Contents

CHAPTER XI.

THE ELECTION OF HAROLD.

January 5th–April 6th, 1066.

A. D. PAGE

1065–1066 Preeminent importance of the year 1066 –5

§ 1. Sickness and Death of Eadward. December 28, 1065–January 5, 1066.

National anxiety as to the succession; state of the royal line –7

Position of Eadgar, Harold, William, and Tostig

Importance of Eadward’s dying recommendation

December 28–January 5 Progress of Eadward’s illness

He recovers his speech; his vision and prophecy –13

Question of the succession; Eadward names Harold as his successor

His last directions and wishes –16

January 5 His death; English spirit of his last days –19

§ 2. The Election and Coronation of Harold. January 5–6, 1066.

January 5 Vacancy of the throne; the Witan meet and elect Harold –21

Position of Harold; he accepts the Crown –26

January 6 Double rites of the Epiphany; necessity for a speedy burial and coronation

Burial of Eadward; position of Stigand; general sorrow at Eadward’s death –30

His popular canonization –32

1102 His posthumous history; first examination of his body by Gilbert and Gundulf –33

1140 Attempt of Prior Osbert to procure his canonization –34

1161 Eadward canonized by Alexander the Third

October 13, 1163 First Translation of his body –35

October 13, 1269 Second Translation of his body; rebuilding of Westminster by Henry the Third; Henry’s likeness to Eadward; presence of Edward the First –39

1074 The royal tombs around Eadward’s shrine; burial of Eadgyth

1118 Burial of Eadgyth–Matilda

1557 The body removed by Henry the Eighth and restored by Philip and Mary –41

January 6, 1066 Coronation of Harold; Ealdred officiates –43

Order of the ceremony; the election in the church –44

The Unction and Crowning –48

Question of the Marriage and Crowning of Ealdgyth

§ 3. The First Days of Harold’s Reign. January 6–April 16, 1066.

No Earl of the West-Saxons appointed; Harold keeps the South in his own hands and entrusts the North to Eadwine and Morkere –51

Character of Harold’s government; Norman and English accounts; no general expulsion of Normans –54

Harold’s military preparations and coinage

His relations to the Church, to Gisa, Wulfstan, and other Prelates –56

Formal concurrence of Northumberland in the election; Northumberland never fairly represented in the Witenagemót –58

Refusal of the Northumbrians to acknowledge Harold; probable agency of Eadwine and Morkere –60

Harold, accompanied by Wulfstan, goes to York and wins over the Northumbrians –65

April 16–23, 1066 Harold’s Easter Feast and Gemót at Westminster

Effect of Harold’s reign on London –66

Eadgyth at Winchester

Ecclesiastical appointments in the Gemót; Ealdred of Abingdon and Thurstan of Ely; importance of Thurstan’s appointment –70

January 15? The Crown challenged by William –71

April 24–30 The Comet; its effects on men’s minds –74

Summary

CHAPTER XII.

THE LATER REIGN OF WILLIAM IN NORMANDY. 1051–1066.

1051 Recapitulation; William returns from England

Character and divisions of the period; William’s wars with France; his war with Maine; the Breton war and the oath of Harold –78

§ 1. The Marriage of William and Matilda. 1049–1060.

Position of William; political necessity of his marriage; domestic purity of his life –80

His counsellors recommend a marriage with Matilda of Flanders

Position and greatness of the Counts of Flanders –83

1036–1067 Reign of Baldwin the Fifth; his connexion with France and England –84

Matilda’s former marriage and children –87

1048–1049 Beginning of William’s courtship; the marriage forbidden by the Council of Rheims –89

1053 Celebration of the marriage; its coincidence with the captivity of Leo the Ninth –93

Opposition of Archbishop Malger; his character –96

1055 Malger deposed; his banishment and death –98

1055–1069 Maurilius, Archbishop of Rouen, his life and character –101

Lanfranc opposes the marriage; his quarrel and reconciliation with the Duke –103

1054–1059 Lanfranc supports the marriage at Rome –106

1059–1060 Lanfranc returns with the dispensation

Foundation of the two Abbeys of Caen –110

1066? Anselm Prior of Bec; excellence of William’s ecclesiastical appointments –111

Children of William and Matilda –113

§ 2. William’s Wars with France. 1053–1060.

