in March, 1918, and occupied by the Turks on 15th April of the same year. By the terms of the armistice concluded with Turkey in Nov., 1918, the Allies occupied the port, and in Nov., 1919, a military governor was appointed by the British Government. On 9th July, 1920, Batoum was evacuated by the British, and occupied by Georgian troops. Pop. 46,000.—The province of Batoum has an area of 2693 sq. miles. Pop. 186,000.

Batrachians (ba-trā´ki-anz; Gr. batrachŏs, a frog), the fourth order in Cuvier's arrangement of the class Reptilia, comprising frogs, toads, newts, salamanders, and sirens. The term is now sometimes employed as synonymous with amphibia, but is more usually restricted to the order Anura or tailless amphibia. See Amphibia.

Batshian. See Bachian.

Bat´ta, an allowance which military officers in India receive in addition to their pay. It was originally given only when the officers were on the march or in the field, but now half batta is paid when troops are in cantonments.

Battal´ion, the tactical unit of command in infantry, supposed to be of the maximum strength to be efficiently handled by one officer in chief command, with others under him. In most armies it is about 1000 to 1100 men. The former is about the strength of a battalion in the British army, in which battalions now correspond to what were formerly regiments, the chief commanding officer (in actual command) being the lieutenant-colonel. See Army.

Battalion of Death, the legion of Russian women and girls, belonging to all classes, organized in 1917 and commanded by the famous revolutionary Madame Botshkalova. The battalion took part in several engagements.

Bat´tas, or Battaks, a people belonging to the Malayan race inhabiting the valleys and plateaus of the mountains that extend longitudinally through the Island of Sumatra. They practise agriculture and cattle-rearing, and are skillful in various handicrafts; they have also a written literature and an alphabet of their own, their books treating of astrology, witchcraft, medicine, war, &c. They are under the rule of hereditary chieftains. In 1908 a Battak Institute was established at Leyden for the study of the Battak country, people, &c.

Bat´tenberg, a village in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, from which the sons (by morganatic marriage) of Prince Alexander of Hesse, uncle of Louis, Grand-Duke of Hesse, the husband of Princess Alice of Britain, derived their titles of princes of Battenberg. One of them, Alexander, was Prince of Bulgaria from 1879 to 1886, and died in 1893. Another, Prince Henry, was married to Princess Beatrice of Great Britain in 1885, and died in 1896.

Battenberg, Prince Louis Alexander of, born 24th May, 1854, in Graz, son of Prince Alexander of Hesse. He became a naturalized British subject, entered the navy in 1868, and in 1884 married Princess Victoria, eldest daughter of Princess Alice Maud, Grand-Duchess of Hesse-Darmstadt, and second daughter of Queen Victoria. He became rear-admiral in 1904, was second admiral of the Mediterranean fleet from 1906 to 1908, commanded the Atlantic fleet from 1908 to 1910, the 3rd and 4th divisions of the Home fleet in 1911, and was appointed Second Sea Lord in Nov., 1911, and First Sea Lord in Dec., 1912, in succession to Sir Francis Bridgeman. In October, 1914, however, in consequence of a campaign against alien enemies which culminated in an attack in the Globe on the First Sea Lord, he tendered his resignation to Mr. Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty, on the ground that his birth and parentage in some respects impaired his usefulness. In 1917 the king determined that those princes of his family who were his subjects and bore German names and titles should relinquish those titles and adopt British surnames, and Prince Louis adopted the title of Marquess of Milford Haven, and the surname of Mountbatten. He was the author of Men-of-war Names, their Meaning and Origin (1908). He was made a Privy Councillor in 1914, and was both a Civil and a Military Knight Grand Cross of the Bath. He died 11th Sept., 1921.

Battering-ram, an engine for battering down the walls of besieged places. The ancients employed two different engines of this kind—one suspended in a frame, the other movable on wheels or rollers. They consisted of a beam or spar with a massive metal head, and were set in motion either by a direct application of manual force or by means of cords passing over pulleys. Some are said to have been 120 feet or more in length, and to have been worked by 100 men. One is described as being 180 feet long, and having a head weighing 1½ tons. Smaller ones, manned by three or four soldiers, were also frequently employed. They were generally covered with a roof or screen for the protection of the workers. The battering-ram is mentioned by Ezekiel (iv, 2; xxi, 22), and the Romans learnt the use of it from the Greeks.

Bat´tersea, a municipal and parliamentary borough of London, in Surrey, in a low situation on the south bank of the Thames, nearly opposite Chelsea, with a fine public park extending over 185 acres. The district is associated with the names of Pope and Bolingbroke, and with the Wellington-Winchilsea duel. Battersea returns two members to Parliament. Pop. (municipal borough), (1921), 167,693.

Bat´tery, (1) any number of guns grouped for action in one place and under one control; (2) the tactical and administrative unit of the Royal Regiment of Artillery; (3) an entrenched work constructed as a position for guns in siege warfare.

The Royal Regiment of Artillery is organized in batteries of horse, field, heavy, siege, and mountain artillery. These differ in the weight and type of gun with which they have to do, but the general principles of organization are the same. (See Army.) Nominally a battery consists of six guns with their attendant ammunition wagons (12) and certain other transport. A major commands the battery, and has a captain and three subalterns to assist him. For all purposes a battery is permanently organized in three sections, each of two guns and four wagons, under subaltern officers; while in action it is divided into two parts, (a) the fighting battery of six guns and six wagons; (b) the wagon line of the remaining wagons, under command of the captain. The change from march formation to that necessary for firing is termed 'coming into action'.

Horse, field, and some heavy batteries are horse-drawn (six or eight horses to a gun), while other heavy batteries and siege-guns are drawn by mechanical transport or mounted on railway platforms. Mountain batteries are organized for pack transport only—either mules or carriers—all the material being specially constructed to this end. Among combinations with the word battery come the following: battery commander, the officer commanding a battery; battery leader, the senior subaltern, who receives and carries out the commander's orders in action; battery-fire, each gun of a battery firing in turn: as opposed to gun-fire, where each gun fires independently. See Artillery.

Battery, in criminal law, an assault by beating or wounding another. The least touching or meddling with the person of another against his will may be held to constitute a battery.

Battery, in electricity and galvanism, a combination of several jars or metallic plates. See Daniell's Cell; Electric Battery; Secondary Cell.

Batthyanyi (ba˙t-ya˙n´yē), one of the oldest and most celebrated Hungarian families, traceable as far back as the Magyar invasion of Pannonia in the ninth century. Among later bearers of the name have been—Count Casmir Batthyanyi, who was associated with Kossuth, was Minister of Foreign Affairs in Hungary during the insurrection of 1849, and died in Paris 1854; Count Louis Batthyanyi, born 1809, of another branch of the family, was leader of the opposition in the Hungarian Diet until the breaking out of the commotions of 1848, when he took an active part in promoting the national cause; but on the entry of Windischgrätz into Pesth he was arrested and shot, 1849.

Battle, a combat between two armies. In ancient times and the Middle Ages the battleground was often chosen by agreement, and the battle was a mere trial of strength, a duel en gros; and as the armies of the ancients were imperfectly organized, and the combatants fought very little at a distance, after the battle had begun manuœvres were much more difficult, and troops almost entirely beyond the control of the general. Under these circumstances the battle depended almost wholly upon the previous arrangements and the valour of the troops. In modern times, however, the finest combinations, the most ingenious manœuvres, are rendered possible by the better organization of the armies, and it is the skill of the general rather than the courage of the soldier that now determines the event of a battle. Battles are distinguished as offensive or defensive on either side, but there is a natural and ready transition from one method to the other. The purely defensive attitude is condemned by tacticians except in cases where the only object desirable is to maintain a position of vital consequence, the weight of precedent being in favour of the dash and momentum of an attacking force even where opposed to superior forces. Where the greatest generals have acted upon the defensive, it has almost always been with the desire to develop an opportunity to pass to the offensive, and, having discovered their opponent's hand, to marshal against the enemy, exhausted with attack, the whole strength of their resources. Napoleon won more than one great victory by this method, and Wellington's reputation was largely based upon his skill in defensive-offensive operations. Tacticians have divided a battle into three periods, which are disposition, combat, and the decisive moment. In some measure they require distinct qualities in a commander, the intellect which can plot a disposition being by no means always of the prompt judgment passing to instant action which avails itself of the crucial moment to crush an enemy. Cooperation and mutual support of all arms and services is essential to success in a modern battle, which may occupy many days or even weeks and embrace a large area of country, e.g. the battle of the Marne, the battle of the Somme. This co-operation is ensured by the most careful and detailed arrangements being made beforehand, such arrangements even including the rehearsal of more important phases over ground prepared to represent the country over which the operations will eventually take place. The modern battle may be, and probably will be, a continuation of many operations—offensive and defensive—carried out by distinct and separate formations. The general scope of the operations as a whole will be planned by the supreme commander, while the choice of the methods to be used is left to the commander of the formations affected. See Strategy; Tactics.

Battle, a town in Sussex, so named from the battle of Hastings having been fought there. An abbey built by William the Norman has disappeared, but important remains of a later building exist on the same site; and there is an old church of great interest. Pop. (1921), 2891.

Battle (or Battel), Wager of, an obsolete method, according to English law, of deciding civil or criminal cases by personal combat between the parties or their champions in presence of the court. A woman, a priest, a peer, or a person physically incapable of fighting could refuse such a trial. It was not abolished till 1819 (by the Statute of 59 George III, c. 46), but had long previously been in abeyance. See Ordeal.

Battle-axe, a weapon much used in war in the early part of the Middle Ages among knights. It is a weapon which affords hardly any guard, and the heavier the blow given with it the more the fighter is exposed; but its use was to some extent necessitated by the resistance of iron armour to all but heavy blows. In England and Scotland the battle-axe was much employed, the Lochaber-axe remaining a formidable implement of destruction in the hands of the Highlanders to a recent period.

Battle Creek, a town of the United States, in Michigan, at the junction of the Kalamazoo and Battle Creek, with a college, and manufactures of agricultural implements, &c. Pop. 25,267.

Battleford, a trading town of Canada, province of Saskatchewan, at the junction of the Battle and Saskatchewan (North Fork). Pop. 1335.

Bat´tlement, a notched or indented parapet of a fortification, formed by a series of raised parts called cops or merlons, separated by openings called crenelles or embrasures, the soldier sheltering himself behind the merlon, while he fires through the embrasure. Battlements were originally military, but were afterwards used freely in ecclesiastical and civil buildings by way of ornament, on parapets, cornices, tabernacle work, &c.

Battle-piece, a painting representing a battle. Some of the greatest pieces of this kind are the Battle of Constantine, of which the cartoons were drawn by Raphael, and which was executed by Giulio Romano; Lebrun's Battles of Alexander; and the Battles of the Amazons, by Rubens.

Battue (ba-tü´), a method of killing game by having persons to beat a wood, copse, or other cover, and so drive the animals (pheasants, hares, &c.) towards the spot where sportsmen are stationed to shoot them.

Battus, legendary founder of the Greek colony of Cyrene, in Libya, about 650 B.C. There were eight rulers of the family founded by him, bearing alternately the names Battus and Arcesilaus.

Batu Khan, Mongol ruler of the Western conquests of his grandfather, Genghis Khan, from 1224 to 1255. He overran Russia, Poland, Hungary, and Dalmatia, holding Russia for ten years.

Batum. See Batoum.

Baudelaire (bōd-lār), Charles Pierre, French poet, born 1821. His first work of importance was a series of translations from Poe, ranking among the most perfect translations in any literature. A volume of poems, Les Fleurs du Mal (1857), established his reputation as a leader of the Romanticists, though the police thought it necessary to deodorize them. Of a higher tone were his Petits Poèmes en Prose; followed in 1859 by a monograph on Théophile Gautier, in 1860 by Les Paradis Artificiels (opium and hashish studies), and in 1861 by Wagner et Tannhäuser à Paris. He died in 1867. The best English rendering of the Fleurs du Mal is by A. Symons (1905).—Bibliography: Henry James, French Poets and Novelists; Asselineau, Charles Baudelaire, sa vie et son œuvre; F. Gautier, Charles Baudelaire.

Baudry (bō-drē), Paul Jacques Aimé, a prominent modern French painter, born in 1828, died Jan., 1886. He took the grand prix de Rome in 1850, and exhibited many important works, of which the better known are his Charlotte Corday and La Perle et la Vague. The decoration of the foyer of the New Opera House at Paris was entrusted to him—an enormous work, occupying a total surface of 500 sq. metres, but admirably accomplished by him in eight years.

