Mesopotamian History in Outline a Preliminary Survey Comprising a Cursory View of the Sources of Mesopotamian History and of the Sweep of Events, and a Table of Chronology

The Babylonians and Assyrians were two very important peoples of remote antiquity, inhabiting the region of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in southwestern Asia. The Greeks regarded these peoples as constituting one nation and called their country Mesopotamia, a name that could properly be applied to only a part of their territory. The Babylonians and Assyrians, themselves, on the other hand, regarded each other as alien peoples, though both belonged to the same Semitic stock. The Babylonians were the more ancient, and their territory lay to the south, where, many scholars believe, they had been preceded by a people of a different race.

Though the seat of this early civilisation is geographically small in extent, yet the peoples who entered into it were by no means homogeneous, nor was their history a continuous record of unbroken political succession. On the contrary, at least two different races of people were involved,—a Turanian stock in the early Babylonian history, a Semitic stock in all the later periods,—and at least three successive kingdoms or empires, not to speak of mere changes of dynasty. The earliest period known to us—that which left records at Nippur and Shirpurla, in old Babylonia—had its seat in the southern portion of the territory bordering on the sea; thence, seemingly, civilisation spread northward. Assyriologists are not fully agreed as to the share which the non-Semitic race had in this early civilisation. It has even been questioned whether these so-called Sumerians really existed at all. In any event the Semitic Babylonians acquired full control at a very early period.

The Assyrian kingdom—which came to be a veritable world-empire—had its seat at Calah and afterwards at Nineveh. It conquered and absorbed the old Babylonian kingdom, and then reached out for domination to the east and to the west, finally overrunning even Egypt.

The Bible accounts preserve records of some of its most famous kings, including Sennacherib. The Greek legends are chiefly concerned with a mythical Semiramis, the alleged founder of Nineveh, and with a seemingly mythical Sardanapalus, who perished after an inglorious reign, in the destruction of Nineveh, which came about suddenly and dramatically in the year 606 B.C.—the Sardanapalus myth being, however, based on an actuality.

After the destruction of Nineveh, Babylon, the capital of Babylonia, resumed renewed importance as a world metropolis. Nebuchadrezzar, the most famous king of this period, besieged Jerusalem and carried the Israelites to his capital (the Babylonian capital). The classical accounts preserve reminiscences of the magnificence of Babylon in this period. The course of the New Babylonian empire, though brilliant, was brief, ending with the overthrow of Babylon by the Persians under Cyrus in the year 538 B.C. Babylon was not, like Nineveh, totally destroyed; but it never regained autonomy or anything approaching its former importance. It was one of the Persian capitals for two centuries, until in 331 B.C., with the downfall of the Persian empire, it passed into the hands of Alexander the Great, who, after his eastern conquests, chose it as the capital of his newly acquired empire. But Alexander died in his new capital almost immediately, and his death was the last great world-historic event that occurred in Mesopotamia. In the course of a few centuries thereafter, the whole region that for so many years had been the very heart of the world’s civilisation, became a barren wilderness, and Babylon itself, like Nineveh before it, was reduced to a mere earth-covered mound of ruins, the very location of which was practically forgotten.

Such a fate was tragic enough; yet after all it seems less cruel than the destiny of such nations as Egypt, and in later time, Greece, which live on in senescence long after all vestige of their power has departed. And in any event, Mesopotamia had had its full share of glory, for no other region of the globe, within historic times, with the possible exception of Egypt alone, has so long held rank as a centre of influence and civilisation. If the earlier walls of the Temple of Bel (Baal) at Nippur really date from 6000 or 7000 years B.C. as the records seem to prove, there was a continuous, powerful empire in Mesopotamia for at least five or six thousand years. The civilisations of Greece, of Rome, or of any modern state, seem mere mushroom growths in comparison.

In studying the history of Egypt we have caught occasional glimpses of this oldest Asiatic civilisation of Babylonia and Assyria, and it is almost impossible to avoid drawing comparisons between these two countries, so closely related are the two peoples in the minds of all students. It is true that the ethnological types are quite different, and that the two peoples, during the greater part of their existence, did not mingle much with one another. Often they were at war, and it is traditional that for the most part the Egyptians repelled rather than invited any advances from their Asiatic neighbours. Nevertheless, their own interests dictated a commercial policy that led first and last to an extensive intermingling between all the contemporary civilisations of western Asiatic antiquity, and there are abundant evidences that the same influence extended also to the Nile Valley.

But even had this not been the case,—even had Egypt and Mesopotamia been shut off absolutely one from the other,—it would still be impossible for the modern student to disassociate the two, so many are the links of association between them. The fact that these two are the oldest civilisations known to us, and the further fact that there has been a constant question in the minds of investigators as to which one of these ancient peoples can claim priority of development, form in themselves an indissoluble bond of union. Yet in some respects the story of the Babylonians and Assyrians is unique; because this well-nigh greatest of civilisations was blotted out absolutely almost before the oldest European civilisation was under way. Egypt, indeed, declined in power at about the same period and permanently lost autonomy, but its pyramids and temples and numberless antiquities remain as obvious testimonials of its former greatness; whereas the monuments of Mesopotamia—the ruins of such wonderful cities as Nippur, Babylon, and Nineveh—were completely buried under the accumulating earth deposits of centuries, and almost absolutely lost to view. For more than two thousand years the names of these once famous cities were only reminiscences. No one knew accurately even their site, and scarcely an antiquity of any description was known to be preserved that evidenced the sometime greatness of the Mesopotamian civilisation.

During this long period a few reminiscences preserved in the writings of Berosus, Diodorus, Herodotus, and a few other classical writers, and in the text of Hebrew writings, gave all the clews that were obtainable, and apparently all that could ever be obtained regarding one of the most remarkable peoples of antiquity.

We have said that the entire destruction of the Mesopotamian civilisation gave it peculiar interest. It should not be forgotten, however, that at least one other very important people of antiquity, namely the Hittites, met with a like fate. Probably there were still others whose names even are unknown to us. But the story of Mesopotamia stands quite by itself in the fact that it has been very largely restored to us through the efforts of modern explorers. We have seen that the decipherment of the hieroglyphics led to a much fuller understanding of Egyptian history than had previously been possible; yet, after all, these new revelations sufficed to fill in the outlines of an old story, rather than to create an altogether new one. But in the case of Babylonia and Assyria the modern investigators had virtually a blank canvas upon which to work in reconstructing the history. The Bible references and the classical myths gave but the most shadowy outlines. Yet traditions are all powerful for the transmission of knowledge in a vague form, and throughout all generations it had never been doubted that the reminiscences of Mesopotamian greatness had a firm foundation in fact, though few historians were visionary enough to dare hope that more tangible evidence would ever be forthcoming, and not even the most enthusiastic dreamer could have suspected that such records as the nineteenth century has restored to us had been preserved.