Character of the period; Norman rebellions supported by France and Anjou –114

Greatness of Normandy; its natural hostility to France –116

1048–1053 Revolt of William Busac

The Counts of Eu; their ecclesiastical foundations –118

William Busac defends Eu against the Duke; he is banished –119

1058 He takes refuge in France and receives the County of Soissons –120

1053 Revolt of William of Arques; his former conduct; the Duke occupies the castle; description of Arques –125

The castle betrayed to Count William; his revolt; march of the Duke from Valognes –128

The Duke blockades the castle; King Henry helps the rebels; ambush at Saint Aubin –133

Death of Ingelram; history of the Counts of Ponthieu –136

The King retires; Moulins betrayed to him –138

The castle surrenders; Count William retires to Boulogne –140

Hatred of the French towards Normandy; enmity of Geoffrey of Anjou and other princes; great confederacy against Normandy –144

1054 Double invasion of Normandy under King Henry and his brother Odo –150

William’s preparations; his plan of defence and division of his forces –153

Ravages of the French; they reach Mortemer –155

The French surprised and cut to pieces at Mortemer; imprisonment of Guy of Ponthieu –158

Promotion of William of Warren; he marries the Duke’s step-daughter Gundrada

The news brought to William; his stratagem and message to the King –160

Panic and retreat of the French army

Illustrations of the Norman national character –163

William fortifies Breteuil –164

1055 Peace with France; William authorized to make conquests at the expense of Anjou

1048–1063 Extension of William’s frontier to the south; Domfront and Ambrières –166

1055 New fortifications at Ambrières; William and Geoffrey before Ambrières; flight of Count Geoffrey and homage of Geoffrey of Mayenne –169

Further extension of William’s frontier towards Anjou

1055–1058 Three years’ peace

August, 1058 Last French and Angevin invasion; William’s defensive policy; advance and ravages of the French –172

The French at Varaville; William’s march; the French surprised and cut to pieces; the King retreats –177

Peace with France; restoration of Tillières

1060 Death of King Henry; his Russian marriage –178

1059 Coronation of Philip the First

1060 Baldwin of Flanders Regent for Philip; death of Geoffrey Martel; his dominions divided between his nephews –180

1058 Coincidence of the Battle of Varaville with Harold’s pilgrimage; change in the state of Gaul after the deaths of Henry and Geoffrey –182

§ 3. The War of Maine. 1060–1064.

1060–1063 Banishment of various Norman nobles; affairs of Saint Evroul; Synod of Caen –185

Old Norman claims over Maine; early history of the country; ecclesiastical and popular element at Le Mans –188

924–978 Alleged grants of Maine to Rolf, to Hugh the Great, and to Geoffrey Grisegonelle –189

Rivalry of the Counts of Maine with the Bishops and with the Counts of Anjou

960–994 Count Hugh and Bishop Sainfred –190

987–994 Fulk Nerra overruns Maine

1015–1036 Count Herbert Wake-the-Dog –193

994–1036 Avesgaud Bishop of Le Mans; his disputes with Herbert –192

1016–1028 Herbert’s relations with Anjou; his share in the Battle of Pontlevois; his imprisonment at Saintes –192

1035–1051 Hugh Count of Maine; regency of Herbert Bacco

1036–1058 Gervase Bishop of Le Mans; he commends the Bishoprick to Geoffrey Martel; expulsion of Herbert Bacco –194

1044–1051 Gervase imprisoned by Geoffrey Martel

1051–1061 Geoffrey Martel occupies Le Mans

1051–1058 Gervase takes refuge in Normandy; he becomes Archbishop of Rheims –196

1060 Herbert commends himself to William on the death of Geoffrey; settlement of the succession –199

1063 Herbert dies childless; succession of Walter and Biota –200

War of Maine; William ravages the country; surrender of Le Mans –207

Death of Walter and Biota; William charged with poisoning them –208

Geoffrey of Mayenne still holds out; conquest of Mayenne –212

Betrothal and death of Margaret of Maine –213

Importance of the conquest of Maine; its connexion with that of England –215

§ 4. The Visit of Harold and the Breton War. 1064?

