Gwp (part 17)

Argentina
San Miguel de Tucuman and Mendoza areas in the Andes
subject to earthquakes; pamperos are violent windstorms that can
strike the pampas and northeast; heavy flooding

Armenia
occasionally severe earthquakes; droughts

Aruba
lies outside the Caribbean hurricane belt

Ashmore and Cartier Islands
surrounded by shoals and reefs that can
pose maritime hazards

Atlantic Ocean
icebergs common in Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, and
the northwestern Atlantic Ocean from February to August and have
been spotted as far south as Bermuda and the Madeira Islands; ships
subject to superstructure icing in extreme northern Atlantic from
October to May; persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to
September; hurricanes (May to December)

Australia
cyclones along the coast; severe droughts; forest fires

Austria
landslides; avalanches; earthquakes

Azerbaijan
droughts

Bahamas, The
hurricanes and other tropical storms cause extensive
flood and wind damage

Bahrain
periodic droughts; dust storms

Baker Island
the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be
a maritime hazard

Bangladesh
droughts, cyclones; much of the country routinely
inundated during the summer monsoon season

Barbados
infrequent hurricanes; periodic landslides

Bassas da India
maritime hazard since it is usually under water
during high tide and surrounded by reefs; subject to periodic
cyclones

Belarus
NA

Belgium
flooding is a threat along rivers and in areas of reclaimed
coastal land, protected from the sea by concrete dikes

Belize
frequent, devastating hurricanes (June to November) and
coastal flooding (especially in south)

Benin
hot, dry, dusty harmattan wind may affect north from December
to March

Bermuda
hurricanes (June to November)

Bhutan
violent storms from the Himalayas are the source of the
country's name, which translates as Land of the Thunder Dragon;
frequent landslides during the rainy season

Bolivia
flooding in the northeast (March-April)

Bosnia and Herzegovina
destructive earthquakes

Botswana
periodic droughts; seasonal August winds blow from the
west, carrying sand and dust across the country, which can obscure
visibility

Bouvet Island
NA

Brazil
recurring droughts in northeast; floods and occasional frost
in south

British Indian Ocean Territory
NA

British Virgin Islands
hurricanes and tropical storms (July to
October)

Brunei
typhoons, earthquakes, and severe flooding are rare

Bulgaria
earthquakes, landslides

Burkina Faso
recurring droughts

Burma
destructive earthquakes and cyclones; flooding and landslides
common during rainy season (June to September); periodic droughts

Burundi
flooding, landslides, drought

Cambodia
monsoonal rains (June to November); flooding; occasional
droughts

Cameroon
volcanic activity with periodic releases of poisonous gases
from Lake Nyos and Lake Monoun volcanoes

Canada
continuous permafrost in north is a serious obstacle to
development; cyclonic storms form east of the Rocky Mountains, a
result of the mixing of air masses from the Arctic, Pacific, and
North American interior, and produce most of the country's rain and
snow east of the mountains

Cape Verde
prolonged droughts; seasonal harmattan wind produces
obscuring dust; volcanically and seismically active

Cayman Islands
hurricanes (July to November)

Central African Republic
hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds affect
northern areas; floods are common

Chad
hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds occur in north; periodic
droughts; locust plagues

Chile
severe earthquakes; active volcanism; tsunamis

China
frequent typhoons (about five per year along southern and
eastern coasts); damaging floods; tsunamis; earthquakes; droughts;
land subsidence

Christmas Island
the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can
be a maritime hazard

Clipperton Island
NA

Cocos (Keeling) Islands
cyclone season is October to April

Colombia
highlands subject to volcanic eruptions; occasional
earthquakes; periodic droughts

Comoros
cyclones possible during rainy season (December to April);
Le Kartala on Grand Comore is an active volcano

Congo, Democratic Republic of the periodic droughts in south; Congo River floods (seasonal); in the east, in the Great Rift Valley, there are active volcanoes

Congo, Republic of the
seasonal flooding

Cook Islands
typhoons (November to March)

Coral Sea Islands
occasional tropical cyclones

Costa Rica
occasional earthquakes, hurricanes along Atlantic coast;
frequent flooding of lowlands at onset of rainy season and
landslides; active volcanoes

Cote d'Ivoire
coast has heavy surf and no natural harbors; during
the rainy season torrential flooding is possible

Croatia
destructive earthquakes

Cuba
the east coast is subject to hurricanes from August to November
(in general, the country averages about one hurricane every other
year); droughts are common

Cyprus
moderate earthquake activity; droughts

Czech Republic
flooding

Denmark
flooding is a threat in some areas of the country (e.g.,
parts of Jutland, along the southern coast of the island of Lolland)
that are protected from the sea by a system of dikes

Djibouti
earthquakes; droughts; occasional cyclonic disturbances
from the Indian Ocean bring heavy rains and flash floods

Dominica
flash floods are a constant threat; destructive hurricanes
can be expected during the late summer months

Dominican Republic
lies in the middle of the hurricane belt and
subject to severe storms from June to October; occasional flooding;
periodic droughts

East Timor
floods and landslides are common; earthquakes, tsunamis,
tropical cyclones

Ecuador
frequent earthquakes, landslides, volcanic activity; floods;
periodic droughts

Egypt
periodic droughts; frequent earthquakes, flash floods,
landslides; hot, driving windstorm called khamsin occurs in spring;
dust storms, sandstorms

El Salvador
known as the Land of Volcanoes; frequent and sometimes
destructive earthquakes and volcanic activity; extremely susceptible
to hurricanes

Equatorial Guinea
violent windstorms, flash floods

Eritrea
frequent droughts; locust swarms

Estonia
sometimes flooding occurs in the spring

Ethiopia
geologically active Great Rift Valley susceptible to
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions; frequent droughts

Europa Island
NA

European Union
flooding along coasts; avalanches in mountainous
area; earthquakes in the south; volcanic eruptions in Italy;
periodic droughts in Spain; ice floes in the Baltic

Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)
strong winds persist throughout
the year

Faroe Islands
NA

Fiji
cyclonic storms can occur from November to January

Finland
NA

France
flooding; avalanches; midwinter windstorms; drought; forest
fires in south near the Mediterranean

French Guiana
high frequency of heavy showers and severe
thunderstorms; flooding

French Polynesia
occasional cyclonic storms in January

French Southern and Antarctic Lands
Ile Amsterdam and Ile Saint-Paul
are extinct volcanoes

Gabon
NA

Gambia, The
drought (rainfall has dropped by 30% in the last 30
years)

Gaza Strip
droughts

Georgia
earthquakes

Germany
flooding

Ghana
dry, dusty, northeastern harmattan winds occur from January to
March; droughts

Gibraltar
NA

Glorioso Islands
periodic cyclones

Greece
severe earthquakes

Greenland
continuous permafrost over northern two-thirds of the
island

Grenada
lies on edge of hurricane belt; hurricane season lasts from
June to November

Guadeloupe
hurricanes (June to October); Soufriere de Guadeloupe is
an active volcano

Guam
frequent squalls during rainy season; relatively rare, but
potentially very destructive typhoons (June - December)

Guatemala
numerous volcanoes in mountains, with occasional violent
earthquakes; Caribbean coast extremely susceptible to hurricanes and
other tropical storms

Guernsey
NA

Guinea
hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze may reduce visibility during
dry season

Guinea-Bissau
hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze may reduce visibility
during dry season; brush fires

Guyana
flash floods are a constant threat during rainy seasons

Haiti
lies in the middle of the hurricane belt and subject to severe
storms from June to October; occasional flooding and earthquakes;
periodic droughts

Heard Island and McDonald Islands
Mawson Peak, an active volcano, is
on Heard Island

Holy See (Vatican City)
NA

Honduras
frequent, but generally mild, earthquakes; extremely
susceptible to damaging hurricanes and floods along the Caribbean
coast

Hong Kong
occasional typhoons

Howland Island
the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can
be a maritime hazard

Iceland
earthquakes and volcanic activity

Iles Eparses
all islands subject to periodic cyclones
Bassas da India: maritime hazard since it is under water for a
period of three hours prior to and following the high tide and
surrounded by reefs

India
droughts; flash floods, as well as widespread and destructive
flooding from monsoonal rains; severe thunderstorms; earthquakes

Indian Ocean
occasional icebergs pose navigational hazard in
southern reaches

Indonesia
occasional floods, severe droughts, tsunamis, earthquakes,
volcanoes, forest fires

Iran
periodic droughts, floods; dust storms, sandstorms; earthquakes

Iraq
dust storms, sandstorms, floods

Ireland
NA

Isle of Man
NA

Israel
sandstorms may occur during spring and summer; droughts;
periodic earthquakes

Italy
regional risks include landslides, mudflows, avalanches,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, flooding; land subsidence in Venice

Jamaica
hurricanes (especially July to November)

Jan Mayen
dominated by the volcano Haakon VII Toppen/Beerenberg;
volcanic activity resumed in 1970

Japan
many dormant and some active volcanoes; about 1,500 seismic
occurrences (mostly tremors) every year; tsunamis; typhoons

Jarvis Island
the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island poses
a maritime hazard

Jersey
NA

Johnston Atoll
NA

Jordan
droughts; periodic earthquakes

Juan de Nova Island
periodic cyclones

Kazakhstan
earthquakes in the south, mudslides around Almaty

Kenya
recurring drought; flooding during rainy seasons

Kingman Reef
wet or awash most of the time, maximum elevation of
about 1 meter makes Kingman Reef a maritime hazard

Kiribati
typhoons can occur any time, but usually November to March;
occasional tornadoes; low level of some of the islands make them
very sensitive to changes in sea level

Korea, North
late spring droughts often followed by severe flooding;
occasional typhoons during the early fall

Korea, South
occasional typhoons bring high winds and floods;
low-level seismic activity common in southwest

Kuwait
sudden cloudbursts are common from October to April and bring
heavy rain, which can damage roads and houses; sandstorms and dust
storms occur throughout the year, but are most common between March
and August

Kyrgyzstan
NA

Laos
floods, droughts

Latvia
NA

Lebanon
dust storms, sandstorms

Lesotho
periodic droughts

Liberia
dust-laden harmattan winds blow from the Sahara (December to
March)

Libya
hot, dry, dust-laden ghibli is a southern wind lasting one to
four days in spring and fall; dust storms, sandstorms

Liechtenstein
NA

Lithuania
NA

Luxembourg
NA

Macau
typhoons

Macedonia
high seismic risks

Madagascar
periodic cyclones, drought, and locust infestation

Malawi
NA

Malaysia
flooding, landslides, forest fires

Maldives
low level of islands makes them very sensitive to sea level
rise

Mali
hot, dust-laden harmattan haze common during dry seasons;
recurring droughts; occasional Niger River flooding

Malta
NA

Marshall Islands
infrequent typhoons

Martinique
hurricanes, flooding, and volcanic activity (an average
of one major natural disaster every five years)

Mauritania
hot, dry, dust/sand-laden sirocco wind blows primarily in
March and April; periodic droughts

Mauritius
cyclones (November to April); almost completely surrounded
by reefs that may pose maritime hazards

Mayotte
cyclones during rainy season

Mexico
tsunamis along the Pacific coast, volcanoes and destructive
earthquakes in the center and south, and hurricanes on the Pacific,
Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean coasts

Micronesia, Federated States of
typhoons (June to December)

Midway Islands
NA

Moldova
landslides (57 cases in 1998)

Monaco
NA

Mongolia
dust storms, grassland and forest fires, drought, and
"zud," which is harsh winter conditions

Montenegro
destructive earthquakes

Montserrat
severe hurricanes (June to November); volcanic eruptions
(Soufriere Hills volcano has erupted continuously since 1995)

Morocco
northern mountains geologically unstable and subject to
earthquakes; periodic droughts

Mozambique
severe droughts; devastating cyclones and floods in
central and southern provinces

Namibia
prolonged periods of drought

Nauru
periodic droughts

Navassa Island
hurricanes

Nepal
severe thunderstorms, flooding, landslides, drought, and
famine depending on the timing, intensity, and duration of the
summer monsoons

Netherlands
flooding

Netherlands Antilles
Curacao and Bonaire are south of Caribbean
hurricane belt and are rarely threatened; Sint Maarten, Saba, and
Sint Eustatius are subject to hurricanes from July to October

New Caledonia
cyclones, most frequent from November to March

New Zealand
earthquakes are common, though usually not severe;
volcanic activity

Nicaragua
destructive earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides; extremely
susceptible to hurricanes

Niger
recurring droughts

Nigeria
periodic droughts; flooding

Niue
typhoons

Norfolk Island
typhoons (especially May to July)

Northern Mariana Islands active volcanoes on Pagan and Agrihan; typhoons (especially August to November)

Norway
rockslides, avalanches

Oman
summer winds often raise large sandstorms and dust storms in
interior; periodic droughts

Pacific Ocean
surrounded by a zone of violent volcanic and
earthquake activity sometimes referred to as the "Pacific Ring of
Fire"; subject to tropical cyclones (typhoons) in southeast and east
Asia from May to December (most frequent from July to October);
tropical cyclones (hurricanes) may form south of Mexico and strike
Central America and Mexico from June to October (most common in
August and September); cyclical El Nino/La Nina phenomenon occurs in
the equatorial Pacific, influencing weather in the Western
Hemisphere and the western Pacific; ships subject to superstructure
icing in extreme north from October to May; persistent fog in the
northern Pacific can be a maritime hazard from June to December

Pakistan
frequent earthquakes, occasionally severe especially in
north and west; flooding along the Indus after heavy rains (July and
August)

Palau
typhoons (June to December)

Palmyra Atoll
NA

Panama
occasional severe storms and forest fires in the Darien area

Papua New Guinea
active volcanism; situated along the Pacific "Ring
of Fire"; the country is subject to frequent and sometimes severe
earthquakes; mud slides; tsunamis

Paracel Islands
typhoons

Paraguay
local flooding in southeast (early September to June);
poorly drained plains may become boggy (early October to June)

Peru
earthquakes, tsunamis, flooding, landslides, mild volcanic
activity

Philippines
astride typhoon belt, usually affected by 15 and struck
by five to six cyclonic storms per year; landslides; active
volcanoes; destructive earthquakes; tsunamis

Pitcairn Islands
typhoons (especially November to March)

Poland
flooding

Portugal
Azores subject to severe earthquakes

Puerto Rico
periodic droughts; hurricanes

Qatar
haze, dust storms, sandstorms common

Reunion
periodic, devastating cyclones (December to April); Piton de
la Fournaise on the southeastern coast is an active volcano

Romania
earthquakes, most severe in south and southwest; geologic
structure and climate promote landslides

Russia
permafrost over much of Siberia is a major impediment to
development; volcanic activity in the Kuril Islands; volcanoes and
earthquakes on the Kamchatka Peninsula; spring floods and
summer/autumn forest fires throughout Siberia and parts of European
Russia

Rwanda
periodic droughts; the volcanic Virunga mountains are in the
northwest along the border with Democratic Republic of the Congo

Saint Helena
active volcanism on Tristan da Cunha, last eruption in
1961

Saint Kitts and Nevis
hurricanes (July to October)

Saint Lucia
hurricanes and volcanic activity

Saint Pierre and Miquelon
persistent fog throughout the year can be
a maritime hazard

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
hurricanes; Soufriere volcano on
the island of Saint Vincent is a constant threat

Samoa
occasional typhoons; active volcanism

San Marino
NA

Sao Tome and Principe
NA

Saudi Arabia
frequent sand and dust storms

Senegal
lowlands seasonally flooded; periodic droughts

Serbia
destructive earthquakes

Seychelles
lies outside the cyclone belt, so severe storms are rare;
short droughts possible

Sierra Leone
dry, sand-laden harmattan winds blow from the Sahara
(December to February); sandstorms, dust storms