Even now, looking back from the standpoint of accomplishment, it seems almost incredible that the monuments of a great civilisation—treasures of art, and voluminous literary records—should have been absolutely hidden from human view for a minimum period of more than two thousand years, and should then have been restored in almost their original condition. Yet such is the fact regarding the antiquities of Mesopotamia.

Our Sources for Mesopotamian History

The reports that have come down to us from antiquity dealing with the history of Babylonia and Assyria are relatively meagre in extent and decidedly untrustworthy from an historical standpoint. Without doubt numerous classical writers dealt with the subject, but of such writings, only a few have been preserved. So far as known, the principal native historian of the later period of Babylonian history was Berosus. He was a Chaldean priest living in the time of Alexander the Great, as his own writings testify. He had access to the ancient documents of his country, and is believed to have made excellent use of them. Unfortunately, only meagre remnants of his history have come down to us, and these more or less distorted through the medium of transcribers, the chief of these being Alexander Polyhistor and Eusebius. Had we the entire work of Berosus, he would, perhaps, perform some such function for Mesopotamia as Manetho performed for Egypt; but as the case stands, the remnants of Berosus serve to transmit certain interesting traditions, particularly with reference to Babylonian cosmogony, rather than to preserve any considerable historical records.

The classical historian whose account of the Babylonians and Assyrians has been most largely copied was Ctesias. This writer was a Greek who served for seventeen years (415-398 B.C.) as court physician to the Persian king Artaxerxes Mnemon, and who wrote a history of Persia alleged to be based upon native documents. In this history Ctesias considered the contemporary civilisation, but he was interested rather in picturesque traditions than in the sober historical narratives, and the records he preserved are chiefly of a nature which the modern critical historian pronounces fabulous. The original work of Ctesias has perished, but its character is fairly established through the writings of other authors who used Ctesias as a source. Foremost among the latter is Diodorus, whose account of the Assyrians represents the ideas that were current throughout classical times, and continued in vogue until the nineteenth century.

The most authentic classical accounts of the Babylonians are those given by Herodotus and by Strabo, both of whom spoke as eye-witnesses. Unfortunately, these writers did not have access to the native materials, and their accounts, while throwing interesting sidelights upon the later civilisation, do very little towards enlightening us as to the actual history of the greatest of Asiatic peoples of antiquity.

A few other fragments have been preserved from the classical writings, notably some bits from Abydenus, preserved through Eusebius. To these must be added numerous references to the Babylonians and Assyrians in the biblical writings. Taken altogether, however, these classical and oriental traditions fail to give us more than the vaguest picture of Mesopotamian history.

The real sources of that history are the original chronicles of the Babylonians and Assyrians themselves, which were inscribed on stone slabs and on tablets of clay. The clay tablets, after being inscribed, were dried, forming almost imperishable bricks. Tens of thousands of these were preserved beneath the ruins of Mesopotamian cities, and were first brought to light in the nineteenth century. Among these are several lists of kings, and other chronological documents of a somewhat general character. One document attempts the synchronism of Babylonian and Assyrian history. Then there are numerous tablets and cylinders and wall inscriptions which record the deeds of individual kings, including such famous monarchs as Sennacherib. Vast quantities of documents are doubtless still buried in Mesopotamia, and a large proportion of the inscriptions that have been exhumed are still undeciphered. But enough of these documents have been discovered and read to restore the outline of Babylonian and Assyrian history as a whole; and for certain periods, including the time of greatest Assyrian power, very full records are at hand. The result of these recent discoveries has been the practical substitution of secure historical records for the old classical and oriental traditions regarding the Babylonians and Assyrians.

The modern workers who have assisted in the restoration of Mesopotamian history through the recovery and decipherment of the monumental inscriptions make up in the aggregate a large company. The chief explorers of the earliest period were Botta and Layard. Then came Fresnel, Thomas, and Oppert, followed by Rassam, George Smith, Ernest de Sarzec; the Germans, Koldewey and Moritz, and the Americans, Peters, Hilprecht, and Haynes.

The work of interpreting the newly found Assyrian records began with Sir Henry Rawlinson in England, Eberhard Schrader in Germany, and a small company of other workers, about the middle of the nineteenth century. The difficulties of deciphering records in an unknown language, and of an extremely intricate character, at first seemed almost insuperable; but with the aid of the knowledge of Ancient Persian, already acquired earlier in the century through the efforts of Grotefend and his followers, together with the hints gained by comparison with the Hebrew language and other extant Semitic tongues, a working knowledge of the Assyrian language was at last attained. Since then the decipherment of the inscriptions has gone on unceasingly, and a constantly growing band of workers has added to our knowledge.

Most of the excavators and explorers have, very naturally, given us personal accounts of their labours. Botta’s labours, however, were chiefly made public through the publications of Victor Place; and in more recent times, Heuzey has published the chief accounts of the excavations of De Sarzec. Layard, on the other hand, the greatest of all Assyrian explorers, gave full accounts of his own discoveries, and interpreted the monuments as well as described them. He restored to us a picture of Mesopotamian civilisation somewhat as Wilkinson had done for Egypt. Of the more recent workers who have written about Babylonia and Assyria the most important are Meyer, Hommel, Winckler, Muerdter, and Delitzsch in Germany; Tiele in Holland; Lenormant, Babelon, Menant and Halévy in France; Sayce in England, and Peters, Hilprecht, Harper and Rogers in America.