Position of William and Harold –216

Their meeting; contradictory nature of the stories; connexion between the bequest of Eadward and the oath of Harold –218

Three different versions; Harold’s presence in Normandy probably accidental; probable presence of other members of his family –221

Harold sets sail at Bosham; he is wrecked in Ponthieu and imprisoned by Guy –223

He is delivered by William –226

Harold at Rouen; he engages to marry William’s daughter and receives knighthood –229

Harold joins William in the war against Britanny

1040–1066 Conan Count of the Bretons

1056–1062 Relations of Conan, Odo, and Hoel; a party in Britanny favourable to William –231

Conan’s challenge; Dol held for William –233

March of William and Harold to Dol; description of the city –237

Flight of Conan from Dol

Siege and surrender of Dinan –240

Harold’s oath; various statements as to time, place, and terms; question of the relics –247

Probable nature of the oath; an engagement to marry William’s daughter, combined with a formal homage –251

Moral aspect of the case; the English people not affected –253

Summary

CHAPTER XIII.

THE NEGOTIATIONS OF DUKE WILLIAM.

January–August, 1066.

Position of William at Eadward’s death

Effect on his schemes of Harold’s sudden election

§ 1. The Negotiations between William and Harold.

The news brought to William; his dialogue with William Fitz-Osbern –259

January 15? 1066 William’s Embassy to Harold; its object; its possible connexion with the Northumbrian discontents –262

Constitutional language attributed to Harold –265

William’s point gained in the Embassy

§ 2. Claims and Arguments of William.

No hope for William but in war; no English party in his favour

Difficulties of the enterprise; comparison with the Norman exploits in Apulia –268

William’s appeal to his own Duchy; influence of Lanfranc; religious character given to the enterprise –272

No right of any kind in William; Harold’s oath irrelevant to the question –273

Bearing of William’s appeal to public opinion and to the Papacy –274

Fair colouring put on a bad cause –275

Harold’s claim unintelligible on the Continent –276

William’s claim adapted to continental opinion –279

Wrong done to the Norman saints; forestalling of the crusading spirit

General character of William’s case; various motives appealed to; Norman grudge against England –283

Charges against the English Church; William outwitted by Hildebrand –286

§ 3. The Norman Council and the Assembly of Lillebonne.

1066 William consults a select Council –288

Its members pledge their own services, but recommend the calling of a larger assembly

The Assembly of Lillebonne; its constitution –290

Position and history of Lillebonne –292

Parliamentary spirit of the Assembly; strong opposition to the enterprise –295

Attempt of William Fitz-Osbern to cajole the Assembly; his speech to William; his offers disowned by the Barons –297

No vote passed, but the Barons severally won over by William –299

§ 4. William’s Alliance with Tostig.

William’s supporters in England to be found only among the Norman settlers

Position of Tostig; his alliance with William –303

May, 1066 He attacks England with William’s consent

§ 5. William’s Negotiations with Foreign Powers.

William invites volunteers from all parts

The Conquest not a national Norman enterprise, but a Norman character impressed on the whole –306

The foreign troops mainly adventurers; few foreign princes served

William’s embassies to foreign powers; he sends to King Henry of Germany –307

1056–1066 Condition of the Empire in the early days of Henry the Fourth; comparison of his minority with that of William –308

No mention of the Norman embassy in German writers; probable state of the case –309

Alleged embassy to Swend of Denmark –310

Embassy to Philip of France; William offers to hold England of him –311

Negotiations with Baldwin of Flanders

Zeal of Eustace of Boulogne; Arnold of Ardres –313

Great number of Breton auxiliaries; Alan Fergant –314

1066 Volunteers from Anjou, &c.; state of Anjou; war between Geoffrey and Fulk –315

1066 War of Conan of Britanny against Anjou; legend of his death –316

William charged with the death of Conan

1061–1073 Negotiations with Rome; Papacy of Alexander the Second; influence of Hildebrand

William’s embassy; debate in the Conclave and strong opposition –319

Decision in favour of William; bull and gifts of Alexander –321

Complete success of William’s diplomacy –322

Summary

CHAPTER XIV.