Singapore
NA

Slovakia
NA

Slovenia
flooding and earthquakes

Solomon Islands
typhoons, but rarely destructive; geologically
active region with frequent earth tremors; volcanic activity

Somalia
recurring droughts; frequent dust storms over eastern plains
in summer; floods during rainy season

South Africa
prolonged droughts

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
the South Sandwich
Islands have prevailing weather conditions that generally make them
difficult to approach by ship; they are also subject to active
volcanism

Southern Ocean
huge icebergs with drafts up to several hundred
meters; smaller bergs and iceberg fragments; sea ice (generally 0.5
to 1 meter thick) with sometimes dynamic short-term variations and
with large annual and interannual variations; deep continental shelf
floored by glacial deposits varying widely over short distances;
high winds and large waves much of the year; ship icing, especially
May-October; most of region is remote from sources of search and
rescue

Spain
periodic droughts

Spratly Islands
typhoons; numerous reefs and shoals pose a serious
maritime hazard

Sri Lanka
occasional cyclones and tornadoes

Sudan
dust storms and periodic persistent droughts

Suriname
NA

Svalbard
ice floes often block the entrance to Bellsund (a transit
point for coal export) on the west coast and occasionally make parts
of the northeastern coast inaccessible to maritime traffic

Swaziland
drought

Sweden
ice floes in the surrounding waters, especially in the Gulf
of Bothnia, can interfere with maritime traffic

Switzerland
avalanches, landslides, flash floods

Syria
dust storms, sandstorms

Taiwan
earthquakes and typhoons

Tajikistan
earthquakes and floods

Tanzania
flooding on the central plateau during the rainy season;
drought

Thailand
land subsidence in Bangkok area resulting from the
depletion of the water table; droughts

Togo
hot, dry harmattan wind can reduce visibility in north during
winter; periodic droughts

Tokelau
lies in Pacific typhoon belt

Tonga
cyclones (October to April); earthquakes and volcanic activity
on Fonuafo'ou

Trinidad and Tobago
outside usual path of hurricanes and other
tropical storms

Tromelin Island
NA

Tunisia
NA

Turkey
severe earthquakes, especially in northern Turkey, along an
arc extending from the Sea of Marmara to Lake Van

Turkmenistan
NA

Turks and Caicos Islands
frequent hurricanes

Tuvalu
severe tropical storms are usually rare, but, in 1997, there
were three cyclones; low level of islands make them sensitive to
changes in sea level

Uganda
NA

Ukraine
NA

United Arab Emirates
frequent sand and dust storms

United Kingdom
winter windstorms; floods

United States
tsunamis, volcanoes, and earthquake activity around
Pacific Basin; hurricanes along the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico
coasts; tornadoes in the midwest and southeast; mud slides in
California; forest fires in the west; flooding; permafrost in
northern Alaska, a major impediment to development

United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges
Baker, Howland, and
Jarvis Islands: the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can
be a maritime hazard
Kingman Reef: wet or awash most of the time, maximum elevation of
less than 1 m makes Kingman Reef a maritime hazard
Midway Islands, Johnston, and Palmyra Atolls: NA

Uruguay
seasonally high winds (the pampero is a chilly and
occasional violent wind that blows north from the Argentine pampas),
droughts, floods; because of the absence of mountains, which act as
weather barriers, all locations are particularly vulnerable to rapid
changes from weather fronts

Uzbekistan
NA

Vanuatu
tropical cyclones or typhoons (January to April); volcanic
eruption on Aoba (Ambae) island began 27 November 2005, volcanism
also causes minor earthquakes; tsunamis

Venezuela
subject to floods, rockslides, mudslides; periodic droughts

Vietnam
occasional typhoons (May to January) with extensive
flooding, especially in the Mekong River delta

Virgin Islands
several hurricanes in recent years; frequent and
severe droughts and floods; occasional earthquakes

Wake Island
occasional typhoons

Wallis and Futuna
NA

West Bank
droughts

Western Sahara
hot, dry, dust/sand-laden sirocco wind can occur
during winter and spring; widespread harmattan haze exists 60% of
time, often severely restricting visibility

World
large areas subject to severe weather (tropical cyclones),
natural disasters (earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, volcanic
eruptions)

Yemen
sandstorms and dust storms in summer

Zambia
periodic drought, tropical storms (November to April)

Zimbabwe
recurring droughts; floods and severe storms are rare

This page was last updated on 19 December, 2006

@2022 People - note

Afghanistan
of the estimated 4 million refugees in October 2001, 2.3
million have returned

Ashmore and Cartier Islands
the landing of illegal immigrants from
Indonesia's Rote Island has become an ongoing problem

Cook Islands
2001 census counted a resident population of 15,017

Cuba
illicit migration is a continuing problem; Cubans attempt to
depart the island and enter the US using homemade rafts, alien
smugglers, direct flights, or falsified visas; Cubans also use
non-maritime routes to enter the US including direct flights to
Miami and over-land via the southwest border

Greece
women, men, and children are trafficked to and within Greece
for the purposes of sexual exploitation and forced labor

Rwanda
Rwanda is the most densely populated country in Africa

Turks and Caicos Islands
destination and transit point for illegal
Haitian immigrants bound for the Turks and Caicos Islands, The
Bahamas, and US

This page was last updated on 19 December, 2006

@2023 Area - comparative

Afghanistan
slightly smaller than Texas

Akrotiri
about 0.7 times the size of Washington, DC

Albania
slightly smaller than Maryland

Algeria
slightly less than 3.5 times the size of Texas

American Samoa
slightly larger than Washington, DC

Andorra
2.5 times the size of Washington, DC

Angola
slightly less than twice the size of Texas

Anguilla
about half the size of Washington, DC

Antarctica
slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US

Antigua and Barbuda
2.5 times the size of Washington, DC

Arctic Ocean
slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US

Argentina
slightly less than three-tenths the size of the US

Armenia
slightly smaller than Maryland

Aruba
slightly larger than Washington, DC

Ashmore and Cartier Islands about eight times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC

Atlantic Ocean
slightly less than 6.5 times the size of the US

Australia
slightly smaller than the US contiguous 48 states

Austria
slightly smaller than Maine

Azerbaijan
slightly smaller than Maine

Bahamas, The
slightly smaller than Connecticut

Bahrain
3.5 times the size of Washington, DC

Baker Island
about 2.5 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC

Bangladesh
slightly smaller than Iowa

Barbados
2.5 times the size of Washington, DC

Bassas da India
about one-third the size of The Mall in Washington,
DC

Belarus
slightly smaller than Kansas

Belgium
about the size of Maryland

Belize
slightly smaller than Massachusetts

Benin
slightly smaller than Pennsylvania

Bermuda
about one-third the size of Washington, DC

Bhutan
about half the size of Indiana

Bolivia
slightly less than three times the size of Montana

Bosnia and Herzegovina
slightly smaller than West Virginia

Botswana
slightly smaller than Texas

Bouvet Island
about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC

Brazil
slightly smaller than the US

British Indian Ocean Territory land area is about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC

British Virgin Islands
about 0.9 times the size of Washington, DC

Brunei
slightly smaller than Delaware

Bulgaria
slightly larger than Tennessee

Burkina Faso
slightly larger than Colorado

Burma
slightly smaller than Texas

Burundi
slightly smaller than Maryland

Cambodia
slightly smaller than Oklahoma

Cameroon
slightly larger than California

Canada
somewhat larger than the US

Cape Verde
slightly larger than Rhode Island

Cayman Islands
1.5 times the size of Washington, DC

Central African Republic
slightly smaller than Texas

Chad
slightly more than three times the size of California

Chile
slightly smaller than twice the size of Montana

China
slightly smaller than the US

Christmas Island
about three-quarters the size of Washington, DC

Clipperton Island
about 12 times the size of The Mall in Washington,
DC

Cocos (Keeling) Islands
about 24 times the size of The Mall in
Washington, DC

Colombia
slightly less than twice the size of Texas

Comoros
slightly more than 12 times the size of Washington, DC

Congo, Democratic Republic of the slightly less than one-fourth the size of the US

Congo, Republic of the
slightly smaller than Montana

Cook Islands
1.3 times the size of Washington, DC

Coral Sea Islands
NA

Costa Rica
slightly smaller than West Virginia

Cote d'Ivoire
slightly larger than New Mexico

Croatia
slightly smaller than West Virginia

Cuba
slightly smaller than Pennsylvania

Cyprus
about 0.6 times the size of Connecticut

Czech Republic
slightly smaller than South Carolina

Denmark
slightly less than twice the size of Massachusetts

Dhekelia
about three-quarters the size of Washington, DC

Djibouti
slightly smaller than Massachusetts

Dominica
slightly more than four times the size of Washington, DC

Dominican Republic
slightly more than twice the size of New Hampshire

East Timor
slightly larger than Connecticut

Ecuador
slightly smaller than Nevada

Egypt
slightly more than three times the size of New Mexico

El Salvador
slightly smaller than Massachusetts

Equatorial Guinea
slightly smaller than Maryland

Eritrea
slightly larger than Pennsylvania

Estonia
slightly smaller than New Hampshire and Vermont combined

Ethiopia
slightly less than twice the size of Texas

Europa Island
about 0.16 times the size of Washington, DC

European Union
less than one-half the size of the US

Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)
slightly smaller than Connecticut

Faroe Islands
eight times the size of Washington, DC

Fiji
slightly smaller than New Jersey

Finland
slightly smaller than Montana

France
slightly less than twice the size of Colorado

French Guiana
slightly smaller than Indiana

French Polynesia
slightly less than one-third the size of Connecticut

French Southern and Antarctic Lands slightly less than 1.3 times the size of Delaware

Gabon
slightly smaller than Colorado

Gambia, The
slightly less than twice the size of Delaware

Gaza Strip
slightly more than twice the size of Washington, DC

Georgia
slightly smaller than South Carolina

Germany
slightly smaller than Montana

Ghana
slightly smaller than Oregon

Gibraltar
about 11 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC

Glorioso Islands
about eight times the size of The Mall in
Washington, DC

Greece
slightly smaller than Alabama

Greenland
slightly more than three times the size of Texas

Grenada
twice the size of Washington, DC

Guadeloupe
10 times the size of Washington, DC

Guam
three times the size of Washington, DC

Guatemala
slightly smaller than Tennessee

Guernsey
about one-half the size of Washington, DC

Guinea
slightly smaller than Oregon

Guinea-Bissau
slightly less than three times the size of Connecticut

Guyana
slightly smaller than Idaho

Haiti
slightly smaller than Maryland

Heard Island and McDonald Islands
slightly more than two times the
size of Washington, DC

Holy See (Vatican City)
about 0.7 times the size of The Mall in
Washington, DC

Honduras
slightly larger than Tennessee

Hong Kong
six times the size of Washington, DC

Howland Island
about three times the size of The Mall in Washington,
DC

Hungary
slightly smaller than Indiana

Iceland
slightly smaller than Kentucky

Iles Eparses
Bassas da India: land area about one-third the size of
The Mall in Washington, DC
Europa Island: about one-sixth the size of Washington, DC
Glorioso Islands: about eight times the size of The Mall in
Washington, DC
Juan de Nova Island: about seven times the size of The Mall in
Washington, DC
Tromelin Island: about 1.7 times the size of The Mall in Washington,
DC

India
slightly more than one-third the size of the US

Indian Ocean
about 5.5 times the size of the US

Indonesia
slightly less than three times the size of Texas

Iran
slightly larger than Alaska

Iraq
slightly more than twice the size of Idaho

Ireland
slightly larger than West Virginia

Isle of Man
slightly more than three times the size of Washington, DC

Israel
slightly smaller than New Jersey

Italy
slightly larger than Arizona

Jamaica
slightly smaller than Connecticut

Jan Mayen
slightly more than twice the size of Washington, DC

Japan
slightly smaller than California

Jarvis Island
about eight times the size of The Mall in Washington,
DC

Jersey
about two-thirds the size of Washington, DC

Johnston Atoll
about 4.7 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC

Jordan
slightly smaller than Indiana

Juan de Nova Island
about seven times the size of The Mall in
Washington, DC

Kazakhstan
slightly less than four times the size of Texas

Kenya
slightly more than twice the size of Nevada

Kingman Reef
about 1.7 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC

Kiribati
four times the size of Washington, DC

Korea, North
slightly smaller than Mississippi

Korea, South
slightly larger than Indiana

Kuwait
slightly smaller than New Jersey

Kyrgyzstan
slightly smaller than South Dakota

Laos
slightly larger than Utah

Latvia
slightly larger than West Virginia

Lebanon
about 0.7 times the size of Connecticut

Lesotho
slightly smaller than Maryland

Liberia
slightly larger than Tennessee

Libya
slightly larger than Alaska

Liechtenstein
about 0.9 times the size of Washington, DC

Lithuania
slightly larger than West Virginia

Luxembourg
slightly smaller than Rhode Island

Macau
less than one-sixth the size of Washington, DC

Macedonia
slightly larger than Vermont

Madagascar
slightly less than twice the size of Arizona

Malawi
slightly smaller than Pennsylvania

Malaysia
slightly larger than New Mexico

Maldives
about 1.7 times the size of Washington, DC

Mali
slightly less than twice the size of Texas

Malta
slightly less than twice the size of Washington, DC

Marshall Islands
about the size of Washington, DC

Martinique
slightly more than six times the size of Washington, DC

Mauritania
slightly larger than three times the size of New Mexico

Mauritius
almost 11 times the size of Washington, DC

Mayotte
slightly more than twice the size of Washington, DC

Mexico
slightly less than three times the size of Texas

Micronesia, Federated States of
four times the size of Washington,
DC (land area only)

Midway Islands
about nine times the size of The Mall in Washington,
DC

Moldova
slightly larger than Maryland

Monaco
about three times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC

Mongolia
slightly smaller than Alaska

Montenegro
slightly smaller than Connecticut

Montserrat
about 0.6 times the size of Washington, DC

Morocco
slightly larger than California

Mozambique
slightly less than twice the size of California

Namibia
slightly more than half the size of Alaska

Nauru
about 0.1 times the size of Washington, DC

Navassa Island
about nine times the size of The Mall in Washington,
DC

Nepal
slightly larger than Arkansas

Netherlands
slightly less than twice the size of New Jersey

Netherlands Antilles
more than five times the size of Washington, DC

New Caledonia
slightly smaller than New Jersey

New Zealand
about the size of Colorado

Nicaragua
slightly smaller than the state of New York

Niger
slightly less than twice the size of Texas

Nigeria
slightly more than twice the size of California

Niue
1.5 times the size of Washington, DC

Norfolk Island
about 0.2 times the size of Washington, DC

Northern Mariana Islands
2.5 times the size of Washington, DC

Norway
slightly larger than New Mexico

Oman
slightly smaller than Kansas

Pacific Ocean
about 15 times the size of the US; covers about 28% of
the global surface; larger than the total land area of the world

Pakistan
slightly less than twice the size of California

Palau
slightly more than 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC

Palmyra Atoll
about 20 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC

Panama
slightly smaller than South Carolina

Papua New Guinea
slightly larger than California

Paracel Islands
NA

Paraguay
slightly smaller than California

Peru
slightly smaller than Alaska

Philippines
slightly larger than Arizona

Pitcairn Islands
about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC

Poland
slightly smaller than New Mexico

Portugal
slightly smaller than Indiana

Puerto Rico
slightly less than three times the size of Rhode Island

Qatar
slightly smaller than Connecticut

Reunion
slightly smaller than Rhode Island

Romania
slightly smaller than Oregon

Russia
approximately 1.8 times the size of the US

Rwanda
slightly smaller than Maryland

Saint Helena
slightly more than twice the size of Washington, DC

Saint Kitts and Nevis
1.5 times the size of Washington, DC

Saint Lucia
3.5 times the size of Washington, DC

Saint Pierre and Miquelon
1.5 times the size of Washington, DC

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
twice the size of Washington, DC