Thanks to the records thus made available, the history of this most ancient civilisation is no longer a mere hazy figment of tradition, but has become a sharply outlined picture. We are able to trace, not indeed the origin of the Mesopotamian civilisation—for the beginnings of national life evade us here as elsewhere—but its very early development in the cities of old or southern Babylonia. Antiquarian documents, aided by estimates as to the rate of deposit of sediment at the mouth of the rivers, enable us to fix, at least approximately, the dates for this early civilisation. These figures cannot pretend to exact accuracy, but the Assyriologist assures us with some confidence that they carry us back to a period something like six or seven thousand years B.C. At this remote time the civilisation of southern Babylonia was already established in its main features. The people of Ur, Nippur, Shirpurla, and Babylon were able even then to build elaborate palaces and temples, to carve interesting sculptures, to make ornaments of glass, and to record their thought in words traced in the most complex script. In a word, the main characteristics of Mesopotamian civilisation were fully established several millenniums before the Christian era, and abundant proofs of this fact have been preserved to us.

It must not be supposed, however, that the records exhumed from the ruins of these ancient capitals have given us full information regarding the entire stretch of this long material existence. The fact is quite otherwise. Only comparatively short periods are covered fully by the historical records in the wedge writing, and there are reaches of some thousands of years in the aggregate, regarding which our knowledge is still most fragmentary. Indeed, the history of the old Babylonian kingdom in its entirety is known at present only in the most general way. But it seems almost miraculous that we should know even the outlines of this ancient story.

The Ancient Kingdoms of Babylonia

The earliest known inhabitants of Babylonia were a people of whose origin nothing is known except that they were not Semites. After a time they are called sometimes Sumerians, sometimes Accadians. Sumer was the southern portion of Babylonia, Accad the northern. The Accadian language is now considered a dialect of the Sumerian, the older form.

Civilisation in the land goes back at least to 6000 B.C. Between 5000 and 4000 B.C. this people was invaded by a warlike Semitic race, the Babylonians of history, who came, perhaps, from Arabia. What portion of the aborigines the invaders did not expel or destroy they assimilated, gradually assuming the older civilisation.

The chronology of the earlier period is largely speculative. Recent chronology begins with the kingdom of Babylon about the time of Khammurabi. For the earlier kingdoms, we, for the most part, follow the dates of Professor Rogers.

Without referring to the legendary history of Babylonia, related by Berosus, which is mentioned elsewhere, our earliest knowledge of the land is of a country of independent kingdoms, the cities with the temples forming their centres. The ruler is often the patesi or high priest.

The Kingdom of Kengi

Before 4500 B.C. En-shag-kush-anna is king of Kengi, in southern Babylonia, but whether he was Sumerian or Semite, we do not know. He is patesi of En-lil, the later Bel. Of his kingdom, Shirpurla-Girsu (or Sungir) is the capital and Nippur the religious centre. Later, Sungir is called Sumer and gave its name to the whole of southern Babylonia. The chief rival of Kengi is the Semitic kingdom of Kish in the north, which En-shag-kush-anna defeated but only temporarily checked. We know of no other king of Kengi.

Monuments.—Several vase inscriptions found at Nippur.

The Kingdom of Kish

Recovers itself quickly after its reverse by En-shag-kush-anna. A certain U-dug is patesi of Kish at the time of this revival.

4400 Mesilim, king of Kish, subjugates Shirpurla, at the time of Lugal-shug-gur. This supremacy is maintained for a short period, 4200 until E-anna-tum, king of Shirpurla, shakes off the yoke. Kish is left very feeble after this, but gradually recovers its power.

3850 Alusharshid, the last great king of Kish before the conquest of Sargon I.

Monuments.—Many vase inscriptions.

The Kingdom of Gishban

4400 Ush is patesi, contemporary of Mesilim of Kish. He wages war with Shirpurla on the question of boundaries. Gishban is subjugated 4200 by E-anna-tum of Shirpurla. At the latter’s death, Ur-lumma, patesi, invades Shirpurla and probably suffers a slight defeat.

4120 Great defeat of Ur-lumma by Entemena of Shirpurla.

4000 Lugal-zaggisi, patesi, son of Ukush, leads a victorious army against the south. The whole of Babylonia to the southern gulf is subjugated. He becomes king of Erech and is styled “king of the whole world.” He revives the ancient cults of Lower Mesopotamia.

Monuments.—Vase inscriptions.

The Kingdom of Shirpurla

Shirpurla, sometimes called Lagash—the modern Telloh—is situated north of Mugheir on the east side of the Shatt-el-Khai. The oldest king that we know is

4500 Urukagina.—A great warrior and administrator. He builds and restores temples and also a canal for the capital Sungir (Girsu). 4400 One of his successors is En-ge-gal, and another, Lugal-shug-gur, is reduced by Mesilim of Kish to a patesi.

4300 In the enfeebled kingdom, dominated by the rulers of Kish, a new family headed by Ur-Nina comes to the throne. He is famous as a temple builder, but also begins to prepare his kingdom to throw off the yoke of Kish. He calls himself king though his son is still patesi.

Monuments.—Vase inscriptions.

4250 Akurgal succeeds Ur-Nina. He is the father of E-anna-tum and En-anna-tum I.

4200 E-anna-tum, the hero who delivers his country from the thraldom of Kish, and resumes the royal title. After this he puts Gishban under his yoke, and wages successful wars against Erech, Ur, Larsa, Az, and Ukh. He builds a wall around one of the suburbs of Shirpurla, digs canals for boundary lines, etc. Is a great and wise administrator as well as a mighty warrior.

Monuments.—The famous “Vulture Stele” now in the Louvre—many inscriptions.

En-anna-tum I succeeds his brother E-anna-tum. An unsuccessful invasion of Shirpurla by the patesi of Gishban.

4120 En-teme-na, son of En-anna-tum I, defeats and destroys army of the patesi of Gishban.

Monuments.—The Cone of En-teme-na. The “silver vase”—an exquisite piece of art placed on the altar of the god Nina at Singur.

4100 En-anna-tum II, the last patesi of the dynasty of Ur-Nina, since his son, Lummadu, bears no title. Conquest of Shirpurla by Lugal-zaggisi of Gishban.

4100-3800 There are patesis in Shirpurla, ruled over by Lugal-zaggisi and his successors.

3800-3100 The darkest age of Babylonian history. Lugal-ushumgal was patesi and vassal of Sargon I. In all probability the kings of Agade ruled over Shirpurla until dispossessed by the second dynasty of Ur. Of all the patesis, the vassal rulers, of this period Ur-Bau 3500 (?) and Gudea 3300 (?) are the most prominent. Ur-Bau’s rule seems to have been peaceful; Gudea is a warrior; he wrests the territory of Anshan from Elam. Builds the temple of Nina at Singur.