THE NORWEGIAN INVASION AND THE CAMPAIGN OF STAMFORDBRIDGE.

May–September, 1066.

Course of events before William’s invasion

§ 1. The First Expedition of Tostig. May, 1066.

Easter, 1066 Harold in full possession of England

May Tostig lands in Wight; his ravages –325

May–September Great preparations of Harold; he hastens to meet Tostig –326

Tostig ravages Lindesey; he is driven away by Eadwine and Morkere, and takes refuge in Scotland –327

§ 2. Tostig’s Applications to Swend and Harold Hardrada.

Saga of Harold Hardrada; mythical character of its details –328

1064 War between Harold Hardrada and Swend; peace concluded between them

Contradictions between the English, Norwegian, and Norman stories

Norwegian version; Tostig asks help of Swend and is refused –330

He goes to Harold Hardrada; discussion between Tostig and Harold –333

Harold determines on the expedition; no mention of any Thing as consulted; Norwegian estimate of the English Housecarls –334

§ 3. The Invasion of Harold Hardrada. September, 1066.

Preparations of Harold of England for the defence of the South; the North left to Eadwine and Morkere; difficulty of keeping the fyrd on foot –337

September 8, 1066 The army disbanded; Harold returns to London with the fleet; question of naval operations against the Normans –339

Harold Hardrada sets sail; he designs to reign in England; his wives, children, and treasures –341

Greatness of the expedition; the last Scandinavian expedition against England; omens on the voyage –343

Harold Hardrada in Orkney

1014–1064 Reign of Thorfinn in Orkney

Tostig and Harold Hardrada meet in the Tyne

Policy of Malcolm; accession of various princes and volunteers –346

The fleet on the coast of Yorkshire; its ravages; burning of Scarborough; the English fleet retires into the Wharf –347

The Northmen sail up the Humber, and land at Riccall; Tostig and Harold Hardrada march on York –349

Wednesday, September 20, 1066 Eadwine and Morkere march to meet them; Battle of Fulford; defeat of the English –351

Sunday, 24 Surrender of York –353

§ 4. The March of Harold and the Battle of Stamfordbridge.

Hostages from Yorkshire to be delivered to Harold Hardrada at Stamfordbridge; description of Stamfordbridge and Aldby –356

Position of the Norwegian army

News of the Norwegian landing brought to Harold of England; he determines to march to the North; legend of his sickness and recovery –360

Harold’s march; gathering of recruits –362

Sunday, 24 He reaches Tadcaster and reviews the fleet

Monday, 25 He passes through York; Battle of Stamfordbridge –363

The Norwegian Saga; its mythical character –367

Sudden advance of the English; loyalty of the country –368

The battle begins on the right side of the Derwent

The bridge defended by a single Northman –370

The English cross the bridge; main fight on the left side; complete victory of the English –371

Deaths of Tostig, Harold Hardrada, &c.; escape of Godred; burial of Tostig –373

Harold’s mild dealing with Olaf –375

October 1? Harold at York; news of William’s landing –376

CHAPTER XV.

THE NORMAN INVASION AND THE CAMPAIGN OF HASTINGS.

August–October, 1066.

§ 1. The Building of the Fleet.

Success of all William’s negotiations –378

Summer, 1066 Formation of the Norman fleet; contributions of ships; gifts of Remigius of Fécamp and of the Duchess Matilda –380

Number and character of the ships

June 15 Ecclesiastical affairs; Council at Bonneville; Lanfranc Abbot of Saint Stephen’s –382

June 18 Consecration of the Holy Trinity at Caen; dedication of Cecily

§ 2. The Embarcation and Voyage of William. August–September, 1066.

August 12 The fleet at the mouth of the Dive –386

Delay at the Dive; good order maintained in the army –387

Numbers of the army

Spies sent by Harold; their treatment by William –389

[September 8] William changes his position; probable influence of the disbanding of Harold’s army –390

September 12 William sails to Saint Valery; description and history of the place –392

September 12–27 Losses of the fleet; further delay at Saint Valery; religious ceremonies and procession –395

Wednesday, 27 The south-wind blows; the embarcation –397

William sets sail; details of the voyage –400

Thursday, 28 William lands at Pevensey; history and description of the place –402

491 Taking of Anderida by Ælle and Cissa –404

Defenceless state of the coast; no resistance to William’s landing –405

Details of the landing; William’s ready wit –407

Friday, September 29 William marches to Hastings; history and importance of the town; he encamps on the hill –409

Question of losses and skirmishes; fate of the soothsayer –411

William systematically ravages the country –412

Robert the son of Wymarc counsels William to retreat; his answer –416

§ 3. The Southern March of Harold. October 1–13, 1066.