Samoa
slightly smaller than Rhode Island

San Marino
about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC

Sao Tome and Principe
more than five times the size of Washington, DC

Saudi Arabia
slightly more than one-fifth the size of the US

Senegal
slightly smaller than South Dakota

Serbia
slightly larger than South Carolina

Seychelles
2.5 times the size of Washington, DC

Sierra Leone
slightly smaller than South Carolina

Singapore
slightly more than 3.5 times the size of Washington, DC

Slovakia
about twice the size of New Hampshire

Slovenia
slightly smaller than New Jersey

Solomon Islands
slightly smaller than Maryland

Somalia
slightly smaller than Texas

South Africa
slightly less than twice the size of Texas

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
slightly larger than
Rhode Island

Southern Ocean
slightly more than twice the size of the US

Spain
slightly more than twice the size of Oregon

Spratly Islands
NA

Sri Lanka
slightly larger than West Virginia

Sudan
slightly more than one-quarter the size of the US

Suriname
slightly larger than Georgia

Svalbard
slightly smaller than West Virginia

Swaziland
slightly smaller than New Jersey

Sweden
slightly larger than California

Switzerland
slightly less than twice the size of New Jersey

Syria
slightly larger than North Dakota

Taiwan
slightly smaller than Maryland and Delaware combined

Tajikistan
slightly smaller than Wisconsin

Tanzania
slightly larger than twice the size of California

Thailand
slightly more than twice the size of Wyoming

Togo
slightly smaller than West Virginia

Tokelau
about 17 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC

Tonga
four times the size of Washington, DC

Trinidad and Tobago
slightly smaller than Delaware

Tromelin Island
about 1.7 times the size of The Mall in Washington,
DC

Tunisia
slightly larger than Georgia

Turkey
slightly larger than Texas

Turkmenistan
slightly larger than California

Turks and Caicos Islands
2.5 times the size of Washington, DC

Tuvalu
0.1 times the size of Washington, DC

Uganda
slightly smaller than Oregon

Ukraine
slightly smaller than Texas

United Arab Emirates
slightly smaller than Maine

United Kingdom
slightly smaller than Oregon

United States
about half the size of Russia; about three-tenths the
size of Africa; about half the size of South America (or slightly
larger than Brazil); slightly larger than China; almost two and a
half times the size of the European Union

United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges
Baker Island: about
two and a half times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
Howland Island: about three times the size of The Mall in
Washington, DC
Jarvis Island: about eight times the size of The Mall in Washington,
DC
Johnston Atoll: about four and a half times the size of The Mall in
Washington, DC
Kingman Reef: a little more than one and a half times the size of
The Mall in Washington, DC
Midway Islands: about nine times the size of The Mall in Washington,
DC
Palmyra Atoll: about 20 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC

Uruguay
slightly smaller than the state of Washington

Uzbekistan
slightly larger than California

Vanuatu
slightly larger than Connecticut

Venezuela
slightly more than twice the size of California

Vietnam
slightly larger than New Mexico

Virgin Islands
twice the size of Washington, DC

Wake Island
about 11 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC

Wallis and Futuna
1.5 times the size of Washington, DC

West Bank
slightly smaller than Delaware

Western Sahara
about the size of Colorado

World
land area about 16 times the size of the US

Yemen
slightly larger than twice the size of Wyoming

Zambia
slightly larger than Texas

Zimbabwe
slightly larger than Montana

This page was last updated on 19 December, 2006

@2024 Military service age and obligation (years of age)

Afghanistan
22 years of age; inductees are contracted into service
for a 4-year term (2005)

Albania
19 years of age (2004)

Algeria
19-30 years of age for compulsory military service;
conscript service obligation - 18 months (6 months basic training,
12 months civil projects) (2006)

Angola
17 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript
service obligation - two years plus time for training (2001)

Antigua and Barbuda
18 years of age (est.); no conscript military
service (2001)

Argentina
18 years of age for voluntary military service; no
conscription (2001)

Armenia
18 to 27 years of age for compulsory military service,
conscript service obligation - 12 months; 18 years of age for
voluntary military service (2004)

Australia
16 years of age for voluntary service; women allowed to
serve in Army combat units in non-combat support roles (2001)

Austria
18 years of age for compulsory military service; 16 years of
age for voluntary service; from 2007, at the earliest, compulsory
military service obligation will be reduced from eight months to six
(2005)

Azerbaijan
men between 18 and 35 are liable for military service; 18
years of age for voluntary military service; length of military
service is 18 months and 12 months for university graduates (2006)

Bahamas, The
18 years of age (est.); no conscription (2001)

Bahrain
18 years of age for voluntary military service (2001)

Bangladesh
18 years of age for voluntary military service; no
conscription (2005)

Barbados
18 years of age for voluntary military service; volunteers
at earlier age with parental consent; no conscription (2001)

Belarus
18-27 years of age for compulsory military service;
conscript service obligation - 18 months (2005)

Belgium
16 years of age for voluntary military service; women
comprise approx. 7% of the Belgian armed forces (2001)

Belize
18 years of age for voluntary military service; laws allow
for conscription only if volunteers are insufficient; conscription
has never been implemented; volunteers typically outnumber available
positions by 3:1 (2001)

Benin
21 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military service;
in practice, volunteers may be taken at the age of 18; both sexes
are eligible for military service; conscript tour of duty - 18
months (2004)

Bhutan
18 years of age for voluntary military service; no
conscription (2001)

Bolivia
18 years of age for voluntary military service; when annual
number of volunteers falls short of goal, compulsory recruitment is
effected, including conscription of boys as young as 14; one
estimate holds that 40% of the armed forces are under the age of 18,
with 50% of those under the age of 16; conscript tour of duty - 12
months (2002)

Bosnia and Herzegovina
18 years of age for compulsory military
service in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina; 16 years of age
in times of war; 18 years of age for Republika Srpska; 17 years of
age for voluntary military service in the Federation and in the
Republika Srpska; by law, military obligations cover all healthy men
between the ages of 18 and 60, and all women between the ages of 18
and 55; service obligation is four months (July 2004)

Botswana
18 is the apparent age of voluntary military service; the
official qualifications for determining minimum age are unknown
(2001)

Brazil
21-45 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript
service obligation - nine to 12 months; 17-45 years of age for
voluntary service; an increasing percentage of the ranks are
"long-service" volunteer professionals; women were allowed to serve
in the armed forces beginning in early 1980s when the Brazilian Army
became the first army in South America to accept women into career
ranks; women serve in Navy and Air Force only in Women's Reserve
Corps (2001)

Brunei
18 years of age (est.) (2004)

Bulgaria
18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military
service; conscript service obligation - 9 months; as of May 2006,
67% of the Bulgarian Army comprised of professional soldiers;
conscription into the Army to end as of 1 January 2008; Air and Air
Defense Forces and Naval Forces will become fully professional by
end of 2006 (2006)

Burkina Faso
18 years of age for compulsory military service; 20
years of age for voluntary military service (2001)

Burma
18 years of age for voluntary military service for both sexes
(2004)

Burundi
16 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military
service (2001)

Cambodia
conscription law made effective in October 2006 requires
all males between 18-30 to register for military service; service
obligation is 18 months (2006)

Cameroon
18 years of age for voluntary military service; no
conscription (1999)

Canada
16 years of age for voluntary military service; women
comprise approximately 11% of Canada's armed forces (2001)

Central African Republic
18 years of age for voluntary and
compulsory military service; conscript service obligation is two
years (2005)

Chad
20 years of age for conscripts, with three-year service
obligation; 18 years of age for volunteers; no minimum age
restriction for volunteers with consent from a guardian; women are
subject to one year of compulsory military or civic service at age
of 21 (2004)

Chile
all male citizens 18-45 are obligated to perform military
service; conscript service obligation - 12 months for Army, 24
months for Navy and Air Force (2004)

China
18-22 years of age for compulsory military service, with
24-month service obligation; no minimum age for voluntary service
(all officers are volunteers); 18-22 years of age for women who meet
requirements for specific military jobs (2006)

Colombia
18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military
service; conscript service obligation - 24 months (2004)

Congo, Democratic Republic of the
18-45 years of age for military
service

Congo, Republic of the
18 years of age for voluntary military
service (2001)

Costa Rica
18 years of age (2004)

Cote d'Ivoire
18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military
service; conscript service obligation - 18 months (2004)

Croatia
18 years of age for compulsory military service, with
six-month service obligation; 16 years of age with consent for
voluntary service (December 2004)

Cuba
17 years of age; both sexes are eligible for military service
(2004)

Cyprus
18 years of age (2004)

Czech Republic
18-50 years of age for voluntary military service;
on-going transformation of military service into a fully
professional, all-volunteer force no longer dependent on
conscription began in January 2004 and is scheduled to be completed
by 2007 (2005)

Denmark
18 years of age for compulsory and volunteer military
service; conscripts serve an initial training period that varies
from four to 12 months according to specialization; reservists are
assigned to mobilization units following completion of their
conscript service; women eligible to volunteer for military service
(2004)

Djibouti
18 years of age (est.); no conscription (2001)

Dominican Republic 18 years of age for voluntary military service (2001)

East Timor
18 years of age for voluntary military service (2001)

Ecuador
20 years of age for conscript military service; 12-month
service obligation (2004)

Egypt
18 years of age for conscript military service; three-year
service obligation (2001)

El Salvador
18 years of age for compulsory military service, with
12-month service obligation; 16 years of age for volunteers (2002)

Equatorial Guinea
18 years of age (est.) (2004)

Eritrea
18 years of age for voluntary and compulsory military
service; conscript service obligation - 16 months (2004)

Estonia
compulsory military service for men between 19 and 28;
conscription lasts 11 months for junior NCOs and reserve platoon
leaders; reserve officers and designated specialists have a
different conscript service obligation; Estonia has committed to
retaining conscription for men up to 2010 and, unlike Latvia and
Lithuania, has no plan to transition to a contract armed forces; 17
years of age for volunteers; reserve commitment up to the age of 60
(2006)

Ethiopia
18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military
service (2001)

Fiji
18 years of age for voluntary military service (2001)

Finland
18 years of age for voluntary and compulsory military
service (October 2004)

France
17 years of age for voluntary military service; conscription
ended in the 1990s; women serve in non-combat military posts (2001)

Gabon
18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military service
(2001)

Gambia, The
18 years of age for voluntary military service; no
conscription (2001)

Georgia
18 to 34 years of age for compulsory and voluntary active
duty military service; conscript service obligation - 18 months
(2005)

Germany
18 years of age (conscripts serve a nine-month tour of
compulsory military service) (2004)

Ghana
18 years of age for compulsory and volunteer military service
(2001)

Greece
18 years of age for compulsory military service; during
wartime the law allows for recruitment beginning January of the year
of inductee's 18th birthday, thus including 17 year olds; 17 years
of age for volunteers; conscript service obligation - 12 months for
the Army, Air Force; 15 months for Navy; women are eligible for
military service (2005)

Guatemala
all male citizens between the ages of 18 and 50 are liable
for military service; conscript service obligation varies from 12 to
24 months (2005)

Guinea
18 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript
service obligation - 24 months (2004)

Guinea-Bissau
18 years of age for compulsory military service (2001)

Haiti
18 years of age for voluntary recruitment into the police
force (2001)

Honduras
18 years of age for voluntary two-three year military
service (2004)

Hong Kong
18 years of age (2004)

Hungary
18 years of age for voluntary military service; conscription
abolished in June 2004 (2004)

India
16 years of age for voluntary military service (2001)

Indonesia
18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military
service; conscript service obligation - two years (2002)

Iran
18 years of age for compulsory military service; 16 years of
age for volunteers; soldiers as young as 9 were recruited
extensively during the Iran-Iraq War; conscript service obligation -
18 months (2004)

Iraq
all volunteer force; the Iraqi Government is creating a new
professional Iraqi military force of men aged 18 to 40 to defend
Iraq from external threats and the current insurgency (2006)

Ireland
17 years of age for voluntary military service; enlistees
under the age of 17 can be recruited for specialist positions (2001)

Israel
17 years of age for compulsory (Jews, Druzes) and voluntary
(Christians, Muslims, Circassians) military service; both sexes are
eligible for military service; conscript service obligation - 36
months for men, 21 months for women (2004)

Italy
voluntary military service; conscription abolished January
2005 (2006)

Jamaica
18 years of age for voluntary military service; younger
recruits may be conscripted with parental consent (2001)

Japan
18 years of age for voluntary military service (2001)

Jordan
17 years of age for voluntary military service; conscription
at age 18 was suspended in 1999, although all males under age 37 are
required to register; women not subject to conscription, but can
volunteer to serve in non-combat military positions (2004)

Kazakhstan
18 years of age for compulsory military service;
conscript service obligation - two years; minimum age for volunteers
NA (2004)

Kenya
18 years of age (est.) (2004)

Korea, North
17 years of age (2004)

Korea, South
20-30 years of age for compulsory military service;
conscript service obligation - 24-28 months, depending on the
military branch involved; 18 years of age for voluntary military
service; some 4,000 women serve as commissioned and noncommissioned
officers, approx. 2.3% of all officers; women, in service since
1950, are admitted to seven service branches, including infantry,
but excluded from artillery, armor, anti-air, and chaplaincy corps
(2005)

Kuwait
18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military
service; 1 month annual training to age 40; women have served in
police forces since 1999 (2001)

Kyrgyzstan
18 years of age for compulsory military service (2001)

Laos
15 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript
service obligation - minimum 18 months (2004)

Latvia
19 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript
service obligation - 12 months; 18 years of age for volunteers;
plans are to phase out conscription, tentatively moving to an
all-professional force by 2007; under current law, every citizen is
entitled to serve in the armed forces for life (2004)

Lebanon
18-30 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military
service; conscript service obligation - 12 months (2004)

Lesotho
18 years of age (est.); no conscription (2001)

Liberia
18 years of age for voluntary military service; no
conscription (2001)

Libya
17 years of age (2004)

Lithuania
19-45 years of age for compulsory military service,
conscript service obligation - 12 months; 18 years of age for
volunteers (2004)

Luxembourg
a 1967 law made the Army an all-volunteer force; 17 years
of age for voluntary military service; soldiers under 18 are not
deployed into combat or with peacekeeping missions (2004)

Macedonia
conscription to be phased out by 2007; current tour of
conscript duty is six months; 18 years of age for voluntary military
service (2005)

Madagascar
18-50 years of age; conscript service obligation - 18
months (either military or equivalent civil service) (2004)

Malawi
18 years of age for voluntary military service; no
conscription (2001)

Malaysia
18 years of age for voluntary military service (2005)

Maldives
18 years of age (est.) (2004)

Mali
18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military service;
conscript service obligation - two years (2004)

Malta
18 years of age for voluntary military service; no
conscription (2001)

Mauritania
18 years of age (est.); conscript service obligation -
two years; majority of servicemen believed to be volunteers; service
in Air Force and Navy is voluntary (April 2005)

Mexico
18 years of age for compulsory military service, conscript
service obligation - 12 months; 16 years of age with consent for
voluntary enlistment (2004)

Moldova
18 years of age for compulsory military service; national
service obligation - 12 months (2004)

Mongolia
18-25 years of age for compulsory military service;
conscript service obligation - 12 months in land or air defense
forces or police; a small portion of Mongolian land forces (2.5
percent) is comprised of contract soldiers (2004)

Montenegro
compulsory national military service abolished August 2006

Morocco
18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military
service; conscript service obligation - 18 months (2004)

Namibia
18 years of age for voluntary military service (2001)

Nepal
18 years of age for voluntary military service (2001)

Netherlands
20 years of age for an all-volunteer force (2004)

Netherlands Antilles
16 years of age for National Guard recruitment;
no conscription (2004)

New Zealand
17 years of age for voluntary military service; soldiers
cannot be deployed until the age of 18 (2001)