Monuments.—Many inscriptions.

The civilisation of Shirpurla was a high one, and it contained no Semitic elements.

The Kingdom of Ur (the Biblical “Ur of the Chaldees”) Ist Dynasty

The first king of this dynasty appears after the conquest of Erech by Lugal-zaggisi of Gishban. He would appear to have overthrown Lugal-zaggisi.

3900 Lugal-kigubni-dudu.

Lugal-kisali, his son.

Their rule includes Ur, Erech, and Nippur, and possibly they conquered Shirpurla. The fate of this dynasty with the names of its other rulers is unknown, but it probably falls before the power of Agade.

Monuments.—Inscriptions of the two above-mentioned kings.

The Kingdom of Guti and Lulubi

There are inscriptions relating to two kings, Lasirab of Guti and Anu-banini of Lulubi. They seem to have been contemporaneous with Sargon I (3800 B.C.).

The Kingdom of Agade

3800 The earliest known dynasty is Semitic, and the first ruler is Sargon I (Shargani-shar-ali), son of Itti-Bel. By conquest he founds an empire from Elam to the Mediterranean, and from the extreme south of Babylonia to Apirak and Guti.

Monuments.—Engraved seals of wonderful execution, inscriptions, and contract tablets.

3750 Naram-Sin, son of Sargon, succeeds him. First to assume title “King of the Four Quarters of the World”—a great conqueror and builder. Campaigns against Apirak and Magan (Arabia).

Builds temples at Nippur and Agade. Temple E-barra of Shamash at Sippar. This temple is the one in which Nabonidus found the “tablet with the writing of the name of Naram-Sin,” by which we are able to fix the date of his reign.

Under Sargon I and Naram-Sin there is a high state of organisation and civilisation in the kingdom. There were judges, musicians, physicians, good roads, etc. Thureau-Dangin says: “The epoch of Sargon and Naram-Sin certainly marks a culminating point in the history of the old Orient.”

Monuments.—Inscriptions.

3700 Bingani-shar-ali, son of Naram-Sin.

Further history of the kingdom of Agade is still unknown. Apparently the later kings gradually lose their power before that of the second dynasty of Ur.

The first period of Babylonian history is now closed. The Semites are in full possession of the land. We have the main seat of power at Agade with the rulers of Shirpurla reduced to patesis.

The Second Dynasty of Ur

These kings add the title “King of Sumer and Accad” to that of Ur, combining the hostile elements of the North and South under one rule; “restoring,” says Radau, “in old Babylonia the peace which had been disturbed for many centuries, even from the time of the original Semitic invasion.”

3200 Ur-gur holds sway over both Semites and Sumerians (Agade and Shirpurla). His capital is at Ur. Famous as a temple builder. Builds temple Teimila to Nannar (moon god) at Ur, temple E-anna to Ishtar at Erech, temple E-barra to Shamash at Larsa.

Monuments.—Pyramidal tower at Nippur. Inscriptions.

3150 Dun-gi I succeeds. Continues his father’s work.

Builds temples of Nin-mar, Nina, Ningirsu, Dam-gal-nunna, and Ea, in Sungir, Nippur, and Kutha.

These two were ancestors of a long line of kings, concerning whom history is still silent. Apparently ground in southern Babylonia was soon lost, for we find

The Kingdom of Erech

3100-3000 Two kings of pure Semitic names are known at this period. Singashid, probably the founder of the dynasty, and Sin-gamil. The probable history of this kingdom is that of a strong Semitic colony in southern Babylonia making itself independent and establishing a king and capital at Erech. With Sin-gamil, the thread of its history is lost.

Monuments.—Inscriptions relating to building of palace, temples, and restoration of temples at Erech.

The Kingdom of Isin

A Semitic kingdom, similar to that of Erech, is established at Isin in the north. These kings extend their power to Nippur, Ur, Eridu, and finally to Erech, extinguishing the dynasty ruling there.

The kings add “king of Sumer and Accad” to that of Isin, showing also that the second dynasty of Ur has ceased to exist.

3000 Libit-Ishtar.

Monuments and cylinder inscriptions.

Other kings are, Ishbigarra, Bur-Sin I, Ur-Ninib, Idin-Dagan.

2850 Ishme Dagan, the last to bear the title of Sumer and Accad. His son En-anna-tum is a vassal of the third dynasty of Ur.

Monuments.—Tablet inscriptions.

The Third Dynasty of Ur

The early kings call themselves simply Kings of Ur.

2800 Gungunu puts an end to the dynasty of Isin. He is succeeded by Ur-gur II and Dungi II, order uncertain.

They build many temples, and Ur-gur II fortifies the wall of his capital, hence he must have been harassed by enemies. We have records that the patesis of Shirpurla still existed at this time.

Monuments.—Votive and seal inscriptions.

2700 Dungi III.—The kings from now on add “King of the Four Quarters of the World” to their title, and for this reason some scholars reckon this king as the first of a fourth dynasty. He is followed by Bur-Sin II, Gamil-Sin, and Ine-Sin; the latter ruling about 2580. We have no knowledge of other kings, but about 2450-2400 the “Kingship of the Four Quarters of the World” is overthrown in the north by the Ist Dynasty of Babylon and in the south by Nur-Adad of Larsa.

Monuments.—Building records and contract tablets.

The Kingdom of Larsa

2400 Successful rebellion of southern Babylonia against the kings of Ur. The kingdom of Larsa founded by Nur-Adad.

2370 Sin-iddin succeeds his father and extends his kingdom over Sumer and Accad.

2350 Kudur-nankhundi, king of Elam, invades southern Babylonia. Under Kudur-nankhundi’s successor, Kudur-lagamar 2340 (Kudur-dugmal, probably the Hebrew Chedoriaomer) the Elamites establish a kingdom in Larsa with Rim-Sin (Eri-aku) at its head. He adopts Sin-iddin’s titles. 2312 The latter appeals to Khammurabi, king of Babylon, who overpowers Rim-Sin.

The Kingdom of Babylon

Ist Dynasty, 2450-2150 B.C.

In the days of Sumer and Accad there is no mention of Babylon, which must, however, have developed into some importance during the supremacy of Isin (3000-2850). Dates are now more reliable.