October 1? The news brought to Harold at York; messengers from Pevensey and from Hastings –419

Harold’s position; his Council at York; he begins his march to London –421

Merlswegen in command of the North; Eadwine and Morkere keep back from the war –422

General zeal of the nation; charge of parsimony against Harold –423

The army joined by the men of Wessex, East-Anglia, and Eastern Mercia; loyalty of the Earldom of Waltheof; special position of the men of Kent and London –424

Names of Englishmen preserved; Esegar, Ælfric, Breme, Godric, Thurkill, Eadric the Deacon; the Abbots Leofric and Ælfwig –427

October 5–11 Harold reaches London; he waits for fresh troops

His visit to Waltham; his vow; miracle of the Holy Rood –430

Messages between William and Harold; mission of Hugh Margot to Harold; Harold’s counter-message and challenge –433

Harold eager for battle; advice of Gyrth; Harold refuses to ravage the land –437

Thursday, October 12 Harold marches from London; number of his army; his plan and tactics; he fights on ground of his own choice –440

Friday, 13 Harold encamps on Senlac; description of the site; its advantages; he fortifies the hill –445

Stories of desertions, spies, &c.; William’s last message and challenge; Harold refuses the single combat –450

§ 4. The Battle. October 14, 1066.

The night before the battle; ceremonial devotion of the Normans; alleged revelry of the English –453

Saturday, 14 Battle of Senlac; William’s speech to his army –454

The Normans march to Telham and arm; story of the reversed hauberk –457

Vital brings news of the English army; William vows to build a monastery on Senlac –458

Threefold division of William’s army; on the left the Bretons, on the right the French; the Normans in the centre –461

Armour and weapons of the Normans

The standard and the group around it; William and his brothers; the standard borne by Toustain the White –465

The Norman chivalry; William Patry, Roger the Bigod, William Malet –467

Three classes of troops in each division; order of the attack –468

The two armies in sight; Harold’s speech; story of the English spy; Harold dismounts at the Standard –469

Tales of Harold and Gyrth –471

Defences and close array of the English; their armour and weapons –474

The English ensigns; post of the King and his kinsfolk by the Standard –476

Points of attack of the three divisions of the enemy

9 A.M. Beginning of the battle; exploits of Taillefer –478

First attack; Norman and English war-cries; the Normans beaten back –481

Flight of the Bretons on the left; the light-armed English pursue; panic of the Normans; William and Odo recall the fugitives –484

Second attack; personal exploits of William; deaths of Gyrth and Leofwine –487

Partial success of the French on the right, but the general attack repulsed –488

William orders the stratagem of the feigned flight; the English on the right pursue; the Bretons turn –490

Slaughter of the French at the detached hill and in the western ravine

3 P.M. The Normans ride up the hill; single combats; personal exploits of William, Harold, and others –495

The English resistance slackens, but the battle undecided while Harold lives –496

6 P.M. The archers shoot in the air; Harold wounded in the eye and disabled –498

Fight round the Standard; the Dragon borne off and the Standard beaten down

Harold killed by Eustace and others; insults to his body –500

Resistance and slaughter of the King’s following –501

Escape of the wounded Esegar and Leofric

Flight of the light-armed; pursuit of the Normans and slaughter of the pursuers in Malfosse; end of the battle –503

Effect of the death of Harold

Military estimate of the battle –507

§ 5. The Burial of Harold. October–December, 1066.