Nicaragua
17 years of age for voluntary military service (2001)

Niger
18 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript
service obligation - two years (2004)

Nigeria
18 years of age for voluntary military service (2006)

Norway
18 years of age for compulsory military service; 16 years of
age in wartime; 17 years of age for male volunteers; 18 years of age
for women; 16 years of age for volunteers to the Home Guard;
conscript service obligation - 12 months (2004)

Oman
18 years of age for voluntary military service (2001)

Pakistan
16 years of age for voluntary military service; soldiers
cannot be deployed for combat until age of 18; the Pakistani Air
Force has inducted its first female combat pilot (2006)

Papua New Guinea
18 years of age (est.); no conscription (2001)

Paraguay
18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military
service; conscript service obligation - 12 months for Army, 24
months for Navy (2004)

Peru
18 years of age for compulsory military service (1999)

Philippines
18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military
service (2001)

Poland
17 years of age for compulsory military service after January
1st of the year of 18th birthday; 17 years of age for voluntary
military service; in 2005, Poland plans to shorten the length of
conscript service obligation from 12 to 9 months; by 2008, plans
call for at least 60% of military personnel to be volunteers; only
soldiers who have completed their conscript service are allowed to
volunteer for professional service; as of April 2004, women are only
allowed to serve as officers and noncommissioned officers (2004)

Portugal
18 years of age for voluntary military service; compulsory
military service was ended in 2004; women serve in the armed forces,
on naval ships since 1993, but are prohibited from serving in some
combatant specialties (2005)

Qatar
18 years of age for voluntary military service; land forces
enlisted personnel are largely unprofessional foreign nationals
(2005)

Reunion
18 years of age (2004)

Romania
all military inductees (including women) are volunteers who
contract for an initial five-year term of service; subsequent
voluntary service contracts are for successive three-year terms
until the age of 36; minimum age for voluntary military service is
18 (2006)

Russia
Russia has adopted a mixed conscript-contract force; 18-27
years of age; males are registered for the draft at 17 years of age;
length of compulsory military service is two years; plans call for
reduction in mandatory service to 18 months in 2007 and to one year
by 2008; 30% of Russian army personnel were contract servicemen at
the end of 2005; planning calls for volunteer servicemen to compose
70% of armed forces by 2010, with the remaining servicemen
consisting of conscripts; as of November 2006, the Armed Forces had
more than 60 units manned with contract personnel totalling over
78,000 contract privates and sergeants; 88 Ministry of Defense units
have been designated as permanent readiness units and are expected
to become all-volunteer by end 2007; these include most air force,
naval, and nuclear arms units, as well as all airborne and naval
infantry units, most motorized rifle brigades, and all special
forces detachments (2006)

Rwanda
16 years of age for voluntary military service; no
conscription (2001)

Saint Kitts and Nevis
18 years of age (est.) (2004)

Sao Tome and Principe
18 years of age (est.) (2004)

Saudi Arabia
18 years of age (est.); no conscription (2004)

Senegal
18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military
service; conscript service obligation - two years (2004)

Serbia
peacetime service obligation begins at age 17 and lasts until
age 60 for men and 50 for women; under a state of war or impending
war, the obligation can begin at age 16 and be extended beyond 60
(2006)

Seychelles
18 years of age (est.); no conscription (2001)

Sierra Leone
18 years of age (est.); no conscription (2001)

Singapore
18 years of age for compulsory military service; 16 years
of age for volunteers; conscript service obligation reduced to 24
months beginning December 2004 (2004)

Slovakia
complete transition to an all-volunteer professional force
went into effect at the beginning of 2006 after 140 years of
mandatory army service; volunteers include women, with minimum age
of 17 years (2005)

Slovenia
17 years of age for voluntary military service;
conscription abolished in 2003 (2004)

Somalia
18 years of age (est.) (2001)

South Africa
18 years of age for voluntary military service; women
have a long history of military service in noncombat roles, dating
back to World War I (2004)

Spain
20 years of age (2004)

Sri Lanka
18 years of age for voluntary military service (2001)

Sudan
18-30 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript
service obligation - three years (August 2004)

Suriname
18 years of age (est.); no conscription

Swaziland
18-30 years of age for voluntary military service; both
sexes are eligible for military service (2005)

Sweden
19 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript
service obligation - 7-17 months depending on conscript role; after
completing initial service, soldiers have a reserve commitment until
age of 47 (2004)

Switzerland
the Swiss Constitution states that "every Swiss male is
obliged to do military service"; every Swiss male has to serve for
at least 260 days in the armed forces; 19 years of age for
compulsory military service; 17 years of age for voluntary military
service; conscripts receive 15 weeks of compulsory training,
followed by 10 intermittent recalls for training over the next 22
years; women are accepted on a voluntary basis but are not drafted
(2005)

Syria
18 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript
service obligation - 30 months (18 months in the Syrian Arab Navy);
women are not conscripted but may volunteer to serve (2004)

Taiwan
19-35 years of age for military service; service obligation
16 months (to be shortened to 12 months in 2008); women in Air Force
service are restricted to noncombat roles (2005)

Tajikistan
18 years of age for compulsory military service;
conscript service obligation - two years (2004)

Tanzania
15 years of age for voluntary military service; 18 years of
age for compulsory military service upon graduation from secondary
school; conscript service obligation - two years (2004)

Thailand
21 years of age for compulsory military service; males are
registered at 18 years of age; conscript service obligation - two
years; 18 years of age for voluntary military service (2004)

Togo
18 years of age for voluntary and compulsory military service
(2001)

Tonga
18 years of age (est.) (2004)

Trinidad and Tobago
18 years of age for voluntary military service;
no conscription (2001)

Tunisia
20 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript
service obligation - 12 months; 18 years of age for voluntary
military service (2004)

Turkey
20 years of age (2004)

Turkmenistan
18 years of age for compulsory military service;
conscript service obligation - two years (2004)

Uganda
18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military duty;
the government has stated that recruitment below that age could
occur with proper consent and that "no person under the apparent age
of 13 years shall be enrolled in the armed forces"

Ukraine
18-25 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military
service; conscript service obligation - 18 months for Army and Air
Force, 24 months for Navy (2004)

United Arab Emirates
18 years of age (est.); no conscription (2001)

United Kingdom
16 years of age for voluntary military service; women
serve in military services, but are excluded from ground combat
positions and some naval postings (2004)

United States
18 years of age; 17 years of age with written parental
consent (2006)

Uruguay
18 years of age for voluntary and compulsory military
service (2001)

Uzbekistan
18 years of age for compulsory military service;
conscript service obligation - 12 months (2004)

Venezuela
18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military
service; conscript service obligation - 30 months (2004)

Vietnam
18 years of age (male) for compulsory military service;
females may volunteer for active duty military service; conscript
service obligation - 2 years (3-4 years in the navy); 18-45 years of
age (male) or 18-40 years of age (female) for Militia Force or Self
Defense Forces (2006)

Yemen
in May 2001, Yemen's National Defense Council abolished
compulsory military service and authorized a voluntary program for
military service (2004)

Zambia
18 years of age (est.) (2004)

Zimbabwe
18 years of age (est.) (2004)

This page was last updated on 19 December, 2006

@2025 Manpower fit for military service

Afghanistan
males age 22-49: 2,662,946
females age 22-49: 2,508,574 (2005 est.)

Albania
males age 19-49: 668,526
females age 19-49: 648,334 (2005 est.)

Algeria
males age 19-49: 6,590,079
females age 19-49: 6,711,285 (2005 est.)

Andorra
males age 18-49: 14,721 (2005 est.)

Angola
males age 17-49: 1,282,195
females age 17-49: 1,256,390 (2005 est.)

Anguilla
males age 18-49: 2,986 (2005 est.)

Antigua and Barbuda
males age 18-49: 14,859
females age 18-49: 14,947 (2005 est.)

Argentina
males age 18-49: 7,316,038
females age 18-49: 7,442,589 (2005 est.)

Armenia
males age 18-49: 551,938
females age 18-49: 656,493 (2005 est.)

Aruba
males age 18-49: 13,219 (2005 est.)

Australia
males age 16-49: 4,092,717
females age 16-49: 3,983,447 (2005 est.)

Austria
males age 18-49: 1,550,441
females age 18-49: 1,515,365 (2005 est.)

Azerbaijan
males age 18-49: 1,314,955
females age 18-49: 1,676,408 (2005 est.)

Bahamas, The
males age 18-49: 44,309 (2005 est.)

Bahrain
males age 18-49: 161,372
females age 18-49: 125,488 (2005 est.)

Bangladesh
males age 18-49: 26,841,255 (2005 est.)

Barbados
males age 18-49: 54,510
females age 18-49: 54,889 (2005 est.)

Belarus
males age 18-49: 1,657,984
females age 18-49: 2,102,793 (2005 est.)

Belgium
males age 16-49: 1,998,003
females age 16-49: 1,940,918 (2005 est.)

Belize
males age 18-49: 44,238
females age 18-49: 43,633 (2005 est.)

Benin
males age 21-49: 749,774
females age 21-49: 751,329 (2005 est.)

Bermuda
males age 18-49: 12,165 (2005 est.)

Bhutan
males age 18-49: 314,975
females age 18-49: 296,833 (2005 est.)

Bolivia
males age 18-49: 1,311,414
females age 18-49: 1,502,177 (2005 est.)

Bosnia and Herzegovina
males age 18-49: 910,539
females age 18-49: 881,446 (2005 est.)

Botswana
males age 18-49: 136,322
females age 18-49: 136,315 (2005 est.)

Brazil
males age 19-49: 33,119,098
females age 19-49: 38,079,722 (2005 est.)

British Virgin Islands
males age 18-49: 5,295 (2005 est.)

Brunei
males age 18-49: 85,045
females age 18-49: 77,436 (2005 est.)

Bulgaria
males age 18-49: 1,302,037
females age 18-49: 1,365,126 (2005 est.)

Burkina Faso
males age 18-49: 1,530,324 (2005 est.)

Burma
males age 18-49: 7,946,701
females age 18-49: 8,543,705 (2005 est.)

Burundi
males age 16-49: 955,616
females age 16-49: 932,767 (2005 est.)

Cambodia
males age 18-49: 1,955,141
females age 18-49: 2,048,611 (2005 est.)

Cameroon
males age 18-49: 1,946,767
females age 18-49: 1,834,600 (2005 est.)

Canada
males age 16-49: 6,740,490
females age 16-49: 6,580,868 (2005 est.)

Cape Verde
males age 18-49: 65,614
females age 18-49: 73,662 (2005 est.)

Cayman Islands
males age 18-49: 8,600 (2005 est.)

Central African Republic
males age 18-49: 416,091
females age 18-49: 383,056 (2005 est.)

Chad
males age 20-49: 794,988
females age 20-49: 849,500 (2005 est.)

Chile
males age 18-49: 3,123,281
females age 18-49: 3,128,277 (2005 est.)

China
males age 18-49: 281,240,272
females age 18-49: 269,025,517 (2005 est.)

Colombia
males age 18-49: 6,986,228
females age 18-49: 8,794,465 (2005 est.)

Comoros
males age 18-49: 98,792
females age 18-49: 106,415 (2005 est.)

Congo, Democratic Republic of the
males age 18-49: 6,464,223 (2005
est.)

Congo, Republic of the
males age 18-49: 406,016
females age 18-49: 394,745 (2005 est.)

Costa Rica
males age 18-49: 829,874
females age 18-49: 809,343 (2005 est.)

Cote d'Ivoire
males age 18-49: 1,973,265
females age 18-49: 1,911,777 (2005 est.)

Croatia
males age 18-49: 725,914
females age 18-49: 823,611 (2005 est.)

Cuba
males age 17-49: 2,441,927
females age 17-49: 2,396,741 (2005 est.)

Cyprus
Greek Cyriot National Guard (GCNG):
males age 18-49: 150,750
females age 18-49: 144,344 (2005 est.)

Czech Republic
males age 18-49: 1,996,631
females age 18-49: 1,923,508 (2005 est.)

Denmark
males age 18-49: 955,168
females age 18-49: 935,643 (2005 est.)

Djibouti
males age 18-49: 46,020
females age 18-49: 42,181 (2005 est.)

Dominica
males age 18-49: 15,136 (2005 est.)

Dominican Republic
males age 18-49: 1,671,493
females age 18-49: 1,536,257 (2005 est.)

East Timor
males age 18-49: 179,422
females age 18-49: 184,533 (2005 est.)

Ecuador
males age 20-49: 2,338,428
females age 20-49: 2,380,327 (2005 est.)

Egypt
males age 18-49: 15,540,234
females age 18-49: 14,939,378 (2005 est.)

El Salvador
males age 18-49: 960,315
females age 18-49: 1,310,466 (2005 est.)

Equatorial Guinea
males age 18-49: 56,462
females age 18-49: 59,260 (2005 est.)

Eritrea
males age 18-49: 555,553
females age 18-49: 562,426 (2005)

Estonia
males age 18-49: 200,382 (in 2004, 51% of the young men
called up for service were determined to be unfit; main obstacles to
conscription were psychiatric and behavioral)
females age 18-49: 250,351 (2005 est.)

Ethiopia
males age 18-49: 8,072,755
females age 18-49: 7,902,660 (2005 est.)

Faroe Islands
males age 18-49: 8,852 (2005 est.)

Fiji
males age 18-49: 163,960
females age 18-49: 178,714 (2005 est.)

Finland
males age 18-49: 913,617
females age 18-49: 875,689 (2005 est.)

France
males age 17-49: 11,262,661
females age 17-49: 11,079,472 (2005 est.)

French Guiana
males age 18-49: 38,676 (2005 est.)

French Polynesia
males age 18-49: 55,305 (2005 est.)

Gabon
males age 18-49: 159,198
females age 18-49: 156,122 (2005 est.)

Gambia, The
males age 18-49: 183,057
females age 18-49: 194,551 (2005 est.)

Gaza Strip
males age 18-49: 221,530 (2005 est.)

Georgia
males age 18-49: 827,281
females age 18-49: 903,791 (2005 est.)

Germany
males age 18-49: 15,258,931
females age 18-49: 14,443,412 (2005 est.)

Ghana
males age 18-49: 3,011,081
females age 18-49: 2,991,551 (2005 est.)

Gibraltar
males age 18-49: 4,893 (2005 est.)

Greece
males age 18-49: 2,018,557
females age 18-49: 2,000,650 (2005 est.)

Greenland
males age 18-49: 10,199 (2005 est.)

Grenada
males age 18-49: 17,483 (2005 est.)

Guadeloupe
males age 18-49: 92,834 (2005 est.)

Guatemala
males age 18-49: 1,911,412
females age 18-49: 2,070,806 (2005 est.)

Guinea
males age 18-49: 1,034,006
females age 18-49: 1,032,885 (2005 est.)

Guinea-Bissau
males age 18-49: 152,681
females age 18-49: 161,033 (2005 est.)

Guyana
males age 18-49: 137,964 (2005 est.)

Haiti
males age 18-49: 948,320
females age 18-49: 931,972 (2005 est.)

Honduras
males age 18-49: 1,100,991
females age 18-49: 1,121,649 (2005 est.)

Hong Kong
males age 18-49: 1,403,088
females age 18-49: 1,527,278 (2005 est.)

Hungary
males age 18-49: 1,780,513
females age 18-49: 1,864,580 (2005 est.)

Iceland
males age 18-49: 56,777 (2005 est.)

India
males age 16-49: 219,471,999
females age 16-49: 209,917,553 (2005 est.)

Indonesia
males age 18-49: 48,687,234
females age 18-49: 50,252,911 (2005 est.)

Iran
males age 18-49: 15,665,725
females age 18-49: 15,005,597 (2005 est.)

Iraq
males age 18-49: 4,930,074
females age 18-49: 4,771,105 (2005 est.)