Bauer (bou´er), Bruno, German philosopher, historian, and Biblical critic of the rational school, born 1809, died 1882. Wrote Critique of the Gospel of John (1840); Critique of the Synoptic Gospels (1840); History of the French Revolution to the Founding of the Republic (1847); History of Germany during the French Revolution and the Rule of Napoleon (1846); Critique of the Gospels (1850-1); Critique of the Pauline Epistles (1850); Philo, Strauss, Renan, and Primitive Christianity (1874); Christ and the Cæsars (1877), &c.

Bauhin (bō-an), Gaspard, born at Basel in 1560; in 1580 elected to the Greek chair at Basel, and in 1589 to that of anatomy and botany. He died in 1624. His fame rests chiefly on his Pinax Theatri Botanici and Theatrum Botanicum. Linnæus gave his name to a genus of plants.

Bauhin´ia, a genus of plants, ord. Leguminosæ, usually lianes, found in the woods of hot countries, and often stretching from tree to tree like cables. Many are showy and interesting. The bark of B. variegāta is used in tanning; the bast fibres of some Indian species are made into ropes and twine.

Baumgarten (boum´ga˙r-tn), Alexander Gottlieb, a German philosopher, born in 1714 at Berlin; in 1740 was made professor of philosophy at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and died there in 1762. He is the founder of æsthetics as a science, and the inventor of this name. His ideas were first developed in his De Nonnullis ad Poema pertinentibus (1735), and afterwards in the two volumes of his uncompleted Æsthetica, published 1750-8.

Baur (bour), Ferdinand Christian, German theologian, founder of the 'Tübingen School' of theologians and Hegelian thinkers, born in 1792. The publication of his first work, Symbolism and Mythology, or The Natural Religion of Antiquity, in 1824-5, led to his appointment as professor in the evangelical faculty of Tübingen University, a position occupied by him till his death in 1860. His chief works in the department of the history of Christian dogma are: The Christian Gnosis, or The Christian Philosophy of Religion (1835); The Christian Doctrine of the Atonement (1838); The Christian Doctrine of the Trinity and the Incarnation (1841-3); The Compendium of and Lectures on the History of Christian Dogmas (1847, 1865). To the department of New Testament criticism and the early history of Christianity belong the so-called Pastoral Epistles of the Apostle Paul (1835); Paul the Apostle of Jesus Christ (1845); Critical Inquiries Concerning the Canonic Gospels (1847); A History of Christian Doctrine to the End of the Eighteenth Century (1853-63). Baur's views in regard to the Church of the earliest times and the New Testament Scriptures have been very influential. He saw different and opposing tendencies at work in the Church of apostolic times, and believed that the New Testament mainly took form in the second century, the only genuine writings previous to A.D. 70 being the four great Pauline epistles and Revelation.

Bautzen (bout´sen), or Budissin, a German town in Saxony, upon a height on the right bank of the Spree, with some old and interesting buildings. The inhabitants are mostly Lutheran, and both Catholics and Protestants worship in the same cathedral. Chief manufactures: woollen goods, paper, gunpowder, machines. Napoleon defeated the united armies of the Russians and the Prussians at Bautzen on the 21st May, 1813. Pop. 32,754.

Bauxite (ba¨k´sīt), a rock resembling clay, but consisting of hydrated aluminium oxides, with, in good examples, a silica content of less than 2 per cent. Bauxite is mined at Les Baux in Provence, in Arkansas, and other places, including County Antrim, where it occurs between basaltic lavas. It is the source of commercial aluminium, and is also used for bricks for high-temperature furnaces, and in alum manufacture. Like laterite (q.v.), it results from tropical conditions of weathering acting on a variety of silicate rocks.

Bava´ria (Ger. Bayern; Fr. Bavière), previous to the changes caused by the European War (1914-8), a kingdom in the south of Germany, the second largest State of the Reich, composed of two isolated portions, the larger comprising about eleven-twelfths of the monarchy, having Würtemberg, Baden, &c., on the west, while the smaller portion, the Pfalz or Palatinate, is separated from the other by Würtemberg and Baden, and lies west of the Rhine; total area, 30,346 sq. miles. The main political divisions are: Upper Bavaria (pop. 1,532,065; chief town, Munich, the capital of the country, pop. 596,467); Lower Bavaria (724,331); Palatinate (937,085); Upper Palatinate and Regensburg (600,284); Upper Franconia (661,862); Middle Franconia (930,868); Lower Franconia and Aschaffenburg (710,943); Sehwaben and Neuburg (789,853); total in (1919), 7,150,146. Next towns after Munich are Nürnberg, Augsburg, Würzburg, and Ratisbon (Regensburg). The main portion of the country is hilly; in the south, where it belongs to the Alps, it is mountainous; but north of the Alps and south of the Danube, which flows east through the country from Ulm to Passau, there is a considerable plateau, averaging about 1600 feet above the sea-level. The south frontier is formed by a branch of the Noric Alps, offsets from which project far into the plateau; principal peaks: the Zugspitze, 10,394 feet, and the Watzmann, 9470 feet. The highest summits on the Bohemian (Austrian) frontier, belonging to the Böhmerwald Mountains, are the Rachel, 5102 feet, and the Arber, 5185 feet. Ranges of less elevation bordering on or belonging to the country are the Fichtelgebirge in the north-east, the Frankenwald, Rhöngebirge, and Spessart in the north, and the Steigerwald and Franconian Jura in the middle. The Palatinate is traversed by the north extremity of the Vosges Mountains, the highest peak being the Konigstuhl, 2162 feet. The greater part of the country belongs to the basin of the Danube, which is navigable, its tributaries on the south being the Iller, Lech, Isar, and Inn; on the north, the Wornitz, Altmühl, Nab, and Regen. The northern portion belongs to the basin of the Main, which receives the Regnitz and Saale, and is a tributary of the Rhine. The Palatinate has only small streams that flow into its boundary river the Rhine. The chief lakes of Bavaria are all on the higher part of the south plateau; the smaller within the range of the Alps. The Ammer-See is about 10 miles long by 2½ broad, 1736 feet above the sea; the Würm-See or Starnberger-See, about 12 miles long by 3 broad, 1899 feet; and Chiem-See, 9 miles long by 9 to 4 broad, 1651 feet. The climate in general is temperate and healthy, though somewhat colder than the other South German States; yearly average about 47° F.

As regards soil, Bavaria is one of the most fertile countries in Germany, producing the various cereals in abundance, the best hops in Germany, fruit, wine, tobacco, &c., and having extensive forests. Lower Franconia (the Main valley) and the Palatinate are the great vine-growing districts. The celebrated Steinwein and Leistenwein are the produce of the slopes of the Steinberg and Marienberg at Würzburg (on the Main). The forests of Bavaria, chiefly fir and pine, yield a large revenue, much timber being annually exported, together with potash, tar, turpentine, &c. The principal mineral products are salt, coal, and iron, some of the mining works belonging to the State. The minerals worked include copper, quicksilver, manganese, cobalt, porcelain clay, alabaster, graphite. Large numbers of horses and cattle are reared, as also sheep and swine. The return of cattle in 1917 showed 272,667 horses, 3,896,702 cattle, and 616,464 sheep. The manufactures are individually mostly on a small scale. The principal articles manufactured are linens, woollens, cottons, leather, paper, glass, earthen and iron ware, jewellery, &c. The optical and mathematical instruments made are excellent. A most important branch of industry is the brewing of beer, for which there are upwards of 7000 establishments, producing over 300 millions of gallons a year. The distilleries produce over 4 millions of gallons of alcohol. A number of the people maintain themselves by the manufacture of articles in wood, and by felling and hewing timber. The trade of Bavaria in home produce exported and goods imported for consumption in the country is not large. Principal exports: corn, timber, wine, cattle, glass, hops, fruit, beer, wooden wares, &c. The chief imports are sugar, coffee, cotton, rice, spices, dye-stuffs, silk and silk goods, lead, &c. From its position Bavaria has a considerable transit trade. The Konig Ludwig Canal connects the Main at Bamberg with the Altmühl a short distance above its embouchure in the Danube, thus establishing water communication between the North Sea and the Black Sea. The railway system has a total mileage of 5290, mostly belonging to the State.

Education is in a less satisfactory condition than in most German States. There are about 7500 elementary schools, at which attendance is compulsory up to fourteen years of age. There are three universities, two of which (Munich and Würzburg) are Roman Catholic, and one (Erlangen) Protestant. In art Bavaria is best known as the home of the Nürnberg school, founded about the middle of the sixteenth century by Albert Dürer. Hans Holbein is also claimed as a Bavarian; and to these have to be added the eminent sculptors Kraft and Vischer, both born about the middle of the fifteenth century. The restoration of the reputation of Bavaria in art was chiefly the work of Ludwig I, under whom the capital became one of the most prominent seats of the fine arts in Europe. The religion of the State is Roman Catholicism, over 70 per cent of the population being Roman Catholics. All citizens, whatever their creed, possess the same civil and political rights. The dioceses of Bavaria comprise two Roman Catholic archbishopries, Munich and Bamberg; and six bishopries, Augsburg, Ratisbon, Eichstädt, Passau, Würzburg, and Spires.

For over a century Bavaria was a kingdom, and the crown hereditary in the male line of the descendants of the ancient Counts of Wittelsbach. The executive power was vested in the king, but his ministers were responsible for his acts. The legislature consisted of two chambers—one of senators, composed of princes of the royal family, the great officers of the State, the two archbishops, the heads of certain noble families, and certain members appointed by the Crown; the other of deputies, 163 in number, elected by direct and secret vote, and calculated at the rate of 1 for every 38,000 inhabitants. The lower chamber was elected for six years. The Budget for each of the years 1916 and 1917 balanced at £12,183,411; for 1918 and 1919 at £42,639,595; the public debt on 1st July, 1917, was £128,719,000, £98,179,000 being railway debt. The army (peace footing, 72,000) was raised by conscription—every man being liable to serve from the 1st of January of the year in which he completes his twentieth year. In time of peace the army was under the command of the King of Bavaria, but in time of war under that of the Emperor of Germany, as commander-in-chief of the whole German army.

As a result of the revolutionary movement in Nov., 1918, the Bavarian dynasty was deposed and a republican form of government set up. The provisional constitution, made public on 7th Jan., 1919, established a Socialist Republic in Bavaria. The supreme power lies with the people; the Diet consists of one chamber; the suffrage is universal; the privileges of birth and caste are abolished. The supreme executive power is exercised by the ministry as a whole. The Church is separated from the State, and all religious associations have equal rights.

History.—The Bavarians take their name from the Boii, a Celtic tribe whose territory was occupied by a confederation of Germanic tribes, called after their predecessors Boiarii. These were made tributary first to the Ostrogoths, and then to the Franks; and on the death of Charlemagne his successors governed the country by lieutenants with the title of margrave, afterwards converted (in 921) into that of duke. In 1070 Bavaria passed to the family of the Guelphs, and in 1180 by imperial grant to Otho, Count of Wittelsbach, founder of the dynasty reigning until 1918. In 1623 the reigning duke was made one of the Electors of the empire. Elector Maximilian II joined in the War of the Spanish Succession on the side of France, and this led, after the battle of Blenheim, 1704, to the loss of his dominions for the next ten years. His son, Charles Albert, likewise lost his dominions for a time to Austria, but they were all recovered again by Charles's son, Maximilian III (1745). In the wars following the French revolution Bavaria was in a difficult position between France and Austria, but in the end joined Napoleon, from whom its Elector Maximilian IV received the title of king (1805), a title afterwards confirmed by the treaties of 1814 and 1815. King Maximilian I was succeeded by his son, Ludwig (or Louis) I, under whom various circumstances helped to quicken a desire for political change. Reform being refused, tumults arose in 1848, and Ludwig resigned in favour of his son, Maximilian II, under whom certain modifications of the constitution were carried out. At his death in 1864 he was succeeded by Ludwig II. In the war of 1866 Bavaria sided with Austria, and was compelled to cede a small portion of its territory to Prussia, and to pay a war indemnity of £2,500,000. Soon after Bavaria entered into an alliance with Prussia, and in 1867 joined the Zollverein. In the Franco-German War of 1870-1 the Bavarians took a prominent part, and it was at the request of the King of Bavaria, on behalf of all the other princes and the senates of the free cities of Germany, that the King of Prussia agreed to accept the title of Emperor of Germany. From Jan., 1871, to 1918 Bavaria formed part of the German Empire, and was represented in the Bundesrath by six, and in the Reichstag by forty-eight members. The eccentricity early displayed by Ludwig II developed to such an extent that in June, 1886, he was placed under control, and a regency established under Prince Luitpold (Leopold). The change was almost immediately followed by the suicide of the king, and as Prince Otto, the brother and heir of the late king, was insane, the regency was continued. Prince Luitpold died on 12th Dec., 1912, and his son, Ludwig, became regent. On 5th Nov., 1913, the prince was proclaimed king, under the name of Ludwig III, in succession to his cousin, King Otto, who was declared incapable of ruling. King Otto died on 12th Oct., 1916. Ludwig III abdicated in Nov., 1918, and the Bavarian Government was taken over by a cabinet under the leadership of Kurt Eisner. Eisner was assassinated in Feb., 1919, and a struggle ensued between the moderate Socialists and the extremists of the Left. The moderate party, however, returned to power in May, 1919.—Bibliography: S. Riezler, Geschichte Bayerns (4 vols.); R. Piloty, Die Verfassungsgeschichte des Königreichs Bayern; Götz, Geographisch-historisches Handbuch von Bayern; M. Docberl, Entwickelungsgeschichte Bayerns; C. P. Higby, Religious Policy of the Bavarian Government during the Napoleonic Period.