2450 Sumu-abi overthrows the Ur Dynasty in Babylon, but the rebellion does not extend beyond that city.

2440 Sumu-la-ilu.—He builds six strong fortresses in Babylon.

2405 Zabu.—He builds temple E-dubar in Sippar. The country is evidently in revolution, for mention is made of a pretender, Immeru.

2290 Apil-Sin.

2370 Sin-muballit.

Only monuments of these reigns, contract tablets.

2342 Khammurabi.—Probably the Amraphel of the Bible, a contemporary of Abraham. The maker of a united Babylon, for in 2312 called upon by Sin-iddin, he expels Rim-Sin and the Elamites from Larsa, and adding southern Babylonia to his dominions, resumes the titles of the kings of Ur, Isin, and Larsa. He begins to develop his new kingdom, digging canals for water supply. Builds a great storehouse for wheat in Babylonia. Enlarges temples of E-zida and E-sagila in Borsippa.

Monuments.—Letters and inscriptions.

2287-2150 The remaining kings of the dynasty lived in complete peace. The few remains of their age witness a high civilisation and great prosperity.

Monuments.—Contract tablets.

IInd Dynasty, 2150-1783 B.C.

2150-1783 Called the dynasty of Uru-Azag (probably referring to a district of the city of Babylon). Eleven kings of Sumerian origin reign for 368 years. There is but little known of them.

No monuments of this dynasty.

IIIrd Dynasty, 1783-1207 B.C.

1783 The Kossæans or Kassites (Kasshu) from the mountains of Elam establish a dynasty with Gandish or Gaddash the first king. They had entered the country as roving bands, had overrun it, and finally attained the power. Culture and civilisation are assimilated by the newcomers.

1700 Agum-kakrime, the first king of the dynasty of whom we have any details. His kingdom is greater than that of Khammurabi. The land of Padan is subject to him. Some statues of gods that had been previously carried away are restored to Babylon.

1450 Karaindash.—In this reign we have the first evidence of intercourse between the kingdoms of Assyria and Babylonia—a treaty with Asshur-bel-nish-eshu, king of Assyria, concerning boundary line. Builds a temple to Nana, goddess of E-Anna.

1430 Kadashman-Bel.—He corresponds with Amenhotep III, of Egypt.

Monuments.—Letters found at Tel-el-Amarna.

1420 Burnaburiash I.—Contemporary with Puzur-Asshur of Assyria, with whom he seems to have had difficulties regarding questions of boundary. Builds a temple to the Sun-god at Larsa.

1410 Kurigalzu I.—The city of Dur-Kurigalzu is named after him. He probably rebuilds it.

Monuments.—Correspondence with Pharaoh of Egypt. (Tel-el-Amarna.)

1400 Burnaburiash II.—His successor. Long and prosperous reign.

Monuments.—Correspondence with Amenhotep IV, of Egypt. (Tel-el-Amarna.)

1370 Kharakhardash, marries a daughter of Asshur-uballit, king of Assyria. His son, Kadashman-Kharbe I, conducts a campaign against the Sutu, whom he conquers, and among whom he settles some of his subjects.

1360 Rebellion of the Kassites, who, jealous of the growing Assyrian influence, kill the king and place on the throne Nazibugash, who is defeated and killed by Asshur-uballit, the king of Assyria.

1350 Kurigalzu II.—Placed on the throne by the Assyrian king, invades Elam, and conquers the city of Susa (or Shushan). Battle with Bel-nirari, king of Assyria, with doubtful result.

1340-1286 Continuous struggle between Babylonia and Assyria under the following kings: Nazi-Maruttash (1340), Kadashman-Turgu, Kadashman-Buriash (1330), Kudur-Bel (1304-1299), Shagarakti-Buriash (1298-1286).

1285-1270 The king of Assyria, Tukulti-Ninib I, invades Babylon, enters the town, removes the treasures of the temple, and carries away the god Marduk to Assyria. This invasion took place probably under the reign of Bibeiashu, whose successors, Bel-shum-iddin, Kadashman-Kharbe II (1277-1275), and Adad-shum-iddin (1274-1269), were very likely only vassals of Tukulti-Ninib, who was the real king of Babylon for seven years.

1270 The Babylonians rise in revolt, drive the Assyrians from Babylon, 1269 and make Adad-shum-usur king, under whom the power of Babylon begins to revive. Assyria attacked, the king, Bel-kudur-usur, slain, and a portion of Assyrian territory annexed.

1238-1224 Meli-Shipak.—Successful against the Assyrian king, Ninib-apal-esharra, 1223-1211 so that under Marduk-apal-iddin, the Babylonian dominion extends over nearly the whole of the valley.

1210 Under the last two kings of this dynasty, Zamamu-shum-iddin and 1209 Bel-shum-iddin, Babylonia threatened by the Assyrian Asshur-dan.

1207 End of the dynasty as result of a Semitic revolution.

IVth Dynasty, 1207-1075 B.C.

The origin of this (Isin) dynasty still doubtful. There are eleven kings, of whom four or five are unknown to us.

1135 Nebuchadrezzar I, sixth king, exhibits the old-time spirit. Invades Assyria, but is repulsed. Is successful in campaigns against the people of Elam and Lulubi, even penetrates into Syria.

Monuments.—Monolithic inscription concerning grant of land to Ritti Marduk of Bit-Karziyabku.

1110 In the reign of Marduk-nadin-akhe, Tiglathpileser I of Assyria invades Babylon and takes the capital.

1083 At death of Marduk-shapik-zer-mati, a usurper, Adad-apal-iddin takes the throne.

1078 End of dynasty with death of Nabu-shum.

Vth, VIth, VIIth, VIIIth Dynasties, 1075-728 B.C.

A series of short-lived dynasties all struggling with the rising power of Assyria.

1075 Dynasty of Sea Lands, at the estuaries of the Tigris and the Euphrates upon the Persian Gulf, which later exercises great influence upon the history of Babylonia. This dynasty numbers only three kings, who reign together twenty-one years five months, or, according to the Babylonian chronicle, twenty-three years; viz. Sibar-Shipak, slain and buried in palace of Sargon. In his reign the Elamites pillage Sippar and do much damage; Ea-mukin-zer, of whom nothing is known, and Kasshu-nadin-akhe. These kings engaged on rebuilding the temple of the Sun at Sippar.