Ireland
males age 17-49: 814,768
females age 17-49: 813,981 (2005 est.)

Israel
males age 17-49: 1,255,902
females age 17-49: 1,212,394 (2005 est.)

Italy
males age 18-49: 10,963,513
females age 18-49: 10,452,189 (2005 est.)

Jamaica
males age 18-49: 478,761
females age 18-49: 504,541 (2005 est.)

Japan
males age 18-49: 22,234,663
females age 18-49: 21,494,947 (2005 est.)

Jordan
males age 17-49: 1,348,076
females age 17-49: 1,158,011 (2005 est.)

Kazakhstan
males age 18-49: 2,473,529
females age 18-49: 3,168,048 (2005 est.)

Kenya
males age 18-49: 3,963,532
females age 18-49: 3,471,926 (2005 est.)

Kiribati
males age 18-49: 14,231 (2005 est.)

Korea, North
males age 17-49: 4,810,831
females age 17-49: 4,853,270 (2005 est.)

Korea, South
males age 20-49: 10,115,817
females age 20-49: 9,721,914 (2005 est.)

Kuwait
males age 18-49: 737,292
females age 18-49: 405,207 (2005 est.)

Kyrgyzstan
males age 18-49: 871,493
females age 18-49: 1,024,568 (2005 est.)

Laos
males age 15-49: 954,816
females age 15-49: 1,006,082 (2005 est.)

Latvia
males age 19-49: 361,098
females age 19-49: 422,913 (2005 est.)

Lebanon
males age 18-49: 821,762
females age 18-49: 865,770 (2005 est.)

Lesotho
males age 18-49: 180,797
females age 18-49: 160,681 (2005 est.)

Liberia
males age 18-49: 267,430
females age 18-49: 286,231 (2005 est.)

Libya
males age 17-49: 1,291,624
females age 17-49: 1,230,824 (2005 est.)

Liechtenstein
males age 18-49: 6,250 (2005 est.)

Lithuania
males age 19-49: 590,606
females age 19-49: 676,102 (2005 est.)

Luxembourg
males age 17-49: 90,279
females age 17-49: 88,638 (2005 est.)

Macau
males age 18-49: 91,299 (2005 est.)

Macedonia
males age 18-49: 411,156
females age 18-49: 397,839 (2005 est.)

Madagascar
males age 18-49: 2,218,662
females age 18-49: 2,408,810 (2005 est.)

Malawi
males age 18-49: 1,226,802 (2005 est.)

Malaysia
males age 18-49: 4,574,854
females age 18-49: 4,613,321 (2005 est.)

Maldives
males age 18-49: 56,687
females age 18-49: 54,454 (2005 est.)

Mali
males age 18-49: 1,244,176
females age 18-49: 1,226,226 (2005 est.)

Malta
males age 18-49: 74,525
females age 18-49: 71,333 (2005 est.)

Marshall Islands
males age 18-49: 10,792 (2005 est.)

Martinique
males age 18-49: 90,868 (2005 est.)

Mauritania
males age 18-49: 370,513
females age 18-49: 384,269 (2005 est.)

Mexico
males age 18-49: 19,058,337
females age 18-49: 21,966,796 (2005 est.)

Micronesia, Federated States of
males age 18-49: 18,914 (2005 est.)

Moldova
males age 18-49: 693,913
females age 18-49: 911,568 (2005 est.)

Monaco
males age 18-49: 4,971 (2005 est.)

Mongolia
males age 18-49: 570,435
females age 18-49: 607,918 (2005 est.)

Montserrat
males age 18-49: 1,899 (2005 est.)

Morocco
males age 18-49: 6,484,787
females age 18-49: 6,675,729 (2005 est.)

Mozambique
males age 18-49: 1,751,223 (2005 est.)

Namibia
males age 18-49: 217,118 (2005 est.)

Nepal
males age 18-49: 4.193 million
females age 18-49: 3,853,102 (2005 est.)

Netherlands
males age 20-49: 2,856,691
females age 20-49: 2,786,495 (2005 est.)

Netherlands Antilles
males age 16-49: 45,273
females age 16-49: 47,166 (2005 est.)

New Caledonia
males age 18-49: 40,822 (2005 est.)

New Zealand
males age 17-49: 809,519
females age 17-49: 802,069 (2005 est.)

Nicaragua
males age 17-49: 1,051,425
females age 17-49: 1,129,649 (2005 est.)

Niger
males age 18-49: 1,349,863
females age 18-49: 1,256,569 (2005 est.)

Nigeria
males age 18-49: 15,052,914
females age 18-49: 13,860,806 (2005 est.)

Norway
males age 18-49: 827,016
females age 18-49: 801,358 (2005 est.)

Oman
males age 18-49: 581,444
females age 18-49: 435,107 (2005 est.)

Pakistan
males age 16-49: 29,428,747
females age 16-49: 28,391,887 (2005 est.)

Palau
males age 18-49: 4,087 (2005 est.)

Panama
males age 18-49: 591,604 (2005 est.)

Papua New Guinea
males age 18-49: 902,432
females age 18-49: 894,759 (2005 est.)

Paraguay
males age 18-49: 1,109,166
females age 18-49: 1,135,046 (2005 est.)

Peru
males age 18-49: 4,938,417
females age 18-49: 5,278,511 (2005 est.)

Philippines
males age 18-49: 15,170,096
females age 18-49: 16,931,191 (2005 est.)

Poland
males age 17-49: 7,739,472
females age 17-49: 7,859,165 (2005 est.)

Portugal
males age 18-49: 1,952,819
females age 18-49: 1,977,264 (2005 est.)

Qatar
males age 18-49: 238,566
females age 18-49: 116,595 (2005 est.)

Reunion
males age 18-49: 142,578
females age 18-49: 154,273 (2005 est.)

Romania
males age 20-49: 3,932,579
females age 20-49: 4,076,288 (2005 est.)

Russia
males age 18-49: 21,049,651
females age 18-49: 29,056,021 (2005 est.)

Rwanda
males age 16-49: 1,103,823
females age 16-49: 1,096,644 (2005 est.)

Saint Kitts and Nevis
males age 18-49: 7,119
females age 18-49: 7,645 (2005 est.)

Saint Lucia
males age 18-49: 33,539 (2005 est.)

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
males age 18-49: 25,787 (2005 est.)

Samoa
males age 18-49: 45,294 (2005 est.)

San Marino
males age 18-49: 5,107 (2005 est.)

Sao Tome and Principe
males age 18-49: 25,950
females age 18-49: 28,660 (2005 est.)

Saudi Arabia
males age 18-49: 6,592,709
females age 18-49: 4,659,347 (2005 est.)

Senegal
males age 18-49: 1,558,175
females age 18-49: 1,642,533 (2005 est.)

Seychelles
males age 18-49: 16,122
females age 18-49: 18,777 (2005 est.)

Sierra Leone
males age 18-49: 539,697 (2005 est.)

Singapore
males age 18-49: 982,368 (2005 est.)

Slovakia
males age 18-49: 1,089,645
females age 18-49: 1,093,077 (2005 est.)

Slovenia
males age 17-49: 405,593
females age 17-49: 397,167 (2005 est.)

Solomon Islands
males age 18-49: 92,796 (2005 est.)

Somalia
males age 18-49: 1,022,360
females age 18-49: 1,038,697 (2005 est.)

South Africa
males age 18-49: 4,927,757
females age 18-49: 4,609,071 (2005 est.)

Spain
males age 20-49: 7,623,356
females age 20-49: 7,434,465 (2005 est.)

Sri Lanka
males age 18-49: 3,789,627
females age 18-49: 4,281,043 (2005 est.)

Sudan
males age 18-49: 5,427,474
females age 18-49: 5,649,566 (2005 est.)

Suriname
males age 18-49: 77,793
females age 18-49: 72,943 (2005 est.)

Swaziland
males age 18-49: 89,609 (2005 est.)

Sweden
males age 19-49: 1,493,668
females age 19-49: 1,441,257 (2005 est.)

Switzerland
males age 19-49: 1,375,889
females age 19-49: 1,342,945 (2005 est.)

Syria
males age 18-49: 3,453,888
females age 18-49: 3,421,558 (2005 est.)

Taiwan
males age 19-49: 4,749,537
females age 19-49: 4,644,607 (2005 est.)

Tajikistan
males age 18-49: 1,244,941
females age 18-49: 1,297,891 (2005 est.)

Tanzania
males age 18-49: 3,879,630 (2005 est.)

Thailand
males age 21-49: 10,396,032
females age 21-49: 11,487,690 (2005 est.)

Togo
males age 18-49: 696,933
females age 18-49: 707,821 (2005 est.)

Tonga
males age 18-49: 19,840
females age 18-49: 21,342 (2005 est.)

Trinidad and Tobago
males age 18-49: 202,958
females age 18-49: 173,797 (2005 est.)

Tunisia
males age 20-49: 2,035,431
females age 20-49: 2,000,757 (2005 est.)

Turkey
males age 20-49: 13,905,901
females age 20-49: 13,335,812 (2005 est.)

Turkmenistan
males age 18-49: 759,978
females age 18-49: 940,179 (2005 est.)

Uganda
males age 18-49: 2,889,808
females age 18-49: 2,780,135 (2005 est.)

Ukraine
males age 18-49: 7,376,050
females age 18-49: 9,313,385 (2005 est.)

United Arab Emirates
males age 18-49: 526,671
females age 18-49: 419,975 (2005 est.)

United Kingdom
males age 16-49: 12,046,268
females age 16-49: 11,555,893 (2005 est.)

United States
males age 18-49: 54,609,050
females age 18-49: 54,696,706 (2005 est.)

Uruguay
males age 18-49: 637,445
females age 18-49: 631,046 (2005 est.)

Uzbekistan
males age 18-49: 4,609,621
females age 18-49: 5,383,233 (2005 est.)

Vanuatu
males age 18-49: 33,837 (2005 est.)

Venezuela
males age 18-49: 4,907,947
females age 18-49: 5,151,843 (2005 est.)

Vietnam
males age 18-49: 16,032,358
females age 18-49: 17,921,241 (2005 est.)

Yemen
males age 18-49: 2,790,705
females age 18-49: 2,792,406 (2005 est.)

Zambia
males age 18-49: 1,043,702
females age 18-49: 953,328 (2005 est.)

Zimbabwe
males age 18-49: 1,304,424
females age 18-49: 1,115,096 (2005 est.)

This page was last updated on 19 December, 2006

@2026 Manpower reaching military service age annually

Afghanistan
males age 18-49: 275,362
females age 22-49: 259,935 (2005 est.)

Albania
males age 18-49: 37,407
females age 19-49: 34,587 (2005 est.)

Algeria
males age 18-49: 374,639
females age 19-49: 369,021 (2005 est.)

Andorra
males age 18-49: 369 (2005 est.)

Angola
males age 18-49: 126,694
females age 17-49: 123,586 (2005 est.)

Anguilla
males age 18-49: 120 (2005 est.)

Antigua and Barbuda
males age 18-49: 507
females age 18-49: 494 (2005 est.)

Argentina
males age 18-49: 344,575
females age 18-49: 334,649 (2005 est.)

Armenia
males age 18-49: 31,774
females age 18-49: 31,182 (2005 est.)

Aruba
males age 18-49: 520 (2005 est.)

Australia
males age 18-49: 142,158
females age 16-49: 135,675 (2005 est.)

Austria
males age 18-49: 48,967
females age 18-49: 46,633 (2005 est.)

Azerbaijan
males age 18-49: 82,358
females age 18-49: 78,067 (2005 est.)

Bahamas, The
males age 18-49: 2,804 (2005 est.)

Bahrain
males age 18-49: 6,013
females age 18-49: 5,852 (2005 est.)

Belarus
males age 18-49: 85,202
females age 18-49: 82,037 (2005 est.)

Belgium
males age 18-49: 64,263
females age 16-49: 61,402 (2005 est.)

Belize
males age 18-49: 3,213
females age 18-49: 3,100 (2005 est.)

Benin
males age 18-49: 76,661
females: 75,068 (2005 est.)

Bermuda
males age 18-49: 408 (2005 est.)

Bhutan
males age 18-49: 23,939
females age 18-49: 21,979 (2005 est.)

Bolivia
males age 18-49: 101,101
females age 18-49: 98,671 (2005 est.)

Bosnia and Herzegovina
males age 18-49: 32,942
females age 18-49: 31,466 (2005 est.)

Botswana
males age 18-49: 21,103
females age 18-49: 21,379 (2005 est.)

Brazil
males age 18-49: 1,785,930
females age 19-49: 1,731,648 (2005 est.)

British Virgin Islands
males age 18-49: 201 (2005 est.)

Brunei
males age 18-49: 3,478
females age 18-49: 3,342 (2005 est.)

Bulgaria
males age 18-49: 51,023
females age 18-49: 48,651 (2005 est.)

Burma
males age 18-49: 469,841
females: 455,689 (2005 est.)

Burundi
males age 18-49: 91,331
females age 16-49: 90,685 (2005 est.)

Cambodia
males age 18-49: 175,497
females age 18-49: 172,788 (2005 est.)

Cameroon
males age 18-49: 191,619
females age 18-49: 187,082 (2005 est.)

Canada
males age 18-49: 223,821
females age 16-49: 212,900 (2005 est.)

Cayman Islands
males age 18-49: 257 (2005 est.)

Chad
males age 18-49: 94,536
females age 20-49: 93,521 (2005 est.)

Chile
males age 18-49: 140,084
females age 18-49: 134,518 (2005 est.)

China
males age 18-49: 13,186,433
females age 18-49: 12,298,149 (2005 est.)

Colombia
males age 18-49: 389,735
females age 18-49: 383,146 (2005 est.)

Congo, Republic of the
males age 18-49: 38,464
females age 18-49: 38,082 (2005 est.)

Costa Rica
males age 18-49: 41,097
females age 18-49: 39,243

Cote d'Ivoire
males age 18-49: 189,354
females age 18-49: 192,600 (2005 est.)

Croatia
males age 18-49: 29,020
females age 18-49: 27,897 (2005 est.)

Cuba
males age 18-49: 91,901
females: 87,500 (2005 est.)

Cyprus
Greek Cyriot National Guard (GCNG):
males age 18-49: 6,578
females age 18-49: 6,200 (2005 est.)

Czech Republic
males age 18-49: 66,583
females age 18-49: 63,363 (2005 est.)

Denmark
males age 18-49: 31,317
females age 18-49: 29,558 (2005 est.)

Dominica
males age 18-49: 602 (2005 est.)

Dominican Republic
males age 18-49: 91,699
females age 18-49: 87,550 (2005 est.)

East Timor
males age 18-49: 12,740
females age 18-49: 12,438 (2005 est.)

Ecuador
males age 18-49: 133,922
females age 20-49: 129,758 (2005 est.)

Egypt
males age 18-49: 802,920
females age 18-49: 764,176 (2005 est.)

El Salvador
males age 18-49: 70,286
females age 18-49: 69,526 (2005 est.)

Eritrea
males age 18-49: 50,156
females age 18-49: 49,746 (2005 est.)

Estonia
males: 11,146
females age 18-49: 10,605 (2005 est.)

Ethiopia
males age 18-49: 803,777
females age 18-49: 801,789 (2005 est.)

Faroe Islands
males age 18-49: 366 (2005 est.)

Fiji
males age 18-49: 9,266
females age 18-49: 8,916 (2005 est.)

Finland
males age 18-49: 32,040
females age 18-49: 30,519 (2005 est.)

France
males age 18-49: 389,204
females age 17-49: 372,719 (2005 est.)

French Polynesia
males age 18-49: 2,747 (2005 est.)

Gabon
males age 18-49: 15,325
females age 18-49: 15,367 (2005 est.)

Gaza Strip
males age 18-49: 15,196 (2005 est.)