Baxter, Richard, the most eminent of the English nonconforming divines of the seventeenth century, born in Rowton, Shropshire, 1615; ordained in 1638; parish minister of Kidderminster in 1640. The imposition of the oath of universal approbation of the doctrine and discipline of the Church of England (the et cætera oath) detached him from the Establishment. After the battle of Naseby he accepted the chaplaincy of Colonel Whalley's regiment. He can scarcely be said, however, to have separated as yet in spirit from the Establishment. He upheld the monarchy, condemned the execution of the king and the election of Cromwell, preached against the Covenant and against separatists and sectaries, but his piety won him the respect of all parties. At the Restoration he became king's chaplain, but declined the bishopric of Hereford, and on the passage of the Act of Uniformity threw in his lot entirely with the nonconformists. In 1685 he was arrested, refused a hearing by Jeffreys, and imprisoned. After his release he lived in retirement till his death in 1691. He left about 150 treatises, of which his Saints' Everlasting Rest, Call to the Unconverted, and Reformed Pastor have been the most popular.—Bibliography: William Orme, Life and Times of Richard Baxter; J. Stalker, Lecture on Baxter in The Evangelical Succession; M‘Adam Muir, Religious Writers of England; Currier, Nine Great Preachers.

Baxterians, followers of Baxter in respect of his attempted compromise between Calvinism and Arminianism. They reject the doctrine of reprobation, admit a universal potential salvation, becoming actual in the case of the elect, and assert the possibility of falling from grace. The Baxterians never formed a sect or even a school, but were men of independent minds, distinguishing between essentials and non-essentials: in things necessary, unity; in things doubtful, liberty; in all things, charity. The two most eminent Baxterians were Dr. Isaac Watts and Dr. Philip Doddridge.—Cf. M‘Adam Muir, Religious Writers of England.

Bay, the laurel tree, noble laurel, or sweet-bay (Laurus nobĭlis); but the term is loosely given to many trees and shrubs resembling this. A fatty or fixed oil (used in veterinary medicine) and also a volatile oil are obtained from the berries, but what is called 'bayberry oil' is also obtained from the genus Myrica or candleberry. In N. America the fragrant-flowered Magnolia glauca is called sweet-bay, the red-bay being Laurus carolinensis, the loblolly-bay Gordonia lasianthus. See Laurel.

Bay, in geography, an indentation of some size into the shore of a sea or lake, generally said to be one with a wider entrance than a gulf.

Bay, in architecture, a term applied to a recessed division or compartment of a building, as that marked off by buttresses or pillars.

Ba´ya, the weaver-bird (Plocĕus philippīnus), an interesting East Indian passerine bird, somewhat like the bullfinch. Its nest resembles a bottle, and is suspended from the branch of a tree. The entrance is from beneath, and there are two chambers, one for the male, the other for the female. The baya is easily tamed, and will fetch and carry at command.

Bayaderes (bā-a-dērz´), the general European name for the dancing and singing girls of India, some of whom are attached to the service of the Hindu temples, while others travel about and dance at entertainments for hire. Those in the service of the temples are generally devoted to this profession (including that of prostitution) from their childhood.

Bayamo (ba˙-yä´mō), or St. Salvador, a town in the east of Cuba, near the Cauto. Pop. 18,180.

Bayard (ba˙-yär), Pierre du Terrail, Seigneur de, the Chevalier sans peur et sans reproche, born in 1476 in Castle Bayard, near Grenoble, in Southern France. At the age of eighteen he accompanied Charles VIII to Italy, and in the battle of Fornovo took a standard. At the beginning of the reign of Louis XII, in a battle near Milan, he entered the city at the heels of the fugitives, and was taken prisoner, but released by Ludovico Sforza without ransom. In Apulia he killed his calumniator, Sotomayor, and afterwards defended a bridge over the Garigliano singly against the Spaniards, receiving for this exploit as a coat of arms a porcupine, with the motto Vires agminis unus habet ('one has the strength of a band'). He distinguished himself equally against the Genoese and the Venetians, and, when Julius II declared himself against France, went to the assistance of the Duke of Ferrara. He was severely wounded at the assault of Brescia, but returned, as soon as cured, to the camp of Gaston de Foix, before Ravenna, and after new exploits was again dangerously wounded in the retreat from Pavia. In the war commenced by Ferdinand the Catholic he displayed the same heroism, and the fatal reverses which embittered the last years of Louis XII only added to the personal glory of Bayard. When Francis I ascended the throne he sent Bayard into Dauphiné to open a passage over the Alps and through Piedmont. Prosper Colonna lay in wait for him, but was made prisoner by Bayard, who immediately after further distinguished himself in the battle of Marignano. After his defence of Mézières against the invading army of Charles V he was saluted in Paris as the saviour of his country, receiving the honour paid to a prince of the blood. His presence reduced the revolted Genoese to obedience, but failed to prevent the expulsion of the French after the capture of Lodi. In the retreat the safety of the army was committed to Bayard, who, however, was mortally wounded by a stone from a blunderbuss in protecting the passage of the Sesia. He kissed the cross of his sword, confessed to his squire, and died, 30th April, 1524. He was buried in a church of the Minorites, at Grenoble.—Bibliography: "Le Loyal Serviteur" (supposed to be Jacques de Mailles), La très joyeuse ... histoire ... des faiz, gestes, triumphes et prouesses du bon chevalier sans paour et sans reproche, le gentil seigneur de Bayart (printed in 1527); modern edition of this work by M. J. Roman; A. de Terrebasse, Histoire de Pierre Terrail, Seigneur de Bayart.

Bayazid´, a ruined town in Armenia, 140 miles S.E. of Erzerum, S.W. of Mount Ararat, at various times the scene of warlike operations, and twice occupied by the Russians in 1877. Total pop. 4000.

Bayazid. See Bajazet.

Bayberry. See Bay (tree) and Candleberry.

Bay City, an American city, Michigan, on the east side of Saginaw River, near its mouth in Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron. Chief articles of trade, lumber and salt. Pop. (1920), 47,554.

Bayeux, (ba˙-yeu) an ancient town, France, department Calvados, 16 miles N.W. of Caen, with manufactures of lace, calico, and porcelain. In its cathedral, said to be the oldest in Normandy, the famous Bayeux tapestry was preserved for a long time. Pop. 7638.

Bayeux Tapestry, so called because it was originally found in the cathedral of Bayeux, in the public library of which town it is still preserved. Formerly known as the 'Toile de St. Jean', it is supposed to have been worked by Matilda, Queen of William the Conqueror, and to have been presented by Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, the half-brother of William, to the church in which it was found. It is 231 feet in length and 20 inches in breadth, and is divided into seventy-two compartments, the subject of each scene being indicated by a Latin inscription. These scenes give a pictorial history of the invasion and conquest of England by the Normans, beginning with Harold's visit to the Norman Court, and ending with his death at Hastings.—Bibliography: Bolton Corney, Researches and Conjectures on the Bayeux Tapestry; Jules Comte, Tapisserie de Bayeux; F. R. Fowke, The Bayeux Tapestry.

Bay Islands, an island group, Bay of Honduras, off N. coast of State of Honduras, incorporated as a British colony in 1852, and ceded to Honduras in 1856. The largest is Ruatan, 30 miles long. Pop. about 5000.

Bayle (bāl), Pierre, French critic and miscellaneous writer, the son of a Calvinist preacher, born at Carlat (Languedoc) in 1647, died at Rotterdam 1706. A statue in his honour was erected at Pamiers in 1906. He studied at Toulouse, and was employed for some time as a private tutor at Geneva and Rouen. He went to Paris in 1674, and soon after was appointed professor of philosophy at Sedan. Six years after he removed to Rotterdam, where he filled a similar chair. The appearance of a comet, in 1680, which occasioned an almost universal alarm, induced him to publish, in 1682, his Pensées Diverses sur la Comète, a work full of learning, in which he discussed various subjects of metaphysics, morals, theology, history, and politics. It was followed by his Critique Générale de l'Histoire du Calvinisme de Maimbourg. This work excited the jealousy of his colleague, the theologian Jurieu, and involved Bayle in many disputes. In 1684 he undertook a periodical work, Nouvelles de la République des Lettres, containing notices of new books in theology, philosophy, history, and general literature. This publication, which lasted for three years, added much to his reputation as a philosophical critic. In 1693 Jurieu succeeded in inducing the magistrates of Rotterdam to remove Bayle from his office. He now devoted all his attention to the composition of his Dictionnaire Historique et Critique, which he first published in 1696, in 2 vols. fol. It is a vast storehouse of facts, discussions, and opinions, and though it was publicly censured by the Rotterdam consistory for its frequent impurities, its pervading scepticism, and tacit atheism, it long remained a favourite book both with literary men and with men of the world. The articles in his dictionary, in themselves, are generally of little value, and serve only as a pretext for the notes, in which the author displays, at the same time, his learning and the power of his logic. The best editions are that of 1740, in 4 vols. fol. (Amsterdam and Leyden), and that in 16 vols., published in 1820-4 at Paris.—Bibliography: L. A. Feuerbach, Pierre Bayle; F. Brunetière, Études Critiques (5th series); A. Cazes, Pierre Bayle, sa vie, ses idées, son influence, son œuvre.

Bay-leaf, the leaf of the sweet-bay or laurel tree (Laurus nobilis). These leaves are aromatic, and are used in cookery and confectionery. See Bay.

Baylen (bī-len´). Same as Bailen.

Bayly (bā´li), Thomas Haynes, English poet, novelist, dramatist, and miscellaneous writer, born 1797, died 1839. He was educated at Oxford, and intended for the Church. He wrote thirty-six pieces for the stage, most of which were successful; several novels: The Aylmers, A Legend of Killarney, &c.; and numerous songs. As a song-writer he was most prolific and most popular. The Soldier's Tear, We met—'twas in a Crowd, were the best known.

Bay Mahogany, that variety of mahogany exported from Honduras. It is softer and less finely marked than the variety known as Spanish mahogany, but is the largest and most abundant kind.

Baynes (bānz), Thomas Spencer, LL.D., born at Wellington, Somerset, in 1823, died suddenly in London, 1887. He studied under Sir William Hamilton at Edinburgh, and acted as his class assistant from 1851 to 1855. From 1857 to 1863 he was resident in London, where he acted as examiner in logic and mental philosophy in the University of London, and as assistant editor of the Daily News. In 1864 he was appointed to the chair of logic, rhetoric, and metaphysics in St. Andrews University, a post he held till his death. In 1873, when he became editor of the ninth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, his wide acquaintance with men of letters and learning assisted him greatly in the selection of suitable contributors. He translated the Port Royal Logic (see Arnauld), and was a frequent contributor to the principal reviews and literary journals.

Bay of Islands, a large, deep, and safe harbour on the N.E. coast of the N. Island of New Zealand. On it is Kororarika, the first European settlement in New Zealand.—Also a large bay formed by the Gulf of St. Lawrence, on the west coast of Newfoundland. See New Zealand.

Bay´onet (Fr. baïonnette), a straight, sharp-pointed weapon, invented by a Frenchman (probably a native of Bayonne) in the seventeenth century. A bayonet was originally screwed into the muzzle of the firelock, converting it into a short pike. This system, which practically precluded any further use of the firelock as such, was later improved by a Scotchman, who fitted the weapon with a socket and bolt, enabling it to be placed over the muzzle of the musket instead of being screwed into it. The firelock could then be used for both missile and shock action, according to requirements. The bayonet replaced the pike in the English army after the revolution of 1690. The length, shape, and weight of the bayonet have varied considerably at different periods and in different countries; that at present in use in the British army is a short sword-shaped weapon, 1 foot 6 inches long and weighing about 1 pound. In war it is considered that an attack with the bayonet or the immediate threat of one is a necessary preliminary to a successful assault.