1053-1033 The dynasty of Sea Lands in Babylonia followed by the dynasty of Bit-Bazi, numbering also only three kings: Eulbar-shakin-shum, Ninib-kudur-usur, and Silanim-shukamuna, followed by a dynasty of Elam with only one king, whose name is unknown.

1027 The VIIIth Dynasty. Babylonian stock having exhausted its vigour, now intermixed with Kassite and other foreign blood.

747 Nabu-nasir (Nabonassar) of the VIIIth Dynasty comes to the throne. A time of literary activity.

732 Nabu-nadinzer, his successor, slain by Nabu-shum-ukin.

731 Ukinzer replaces Nabu-shum-ukin. Tiglathpileser III invades Babylon and determines to end the rule of native princes in the land.

728 Tiglathpileser, king of Babylon. End of the Old Babylonian Empire.

The Assyrian Empire

First Period, 1830-1120 B.C.

Assyria was colonised from Babylonia. The date is uncertain, but Nineveh was in existence in 3000 B.C. The early rulers appear to have been subject priest-princes of the kings of Babylonia.

1830-1810 The first known rulers (Ishakke) are Ishme-Dagan and his son, Shamshi-Adad I, who builds a great temple in the city of Asshur, dedicated to the gods Anu and Adad.

1800-1700 Little known of their successors Igur-kapkapu, Shamshi-Adad II, while the dates of Khallu and Irishum are unknown.

Monuments.—A few inscriptions.

1700 Bel-Kapkapu.—The first to take the title of king, and therefore considered the real founder of the monarchy, probably the Bel-bani, of whom Esarhaddon claimed to be a direct descendant.

1700-1450 A dark age of Assyrian history. We know nothing of it, except that after the battle of Megiddo (ca. 1525) the ruler of Assyria sends presents to Tehutimes III.

1450 Assyria is now recognised by Babylonia as an independent kingdom. Its ruler, Asshur-bel-nish-eshu, makes a treaty with Karaindash, king of Kardunyash (Babylonia) concerning boundaries.

1420 Puzur-Asshur, treats with the Babylonians concerning the boundary.

1400 Asshur-nadin-akhe II, his successor, contemporary of Amenhotep IV, king of Egypt. Builds or restores a palace in Asshur.

Monuments.—Friendly correspondence with Amenhotep IV in the Tel-el-Amarna letters.

1370 Succeeded by Asshur-uballit, whose daughter, Muballitat Sheru’a, is married to Karakhardash, king of Babylon. The murder of his son, Kadashman-Kharbe I, brought about Assyrian intervention, and a grandson of Asshur-uballit, Kurigalzu, is placed on the throne. Babylonia now partially subject to Assyria. Campaigns of Asshur-uballit against the Shubari.

1360 His son Bel-nirari said to have conquered the inhabitants of the neighbouring Elamite foothills. These Assyrian conquests lead to a conflict between Kurigalzu II and Bel-nirari, in which the latter is victorious. A rearrangement of the boundary lines between the two countries is the result.

1350 His son, Pudu-ilu, a great warrior, considerably extends his kingdom.

Monuments.—A few brief inscriptions.

1345 His son and successor, Adad-nirari I, continues conquests in neighbouring territory. Rebuilds captured cities. Struggle with Babylonian king. He adds considerably to strength of kingdom.

Monuments.—A bronze sword, on which he calls himself king of Kishshati; an inscription, the oldest yet found with an eponym date.

1330 His son, Shalmaneser I, establishes colonies between the Euphrates and Tigris as a bulwark against the nomadic populations of the farther north. Subjects the Musri in northern Syria. Assyrians cross the Euphrates for the first time. The rapidly growing kingdom firmly established as far as the Balikh and perhaps the Euphrates. New capital built at Calah.

Monuments.—Two broken tablets.

1290 Under his son and successor, Tukulti-Ninib I, there is renewed trouble between Assyria and Babylonia. Invasion of Babylonia; capital taken. Conquered city governed from Calah, Assyrian officers stationed both in the north and south of the country. Tukulti-Ninib adopts the title of “King of Sumer and Accad” in addition to his former titles, “King of Kishshati” and “King of Asshur.” This rule over Babylonia maintained for seven years only. The king is killed in civil war. The most brilliant reign in Assyrian history up to this time. The steady and rapid progress of the Assyrians now checked.

1280 Rapid decline of Assyrian power under Asshurnazirpal I, Tukulti-Ninib’s son. An attack of Babylonia is repulsed with difficulty.

1250 Under his successors, Asshur-narara and Nabu-daian, the Assyrian power continues to wane, while the Babylonian increases.

1240-1235 Under Bel-kudur-usur and Ninib-apal-esharra Assyria is invaded by the Babylonians under Meli-shipak and Marduk-apal-iddin. All the southern and part of the northern and western conquered territory lost.

1210 Under Asshur-dan I rehabilitation of Assyrian power. He crosses the Lower Zab, invades Babylonian territory, and restores a small section of it to Assyria.

1150 Further Assyrian gains under Mutakkil-Nusku and Asshur-rish-ishi, who 1140 restores temple of Ishtar at Calah.

Second Period, 1120-885 B.C.

1120 Tiglathpileser I (Tukulti-apal-esharra, my help is the god Ninib).—He builds up anew the Assyrian Empire, and thus records his work of conquest: “In all forty-two countries and their kings from the Lower Zab (and) the border of the distant mountains to beyond the Euphrates to the land of the Hittites and the Upper Sea of the Setting Sun, from the beginning of my sovereignty until my fifth year my hand has conquered.” His great success in war equalled by a marvellous story of peaceful achievements. The capital of Assyria brought back from Calah to Asshur; the temples of Ishtar, Adad, and Bel rebuilt, palaces restored and rebuilt.

Monuments.—The eight-sided prism found at Calah: several fragmentary annals of the early years of his reign.

1090 Under his successors, Asshur-bel-kala and Shamshi-Adad III, both sons of Tiglathpileser, further peaceful development, with gradually a falling off in the power and dignity of the kingdom. The former king maintains terms of peace with the king of Babylonia, Marduk-shapik-zer-mati, who thereby seems to be considered an independent monarch. As to Shamshi-Adad I, he is known to us only as the rebuilder of the temple of Ishtar in Nineveh.