Georgia
males age 18-49: 38,857
females age 18-49: 38,238 (2005 est.)

Germany
males age 18-49: 497,048
females age 18-49: 470,537 (2005 est.)

Ghana
males age 18-49: 251,056
females age 18-49: 247,777 (2005 est.)

Gibraltar
males age 18-49: 187 (2005 est.)

Greece
males age 18-49: 58,399
females age 18-49: 55,571 (2005 est.)

Greenland
males age 18-49: 440 (2005 est.)

Grenada
males age 18-49: 1,274 (2005 est.)

Guadeloupe
males age 18-49: 3,364 (2005 est.)

Guatemala
males age 18-49: 134,032
females age 18-49: 130,641 (2005 est.)

Haiti
males age 18-49: 98,554
females age 18-49: 97,690 (2005 est.)

Honduras
males age 18-49: 82,105
females age 18-49: 78,971 (2005 est.)

Hong Kong
males age 18-49: 40,343
females age 18-49: 38,234 (2005 est.)

Hungary
males age 18-49: 63,847
females age 18-49: 61,037 (2005 est.)

India
males age 18-49: 11,446,452
females age 16-49: 10,665,877 (2005 est.)

Indonesia
males age 18-49: 2,201,047
females age 18-49: 2,139,573 (2005 est.)

Iran
males age 18-49: 862,056
females age 18-49: 808,044 (2005 est.)

Iraq
males age 18-49: 198,518
females age 18-49: 289,879 (2005 est.)

Ireland
males age 18-49: 29,327
females age 17-49: 28,139 (2005 est.)

Israel
males age 18-49: 53,760
females: 51,293 (2005 est.)

Italy
males age 18-49: 286,344
females age 18-49: 270,099 (2005 est.)

Jamaica
males age 18-49: 27,923
females age 18-49: 27,889 (2005 est.)

Japan
males age 18-49: 683,147
females age 18-49: 650,157 (2005 est.)

Jordan
males age 18-49: 60,625
females age 17-49: 58,218 (2005 est.)

Kazakhstan
males age 18-49: 173,129
females age 18-49: 168,697 (2005 est.)

Kiribati
males age 18-49: 1,128 (2005 est.)

Korea, North
males age 18-49: 194,605
females age 17-49: 187,846 (2005 est.)

Korea, South
males age 18-49: 344,943
females age 20-49: 312,720 (2005 est.)

Kuwait
males age 18-49: 18,743
females age 18-49: 20,065 (2005 est.)

Kyrgyzstan
males age 18-49: 61,091
females age 18-49: 59,784 (2005 est.)

Laos
males age 18-49: 73,167
females age 15-49: 71,432 (2005 est.)

Latvia
males age 18-49: 19,137
females age 19-49: 18,505 (2005 est.)

Libya
males age 18-49: 62,034
females age 17-49: 59,533 (2005 est.)

Liechtenstein
males age 18-49: 208 (2005 est.)

Lithuania
males age 18-49: 29,689
females age 19-49: 28,543 (2005 est.)

Luxembourg
males age 18-49: 2,775
females age 17-49: 2,703 (2005 est.)

Macedonia
males age 18-49: 16,686
females age 18-49: 15,664 (2005 est.)

Madagascar
males age 18-49: 187,000
females age 18-49: 184,833 (2005 est.)

Malaysia
males age 18-49: 244,418
females age 18-49: 231,896 (2005 est.)

Marshall Islands
males age 18-49: 726 (2005 est.)

Martinique
males age 18-49: 3,105 (2005 est.)

Mexico
males age 18-49: 1,063,233
females age 18-49: 1,043,816 (2005 est.)

Micronesia, Federated States of
males age 18-49: 1,305 (2005 est.)

Moldova
males age 18-49: 43,729
females age 18-49: 42,354 (2005 est.)

Monaco
males age 18-49: 148 (2005 est.)

Mongolia
males age 18-49: 34,674
females age 18-49: 34,251 (2005 est.)

Montserrat
males age 18-49: 84 (2005 est.)

Morocco
males age 18-49: 353,377
females age 18-49: 341,677 (2005 est.)

Mozambique
males age 18-49: 185,314 (2005 est.)

Nepal
males age 18-49: 308,031
females age 18-49: 286,604 (2005 est.)

Netherlands
males age 18-49: 99,934
females age 20-49: 95,818 (2005 est.)

Netherlands Antilles
males age 18-49: 1,720
females age 16-49: 1,657 (2005 est.)

New Caledonia
males age 18-49: 1,907 (2005 est.)

New Zealand
males age 18-49: 29,738
females age 17-49: 28,523 (2005 est.)

Nicaragua
males age 18-49: 65,170
females age 17-49: 63,133 (2005 est.)

Niger
males age 18-49: 129,045
females age 18-49: 121,230 (2005 est.)

Nigeria
males age 18-49: 1,353,180
females age 18-49: 1,329,267 (2005 est.)

Norway
males age 18-49: 29,179
females age 18-49: 28,023 (2005 est.)

Oman
males age 18-49: 26,391
females age 18-49: 25,466 (2005 est.)

Pakistan
males age 18-49: 1,969,055
females age 16-49: 1,849,254 (2005 est.)

Palau
males age 18-49: 142 (2005 est.)

Panama
males age 18-49: 29,724

Paraguay
males age 18-49: 63,058
females age 18-49: 62,217 (2005 est.)

Peru
males age 18-49: 277,105
females age 18-49: 269,799 (2005 est.)

Philippines
males age 18-49: 907,542
females age 18-49: 878,712 (2005 est.)

Poland
males age 18-49: 275,446
females age 17-49: 265,164 (2005 est.)

Portugal
males age 18-49: 67,189
females age 18-49: 60,626 (2005 est.)

Qatar
males age 18-49: 7,851
females age 18-49: 7,040 (2005 est.)

Reunion
males age 18-49: 7,339
females age 18-49: 7,007 (2005 est.)

Romania
males age 18-49: 172,093
females age 20-49: 165,547 (2005 est.)

Russia
males age 18-49: 1,286,069
females age 18-49: 1,244,264 (2005 est.)

Saint Kitts and Nevis
males age 18-49: 357
females age 18-49: 347 (2005 est.)

Saint Lucia
males age 18-49: 1,651 (2005 est.)

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
males age 18-49: 1,204 (2005 est.)

Samoa
males age 18-49: 2,306 (2005 est.)

San Marino
males age 18-49: 135 (2005 est.)

Saudi Arabia
males age 18-49: 247,334
females age 18-49: 234,500 (2005 est.)

Senegal
males age 18-49: 129,331
females age 18-49: 129,398 (2005 est.)

Slovakia
males age 18-49: 41,544
females age 18-49: 40,183 (2005 est.)

Slovenia
males age 18-49: 12,816
females age 17-49: 12,178 (2005 est.)

Solomon Islands
males age 18-49: 6,033 (2005 est.)

South Africa
males age 18-49: 512,407
females age 18-49: 506,078 (2005 est.)

Spain
males age 18-49: 233,384
females age 20-49: 221,805 (2005 est.)

Sri Lanka
males age 18-49: 174,049
females age 18-49: 167,201 (2005 est.)

Sudan
males age 18-49: 442,915
females age 18-49: 426,320 (2005 est.)

Sweden
males age 18-49: 58,724
females age 19-49: 55,954 (2005 est.)

Switzerland
males age 18-49: 46,319
females age 19-49: 43,829 (2005 est.)

Syria
males age 18-49: 225,113
females age 18-49: 211,829 (2005 est.)

Taiwan
males age 18-49: 174,173
females age 19-49: 163,683 (2005 est.)

Tajikistan
males age 18-49: 87,846
females age 18-49: 85,869 (2005 est.)

Thailand
males age 18-49: 526,276
females age 21-49: 514,396 (2005 est.)

Tonga
males ag3 18-49: 1,586
females age 18-49: 1,538 (2005 est.)

Tunisia
males age 18-49: 108,817
females age 20-49: 103,087 (2005 est.)

Turkey
males age 18-49: 679,734
females age 20-49: 659,090 (2005 est.)

Turkmenistan
males age 18-49: 56,532
females age 18-49: 55,413 (2005 est.)

Ukraine
males age 18-49: 382,751
females age 18-49: 365,599 (2005 est.)

United Arab Emirates
males: 30,706
females age 18-49: 29,617 (2005 est.)

United States
males age 18-49: 2,143,873
females age 18-49: 2,036,201 (2005 est.)

Uzbekistan
males age 18-49: 324,722
females age 18-49: 317,062 (2005 est.)

Venezuela
males age 18-49: 252,396
females age 18-49: 237,300 (2005 est.)

Vietnam
males age 18-49: 915,572
females age 18-49: 864,161 (2005 est.)

Yemen
males age 18-49: 236,517
females age 18-49: 230,641 (2005 est.)

This page was last updated on 19 December, 2006

@2028 Background

Afghanistan
Ahmad Shah DURRANI unified the Pashtun tribes and
founded Afghanistan in 1747. The country served as a buffer between
the British and Russian empires until it won independence from
notional British control in 1919. A brief experiment in democracy
ended in a 1973 coup and a 1978 Communist counter-coup. The Soviet
Union invaded in 1979 to support the tottering Afghan Communist
regime, but withdrew 10 years later under relentless pressure by
internationally supported anti-Communist mujahedin rebels. A civil
war between mujahedin factions erupted following the 1992 fall of
the Communist regime. The Taliban, a hardline Pakistani-sponsored
movement that emerged in 1994 to end the country's civil war and
anarchy, seized Kabul in 1996 and most of the country outside of
opposition Northern Alliance strongholds by 1998. Following the 11
September 2001 terrorist attacks, a US, Allied, and Northern
Alliance military action toppled the Taliban for sheltering Osama
BIN LADIN. In late 2001, a conference in Bonn, Germany, established
a process for political reconstruction that included the adoption of
a new constitution and a presidential election in 2004, and National
Assembly elections in 2005. On 7 December 2004, Hamid KARZAI became
the first democratically elected president of Afghanistan. The
National Assembly was inaugurated on 19 December 2005.

Akrotiri
By terms of the 1960 Treaty of Establishment that created
the independent Republic of Cyprus, the UK retained full sovereignty
and jurisdiction over two areas of almost 254 square kilometers -
Akrotiri and Dhekelia. The southernmost and smallest of these is the
Akrotiri Sovereign Base Area, which is also referred to as the
Western Sovereign Base Area.

Albania
Between 1990 and 1992 Albania ended 46 years of xenophobic
Communist rule and established a multiparty democracy. The
transition has proven challenging as successive governments have
tried to deal with high unemployment, widespread corruption, a
dilapidated physical infrastructure, powerful organized crime
networks, and combative political opponents. Albania has made
progress in its democratic development since first holding
multiparty elections in 1991, but deficiencies remain. International
observers judged elections to be largely free and fair since the
restoration of political stability following the collapse of pyramid
schemes in 1997. In the 2005 general elections, the Democratic Party
and its allies won a decisive victory on pledges of reducing crime
and corruption, promoting economic growth, and decreasing the size
of government. The election, and particularly the orderly transition
of power, was considered an important step forward. Although
Albania's economy continues to grow, the country is still one of the
poorest in Europe, hampered by a large informal economy and an
inadequate energy and transportation infrastructure. Albania has
played a largely helpful role in managing inter-ethnic tensions in
southeastern Europe, and is continuing to work toward joining NATO
and the EU. Albania, with troops in Iraq and Afghanistan, has been a
strong supporter of the global war on terrorism.

Algeria
After more than a century of rule by France, Algerians
fought through much of the 1950s to achieve independence in 1962.
Algeria's primary political party, the National Liberation Front
(FLN), has dominated politics ever since. Many Algerians in the
subsequent generation were not satisfied, however, and moved to
counter the FLN's centrality in Algerian politics. The surprising
first round success of the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) in the
December 1991 balloting spurred the Algerian army to intervene and
postpone the second round of elections to prevent what the secular
elite feared would be an extremist-led government from assuming
power. The army began a crack down on the FIS that spurred FIS
supporters to begin attacking government targets. The government
later allowed elections featuring pro-government and moderate
religious-based parties, but did not appease the activists who
progressively widened their attacks. The fighting escalated into an
insurgency, which saw intense fighting between 1992-98 and which
resulted in over 100,000 deaths - many attributed to indiscriminate
massacres of villagers by extremists. The government gained the
upper hand by the late-1990s and FIS's armed wing, the Islamic
Salvation Army, disbanded in January 2000. However, small numbers of
armed militants persist in confronting government forces and
conducting ambushes and occasional attacks on villages. The army
placed Abdelaziz BOUTEFLIKA in the presidency in 1999 in a
fraudulent election but claimed neutrality in his 2004 landslide
reelection victory. Longstanding problems continue to face
BOUTEFLIKA in his second term, including the ethnic minority
Berbers' ongoing autonomy campaign, large-scale unemployment, a
shortage of housing, unreliable electrical and water supplies,
government inefficiencies and corruption, and the continuing -
although significantly degraded - activities of extremist militants.
Algeria must also diversify its petroleum-based economy, which has
yielded a large cash reserve but which has not been used to redress
Algeria's many social and infrastructure problems.

American Samoa
Settled as early as 1000 B.C., Samoa was "discovered"
by European explorers in the 18th century. International rivalries
in the latter half of the 19th century were settled by an 1899
treaty in which Germany and the US divided the Samoan archipelago.
The US formally occupied its portion - a smaller group of eastern
islands with the excellent harbor of Pago Pago - the following year.

Andorra
For 715 years, from 1278 to 1993, Andorrans lived under a
unique co-principality, ruled by French and Spanish leaders (from
1607 onward, the French chief of state and the Spanish bishop of
Urgel). In 1993, this feudal system was modified with the titular
heads of state retained, but the government transformed into a
parliamentary democracy. Long isolated and impoverished, mountainous
Andorra achieved considerable prosperity since World War II through
its tourist industry. Many immigrants (legal and illegal) are
attracted to the thriving economy with its lack of income taxes.

Angola
Angola is slowly rebuilding its country after the end of a
27-year civil war in 2002. Fighting between the Popular Movement for
the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), led by Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS, and
the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led
by Jonas SAVIMBI, followed independence from Portugal in 1975. Peace
seemed imminent in 1992 when Angola held national elections, but
UNITA renewed fighting after being beaten by the MPLA at the polls.
Up to 1.5 million lives may have been lost - and 4 million people
displaced - in the quarter century of fighting. SAVIMBI's death in
2002 ended UNITA's insurgency and strengthened the MPLA's hold on
power. DOS SANTOS has pledged to hold legislative elections in 2006.

Anguilla
Colonized by English settlers from Saint Kitts in 1650,
Anguilla was administered by Great Britain until the early 19th
century, when the island - against the wishes of the inhabitants -
was incorporated into a single British dependency, along with Saint
Kitts and Nevis. Several attempts at separation failed. In 1971, two
years after a revolt, Anguilla was finally allowed to secede; this
arrangement was formally recognized in 1980, with Anguilla becoming
a separate British dependency.

Antarctica
Speculation over the existence of a "southern land" was
not confirmed until the early 1820s when British and American
commercial operators and British and Russian national expeditions
began exploring the Antarctic Peninsula region and other areas south
of the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1840 was it established that
Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group of islands.
Several exploration "firsts" were achieved in the early 20th
century. Following World War II, there was an upsurge in scientific
research on the continent. A number of countries have set up
year-round research stations on Antarctica. Seven have made
territorial claims, but not all countries recognize these claims. In
order to form a legal framework for the activities of nations on the
continent, an Antarctic Treaty was negotiated that neither denies
nor gives recognition to existing territorial claims; signed in
1959, it entered into force in 1961.