Bayonne (ba˙-yon), a well-built fortified town, the largest in the French department Basses-Pyrénées, at the confluence of the Nive and the Adour, about 2 miles from their mouth in the Bay of Biscay; with a citadel commanding the harbour and city, a cathedral—a beautiful ancient building—shipbuilding and other industries, and a considerable trade. Among the lower class the Basque language is spoken. Catherine de' Medici had an important interview with the Duke of Alva in Bayonne, June, 1565, at which it is said the massacre of St. Bartholomew was arranged. It was also the scene of the abdication of Charles IV of Spain in favour of Napoleon (1808). In 1814 the British forced the passage of the Nive and invested the town, from which the French made a desperate but unsuccessful sortie. Pop. 27,886.

Bayonne City, a suburb of New York, in Hudson County, New Jersey. Pop. 76,754.

Bayou (bā-yö´), in the southern States of North America, a stream which flows from a lake or other stream: frequently used as synonymous with creek or tidal channel.

Bayreuth (bī´roit). See Baireuth.

Bay Rum, a spirit obtained by distilling the leaves of Myrica acris, or other West Indian trees of the same genus. It is used for toilet purposes, and as a liniment in rheumatic affections.

Bay-salt, a general term for coarse-grained salt, but properly applied to salt obtained by spontaneous or natural evaporation of sea-water in large shallow tanks or bays.

Bay-window, a window forming a recess or bay in a room, projecting outwards, and rising from the ground or basement on a plan rectangular, semi-octagonal, or semi-hexagonal, but always straight-sided. One of the finest examples of bay-windows is that of the banqueting-hall at Hampton Court. The term is, however, also often employed to designate a bow-window, which more properly forms the segment of a circle, and an oriel-window, which is supported on a kind of bracket, and is usually on the first floor.

Baza (bä´tha˙), an old town of Spain, Andalusia, province of Granada, formerly a large and flourishing city. In 1810 the French, under Marshal Soult, here defeated the Spaniards under Generals Blake and Freire. Pop. 15,964.

Bazaar. See Bazar.

Bazaine (ba˙-zān), François Achille, French general, born 1811, died 1888. He entered the army as a private soldier in 1831, and served in Algeria with distinction, gaining the cross of the Legion of Honour, and rising to the rank of lieutenant. He next went to Spain and fought in the Foreign Legion against the Carlists; and in 1839 returned to Algeria, where he eventually held the rank of colonel (1850). He was next engaged in the Crimean War, being at first commander of a brigade and then general of division, leading the French troops sent to attack the fortress of Kinburn (1855). He did good service also in the Italian war of 1859, being actively engaged in the battle of Solferino. His military reputation was increased by the part he took in the Mexican expedition (1862-4), in which he led the first division under Forey, and when this general was recalled became commander-in-chief of the French forces in Mexico and marshal of France. His loyalty, however, to the cause of the Emperor Maximilian was very doubtful. In 1870 he took command of the army of the Rhine, or the third army corps, in the Franco-German War, collected a very large army in the neighbourhood of Metz, and had the intention of joining his forces with those of MacMahon at Châlons. He found this impossible, however, especially after Gravelotte, and was forced into Metz, where he capitulated after a seven weeks' siege, with an army of 175,000 men. For this act he was tried by court-martial in 1871, found guilty of treason, and condemned to death. The sentence was commuted to twenty years' seclusion in the Isle of St. Marguerite, from which he escaped in 1874, and retired to Spain. He published Épisodes de la Guerre de 1870.—Bibliography: La Brugère, L'Affaire Bazaine; Comte d'Herisson, La Légende de Metz.

Bazar´, or Bazaar´, in the East an exchange, market-place, or place where goods are exposed for sale, usually consisting of small shops or stalls in a narrow street or series of streets. These bazar-streets are frequently shaded by a light material laid from roof to roof, and sometimes are arched over. Marts for the sale of miscellaneous articles, chiefly fancy goods, are now to be found in most European cities, bearing the name of bazars. The term bazar is popularly applied to a sale of miscellaneous articles, mostly of fancy work, and contributed gratuitously, in furtherance of some charitable or other purpose.

Bazar´jik, now officially called Dobritsh (q.v.).

Bazigars´, a tribe of Indians dispersed throughout the whole of Hindustan mostly in wandering tribes. They are divided into seven castes; their chief occupation is that of jugglers, acrobats, and tumblers, in which both males and females are equally skilful. They present many features analogous to the gipsies of Europe, and like these each clan has its king.

Bazin, René, French novelist, born 1853. For some time he was professor of law in the Catholic University of Angers. His literary reputation was established by Une Tache d'Encre. His other novels include La Terre qui meurt, De Toute son Âme, Les Oberlé, Les Noellet, Davidée Birot, all of which have been translated into English by Dr. A. S. Rappoport. He has also written Questions littéraires et sociales, &c. Bazin was elected a member of the Académie Française in 1903.

Bazoche (ba˙-zosh´), or Basoche (a corruption of Basilica), a brotherhood formed by the clerks of the Parliament of Paris at the time it ceased to be the grand council of the French king. They had a king, chancellor, and other dignitaries; and certain privileges were granted them by Philip the Fair early in the fourteenth century, as also by subsequent monarchs. They had an annual festival, having as a principal feature dramatic performances in which satirical allusions were freely made to passing events. These farces or satires were frequently interdicted, but they had a considerable influence on the French drama. The Bazoche took an active part in the French Revolution, but the order was suppressed by the decree of 13th Feb., 1791.

Bazzi (ba˙t´sē). See Sodoma.

Bdellium (del´i-um), an aromatic gum resin brought chiefly from Africa and India, in pieces of different sizes and figures, externally of a dark reddish brown, internally clear, and not unlike glue. To the taste it is slightly bitterish and pungent; its odour is agreeable. It is used as a perfume and a medicine, being a weak deobstruent. Indian bdellium is the produce of Balsamodendron Roxburghii; African of B. africanum; Egyptian bdellium is obtained from the doum palm; and Sicilian is produced by Daucus gummifer, a species of the genus to which the carrot belongs. The bdellium mentioned in Gen. ii, 12, was apparently a precious stone, perhaps a pearl. See Myrrh.

Beaches, Raised, a term applied to those long, terraced, level pieces of land, consisting of sand and gravel, and containing marine shells, now, it may be, a considerable distance above and away from the sea, but bearing sufficient evidences of having been at one time sea-beaches. In Scotland such a terrace has been traced extensively along the coasts at about 25 feet above the present sea-level.

Beachy Head, a promontory in the south of England, on the coast of Sussex, rising 575 feet above sea-level, with a revolving light, visible in clear weather from a distance of 28 miles. A naval battle took place here, 30th June, 1690, in which a French fleet under Tourville defeated an English and Dutch combined fleet under Lord Torrington.

Beacon (bē´kon), an object visible at some distance, and serving to notify the presence of danger; commonly applied to a fire-signal set on a height to spread the news of hostile invasion or other great event; and also applied to a mark or object of some kind placed conspicuously on a coast or over a rock or shoal at sea for the guidance of vessels, often an iron structure of considerable height.

Beaconsfield (bē´konz-fēld), a village of Buckinghamshire, the parish church of which contains the remains of Edmund Burke, whose seat was in the neighbourhood; while a marble monument to the poet Waller, who owned the manor, is in the churchyard. It gave the title of earl to the English statesman and novelist Benjamin Disraeli. Pop. (1921), 3642.

Beaconsfield, formerly known as Du Toit's Pan, a town of Cape Province about a mile to the east of Kimberley, of which it forms a suburb. Pop. 20,364.

Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of, an eminent English statesman and novelist, of Jewish extraction; eldest son of Isaac D'Israeli, author of the Curiosities of Literature; born in London in 1804, died there in 1881, buried at Hughenden. He attended for a time a private school, and was first destined for the law, but showing a decided taste for literature he was allowed to follow his inclination. In 1826 he published Vivian Grey, his first novel; and subsequently travelled for some time, visiting Italy, Greece, Turkey, and Syria, and gaining experiences which were afterwards reproduced in his books. His travels and impressions are embodied in a volume of letters addressed to his sister and his father. In 1831 another novel, The Young Duke, came from his pen. It was followed at short intervals by Contarini Fleming, Alroy, Henrietta Temple, Venetia, The Revolutionary Epic (a poem), &c. In 1832, and on two subsequent occasions, he appeared as candidate for the representation of High Wycombe, with a programme which included vote by ballot and triennial parliaments, but was unsuccessful. His political opinions gradually changed: in 1835 he unsuccessfully contested Taunton as a Tory. In 1837 he gained an entrance to the House of Commons, being elected for Maidstone. His first speech in the House was treated with ridicule; but he finished with the prophetic declaration that the time would come when they would hear him. During his first years in Parliament he was a supporter of Peel; but when Peel pledged himself to abolish the corn-laws, Disraeli became the leader of the protectionists. About this time he became a leader of what was known as the 'Young England' party, the most prominent characteristic of which was a sort of sentimental advocacy of feudalism. This spirit showed itself in his two novels of Coningsby and Sybil, published respectively in 1844 and 1845. Having acquired the manor of Hughenden, in Buckinghamshire, he was in 1847 elected for this county, and he retained his seat till raised to the peerage nearly thirty years later. His first appointment to office was in 1852, when he became Chancellor of the Exchequer under Lord Derby. The following year, however, the ministry was defeated. He remained out of office till 1858, when he again became Chancellor of the Exchequer, and brought in a Reform Bill which wrecked the Government. During the time the Palmerston Government was in office Disraeli led the opposition in the Lower House with conspicuous ability and courage. In 1866 the Liberals resigned, and Derby and Disraeli came into power, the latter being again Chancellor of the Exchequer. They immediately brought in, and carried, after a violent and bitter struggle, a Reform Bill on the basis of household suffrage. In 1868 he became Premier on the resignation of Lord Derby, but his tenure of office was short. In 1874 he again became Prime Minister with a strong Conservative majority, and he remained in power for six years. This period was marked by his elevation to the peerage in 1876 as Earl of Beaconsfield, and by the prominent part he took in regard to the Eastern question and the conclusion of the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. In 1880 Parliament was rather suddenly dissolved, and, the new Parliament showing an overwhelming Liberal majority, he resigned office, though he still retained the leadership of his party. Within a few months of his death the publication of a novel called Endymion (his last, Lothair, had been published ten years before) showed that his intellect was still vigorous. Among others of his writings, besides those already mentioned, are: A Vindication of the English Constitution (1834); Alarcos, a Tragedy (1839); and Lord George Bentinck, a Political Biography (1852).—Bibliography: Selected Speeches of the Earl of Beaconsfield (edited by T. E. Kebbel); T. Martin, Memorials of Lord Beaconsfield; the article Disraeli, by T. E. Kebbel, in Dictionary of National Biography; Sir William Fraser, Disraeli and his Day; Sichel, Disraeli; the best work, however, is W. F. Monypenny's Life of Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield (continued by G. E. Buckle).

Bead (bēd), originally a prayer; then a small perforated ball of gold, pearl, amber, glass, or the like, to be strung on a thread, and used in a rosary by Roman Catholics in numbering their prayers, one bead being passed at the end of each ejaculation or short prayer; finally any such small ornamental body. The use of beads among pagans is of greater antiquity than their Christian use, but there is no evidence to show that the latter is derived from the former. Glass beads are now the most common sort; they form a considerable item in the African trade.—In architecture and joinery the bead is a small round moulding. It is of frequent occurrence in architecture, particularly in the classical styles, and is used in picture-frames and other objects carved in wood.—St. Cuthbert's Beads, the popular name of the detached and perforated joints of encrinites.

Beadle (bē´dl), an officer in a university, whose chief business is to walk with a mace in a public procession: also, a parish officer whose business is to punish petty offenders, and a church officer (chiefly, although not exclusively, in Scotland) with various subordinate duties, as waiting on the clergyman, keeping order in church, attending meetings of vestry or session, &c. The primary meaning of the word (from O.E. beodan, to offer, announce) appears to be 'herald', one who announces or proclaims something.

Bead-snake (Elaps fulvus), a beautiful snake of North America, inhabiting cultivated grounds, especially plantations of the sweet-potato, and burrowing in the ground. It is finely marked with yellow, carmine, and black. Though it possesses poison-fangs it never seems to use them.