1050-950 A dark age. The fortunes of Assyria are at low ebb. In this period reigned Asshurnazirpal II, Erba-Adad, Asshur-nadin-akhe, and Asshur-erbi. The last loses territory to the Aramæans, but he seems to have invaded Phœnicia.

950 Tiglathpileser II, who calls himself “King of Kishshati and King of Asshur.”

930 Asshur-dan II, his son.

911 Adad-nirari II.—Revival of struggle with Babylonia. Defeats Shamash-mudammik of Babylon in battle of Mount Yalman, also his successor Nabu-shum-ishkun. Assyrian cities given to Babylonia. Treaty of peace between the two nations.

890 Tukulti-Ninib II.—The period of weakness is passing. Babylon ceases to be troublesome, and the Assyrians begin to seek tribute in the north and west. The king ravages Armenia and the land of Kummukh.

Third Period, 885-722 B.C.

885 Asshurnazirpal III, begins campaigns of conquest at once. In ten years all of Tiglathpileser I’s empire in the north, east, and west, conquered or intimidated into subjection with atrocious cruelties and barbarous devastations, is under heavy tribute.

876 A great invasion of the west. At his approach all the cities from Carchemish to Tyre hasten to send presents and arrange for tribute. The campaign ends in the gathering of timber for the temple of Ishtar at Nineveh.

867 A short and bloody campaign against Kummukh, Qurkhi and the country around Mount Masius. Asshurnazirpal rebuilds Calah, and constructs a canal to supply the city with water from the Lower Zab.

Monuments.—The royal palace unearthed at Nimrud; monolith containing accounts of his reign discovered by Layard at Nimrud; several lesser inscriptions.

860 Shalmaneser II, his son, continues his father’s conquests with similar cruelty. Campaign against Nairi and first of many campaigns in the north and east lasting until 830 with no real success.

857 The Aramæans of Bit-Adini in the Mesopotamian valley finally conquered and their land placed under Assyrian government.

854 Shalmaneser proceeds successfully against a coalition of North Syrian princes, Israel and Phœnicia. Battle of Qarqar. Yearly tribute imposed on states of northern Syria.

852 Marduk-nadin-shun of Babylon calls Shalmaneser to help him against his rebellious brother Marduk-bel-usati. Shalmaneser attacks and vanquishes the rebels and Marduk-nadin-shum rules under an Assyrian protectorate. The king of Assyria is once more the real ruler of Babylon.

849-834 Campaigns against the west. The results are not definite, and little is done except to pave the way for the future. Attack upon Ben-Hadad II of Damascus and his allies. Jehu sends aid against Damascus and the Assyrians get their first hold upon Israel.

827 Rebellion of Shalmaneser’s son Asshur-danin-apli which splits the kingdom into two discordant parts.

825 Death of Shalmaneser.

Monuments.—The black basalt obelisk containing story of his wars; monolith with portrait in bas-relief; gate inscriptions from Balauat.

823 Shamshi-Adad IV, after two years of civil war with his brother, is acknowledged legitimate king.

822-814 Campaigns in north, east, and west to receive allegiance.

813 Invasion of Chaldea.

812 Invasion of Babylon where Marduk-balatsu-iqbi refuses to pay tribute—a decisive victory.

Monuments.—Inscriptions.

811 Adad-nirari III succeeds his father—a ruler who increases Assyrian prestige immensely. Successful campaigns in the west. Eight brilliant campaigns against the Medes.

796-795 Babylon invaded—now practically an Assyrian province. The king tries to efface all national differences. Temples built in Assyria similar to those of Babylon, and Babylonian forms introduced into the ritual.

Monuments.—A statue of Nabu from the temple of Calah; inscriptions.

782 Shalmaneser III, a period of decline sets in. Of his ten campaigns, six are against the growing power of Urartu, which is trying to wrest the land of Nairi from the Assyrians.

772 Asshur-dan III.—The decay continues. Campaigns against Damascus, and Khatarikka in Syria. Two invasions of Babylon (771-767).

763-758 A series of rebellions in various parts of the kingdom.

754 Asshur-nirari II.—A reign of decadence. Campaigns against Arpad and Nairi, but no attempt to collect tribute.

746 Rebellion in Calah. Asshur-nirari disappears and with him the royal family that has ruled Assyria for centuries.

Fourth Period, 745-606 B.C.

745 Pulu.—A man of obscure origin obtains the throne, probably as the outcome of the Calah rebellion. He takes the name of Tiglathpileser (III), and begins at once the formation of a great world-empire and proceeds first against Babylonia. Reconquers the country as far south as Nippur and reorganises the government. Makes a fixed policy of planting colonies and transporting captives. He next subdues the troublesome land east of Assyria, and sends his general, Asshur-danin-ani, into Media. Second expedition into Media (737), but withal the country remains practically independent. He takes up a difficult problem in the north where Argistis of Urartu had regained much territory, and his successor, Sarduris II, has formed an alliance with many northern princes. The armies of Sarduris and Tiglathpileser meet and the former is forced to retire.

742 Tiglathpileser, free from Sarduris, attacks Arpad, which falls, 740. Many neighbouring states send presents. The king of Unqi resists, but is soon taken and his country annexed to Assyria.

739 Part of Nairi taken. Tiglathpileser sets out to break the coalition of Syrian princes against him, aiming at Uzziah of Judah, the ringleader. Menahem of Israel weakens and pays the Assyrian heavy tribute, whereupon he abandons attacks on Judah, but subdues, and returns home with tribute from, all the other members of the league.

735 Campaign against Urartu—does not conquer but breaks the spirit of the country.

734-732 Campaigns in Syria. Damascus taken. Ahaz of Judah gives homage. Other lands incorporated with Assyria. Gaza captured.

731-729 He invades Babylonia to settle the internal strife raging there. Determines to do away with native princes. Ukinzer deposed. Merodach-baladan of Bit-Yakin gives homage.

728 Proclaimed legitimate king of Babylon.

Monuments.—The annals badly defaced by Esarhaddon; the slabs of Nimrud; inscription on clay tablets.

726 Shalmaneser IV succeeds.

725 Hoshea of Israel in alliance with Shabak of Egypt refuses tribute. Shalmaneser lays siege to Samaria.

The Sargonides, 722-606 B.C.

722 Sargon II—a usurper succeeds. Samaria falls in this year. The inhabitants are removed to the Median mountains and replaced by colonists from Kutha.