William returns to the hill; his midnight feast –509

Sunday, October 15 Burial of the dead; burial of the English allowed; discovery of Ælfwig and his monks; Harold’s body not forthcoming –510

Osgod, Æthelric, and Gytha ask for the body; William commands that it shall be buried on the sea-shore –513

The body found by Eadgyth Swanneshals, and buried on the hill at Hastings by William Malet –514

Legend of Harold’s escape, penitence, and death at Chester; mythical character of the story –518

1066–1540 Harold’s alleged burial at Waltham; his translation; destruction of his tomb –520

1307 The body of Edward the First at Waltham; comparison between Harold and Edward –522

CHAPTER XVI.

THE INTERREGNUM.

October 15–December 25, 1066.

The throne vacant; William expects a general submission; no submission as yet –524

The news brought to London; Eadwine and Morkere reach London, and send Ealdgyth to Chester

Gemót in London to choose a King; no qualified candidate; candidature of Eadwine and Morkere; election of Eadgar –527

Character of the choice; consent of Eadwine and Morkere; alleged opposition of certain Bishops –529

November 1 Eadgar not crowned; death of Abbot Leofric; the choice of his successor Brand confirmed by Eadgar

The Londoners and others eager for battle; treason of Eadwine and Morkere; no further general combination against William –532

October 15–20 William at Hastings; his policy of subduing the country piecemeal

20 His ravages; he marches to Romney; his vengeance –534

21 He marches to Dover; description of the castle; its surrender; the town accidentally burned –538

October 29 The Kentish towns submit; William marches towards Canterbury and receives its submission on the road –539

October 31–December 1 William encamps at the Broken Tower; his sickness and consequent delay

He sends an embassy to Winchester; position of Eadgyth; Winchester submits –541

c. December 1 London still holds out; William marches against it; skirmish and burning of Southwark –542

He keeps on the right bank of the Thames and crosses at Wallingford; object of this course –544

Esegar in command in London; tale of his communications with William; his messenger deceived by William –546

Submission to William agreed on in London

William at Berkhampstead; Eadgar, Ealdred, and others submit to him there and are graciously received –548

William invited to assume the Crown; probable feelings of Englishmen at the moment –550

William’s council; his professed unwillingness to accept the Crown –551

Speech of Hamon of Thouars; William accepts the Crown; the coronation fixed for Christmas –553

Position of William; triumph of his policy

He sends to fortify a post in London

His march to London; opposite accounts of his conduct –555

Alleged refusal of Stigand to consecrate William; Stigand’s real position and share in the ceremony; Ealdred the actual consecrator –557

December 25 Coronation of William; the approach to the church guarded by Norman horsemen

The procession and ecclesiastical election –559

The Normans fire the houses near the church; William left alone with the officiating clergy

William’s oath and consecration –561

Summary –562

APPENDIX.

Note A. The Authority of the Bayeux Tapestry

B. Eadward’s Bequest of the Crown to Harold

C. The Election of Harold

D. The Coronation of Harold

E. The Ancient Coronation Office

F. The Date of the Marriage of Harold and Ealdgyth

G. The Character of Harold’s Government

H. The Coinage of Harold

I. The Opposition of Northumberland to Harold’s Accession

K. The Political Position of the Lady Eadgyth

L. The Affairs of the Abbey of Ely at the time of Harold’s Accession

M. The Comet of 1066

N. The Marriage of William and Matilda

O. The Children of William and Matilda

P. The Revolt of William Busac

Q. The Revolt of William of Arques

R. The Bequest of Eadward to William and the Oath of Harold

S. The Ælfgyva of the Bayeux Tapestry

T. The Breton Campaign of William and Harold

U. The Embassies exchanged between William and Harold

W. William’s Councils and Negotiations

X. The Movements of Tostig after his Banishment

Y. Arnold of Ardres

Z. The Death of Conan

AA. The Operations of the English Fleet in 1066

BB. The March of Harold to York

CC. The Details of the Battle of Stamfordbridge

DD. William’s Ravages in Sussex

EE. Names of Englishmen at Senlac

FF. The Dates of the Events between the two Great Battles

GG. The Messages between Harold and William

HH. The English Numbers at Senlac

II. The Miraculous Warning given to Harold before the Battle

KK. The Details of the Battle of Senlac

LL. Ralph of Norfolk

MM. The Burial of Harold

NN. Eadgyth Swanneshals

OO. The Ætheling Eadgar

PP. The Submission at Berkhampstead