Beagle (bē´gl), a small hound, resembling a foxhound or harrier, and used to hunt rabbits and hares, being often kept in packs. The beagle is smaller than the harrier, compactly built, smooth-haired, and with pendulous ears. The smallest of them are little larger than the lap-dog.

Beale, Lionel Smith, English physician and biologist, born in 1828, died in 1906. He was educated at King's College School and King's College, London, and was a professor in the medical department of the latter institution for forty-three years, finally holding the chair of the principles and practice of medicine. His numerous published works treat of medical, anatomical, physiological, and biological subjects; the microscope; various questions of morality, &c. They include How to Work with the Microscope, The Structure of the Tissues, Protoplasm, Disease Germs, Life Theories and Religious Thought, The Mystery of Life, Bioplasm, On Slight Ailments, Religio Medici, Religio Scientiæ, Religio Vitæ, &c.

Beam, a long, straight, and strong piece of wood, iron, or steel, especially when holding an important place in some structure, and serving for support or consolidation; often equivalent to girder. In a balance it is the part from the ends of which the scales are suspended. In a loom it is a cylindrical piece of wood on which weavers wind the warp before weaving; also, the cylinder on which the cloth is rolled as it is woven. In a ship, one of the strong transverse pieces stretching across from one side to the other to support the decks and retain the sides at their proper distance: hence a ship is said to be 'on her beam ends' when lying over on her side. For calculations relating to beams, see Morley's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures.

Beam Tree (Pyrus aria), a tree of the same genus as the apple, mountain-ash, and service tree found throughout Britain, having berries that are edible when quite mellow, and yielding a hard and fine-grained wood.

Bean, a name given to several kinds of leguminous seeds and the plants producing them, probably originally belonging to Asia. They belong to several genera, particularly to Vicia, garden and field bean; Phaseŏlus, French or kidney bean; and Dolichos, tropical bean. The common bean (Vicia Faba) is cultivated both in fields and gardens as food for man and beast. Beans were believed by some of the ancients to contain the souls of their ancestors, and Pythagoras would not eat beans for this reason. One of the bean family still retains the name of the Pythagorean bean. Beans were introduced by the Moors into Spain, whence they came to France and later to England. It is possible, however, that they were brought to Britain by the Romans. They are now largely imported from Egypt, Turkey, Greece, and the Netherlands. There are many varieties, as the Mazagan, the Windsor, the long-pod, &c., in gardens, and the horse or tick bean in fields. The soil that best suits is a good strong clay. The seed of the Windsor is fully an inch in diameter; the horse bean is much less, often not much more than half an inch in length and three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Beans are very nutritious, containing nearly 50 per cent of digestible carbohydrate and 25 per cent of nitrogenous matter. The bean is an annual, from 2 to 4 feet high. The flowers are beautiful and fragrant. The kidney bean, French bean, or haricot is the Phaseŏlus vulgāris, a well-known culinary vegetable. There are two principal varieties, annual dwarfs and runners. The beans cultivated in America and largely used as articles of food belong to the genus Phaseŏlus. The scarlet-runner bean (Phaseŏlus multiflorus), a native of Mexico, is cultivated on account of its long rough pods and its scarlet flowers.

Bean-goose (Anser segĕtum), a species of wild goose, a migratory bird which arrives in Britain in autumn and retires to the north in the end of April, though some few remain to breed. Being rather less in size than the common wild goose, it is sometimes called the small grey goose.

Bean-king, the person chosen king in Twelfth Night festivities in virtue of having got the piece of cake containing the bean buried in the cake for this purpose.

Bear, the name of several large plantigrade carnivorous mammals of the genus Ursus. The teeth are forty-two in number, as in the dog, but there is no carnassial or sectorial tooth, and the molars have a more tubercular character than in other carnivores. The eyes have a nictitating membrane, the nose is prominent and mobile, and the tail very short. The true bears are about ten in number, natives chiefly of Europe, Asia, and N. America. They generally lie dormant in their den during the winter months. The brown or black bear of Europe is the Ursus arctos. It is a native of almost all the northern parts of Europe and Asia, and was at one time common in the British Islands. It feeds on fruits, roots, honey, ants, and, in case of need, on mammals. It sometimes reaches the length of 7 feet, the largest specimens being found farthest to the north. It lives solitarily. The American black bear is the U. americānus, with black shining fur, and rarely above 5 feet in length. It is a great climber, is less dangerous than the brown bear, and is hunted for its fur and flesh. It is very amusing in captivity. The grizzly bear (U. ferox or horribilis) is an inhabitant of the Rocky Mountains; it is a ferocious animal, sometimes 9 feet in length, and has a bulky and unwieldy form, but is nevertheless capable of great rapidity of motion. The extinct cave-bear (U. spelæus) seems to have been closely akin to the grizzly. The Siberian bear (U. collāris) is perhaps a variety of the brown bear. The polar or white bear (U. maritĭmus) is an animal possessed of great strength and fierceness. It lives in the polar regions, frequents the sea, feeds on fish, seals, &c., and usually is 7 to 8 feet in length. The Malayan or coco-nut palm bear (U. malayānus) inhabits Cochin-China, Nepaul, the Sunda Islands, &c., lives exclusively on vegetable food, and is an expert climber. It is called also sun-bear and bruang. The Indian black bear or sloth-bear of India and Ceylon (U. labiātus) is reputed to be a fierce and dangerous animal.

Bear, or Bere, a species of barley (Hordĕum hexastichum), having six rows in the ear, cultivated in Scotland and the north of England.

Bear, Great and Little, the popular names of two constellations in the northern hemisphere. The Great Bear (Ursa Major) is situated near the pole. It is remarkable for its well-known seven stars, by two of which, called the Pointers, the pole-star is always readily found. These seven stars are popularly called the Wagon, Charles's Wain, or the Plough. The Little Bear (Ursa Minor) is the constellation which contains the pole-star. This constellation has seven stars placed together in a manner resembling those in the Great Bear.

Bear-baiting, the sport of baiting bears with dogs, formerly one of the established amusements, not only of the common people, but of the nobility and even royalty itself. The places where bears were publicly baited were called bear-gardens. Butler gives a description of bear-baiting in his Hudibras. Bear-baiting was prohibited by Act of Parliament in 1835.

Bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), an evergreen shrub of the heath family growing on the barren moors of Scotland, Northern Europe, Siberia, and N. America. The leaves, under the name of uva ursi, are used in medicine as an astringent and tonic.

Beard, the hair round the chin, on the cheeks, and the upper lip, which is a distinction of the male sex and of manhood. It differs from the hair on the head by its greater hardness and its form. Some nations have hardly any, others a great profusion. The latter generally consider it as a great ornament; the former pluck it out; as, for instance, the American Indians. The beard has often been considered as a mark of the sage and the priest. Moses forbade the Jews to shave their beards. With the ancient Germans the cutting off another's beard was a high offence. Even now the beard is regarded as a mark of great dignity among many nations in the East, as the Turks. Alexander the Great introduced shaving among the Greeks, by ordering his soldiers to wear no beards; among the Romans it was introduced in 296 B.C. The custom of shaving came into use in modern times during the reigns of Louis XIII and XIV of France, both of whom ascended the throne without a beard. Till then fashion sanctioned divers forms of moustaches and beards. In the reign of Henry VIII of England, the authorities of Lincoln's Inn prohibited wearers of beards from sitting at the great table unless they paid double commons. Taxation of beards was introduced in the reign of Elizabeth, beards of above a fortnight's growth being subject to a yearly tax of 3s. 4d. This impost was copied by Peter the Great in Russia. It is only in comparatively recent times that beards and moustaches have again become common.—Cf. Philippe, Histoire philosophique, politique, et religieuse de la barbe.

Beard-moss (Usnea barbāta), a lichen of grey colour, forming a shaggy coat on many forest trees.

Beardsley, Aubrey Vincent, artist in black and white, born 1872, died 1898; took up art as a profession at the age of nineteen, and executed a large number of drawings for books and periodicals, showing great technical skill, originality, and disregard of conventionality, with sometimes a tendency towards the repulsive or morbid. Consumption had marked him as its victim from the first. Collections of his drawings were published under the titles A Book of Fifty Drawings, The Early Work of Aubrey Beardsley, The Late Work of Aubrey Beardsley, &c. Under the Hill, with his letters and poems, was published in 1904. Cf. G. Derry, An Aubrey Beardsley Scrap-book.

Bearer Securities. See Stock Exchange.

Bearing, the direction or point of the compass in which an object is seen, or the situation of one object in regard to another, with reference to the points of the compass. Thus, if from a certain situation an object is seen in the direction of north-east, the bearing of the object is said to be N.E. from the situation.—To take bearings, to ascertain on what point of the compass objects lie.

Bear Lake, Great, an extensive sheet of fresh water in the North-West Territory of Canada, between about 65° and 67° 32´ N. lat.; and under the 120th degree of W. long.; of irregular shape; area about 14,000 sq. miles. The water is very clear and the lake abounds in fish.—Bear Lake River, the outlet at the S.W. extremity of Great Bear Lake, runs S.W. for 70 miles and joins the Mackenzie River.

Béarn (bā-a˙r), one of the provinces into which France was formerly divided, now chiefly included in the department of Lower Pyrénées. Pau is the chief town (pop. 35,000). There is a peculiar and well-marked dialect—the Béarnese—spoken in this district, which has much more affinity with Spanish than with French.

Bear-pit, a deep, open pit with perpendicular walls, built in a zoological garden for keeping bears, and having in the centre a pole on which they may exercise their climbing powers.

Bear River, a river of the United States, 400 miles long; rises in the north of Utah, and flows northward into Idaho; turns abruptly southward, re-enters Utah, and empties into Great Salt Lake.

Bears and Bulls. See Stock Exchange.

Bear´s-grease, the fat of bears, esteemed as of great efficacy in nourishing and promoting the growth of hair. The unguents sold under this name, however, are in a great measure made of hog's lard or veal fat, or a mixture of both, scented and slightly coloured.

Beas, river of India. See Bias.

Beat, in acoustics and music, the beating or pulsation resulting from the joint vibrations of two sounds of the same strength, and all but in unison. Also a short shake or transient grace-note struck immediately before the note it is intended to ornament. The word is also used for the movement of the hand or baton, by which the rhythm of a piece of music is indicated, and by which a conductor ensures perfect agreement in tempo and accent on the part of the orchestra or chorus.

Beath (bēth), a populous parish of Fifeshire, Scotland, containing the towns of Cowdenbeath, Kelty, and Hill of Beath. Pop. 24,350, (Cowdenbeath having 7908).

Beatification, in the Roman Catholic Church, an act by which the Pope declares a person beatified or blessed after his death. It is the first step to canonization, that is, the raising one to the honour and dignity of a saint. No person can be beatified till fifty years after his or her death. All certificates or attestations of virtues and miracles, the necessary qualifications for saintship, are examined by the Congregation of Rites. This examination often continues for several years; after which his Holiness decrees the beatification, and the corpse and relics of the future saint are exposed to the veneration of all good Christians. The present custom dates from a Bull of Urban VIII in 1634, although local veneration may be traced back to the earliest Christian ages.—In the Orthodox Eastern Church beatification is not distinguished from canonization.

Beating the Bounds, the periodical survey or perambulation by which the boundaries of parishes in England are preserved. It was the custom in some places that the clergyman of the parish, with the parochial officers and the boys of the parish school, should march to the boundaries, where the boys were struck with willow rods. A similar ceremony in Scotland was called riding the marches.

Bea´ton, David, Archbishop of St. Andrews, and cardinal, born 1494. Pope Paul III raised him to the rank of cardinal in Dec., 1538. On the death of his uncle, Archbishop James Beaton, he succeeded him in the see of St. Andrews in 1539. After the accession of Mary he became Chancellor of Scotland, and distinguished himself by his zeal in persecuting members of the Reformed party, among the rest the famous Protestant preacher George Wishart, whose sufferings at the stake he viewed from his window with apparent exultation. At length a conspiracy was formed against him, and he was assassinated at his own castle of St. Andrews, on the 29th May, 1546. His private character was marked by pride, cruelty, and licentiousness.

Beatrice Portinari (bā-a˙-trē´chā por-tē-nä´rē), the "glorious lady" of Dante, born about 1266, died 1290; the daughter of a wealthy citizen of Florence, and wife of Simone de Bardi. She was but eight years of age, and Dante nine, when he met her first at the house of her father. He altogether saw her only once or twice, and she probably knew little of him. The story of his love is recounted in the Vita Nuova, which was mostly written after her death.