Antigua and Barbuda
The Siboney were the first to inhabit the
islands of Antigua and Barbuda in 2400 B.C., but Arawak Indians
populated the islands when Columbus landed on his second voyage in
1493. Early settlements by the Spanish and French were succeeded by
the English who formed a colony in 1667. Slavery, established to run
the sugar plantations on Antigua, was abolished in 1834. The islands
became an independent state within the British Commonwealth of
Nations in 1981.

Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean is the smallest of the world's five
oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and
the recently delimited Southern Ocean). The Northwest Passage (US
and Canada) and Northern Sea Route (Norway and Russia) are two
important seasonal waterways. A sparse network of air, ocean, river,
and land routes circumscribes the Arctic Ocean.

Argentina
In 1816, the United Provinces of the Rio Plata declared
their independence from Spain. Eventually, Bolivia, Paraguay, and
Uruguay went their own way, but the area that remained became
Argentina. The country's population and culture were subsequently
heavily shaped by immigrants from throughout Europe, but most
particularly Italy and Spain, which provided the largest percentage
of newcomers from 1860 to 1930. Up until about the mid-20th century,
much of Argentina's history was dominated by periods of internal
political conflict between conservatives and liberals and between
civilian and military factions. After World War II, an era of
Peronist authoritarian rule and interference in subsequent
governments was followed by a military junta that took power in
1976. Democracy returned in 1983, and has persisted despite numerous
challenges, the most formidable of which was a severe economic
crisis in 2001-02 that led to violent public protests and the
resignation of several interim presidents. Successful negotiations
with the IMF allowed Argentina to sidestep some fiscal discipline
measures normally imposed in such circumstances. Since 2003, the
government's efforts to stem the crisis have led to rapid economic
recovery.

Armenia
Armenia prides itself on being the first nation to formally
adopt Christianity (early 4th century). Despite periods of autonomy,
over the centuries Armenia came under the sway of various empires
including the Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Persian, and Ottoman. During
World War I in the western portion of Armenia, Ottoman Turkey
instituted a policy of forced resettlement coupled with other harsh
practices that resulted in an estimated 1 million Armenian deaths.
The eastern area of Armenia was ceded by the Ottomans to Russia in
1828; this portion declared its independence in 1918, but was
conquered by the Soviet Red Army in 1920. Armenian leaders remain
preoccupied by the long conflict with Muslim Azerbaijan over
Nagorno-Karabakh, a primarily Armenian-populated region, assigned to
Soviet Azerbaijan in the 1920s by Moscow. Armenia and Azerbaijan
began fighting over the area in 1988; the struggle escalated after
both countries attained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991.
By May 1994, when a cease-fire took hold, Armenian forces held not
only Nagorno-Karabakh but also a significant portion of Azerbaijan
proper. The economies of both sides have been hurt by their
inability to make substantial progress toward a peaceful resolution.
Turkey imposed an economic blockade on Armenia and closed the common
border because of the Armenian occupation of Nagorno-Karabakh and
surrounding areas.

Aruba
Discovered and claimed for Spain in 1499, Aruba was acquired
by the Dutch in 1636. The island's economy has been dominated by
three main industries. A 19th century gold rush was followed by
prosperity brought on by the opening in 1924 of an oil refinery. The
last decades of the 20th century saw a boom in the tourism industry.
Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles in 1986 and became a
separate, autonomous member of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Movement toward full independence was halted at Aruba's request in
1990.

Ashmore and Cartier Islands
These uninhabited islands came under
Australian authority in 1931; formal administration began two years
later. Ashmore Reef supports a rich and diverse avian and marine
habitat; in 1983, it became a National Nature Reserve. Cartier
Island, a former bombing range, is now a marine reserve.

Atlantic Ocean
The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the
world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, but larger than the
Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean). The Kiel Canal
(Germany), Oresund (Denmark-Sweden), Bosporus (Turkey), Strait of
Gibraltar (Morocco-Spain), and the Saint Lawrence Seaway (Canada-US)
are important strategic access waterways. The decision by the
International Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to
delimit a fifth world ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion
of the Atlantic Ocean south of 60 degrees south latitude.

Australia
Aboriginal settlers arrived on the continent from
Southeast Asia about 40,000 years before the first Europeans began
exploration in the 17th century. No formal territorial claims were
made until 1770, when Capt. James COOK took possession in the name
of Great Britain. Six colonies were created in the late 18th and
19th centuries; they federated and became the Commonwealth of
Australia in 1901. The new country took advantage of its natural
resources to rapidly develop agricultural and manufacturing
industries and to make a major contribution to the British effort in
World Wars I and II. In recent decades, Australia has transformed
itself into an internationally competitive, advanced market economy.
It boasted one of the OECD's fastest growing economies during the
1990s, a performance due in large part to economic reforms adopted
in the 1980s. Long-term concerns include pollution, particularly
depletion of the ozone layer, and management and conservation of
coastal areas, especially the Great Barrier Reef.

Austria
Once the center of power for the large Austro-Hungarian
Empire, Austria was reduced to a small republic after its defeat in
World War I. Following annexation by Nazi Germany in 1938 and
subsequent occupation by the victorious Allies in 1945, Austria's
status remained unclear for a decade. A State Treaty signed in 1955
ended the occupation, recognized Austria's independence, and forbade
unification with Germany. A constitutional law that same year
declared the country's "perpetual neutrality" as a condition for
Soviet military withdrawal. Following the Soviet Union's collapse in
1991 and Austria's entry into the European Union in 1995, some
Austrians have called into question this neutrality. A prosperous,
democratic country, Austria entered the Economic and Monetary Union
in 1999.

Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan - a nation with a Turkic and majority-Muslim
population - was briefly independent from 1918 to 1920; it regained
its independence after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Despite a 1994 cease-fire, Azerbaijan has yet to resolve its
conflict with Armenia over the Azerbaijani Nagorno-Karabakh enclave
(largely Armenian populated). Azerbaijan has lost 16% of its
territory and must support some 528,000 internally displaced persons
as a result of the conflict. Corruption is ubiquitous, and the
promise of widespread wealth from Azerbaijan's undeveloped petroleum
resources remains largely unfulfilled.

Bahamas, The
Lucayan Indians inhabited the islands when Christopher
Columbus first set foot in the New World on San Salvador in 1492.
British settlement of the islands began in 1647; the islands became
a colony in 1783. Since attaining independence from the UK in 1973,
The Bahamas have prospered through tourism and international banking
and investment management. Because of its geography, the country is
a major transshipment point for illegal drugs, particularly
shipments to the US, and its territory is used for smuggling illegal
migrants into the US.

Bahrain
In 1782, the Al Khalifa family captured Bahrain from the
Persians. In order to secure these holdings, it entered into a
series of treaties with the UK during the 19th century that made
Bahrain a British protectorate. The archipelago attained its
independence in 1971. Bahrain's small size and central location
among Persian Gulf countries require it to play a delicate balancing
act in foreign affairs among its larger neighbors. Facing declining
oil reserves, Bahrain has turned to petroleum processing and
refining and has transformed itself into an international banking
center. Sheikh HAMAD bin Isa Al Khalifa, who came to power in 1999,
has pushed economic and political reforms and has worked to improve
relations with the Shia community. In February 2001, Bahraini voters
approved a referendum on the National Action Charter - the
centerpiece of Sheikh HAMAD's political liberalization program. In
February 2002, Sheikh HAMAD pronounced Bahrain a constitutional
monarchy and changed his status from amir to king. In October 2002,
Bahrainis elected members of the lower house of Bahrain's
reconstituted bicameral legislature, the National Assembly.

Baker Island
The US took possession of the island in 1857, and its
guano deposits were mined by US and British companies during the
second half of the 19th century. In 1935, a short-lived attempt at
colonization was begun on this island - as well as on nearby Howland
Island - but was disrupted by World War II and thereafter abandoned.
Presently the island is a National Wildlife Refuge run by the US
Department of the Interior; a day beacon is situated near the middle
of the west coast.

Bangladesh
Europeans began to set up trading posts in the area of
Bangladesh in the 16th century; eventually the British came to
dominate the region and it became part of British India. In 1947,
West Pakistan and East Bengal (both primarily Muslim) separated from
India (largely Hindu) and jointly became the new country of
Pakistan. East Bengal became East Pakistan in 1955, but the awkward
arrangement of a two-part country with its territorial units
separated by 1,600 km left the Bengalis marginalized and
dissatisfied. East Pakistan seceded from its union with West
Pakistan in 1971 and was renamed Bangladesh. About a third of this
extremely poor country floods annually during the monsoon rainy
season, hampering economic development.

Barbados
The island was uninhabited when first settled by the
British in 1627. Slaves worked the sugar plantations established on
the island until 1834 when slavery was abolished. The economy
remained heavily dependent on sugar, rum, and molasses production
through most of the 20th century. The gradual introduction of social
and political reforms in the 1940s and 1950s led to complete
independence from the UK in 1966. In the 1990s, tourism and
manufacturing surpassed the sugar industry in economic importance.

Bassas da India
This atoll is a volcanic rock surrounded by reefs
and is awash at high tide. A French possession since 1897, it was
placed under the administration of an Administrateur Superieur of
the French Southern and Antarctic Lands.

Belarus
After seven decades as a constituent republic of the USSR,
Belarus attained its independence in 1991. It has retained closer
political and economic ties to Russia than any of the other former
Soviet republics. Belarus and Russia signed a treaty on a two-state
union on 8 December 1999 envisioning greater political and economic
integration. Although Belarus agreed to a framework to carry out the
accord, serious implementation has yet to take place. Since his
election in July 1994 as the country's first president, Alexander
LUKASHENKO has steadily consolidated his power through authoritarian
means. Government restrictions on freedom of speech and the press,
peaceful assembly, and religion continue.

Belgium
Belgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830; it
was occupied by Germany during World Wars I and II. The country
prospered in the past half century as a modern, technologically
advanced European state and member of NATO and the EU. Tensions
between the Dutch-speaking Flemings of the north and the
French-speaking Walloons of the south have led in recent years to
constitutional amendments granting these regions formal recognition
and autonomy.

Belize
Belize was the site of several Mayan city states until their
decline at the end of the first millennium A.D. The British and
Spanish disputed the region in the 17th and 18th centuries; it
formally became the colony of British Honduras in 1854. Territorial
disputes between the UK and Guatemala delayed the independence of
Belize until 1981. Guatemala refused to recognize the new nation
until 1992. Tourism has become the mainstay of the economy. Current
concerns include high unemployment, growing involvement in the South
American drug trade, and increasing urban crime.

Benin
Present day Benin was the site of Dahomey, a prominent West
African kingdom that rose in the 15th century. The territory became
a French Colony in 1872 and achieved independence on 1 August 1960,
as the Republic of Benin. A succession of military governments ended
in 1972 with the rise to power of Mathieu KEREKOU and the
establishment of a government based on Marxist-Leninist principles.
A move to representative government began in 1989. Two years later,
free elections ushered in former Prime Minister Nicephore SOGLO as
president, marking the first successful transfer of power in Africa
from a dictatorship to a democracy. KEREKOU was returned to power by
elections held in 1996 and 2001, though some irregularities were
alleged.

Bermuda
Bermuda was first settled in 1609 by shipwrecked English
colonists headed for Virginia. Tourism to the island to escape North
American winters first developed in Victorian times. Tourism
continues to be important to the island's economy, although
international business has overtaken it in recent years. Bermuda has
developed into a highly successful offshore financial center.
Although a referendum on independence from the UK was soundly
defeated in 1995, the present government has reopened debate on the
issue.

Bhutan
In 1865, Britain and Bhutan signed the Treaty of Sinchulu,
under which Bhutan would receive an annual subsidy in exchange for
ceding some border land to British India. Under British influence, a
monarchy was set up in 1907; three years later, a treaty was signed
whereby the British agreed not to interfere in Bhutanese internal
affairs and Bhutan allowed Britain to direct its foreign affairs.
This role was assumed by independent India after 1947. Two years
later, a formal Indo-Bhutanese accord returned the areas of Bhutan
annexed by the British, formalized the annual subsidies the country
received, and defined India's responsibilities in defense and
foreign relations. A refugee issue of some 100,000 Bhutanese in
Nepal remains unresolved; 90% of the refugees are housed in seven
United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
camps. In March 2005, King Jigme Singye WANGCHUCK unveiled the
government's draft constitution - which would introduce major
democratic reforms - and pledged to hold a national referendum for
its approval. A referendum date has yet to be named.

Bolivia
Bolivia, named after independence fighter Simon BOLIVAR,
broke away from Spanish rule in 1825; much of its subsequent history
has consisted of a series of nearly 200 coups and countercoups.
Democratic civilian rule was established in 1982, but leaders have
faced difficult problems of deep-seated poverty, social unrest, and
illegal drug production. In December 2005, Bolivians elected
Movement Toward Socialism leader Evo MORALES president - by the
widest margin of any leader since the restoration of civilian rule
in 1982 - after he ran on a promise to change the country's
traditional political class and empower the nation's poor majority.
However, since taking office, his controversial strategies have
exacerbated racial and economic tensions between the Amerindian
populations of the Andean west and the non-indigenous communities of
the eastern lowlands.

Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of
sovereignty in October 1991 was followed by a declaration of
independence from the former Yugoslavia on 3 March 1992 after a
referendum boycotted by ethnic Serbs. The Bosnian Serbs - supported
by neighboring Serbia and Montenegro - responded with armed
resistance aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic lines and
joining Serb-held areas to form a "Greater Serbia." In March 1994,
Bosniaks and Croats reduced the number of warring factions from
three to two by signing an agreement creating a joint Bosniak/Croat
Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 21 November 1995, in
Dayton, Ohio, the warring parties initialed a peace agreement that
brought to a halt three years of interethnic civil strife (the final
agreement was signed in Paris on 14 December 1995). The Dayton Peace
Accords retained Bosnia and Herzegovina's international boundaries
and created a joint multi-ethnic and democratic government charged
with conducting foreign, diplomatic, and fiscal policy. Also
recognized was a second tier of government comprised of two entities
roughly equal in size: the Bosniak/Croat Federation of Bosnia and
Herzegovina and the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska (RS). The
Federation and RS governments were charged with overseeing most
government functions. The Office of the High Representative (OHR)
was established to oversee the implementation of the civilian
aspects of the agreement. In 1995-96, a NATO-led international
peacekeeping force (IFOR) of 60,000 troops served in Bosnia to
implement and monitor the military aspects of the agreement. IFOR
was succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force (SFOR)
whose mission was to deter renewed hostilities. European Union
peacekeeping troops (EUFOR) replaced SFOR in December 2004; their
mission is to maintain peace and stability throughout the country.

Botswana
Formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswana
adopted its new name upon independence in 1966. Four decades of
uninterrupted civilian leadership, progressive social policies, and
significant capital investment have created one of the most dynamic
economies in Africa. Mineral extraction, principally diamond mining,
dominates economic activity, though tourism is a growing sector due
to the country's conservation practices and extensive nature
preserves. Botswana has one of the world's highest known rates of
HIV/AIDS infection, but also one of Africa's most progressive and
comprehensive programs for dealing with the disease.

Bouvet Island
This uninhabited volcanic island is almost entirely
covered by glaciers and is difficult to approach. It was discovered
in 1739 by a French naval officer after whom the island was named.
No claim was made until 1825, when the British flag was raised. In
1928, the UK waived its claim in favor of Norway, which had occupied
the island the previous year. In 1971, Bouvet Island and the
adjacent territorial waters were designated a nature reserve. Since
1977, Norway has run an automated meteorological station on the
island.

Brazil
Following three centuries under the rule of Portugal, Brazil
became an independent nation in 1822 and a republic in 1889. By far
the largest and most populous country in South America, Brazil
overcame more than half a century of military intervention in the
governance of the country when in 1985 the military regime
peacefully ceded power to civilian rulers. Brazil continues to
pursue industrial and agricultural growth and development of its
interior. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor pool,
it is today South America's leading economic power and a regional
leader. Highly unequal income distribution remains a pressing
problem.