721 Merodach-baladan rebels and is proclaimed king of Babylon. Sargon proceeds unsuccessfully against him. Rebellion in Hamath, joined by Gaza and Samaria.

720 The confederation defeated at Raphia.

720-710 Continuous campaigns. Successful attack on Urartu. Coalition in the north broken up.

717 Assyrian governors installed throughout the country. The career of Carchemish ended.

710 Merodach-baladan defeated. Sargon adopts title “Shakkanak,” Governor, of Babylon.

707 The great palace in his city of Dur-Sharrukin (Khorsabad) is finished. The walls are covered with magnificent inscriptions. He enters it the next year.

Monuments.—The palace of Dur-Sharrukin with inscriptions—other inscriptions.

705 Sennacherib (Sin-akhe-erba) succeeds his father.

702 Visits rebellious Babylonia and makes Bel ibni king.

701 Coalition against Sennacherib of Syrian princes and Tirhaqa of Egypt. The Assyrian attacks Phœnician cities and most of Syria submits. Battle of Altaku. Sennacherib’s army ravaged by pestilence, and he returns to Nineveh which he has made his capital.

700 Bel-ibni becomes hostile to Assyria through force of public opinion. Merodach-baladan and Marduk-ushezib of Chaldea join him. Sennacherib defeats them and has his own son Asshur-nadin-shum proclaimed king of Babylon.

694 Campaigns against the Chaldeans settled in Elam. Asshur-nadin-shum captured by the Elamites and Nergal-ushezib crowned.

692 Mushezib-Marduk made king of Babylon. With the Elamites, the Babylonians oppose Sennacherib at Khalule (691) and are utterly defeated.

689 Destruction of Babylon by Sennacherib.

688-682 Sennacherib absent in Arabia.

681 Murder of Sennacherib by his sons Nergal-shar-eser and Adarmalik.

681 Esarhaddon (Asshur-akhe-iddin) succeeds his father.

681-672 Nine campaigns to repress rebellions in different parts of the empire.

672 Destruction of Sidon. City of Kar-Asshur-akhe-iddin built on the same spot.

670 Esarhaddon appears in Egypt to punish Tirhaqa. Memphis taken. The whole country surrenders to Esarhaddon who reorganises the government.

668 Esarhaddon abdicates. He appoints his son Shamash-shum-ukin viceroy of Babylonia, and another son, Asshurbanapal, receives the throne of Assyria.

Monuments.—The “Black Stone,” the stele of Zenjirli; other inscriptions.

668 Asshurbanapal begins his reign.

667 Sends an army to Egypt which defeats Tirhaqa who has retaken Memphis. Conspiracy of Egyptian princes to restore Tirhaqa. They are taken and punished. Exacts tribute from King Baal of Tyre, and other princes.

655 Psamthek I of Egypt throws off the Assyrian yoke.

Campaign against Elam.

War with Shamash-shum-ukin, who plots against Assyria, and severe punishment of Babylonia. Cruel onslaught on Elam for assistance to Shamash-shum-ukin and his allies. The same fate is meted out to the Arabians.

Asshurbanapal is famous as a builder. Temple of E-kur-gal-kurra in Nineveh adorned. Rebuilding of E-sagila in Babylon completed. E-zida in Borsippa is embellished. The palace of Nineveh reconstructed and a great library built and equipped. Vast building operations in Babylonia and Arbela. His reign is one of great glory in works of peace, but Egypt has been lost, and many foreign provinces are on the verge of regaining their liberty.

Monuments.—Many records from the library of Nineveh.

626-609 Asshurbanapal succeeded by Asshur-etil-ili-ukinni, Sin-shum-lishir, and Sin-shar-ishkum (Saracus), of whom we have but little knowledge.

625 First appearance of the Scythian tribes in Assyria. They invade the land and burn Calah.

609 Sin-shar-ishkum attacks Babylonia, of which Nabopolassar is now king. The latter allies himself with the Scythian tribe of the Manda, which attacks Nineveh.

606 Sin-shar-ishkum sets fire to palace and perishes in the flames.

Nineveh taken and destroyed, as well as Dur-Sharrukin and Asshur.

The Manda secure the old land of Assyria, together with the northern provinces as far as the river Halys. The Babylonians take the southern and the Syrio-Phœnician possessions. End of the Assyrian Empire.

The New Empire of Babylon 606-538 B.C.

Nabopolassar (Nabu-apal-usur), an Assyrian governor of Babylonia about 625, finally becomes king, and a powerful rival of Assyria. After the destruction of Nineveh he receives his share of the old empire, and continues his reign in peace. Neku II of Egypt marches upon Babylonia. Country developed by canals and great buildings. Temple of Belit at Sippar rebuilt.

604-562 Nebuchadrezzar (Nabu-kudur-usur). Before he becomes king, he has defeated Neku at Carchemish (605). Campaign against Judah. Jerusalem twice besieged in 597, when Jehoiachin had to surrender, in whose place Mattaniah, a son of Josiah, was made king under the name of Zedekiah; and again in 586 when the city is taken, plundered, and destroyed. Population deported and Gedaliah placed as governor.

585-573 Investment of Tyre for thirteen years. Finally taken in 573 and King Ithobaal II deposed.

567 Invasion of Egypt in the reign of Aahmes II; heavy booty secured, but no lasting results. Splendid works of peace shown in numerous inscriptions. Extensive building operations. The walls of Babylon rebuilt and rendered impregnable. Canals repaired and temples reconstructed. Temples of Borsippa repaired and the walls reconstructed, also at Sippar, Larsa, Ur, Dilbat, Baz, and Erech.

Monuments.—Many inscriptions.

562 Amil-Marduk (the biblical Evil-merodach). No inscriptions found. 560 Assassinated by Nergal-shar-usur (Neriglissor).—Under him Babylon adorned and enlarged. The temple E-sagila beautified. Canal system regulated. Succeeded by 556 Labashi-Marduk, who was killed after a reign of only nine months, and succeeded by 555 Nabu-Na’id (Nabonidus), a usurper. Chiefly engaged in building and restoring temples. The temple E-ulbar restored and temples at Sippar and Kharran in Babylonia rebuilt.

539 Babylonia invaded by Cyrus of Elam and Persia.

538 Sippar taken. Babylon surrenders. Triumphal entrance of Cyrus into the city. Babylonia a Persian province.