Beattie (bē´ti), James, a Scottish poet and philosophical writer, born at Laurencekirk, Kincardineshire, in 1735, died at Aberdeen 1803. He studied at Marischal College, Aberdeen, for four years, and received the M.A. degree. In 1753 he was appointed schoolmaster at Fordoun, a few miles from his native place; from whence he obtained a mastership in the Grammar School of Aberdeen, and ultimately was installed professor of moral philosophy and logic in Marischal College. In 1760 he published a volume of poems, which he subsequently endeavoured to buy up, considering them unworthy of him. In 1765 he published a poem, The Judgment of Paris, and in 1770 his celebrated Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth, attacking Helvetius and Hume and advocating what was afterwards called the doctrine of Common Sense, for which the University of Oxford conferred on him the degree of D.C.L., and George III honoured him, when on a visit to London, with a private conference and a pension. He next published in 1771 the first book of his poem The Minstrel, and in 1774 the second; this is the only work by which he is now remembered. In 1776 he published dissertations on Poetry and Music, Laughter and Ludicrous Composition, &c.; in 1783 Dissertations, Moral and Critical; in 1786 Evidences of the Christian Religion; and in 1790-3 Elements of Moral Science. His closing years were darkened by the death of his two sons.—Bibliography: Margaret Forbes, Beattie and His Friends; A. Mackie, James Beattie, the Minstrel: Some Unpublished Letters.

Beattie, William, M.D., Scottish physician, poet, and miscellaneous writer, born in 1793, died at London 1875. He was author of the standard Life of Thomas Campbell, whose intimate friend he was; published several poems, including John Huss, The Heliotrope, and Polynesia; wrote a series of descriptive and historical works, beautifully illustrated by his friend and fellow-traveller, W. H. Bartlett, on Switzerland, Scotland, &c. He had a very extensive and lucrative medical practice.

Beatty, Admiral of the Fleet, Earl, born in 1871. He entered the navy in 1884, became Commander in 1898, Rear-Admiral in 1910, and Vice-Admiral in 1915. He served in the Sudan from 1896 to 1897, and in China in 1900. In 1912 he was Naval Secretary to the First Lord of the Admiralty, and from 1912 to 1916 commanded the First Battle Cruiser Squadron. He distinguished himself in the battle of Jutland in 1916, and until 1919, when he succeeded Admiral Sir Rosslyn Wemyss (now Lord Wester Wemyss) as First Sea Lord, he was in command of the Grand Fleet. When the entire German High Seas Fleet left port on 31st May, 1916, and steamed up the west coast of Denmark, it was quickly sighted by the British scouts, so that the main British fleet immediately steamed out from its base to engage the enemy. The British Battle Cruiser Squadron, under the command of Earl Beatty (then Sir David) was nearer the scene than the main battle fleet under Sir John Jellicoe (Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa since 1918). The admiral sighted the enemy fleet north-west of the Horn Reef, and about 3.30 in the afternoon the ships engaged. The Jutland battle lasted only a few hours. At the end of Nov., 1916, Admiral Sir John Jellicoe was made First Sea Lord of the Admiralty, and Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty took over the supreme command of the Grand Fleet.

He is a D.S.O., an O.M., a G.C.B., a G.C.V.O., and a Grand Officer of the French Legion of Honour. He was knighted in 1914, and received a grant of £100,000 in Aug., 1919, when he was created an earl. He was elected Lord Rector of Edinburgh University in 1917.

Beaucaire (bō-kār), a small commercial city of Southern France, department Gard, on the Rhone opposite Tarascon, with which it communicates by a fine suspension-bridge. It is chiefly famous for its great fair (founded in 1217), held yearly from the 21st to the 28th July. Pop. 8488.

Beauchamp (bō-shän), Alphonse de, French historian and publicist, born at Monăco 1767, died at Paris 1832. Under the Directory he had the surveillance of the press, a position which supplied him with materials for his History of La Vendée. He contributed to the Moniteur and the Gazette de France. Among his chief works are the History of the Conquest of Peru, the History of Brazil, and the Life of Louis XVIII. The Mémoires de Fouché is also with good reason ascribed to him.

Beaufort, (bō´fort), Henry, cardinal, natural son of John of Gaunt and half-brother of Henry IV, King of England, born 1377, died 1447; was made Bishop of Lincoln, whence he was translated to Winchester. He repeatedly filled the office of Lord Chancellor, and took part in all the most important political movements of his times.

Beaufort Scale. See Wind Scale; Navigation.

Beaufort West, a town of Cape Province, capital of the division of that name, 339 miles by railway north-east of Cape Town, well built and well supplied with water, though in a district with a small rainfall, and chiefly yielding wool. It is a popular health resort. Pop. 4530.

Beaugency (bō-zha˙n˙-sē), an ancient town, France, department Loiret, on the Loire, of some historical interest. General Chanzy was defeated there by the Grand-Duke of Mecklenburg, 7th-8th Dec., 1870. Pop. 3532.

Beauharnais (bō-a˙r-nā), Alexandre, Viscount, was born in 1760 in Martinique. He married Joséphine Tascher de la Pagerie, who was afterwards the wife of Napoleon. At the breaking out of the French Revolution he was chosen a member of the National Assembly, of which he was for some time president. In 1792 he was general of the army of the Rhine. He was falsely accused of having promoted the surrender of Mainz, and was sentenced to death 23rd July, 1794.

Beauharnais, Eugène de, Duke of Leuchtenberg, Prince of Eichstädt, and Viceroy of Italy during the reign of Napoleon, was born 1781, died at Munich 1824. He was the son of Alexandre Beauharnais and Joséphine, afterwards wife of Napoleon and Empress of France. After his father's death he joined Hoche in La Vendée, and subsequently studied for a time in Paris. He accompanied Napoleon to Egypt in 1798, rose rapidly in the army, was appointed Viceroy of Italy in 1805, and married a daughter of the King of Bavaria in 1806. He administered the government of Italy with great prudence and moderation, and was much beloved by his subjects. In the Russian campaign he commanded the third corps d'armée, and greatly distinguished himself. To him and to Ney France was mainly indebted for the preservation of the remains of her army during the retreat from Moscow. After the battle of Lützen of 2nd May, 1813, where, by surrounding the right wing of the enemy, he decided the fate of the day, he went to Italy, which he defended against the Austrians until the deposition of Napoleon. After the fall of Napoleon he concluded an armistice, by which he delivered Lombardy and all Upper Italy to the Austrians. He then went immediately to Paris, and thence to his father-in-law at Munich, where he afterwards resided.—His sister, Hortense Eugénie, Queen of Holland, was born in 1783, died in 1837. She became Queen of Holland by marrying Louis Bonaparte, and after Louis's abdication of the throne she lived apart from him. She wrote several excellent songs, and composed some deservedly popular airs, among others the well-known Partant pour la Syrie. Napoleon III was her third and youngest son.

Beauly (bū´li), a small seaport of Scotland, Inverness-shire, near the mouth of the River Beauly, which enters the Beauly Firth, a sea loch branching off from Inverness Firth, with interesting ruins of an old priory. Pop. 882.

Beaumarchais (bō-mär-shā), Pierre Augustin Caron de, a French wit and dramatist, was born at Paris in 1732, died 1799. He was the son of a watchmaker named Caron, whose trade he practised for a time. He early gave striking proofs of his mechanical and also of his musical talents; attained proficiency as a player on the guitar and harp, and was appointed harp-master to the daughters of Louis XV. By a rich marriage (after which he added 'de Beaumarchais' to his name) he laid the foundation of the immense wealth which he afterwards accumulated by his speculations, and which was also increased by a second marriage. In the meantime he occupied himself with literature, and published two dramas—Eugénie in 1767 and Les Deux Amis in 1770. He first really distinguished himself by his Mémoires (Paris, 1774), or statements in connection with a lawsuit, which by their wit, satire, and liveliness entertained all France. The Barber of Seville (1775) and the Marriage of Figaro (1784) have given him a permanent reputation. His last work was Mes Six Époques, in which he relates the dangers to which he was exposed in the revolution. He lost about a million livres by his edition of the works of Voltaire (1785), and still more at the end of 1792 by his attempt to provide the French army with 60,000 muskets. He was a singular instance of versatility of talent, being at once an artist, politician, projector, merchant, and dramatist.—Bibliography: L. de Loménie, Beaumarchais et son temps (English translation by H. S. Edwards); Gudin de la Brenellerie, Histoire de Beaumarchais.

Beaumaris (bō-ma´ris), a seaport town, North Wales, Isle of Anglesey, on the Menai Strait. It is a favourite watering-place, and contains the remains of a castle built by Edward I about 1295. Pop. (1921), 1839.

Beaumont, a city of the United States, in Eastern Texas, in a region rich in cotton, timber, and petroleum, and an important railway centre. Pop. 28,851.

Beaumont (bō´mont), Francis, and Fletcher, John, two eminent English dramatic writers, contemporaries of Shakespeare, and the most famous of literary partners. The former, son of a common-pleas judge, was born at Grace-Dieu, in Leicestershire, in 1584, died in 1616, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. At the age of sixteen he published a translation, in verse, of Ovid's Fable of Salmacis and Hermaphroditus, and before nineteen became the friend of Ben Jonson. With Fletcher also he was early on terms of friendship. He married Ursula, daughter of Henry Isley of Sundridge, in Kent, by whom he left two daughters.—John Fletcher was born at Rye, Sussex, in 1579. His father was successively Dean of Peterborough, Bishop of Bristol, Worcester, and London. The Woman Hater, produced in 1606-7, is the earliest work known to exist in which he had a hand. It does not appear that he was ever married. He died in London of the plague, Aug., 1625, and was buried at St. Saviour's, Southwark. The friendship of Beaumont and Fletcher, like their literary partnership, was singularly close; they lived in the same house, and are said to have even had their clothes in common. The works that pass under their names consist of over fifty plays, a masque, and some minor poems. It is believed that all the minor poems except one were written by Beaumont. After the death of Beaumont, Fletcher continued to write plays alone or with other dramatists. It is now difficult, if not indeed impossible, to determine with certainty the respective shares of the two poets in the plays passing under their names. According to the testimony of some of their contemporaries, Beaumont possessed the deeper and more thoughtful genius, Fletcher the gayer and more idyllic. Four Plays in One, Wit at Several Weapons, Thierry and Theodoret, Maid's Tragedy, Philaster, King and no King, Knight of the Burning Pestle, Cupid's Revenge, Little French Lawyer, Scornful Lady, Coxcomb, and Laws of Candy have been assigned to Beaumont and Fletcher conjointly. To Beaumont alone—The Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn. To Fletcher alone—The Faithful Shepherdess, Woman Hater, Loyal Subject, Mad Lover, Valentinian, Double Marriage, Humorous Lieutenant, Island Princess, Pilgrim, Wild-goose Chase, Spanish Curate, Beggar's Bush, Rule a Wife and Have a Wife, Fair Maid of the Inn, &c. To Fletcher and Rowley—Queen of Corinth, Maid of the Mill, and Bloody Brother. To Fletcher and Massinger—False One and Very Woman. To Fletcher and Shirley—Noble Gentleman, Night-walker, and Love's Pilgrimage. To Fletcher and Shakespeare—Two Noble Kinsmen.—Bibliography: G. C. Macaulay, Francis Beaumont, a Critical Study; Sir A. W. Ward, History of English Dramatic Literature (vol. ii).

Beaumont, Sir George, born of an ancient family in Leicestershire in 1753, died 1827. He possessed considerable skill as a landscape-painter, but was noted more especially as a munificent patron of the arts. The establishment of the National Gallery was mainly owing to his exertions. He was a friend of Wordsworth, who dedicated to him the 1815 edition of his Poems.

Beaumont, Sir John, born 1582, died 1627, brother of Francis Beaumont the dramatist; was author of Bosworth Field, an historical poem, and various sacred and other poems. A poem in eight books, called The Crown of Thorns, has been lost.

Beaumont, Joseph, D.D., born 1615, died 1699; descended from an old Leicestershire family. In 1663 he became master of Peterhouse, Cambridge. He wrote Psyche, or Love's Mystery, a poem once very popular, and an attack on Henry More's Mystery of Godliness, for which he received the thanks of the university.

Beaumont, William, M.D., an American surgeon, born 1785, died 1853. His experiments on digestion with the Canadian St. Martin, who lived for years after receiving a gunshot wound in the stomach which left an aperture of about two inches in diameter, were of great importance to physiological science.

Beaumont-Hamel, village of France, department Somme, the scene of fierce fighting in 1918. See Somme, Battles of the.

Beaune (bōn), a town, France, department Côte d'Or, 23 miles S.S.W. of Dijon, well built, with handsome church, public library, museum, &c., and a trade in the fine Burgundy and other wines of the district. Pop. 13,409.

Beaune (bōn), Florimond, a distinguished mathematician and friend of Descartes, born at Blois 1601, died at the same place 1652. He may be regarded as the originator of the integral calculus.

Beauregard (bō´rė-ga˙rd), Pierre Gustavus Toutant, a general of the Confederate troops in the American Civil War, born in 1818 near New Orleans. He studied at the military academy, West Point, and left it as artillery lieutenant in 1838. He served in the Mexican War, and on the outbreak of the Civil War joined the Confederates. He commanded at the bombardment of Fort Sumter, gained the battle of Bull Run, lost that of Shiloh, assisted in the defence of Charleston, and aided Lee in that of Richmond. He was the author of Principles and Maxims of the Art of War (1863). He died in 1893.

Beausobre (bō-sō-br), Isaac, born in 1659 at Niort, in France, died at Berlin 1738. In 1683 he became Protestant minister of Chatillon-sur-Indre, but was compelled by persecution to go into exile in 1685. In 1694 he became minister to French Protestants at Berlin. He enjoyed much of the favour both of Frederick William I and of the Crown Prince, afterwards Frederick the Great, and died in 1738. His most remarkable work is the Histoire Critique de Manichée et du Manichéisme (1734).

Beauvais (bō-vā; ancient, Bellovacum), a town, France, capital of the department of Oise, at the confluence of the Avelon with the Thérain, 43 miles north of Paris, poorly built, but with some fine edifices, the choir of the uncompleted cathedral being one of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture in France. In 1472 Beauvais resisted an army of 80,000 Burgundians under Charles the Bold. On this occasion the women particularly distinguished themselves, and one of them, Jeanne Lainé, called La Hachette, seeing a soldier planting a standard on the wall, seized it and hurled him to the ground. The banner is preserved in the town hall, and an annual procession of young girls commemorates the deed. Manufactures: tapestry and carpets, trimmings, woollen cloth, cottons, &c. Pop. 20,250.

Beaver, the largest rodent quadruped now existing in the northern hemisphere, about 2 feet in length exclusive of the tail, genus Castor (C. fiber), is now found in considerable numbers only in North America, living in colonies, but occurring solitary in Central Europe and Asia. It has short ears, a blunt nose, small fore-feet, large webbed hind-feet, with a flat ovate tail covered with scales on its upper surface. It is valued for its fur, which used to be largely employed in the manufacture of hats, but for which silk is now for the most part substituted, and for an odoriferous secretion named castor, at one time in high repute, and still largely used in some parts of the world as an antispasmodic medicine. The food of the beaver consists of the bark of trees, leaves, roots, and berries. Their favourite haunts are rivers and lakes which are bordered by forests. In winter they live in houses, which are 3 to 4 feet high, are built on the water's edge, and, being substantial structures with the entrance under water, afford them protection from wolves and other wild animals. These dwellings are called beaver 'lodges', and accommodate a single family. They also live in burrows. They can gnaw through large trees with their strong teeth, this being done partly to obtain food, partly to get materials for houses or dam-building. When they find a stream not sufficiently deep for their purpose, they throw across it a dam constructed with great ingenuity of wood, stones, and mud. Beavers were fairly numerous in Britain in very early times, at least in Scotland and Wales. Their existence has been recorded in Wales till the thirteenth century, and in Scotland to a later date, but they are now extinct in Britain. A colony was some years ago introduced into the Island of Bute, but they died out again.—Bibliography: Harting, British Animals Extinct within Historic Times; E. A. Mills, In Beaver World; A. A. R. Dugmore, The Romance of the Beaver.

Beaver (from Fr. baviére, a child's bib, from bave, saliva), the movable face-guard of a helmet, so fitted on as to be raised and lowered at pleasure.

Beaver Falls, a town of the United States, Pennsylvania, on Beaver River, 30 miles north-west of Pittsburg, in the coal and natural-gas region. Pop. 12,191.

Beaver-rat (Hydromys chrysogaster), a Tasmanian rodent quadruped, inhabiting the banks both of salt and fresh waters. They are admirable swimmers and divers, and exceedingly shy.

Bebee´ru. See Greenheart.

Bebel (bā´bl), Ferdinand August, German Socialist, born in 1840, died in 1913. He became a master turner in Leipzig, was elected to the Reichstag or Diet of the new German Empire in 1871, in which he was prominent until his death. He opposed the leadership of Prussia in Germany and the establishment of the empire, and showed himself favourable to the Paris Commune and the International. Found guilty of treasonable practices, he was condemned to two years' imprisonment in a fortress in 1872, with six months' ordinary imprisonment for insulting the Kaiser. His influence kept on increasing as leader of the Social Democrats in Germany and in the German Parliament, where he spoke strongly against militarism and the emperor's naval policy. His works include Die Frau und der Socialismus (Woman and Socialism), in which he went so far as to attack marriage as an institution; Die Socialdemokratic und das allgemeine wahlrecht; Für Volkswehr gegen Militarismus; Aus meinem Leben; &c.

Bec, a celebrated abbey of France, in Normandy, near Brionne, founded in the eleventh century, now represented only by some ruins. Lanfranc and Anselm were both connected with this abbey.

Beccafi´co, a European bird (Sylvia hortensis), the garden-warbler. These birds are much esteemed as dainties in the autumn, when they have fattened on figs and grapes.

Beccafu´mi, Domen´ico, Italian painter, born near Sienna in the latter half of the fifteenth century, enriched the churches of Sienna with many noble frescoes and other paintings. He drew and coloured well, and possessed strong inventive powers. He died at Sienna in 1551, and was buried in its cathedral.

Beccaria (bek-a˙-rē´a˙), Cesare Bonesana, Marchese di, Italian economist and writer on penal laws, born 1738, died 1794. He is principally known from his treatise, On Crimes and Punishments, which was speedily translated into various languages, and to which many of the reforms in the penal codes of the principal European nations are traceable. He became professor of political economy at Milan, where he died.

Beccaria (bek-a˙-rē´a˙), Giovanni Battista, an Italian natural philosopher, born 1716, died 1781; was appointed professor of experimental physics at Turin, 1748; author of a treatise on Natural and Artificial Electricity, Letters on Electricity, &c. He contributed several articles to the Transactions of the Royal Society of London, and was commissioned in 1759 to measure an arc of the meridian in the neighbourhood of Turin.

Beccles (bek´lz), a municipal borough in Suffolk, England, 33 miles N.N.E. from Ipswich, on the right bank of the Waveney; has a fine church of the fourteenth century, and a good trade coastwise. Pop. (1921), 7077.

Becelære, town of Belgium, province of West Flanders. It was the scene of fighting in the third battle of Ypres (1917), and in the battle of Flanders (1918).

Becerra (be-ther´a˙), Gaspar, Spanish painter and sculptor, born 1520, died 1570. He studied under Michel Angelo at Rome, and is credited with the chief share in the establishment of the fine arts in Spain.

Beche (bāsh), Sir Henry de Ia, an English geologist, born 1796, died 1855. He founded the geological survey of Great Britain, which was soon undertaken by the Government, De la Beche being appointed director-general. He also founded the Jermyn Street Museum of Economic or Practical Geology, and the School of Mines. His principal works are: Geology of Jamaica, Classification of European Rocks, Geological Manual, Researches in Theoretical Geology, Geology of Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset, &c.

Bêche-de-Mer (bāsh-dē-mār). See Trepang.

Becher (beh´er), Johann Joachim, German chemist, born in 1625 or 1635, died in London 1682. He became a professor at Mainz; was elected a member of the Imperial Council at Vienna, 1660, but fell into disgrace and subsequently resided in various parts of Germany, Holland, Italy, Sweden, and Great Britain. His chief work, Physica Subterranea, containing many of the fanciful theories of the alchemists, was published in 1669, and enlarged in 1681. Among his other works are Laboratorium portabile and Alphabetum minerale.

Bechstein (beh´stīn), Johann Matthäus, German naturalist, born in 1757, died in 1822. He wrote a popular Natural History of Germany, and various works on forestry, in which subject his labours were highly valuable. In Britain he is best known by a treatise on cage birds.

Bechuanas, or Betchuanas (bech-wan´az), a widely-spread race of people inhabiting the central region of South Africa north of Cape Province. They belong to the great Kaffir stem, and are divided into tribal sections. They live chiefly by husbandry and cattle-rearing, and they work with some skill in iron, copper, ivory, and skins. They were led to seek British protection owing to the encroachments of the Boers. The southern portion of their territory was first placed under British protection in 1885, and subsequently the whole Bechuana country up to the Zambezi was annexed. In 1895 the southern portion (then a Crown colony) was united to the Cape Colony; the remainder is still a protectorate partly under native chiefs. The head-quarters of the British administration are at Mafeking in the Cape Province. Bechuanaland Protectorate comprises the territory lying between the Molopo River on the south and the Zambezi on the north, and extending from the Transvaal Province and Matabeleland on the east to South-West Africa; area, 275,000 sq. miles; pop. 125,350, of whom about 1700 are Europeans. It is generally flat or slightly undulating, and is essentially a grass country, the grasses being nutritious and standing drought well. Surface water is scarce, but there is underground water, besides swampy lakes such as Ngami. Some parts are wooded and well watered. Gold, coal, and copper have been found. There is railway connection both with south and north.—Cf. G. W. Stow, The Native Races of South Africa.

Beck Case, The, a celebrated case of mistaken identity, which involved a grave miscarriage of justice. Adolf Beck, a Swede, had been sentenced in 1890 to seven years' penal servitude for a series of mean frauds committed against some women, and in 1904 he was again convicted and sentenced for a similar offence. Soon after his second trial a Jew named John Smith, who had been convicted of fraudulency in 1877, was arrested for similar frauds committed while Beck was in custody. The resemblance between the two men was remarkable, and it was eventually discovered that Beck was entirely innocent. He received two King's pardons, and the sum of £5000 from the Home Office as compensation. A commission which considered the case drew attention in its report to the carelessness of the police in identifying Beck with Smith, though the latter was a Jew; and stated that further legal training was desirable for the subordinate officials in the Home Office. Beck died in poverty in 1909. Cf. J. Kempster, Perversion of Justice as exhibited in the Beck Case.

Beckenham, a suburban locality on the south of London, in West Kent, now forming an urban district, lying south of Sydenham. Pop. 33,350.

Beck´er, Wilhelm Adolf, German archæologist, born at Dresden 1796, died at Meissen 1846. In 1828 he became a teacher at Meissen, in 1837 was appointed extraordinary professor of classical archæology at Leipzig, and in 1842 ordinary professor. Best-known works: Gallus, or Roman Scenes of the Time of Augustus; and Charicles, or Illustrations of the Life of the Ancient Greeks, which wonderfully reproduce the social life of old Rome and Greece.

Beck´et, Thomas (the form À Becket is also common), Archbishop of Canterbury, born in London 1117 or 1119, assassinated in Canterbury Cathedral, 29th Dec., 1170. He was educated at Oxford and Paris, and was sent, by the favour of Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, to study civil law at Bologna in Italy, and on his return made Archdeacon of Canterbury and Provost of Beverley. In 1158 Henry II appointed him High Chancellor and preceptor to his son, Prince Henry—the first instance after the Conquest of a high office being filled by a native Englishman. At this period he was a complete courtier, conforming in every respect to the humour of the king. He was, in fact, the king's prime companion, held splendid levees, and courted popular applause. On the death of Theobald, 1162, he was consecrated archbishop, when he affected an extraordinary austerity of character, and appeared as a zealous champion of the Church against the aggressions of the king, whose policy was to have the clergy in subordination to the civil power. Becket was forced to assent to the Constitutions of Clarendon, but a series of bitter conflicts with the king followed, ending in Becket's flight to France, when he appealed to the Pope, by whom he was supported. After much negotiation a sort of reconciliation took place in 1170, and Becket returned to England, resumed his office, and renewed his defiance of the royal authority. A rash hint from the king induced four barons, Reginald Fitz-Urse, William de Tracy, Hugh de Morville, and Richard Breto, to go to Canterbury and murder the archbishop while at vespers in the cathedral. He was canonized in 1172 by Pope Alexander III, and the splendid shrine erected at Canterbury for his remains was, for three centuries, a favourite place of pilgrimage.—Bibliography: J. C. Robertson and J. B. Sheppard, Materials for the History of Archbishop Becket (Rolls Series); Canon Morris, Life and Martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket; Lhuillier, Saint Thomas de Cantorbéry; Abbott, St. Thomas of Canterbury, His Death and His Miracles.

Beckett, Gilbert Abbot À. See À Beckett.

Beck´ford, William, an English writer famous in his time for his immense wealth and his eccentricities. He was born at Fonthill, his father's estate in Wiltshire, in 1759. In 1770 the death of his father left him in the possession of £1,000,000 of money, and an income of £100,000 a year. He travelled much, and for some time lived in Portugal. He expended an enormous sum in building and rebuilding Fonthill Abbey, near Salisbury, which he filled with rare and expensive works of art. Here he lived in seclusion for twenty years. In 1822 the abbey and greater part of its contents were sold, and he retired to Bath, where, with a much-diminished fortune, but one amply sufficient, he lived till 1844. His literary fame rests upon his Eastern tale The History of the Caliph Vathek, which he wrote in French, and a translation of which by the Rev. Samuel Henley appeared at London in 1786. The tale is still much read, and was highly commended by Lord Byron. He had two daughters, one of whom became Duchess of Hamilton, and brought his valuable library to this family.—William Beckford, his father, a London merchant and West Indian proprietor, was famous for a spirited speech made to George III when Lord Mayor of London.—Bibliography: Cyrus Redding, Memoir; R. Garnett, Vathek (with a critical essay); Melville, The Life and Letters of William Beckford of Fonthill.

Beckmann, Johann, German writer on the industrial arts and agriculture, born 1739, died 1811. He was for a short time professor of physics and natural history at Petrograd, and afterwards for almost forty-five years professor of philosophy and economy in Göttingen. His History of Inventions is well known in the English translation of it. This work entitled the author to be regarded as the founder of scientific technology.

Beckx (beks), Pierre Jean, general of the order of Jesuits, born near Louvain, Belgium, 1795, died 1887. The success of the Jesuits, especially in non-Catholic countries, was greatly due to his tact and energy.

Becquerel (bek-rel), Antoine César, French physicist, born 1788, died 1878. He served as an officer of engineers, and retired in 1815, after which he devoted himself to the study of electricity, especially electro-chemistry. In 1837 he was awarded the Copley medal of the Royal Society of London. He refuted the 'theory of contact' by which Volta explained the action of his pile or battery. Becquerel may be considered one of the creators of electro-chemistry.—His son, Alexandre Edmond (1820-91), was associated with him in much of his work. He was the author of a work La Lumière, ses causes et ses effets (1867-8).

Becquerel Rays (bek-rel), the rays given out by radium and other 'radioactive' substances, so named from their discoverer, the French physicist, Henri Becquerel (born 1852, died 1908), son of Alexandre Edmond Becquerel. They were first detected in 1896, as proceeding from uranium salts; and it is only by uranium, thorium, radium, and one or two other elements that they are emitted, these bodies giving them out spontaneously and without any apparent loss of radioactive power or change of any kind. The Becquerel rays are invisible, and only known by their effects, which are of various kinds: thus, like the Röntgen rays, they blacken a photographic plate, even after passing through glass or other intervening substances; they cause a number of different substances to give out a fluorescent light, and they render air a conductor of electricity. Like the Röntgen rays, they act strongly on the human skin. They consist of a mixture of α-, β-, and γ-rays. See Radio-activity; Radium.

Becse (bech´e), Old, a town of Hungary, 48 miles S. of Szegedin, on the right bank of the Theiss. Pop. 19,000.—New Becse, a market-town on the left bank of the Theiss, 5 miles E. of Old Becse. Pop. 7725, or, with the immediately adjoining village of Franyova, about 15,000. Both towns carry on an extensive trade in grain.

Becskerek (bech´ke-rek), two towns of South Hungary.—Great Becskerek, now in Yugo-Slavia, is on the Bega, 45 miles N. of Belgrade, with which it communicates by the Bega Canal. Trade in cattle and agricultural produce. Pop. 26,407.—Little Becskerek, now belonging to Roumania, is 11 miles by railway from Temesvar. Pop. 3660.

Bed, Bedstead, an article of furniture to sleep or rest on. The term bed properly is applied to a large flat bag filled with feathers, down, wool, or other soft material, and also to a mattress supported on spiral springs or form of elastic chains or wirework which is raised from the ground on a bedstead. The term, however, sometimes includes the bedstead or frame for supporting the bed. The forms of beds are necessarily very various—every period and country having its own form of bed. Air-beds and water-beds are much used by invalids.

Bed, in geology, a layer or stratum, usually a stratum of considerable thickness.

Beda. See Bede.

Bédarieux (bā-där-i-eu), a thriving town, Southern France, department Hérault, situated on the Orb. Pop. 6186.

Bed-bug. See Bug.

Bed-chamber, Lords of the, officers of the royal household of Britain under the Groom of the Stole. They are twelve in number, and wait a week each in turn. In the case of a queen regnant these posts are occupied by ladies, called Ladies of the Bed-chamber.

Beddoes (bed´ōz), Thomas, physician and author, born 1760; educated at Oxford, London, and Edinburgh. After taking his doctor's degree, and visiting Paris, he was appointed professor of chemistry at Oxford. There he published some excellent chemical treatises, and essays upon such subjects as the calculus, sea-scurvy, consumption, catarrh, and fever. His expressed sympathy with the French revolutionists led to his retirement from his professorship in 1792, soon after which he published his Observations on the Nature of Demonstrative Evidence, and the exceedingly popular History of Isaac Jenkins. In 1794 he married a sister of Maria Edgeworth; and in 1798, with the pecuniary aid of Wedgwood, opened a pneumatic institution for curing phthisical and other diseases by inhalation of gases. It speedily became an ordinary hospital, but was noteworthy as connected with the discovery of the properties of nitrous oxide, and as having been superintended by the young Humphry Davy. Beddoes' essays On Consumption (1779) and On Fever (1807), and his Hygeia (3 vols., 1807) had a high contemporary repute. He died in 1808.

Beddoes, Thomas Lovell, poet, son of above, born 1803, died 1849; published The Bride's Tragedy while a student at Oxford, studied medicine, and lived long abroad. His work was largely fragmentary, but his posthumous Death's Jest-book, or The Fool's Tragedy (1850), received the high praise of such judges as Landor and Browning. His Poems, with memoir, appeared in 1851.

Bede, Beda, or Bæda, known as the Venerable, English historian and theologian, born in 672 or 673 in the neighbourhood of Monkwearmouth, County Durham; educated at St. Peter's Monastery, Wearmouth; took deacon's orders in his nineteenth year at St. Paul's Monastery, Jarrow, and was ordained priest at thirty by John of Beverley, Bishop of Hexham. His life was spent in studious seclusion, the chief events in it being the production of homilies, hymns, lives of saints, commentaries, and works in history, chronology, grammar, &c. He was the most learned Englishman of his day, and in some sense the father of English history, his most important work being his Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum (or Ecclesiastical History of England), afterwards translated by King Alfred into Anglo-Saxon. Besides his familiarity with Latin, he knew Greek and had some acquaintance with Hebrew. Most of his writings were on scriptural and ecclesiastical subjects, but he also wrote on chronology, physical science, grammar, &c., and had considerable ability in the writing of Latin verse. He died in 735, an interesting record of his closing days being preserved in a letter by his pupil Cuthbert. His body was after a lapse of time removed from Jarrow church to Durham, but of the shrine which formerly enclosed them only the Latin inscription remains, ending with the verse—'Hac sunt in fossa Bedæ venerabilis ossa'. On 13th Nov., 1899, Leo XIII decreed that the feast of the Venerable Bede should be celebrated in the Church on 27th May. An edition of the whole works of Bede (12 vols.), with an English translation, was prepared by Dr. Giles (1843-4).—Bibliography: Gehle. De Bedæ Venerabilis Vita et Scriptis; Browne, The Venerable Bede; C. Plummer's introduction to his edition of the Historia Ecclesiastica.

Bedeguar, or Bedegar (bed´e-gär), a spongy excrescence or gall, sometimes termed sweet-brier sponge, found on various species of roses, and produced by several insects as receptacles for their eggs, especially by the Cynips rosæ, It was once thought to be a diuretic and vermifuge.

Bedell´, William, a celebrated Irish bishop, born in Essex in 1570. In 1604 he went to Venice as chaplain to Sir Henry Wotton, and remained eight years. After holding the living of Horingsheath from 1615-27, he became Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1629 Bishop of Kilmore and Ardagh, though he resigned the latter of the united sees in 1630. He set himself to reform abuses and promote the spread of Protestantism, procured the translation of the Old Testament into Irish, and by his tact and wisdom conciliated the adherents of both creeds. He underwent a brief imprisonment on the breaking out of the rebellion in 1641, and died in the year following. His biography was written by Bishop Burnet.

Be´der Ware. See Bidery.

Bed´ford, a municipal and, until 1918, a parliamentary borough, England, county town of Bedfordshire, on the Ouse. The chief buildings are the law courts, a range of public schools, a large infirmary, county jail, &c., and the churches. The town is rich in charities and educational institutions, the most prominent being the Bedford Charity, embracing grammar and other schools, and richly endowed. There is an extensive manufactory of agricultural implements; lace is also made, and there is a good trade. John Bunyan was born at Elstow, a village near the town, and it was at Bedford that he lived, preached, and was imprisoned. Bedford gives its name to a parliamentary division of the county. Pop. 40,247.—Bedfordshire or Beds, the county, is bounded by Northampton, Bucks, Herts, Cambridge, and Huntingdon; area, 302,942 acres, of which 260,000 are under tillage or in permanent pasture. Chalk hills, forming a portion of the Chilterns, cross it on the south; north of this is a belt of sand; the soil of the vale of Bedford, consisting mostly of clay and loam, is very fertile; and the meadows on the Ouse, Ivel, and other streams furnish rich pasturage. Two-thirds of the soil is under tillage. Besides the usual cereal and other crops, culinary vegetables are extensively cultivated for the London market. Principal manufactures: agricultural implements, and straw-plait for hats, which is made up principally at Dunstable and Luton. The county returns three members to Parliament (divisions: Bedford, Luton, Midlands). Pop. (1921), 206,478.

Bedford, John, Duke of, one of the younger sons of Henry IV, King of England; famous as a statesman and a warrior. He defeated the French fleet in 1416, commanded an expedition to Scotland in 1417, and was lieutenant of England during the absence of Henry V in France. On the king's death he became Regent of France, and for several years his policy was as successful as it was able and vigorous, the victory of Verneuil in 1424 attesting his generalship. The greatest stain on his memory is his execution of the Maid of Orleans (Joan of Arc) in 1431. He died in 1435 at Rouen, and was buried in the cathedral of that city.

Bedford Level, a large tract of marshy land in England, of about 400,000 acres total area, comprising 63,000 in Norfolk, 30,000 in Suffolk, 50,000 in Huntingdon, the Peterborough fen in Northampton, the Holland district in Lincolnshire, and most of the Isle of Ely in Cambridge. It derives its name from Francis, Earl of Bedford, who in 1634 made an agreement with Charles I for the drainage of the Level, in consideration of receiving 95,000 acres of the reclaimed land. A great part of the Level is under cultivation, and produces grain, flax, and cole-seed; the remainder yields a winter harvest of wild-fowl for the London market. See Fenland.

Bedfordshire Regiment, The, raised in 1688 on the approach of the Prince of Orange, suffered severely at Blenheim, and distinguished itself in a marked manner at the siege of Lille. In 1797 it went to Scotland and there recruited 1000 'parish boys' under sixteen years old, who later made excellent soldiers. The regiment shared in the Chitral and South African (1900-2) campaigns; on going to the front in 1914, sustained heavy losses at Givenchy, and distinguished itself at Ypres and the Aisne.

Bedivere, the last knight of the Round Table (q.v.). See Morte d'Arthur.

Bed´lam, a corruption of Bethlehem (Hospital), the name of a religious house in London, converted, after the general suppression by Henry VIII, into a hospital for lunatics. The original Bedlam stood in Bishopsgate Street; its modern successor in St. George's Fields was opened in 1815, having been built on the site of the notorious tavern called 'The Dog and the Duck'. The lunatics were at one time treated as little better than wild beasts, and hence Bedlam came to be typical of any scene of wild confusion. The average number of patients is about 300.

Bed´lington, a town and urban district of England, in Northumberland, near the mouth of the Blyth, and not far from the seaport of Blyth, with collieries, ironworks, &c. Pop. 25,440.

Bedlington Terrier, an English Dog, deriving its name from Bedlington, in Northumberland, having first become well known as a favourite among the miners of that place. It is a dog of moderate size, head rather long, with a light, silky tuft on top, ears hanging close to the cheeks, legs moderately long and strong, tail tapering to the point, which is almost bare; colour, dark blue, blue and tan, liver, liver and tan, sandy, or sandy and tan; courageous, intelligent, and generally useful.

Bedlis. See Betlis.

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