British Indian Ocean Territory
Established as a territory of the UK
in 1965, a number of the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT)
islands were transferred to the Seychelles when it attained
independence in 1976. Subsequently, BIOT has consisted only of the
six main island groups comprising the Chagos Archipelago. The
largest and most southerly of the islands, Diego Garcia, contains a
joint UK-US naval support facility. All of the remaining islands are
uninhabited. Former agricultural workers, earlier residents in the
islands, were relocated primarily to Mauritius but also to the
Seychelles, between 1967 and 1973. In 2000, a British High Court
ruling invalidated the local immigration order that had excluded
them from the archipelago, but upheld the special military status of
Diego Garcia.

British Virgin Islands
First inhabited by Arawak and later by Carib
Indians, the Virgin Islands were settled by the Dutch in 1648 and
then annexed by the English in 1672. The islands were part of the
British colony of the Leeward Islands from 1872-1960; they were
granted autonomy in 1967. The economy is closely tied to the larger
and more populous US Virgin Islands to the west; the US dollar is
the legal currency.

Brunei
The Sultanate of Brunei's influence peaked between the 15th
and 17th centuries when its control extended over coastal areas of
northwest Borneo and the southern Philippines. Brunei subsequently
entered a period of decline brought on by internal strife over royal
succession, colonial expansion of European powers, and piracy. In
1888, Brunei became a British protectorate; independence was
achieved in 1984. The same family has ruled Brunei for over six
centuries. Brunei benefits from extensive petroleum and natural gas
fields, the source of one of the highest per capita GDPs in the
developing world.

Bulgaria
The Bulgars, a Central Asian Turkic tribe, merged with the
local Slavic inhabitants in the late 7th century to form the first
Bulgarian state. In succeeding centuries, Bulgaria struggled with
the Byzantine Empire to assert its place in the Balkans, but by the
end of the 14th century the country was overrun by the Ottoman
Turks. Northern Bulgaria attained autonomy in 1878 and all of
Bulgaria became independent from the Ottoman Empire in 1908. Having
fought on the losing side in both World Wars, Bulgaria fell within
the Soviet sphere of influence and became a People's Republic in
1946. Communist domination ended in 1990, when Bulgaria held its
first multiparty election since World War II and began the
contentious process of moving toward political democracy and a
market economy while combating inflation, unemployment, corruption,
and crime. The country joined NATO in 2004 and is slated to join the
EU in 2007.

Burkina Faso
Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) achieved
independence from France in 1960. Repeated military coups during the
1970s and 1980s were followed by multiparty elections in the early
1990s. Burkina Faso's high population density and limited natural
resources result in poor economic prospects for the majority of its
citizens. Recent unrest in Cote d'Ivoire and northern Ghana has
hindered the ability of several hundred thousand seasonal Burkinabe
farm workers to find employment in neighboring countries.

Burma
Britain conquered Burma over a period of 62 years (1824-1886)
and incorporated it into its Indian Empire. Burma was administered
as a province of India until 1937 when it became a separate,
self-governing colony; independence from the Commonwealth was
attained in 1948. Gen. NE WIN dominated the government from 1962 to
1988, first as military ruler, then as self-appointed president, and
later as political kingpin. Despite multiparty legislative elections
in 1990 that resulted in the main opposition party - the National
League for Democracy (NLD) - winning a landslide victory, the ruling
junta refused to hand over power. NLD leader and Nobel Peace Prize
recipient AUNG SAN SUU KYI, who was under house arrest from 1989 to
1995 and 2000 to 2002, was imprisoned in May 2003 and subsequently
transferred to house arrest, where she remains virtually
incommunicado. In November 2005, the junta extended her detention
for at least another six months. Her supporters, as well as all
those who promote democracy and improved human rights, are routinely
harassed or jailed.

Burundi
Burundi's first democratically elected president was
assassinated in October 1993 after only 100 days in office,
triggering widespread ethnic violence between Hutu and Tutsi
factions. Over 200,000 Burundians perished during the conflict that
spanned almost a dozen years. Hundreds of thousands of Burundians
were internally displaced or became refugees in neighboring
countries. An internationally brokered power-sharing agreement
between the Tutsi-dominated government and the Hutu rebels in 2003
paved the way for a transition process that led to an integrated
defense force, established a new constitution in 2005, and elected a
majority Hutu government in 2005. The new government, led by
President Pierre NKURUNZIZA, signed a South African brokered
ceasefire with the country's last rebel group in the summer of 2006
but still faces many challenges.

Cambodia
Most Cambodians consider themselves to be Khmers,
descendants of the Angkor Empire that extended over much of
Southeast Asia and reached its zenith between the 10th and 13th
centuries. Attacks by the Thai and Cham (from present-day Vietnam)
weakened the empire ushering in a long period of decline. The king
placed the country under French protection in 1863. Cambodia became
part of French Indochina in 1887. Following Japanese occupation in
World War II, Cambodia gained full independence from France in 1953.
In April 1975, after a five-year struggle, Communist Khmer Rouge
forces captured Phnom Penh and evacuated all cities and towns. At
least 1.5 million Cambodians died from execution, forced hardships,
or starvation during the Khmer Rouge regime under POL POT. A
December 1978 Vietnamese invasion drove the Khmer Rouge into the
countryside, began a 10-year Vietnamese occupation, and touched off
almost 13 years of civil war. The 1991 Paris Peace Accords mandated
democratic elections and a ceasefire, which was not fully respected
by the Khmer Rouge. UN-sponsored elections in 1993 helped restore
some semblance of normalcy under a coalition government. Factional
fighting in 1997 ended the first coalition government, but a second
round of national elections in 1998 led to the formation of another
coalition government and renewed political stability. The remaining
elements of the Khmer Rouge surrendered in early 1999. Some of the
remaining leaders are awaiting trial by a UN-sponsored tribunal for
crimes against humanity. Elections in July 2003 were relatively
peaceful, but it took one year of negotiations between contending
political parties before a coalition government was formed.

Cameroon
The former French Cameroon and part of British Cameroon
merged in 1961 to form the present country. Cameroon has generally
enjoyed stability, which has permitted the development of
agriculture, roads, and railways, as well as a petroleum industry.
Despite a slow movement toward democratic reform, political power
remains firmly in the hands of an ethnic oligarchy headed by
President Paul BIYA.

Canada
A land of vast distances and rich natural resources, Canada
became a self-governing dominion in 1867 while retaining ties to the
British crown. Economically and technologically the nation has
developed in parallel with the US, its neighbor to the south across
an unfortified border. Canada's paramount political problem is
meeting public demands for quality improvements in health care and
education services after a decade of budget cuts. Canada also faces
questions about integrity in government following revelations
regarding a corruption scandal in the federal government that has
helped revive the fortunes of separatists in predominantly
francophone Quebec.

Cape Verde
The uninhabited islands were discovered and colonized by
the Portuguese in the 15th century; Cape Verde subsequently became a
trading center for African slaves and later an important coaling and
resupply stop for whaling and transatlantic shipping. Following
independence in 1975, and a tentative interest in unification with
Guinea-Bissau, a one-party system was established and maintained
until multi-party elections were held in 1990. Cape Verde continues
to exhibit one of Africa's most stable democratic governments.
Repeated droughts during the second half of the 20th century caused
significant hardship and prompted heavy emigration. As a result,
Cape Verde's expatriate population is greater than its domestic one.
Most Cape Verdeans have both African and Portuguese antecedents.

Cayman Islands
The Cayman Islands were colonized from Jamaica by the
British during the 18th and 19th centuries, and were administered by
Jamaica after 1863. In 1959, the islands became a territory within
the Federation of the West Indies, but when the Federation dissolved
in 1962, the Cayman Islands chose to remain a British dependency.

Central African Republic
The former French colony of Ubangi-Shari
became the Central African Republic upon independence in 1960. After
three tumultuous decades of misrule - mostly by military governments
- civilian rule was established in 1993 and lasted for one decade.
President Ange-Felix PATASSE's civilian government was plagued by
unrest, and in March 2003 he was deposed in a military coup led by
General Francois BOZIZE, who established a transitional government.
Though the government has the tacit support of civil society groups
and the main parties, a wide field of candidates contested the
municipal, legislative, and presidential elections held in March and
May of 2005 in which General BOZIZE was affirmed as president. The
government still does not fully control the countryside, where
pockets of lawlessness persist.

Chad
Chad, part of France's African holdings until 1960, endured
three decades of civil warfare as well as invasions by Libya before
a semblance of peace was finally restored in 1990. The government
eventually drafted a democratic constitution, and held flawed
presidential elections in 1996 and 2001. In 1998, a rebellion broke
out in northern Chad, which sporadically flares up despite several
peace agreements between the government and the rebels. In 2005 new
rebel groups emerged in western Sudan and have made probing attacks
into eastern Chad. Power remains in the hands of an ethnic minority.
In June 2005, President Idriss DEBY held a referendum successfully
removing constitutional term limits.

Chile
Prior to the coming of the Spanish in the 16th century,
northern Chile was under Inca rule while Araucanian Indians
inhabited central and southern Chile; the latter were not completely
subjugated by Spain until the early 1880s. Although Chile declared
its independence in 1810, decisive victory over the Spanish was not
achieved until 1818. In the War of the Pacific (1879-84), Chile
defeated Peru and Bolivia and won its present northern lands. A
three-year-old Marxist government of Salvador ALLENDE was overthrown
in 1973 by a dictatorial military regime led by Augusto PINOCHET,
who ruled until a freely elected president was installed in 1990.
Sound economic policies, maintained consistently since the 1980s,
have contributed to steady growth and have helped secure the
country's commitment to democratic and representative government.
Chile has increasingly assumed regional and international leadership
roles befitting its status as a stable, democratic nation.

China
For centuries China stood as a leading civilization, outpacing
the rest of the world in the arts and sciences, but in the 19th and
early 20th centuries, the country was beset by civil unrest, major
famines, military defeats, and foreign occupation. After World War
II, the Communists under MAO Zedong established an autocratic
socialist system that, while ensuring China's sovereignty, imposed
strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of
millions of people. After 1978, his successor DENG Xiaoping and
other leaders focused on market-oriented economic development and by
2000 output had quadrupled. For much of the population, living
standards have improved dramatically and the room for personal
choice has expanded, yet political controls remain tight.

Christmas Island
Named in 1643 for the day of its discovery, the
island was annexed and settlement began by the UK in 1888. Phosphate
mining began in the 1890s. The UK transferred sovereignty to
Australia in 1958. Almost two-thirds of the island has been declared
a national park.

Clipperton Island
This isolated island was named for John
CLIPPERTON, a pirate who made it his hideout early in the 18th
century. Annexed by France in 1855, it was seized by Mexico in 1897.
Arbitration eventually awarded the island to France, which took
possession in 1935.

Cocos (Keeling) Islands
There are 27 coral islands in the group.
Captain William KEELING discovered the islands in 1609, but they
remained uninhabited until the 19th century. Annexed by the UK in
1857, they were transferred to the Australian Government in 1955.
The population on the two inhabited islands generally is split
between the ethnic Europeans on West Island and the ethnic Malays on
Home Island.

Colombia
Colombia was one of the three countries that emerged from
the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the others are Ecuador and
Venezuela). A 40-year conflict between government forces and
anti-government insurgent groups and illegal paramilitary groups -
both heavily funded by the drug trade - escalated during the 1990s.
The insurgents lack the military or popular support necessary to
overthrow the government, and violence has been decreasing since
about 2002, but insurgents continue attacks against civilians and
large swaths of the countryside are under guerrilla influence.
Paramilitary groups challenge the insurgents for control of
territory and the drug trade. Most paramilitary members have
demobilized since 2002 in an ongoing peace process, although their
commitment to ceasing illicit activity is unclear. The Colombian
Government has stepped up efforts to reassert government control
throughout the country, and now has a presence in every one of its
municipalities. However, neighboring countries worry about the
violence spilling over their borders.

Comoros
Comoros has endured 19 coups or attempted coups since
gaining independence from France in 1975. In 1997, the islands of
Anjouan and Moheli declared independence from Comoros. In 1999,
military chief Col. AZALI seized power. He pledged to resolve the
secessionist crisis through a confederal arrangement named the 2000
Fomboni Accord. In December 2001, voters approved a new constitution
and presidential elections took place in the spring of 2002. Each
island in the archipelago elected its own president and a new union
president took office in May 2002.

Congo, Democratic Republic of the Established as a Belgian colony in 1908, the Republic of the Congo gained its independence in 1960, but its early years were marred by political and social instability. Col. Joseph MOBUTU seized power and declared himself president in a November 1965 coup. He subsequently changed his name - to MOBUTU Sese Seko - as well as that of the country - to Zaire. MOBUTU retained his position for 32 years through several subsequent sham elections, as well as through the use of brutal force. Ethnic strife and civil war, touched off by a massive inflow of refugees in 1994 from fighting in Rwanda and Burundi, led in May 1997 to the toppling of the MOBUTU regime by a rebellion led by Laurent KABILA. He renamed the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), but in August 1998 his regime was itself challenged by an insurrection backed by Rwanda and Uganda. Troops from Angola, Chad, Namibia, Sudan, and Zimbabwe intervened to support the Kinshasa regime. A cease-fire was signed in July 1999 by the DRC, Congolese armed rebel groups, Angola, Namibia, Rwanda, Uganda, and Zimbabwe but sporadic fighting continued. Laurent KABILA was assassinated in January 2001 and his son, Joseph KABILA, was named head of state. In October 2002, the new president was successful in negotiating the withdrawal of Rwandan forces occupying eastern Congo; two months later, the Pretoria Accord was signed by all remaining warring parties to end the fighting and establish a government of national unity. A transitional government was set up in July 2003; Joseph KABILA remains as president and is joined by four vice presidents representing the former government, former rebel groups, and the political opposition. The transitional government held a successful constitutional referendum in December 2005, and plans to hold a series of elections in 2006 to determine the presidency and National Assembly seats.

Congo, Republic of the
Upon independence in 1960, the former French
region of Middle Congo became the Republic of the Congo. A quarter
century of experimentation with Marxism was abandoned in 1990 and a
democratically elected government took office in 1992. A brief civil
war in 1997 restored former Marxist President Denis SASSOU-NGUESSO,
and ushered in a period of ethnic and political unrest.
Southern-based rebel groups agreed to a final peace accord in March
2003, but the calm is tenuous and refugees continue to present a
humanitarian crisis. The Republic of Congo was once one of Africa's
largest petroleum producers, but with declining production it will
need to hope for new offshore oil finds to sustain its oil earnings
over the long term.

Cook Islands
Named after Captain COOK, who sighted them in 1770, the
islands became a British protectorate in 1888. By 1900,
administrative control was transferred to New Zealand; in 1965
residents chose self-government in free association with New
Zealand. The emigration of skilled workers to New Zealand and
government deficits are continuing problems.

Coral Sea Islands
Scattered over more than three-quarters of a
million square kilometers of ocean, the Coral Sea Islands were
declared a territory of Australia in 1969. They are uninhabited
except for a small meteorological staff on the Willis Islets.
Automated weather stations, beacons, and a lighthouse occupy many
other islands and reefs.

Costa Rica
Although explored by the Spanish early in the 16th
century, initial attempts at colonizing Costa Rica proved
unsuccessful due to a combination of factors, including: disease
from mosquito-infested swamps, brutal heat, resistance by natives,
and pirate raids. It was not until 1563 that a permanent settlement
of Cartago was established in the cooler, fertile central highlands.
The area remained a colony for some two and a half centuries. In
1821, Costa Rica became one of several Central American provinces
that jointly declared their independence from Spain. Two years later
it joined the United Provinces of Central America, but this
federation disintegrated in 1838, at which time Costa Rica
proclaimed its sovereignty and independence. Since the late 19th
century, only two brief periods of violence have marred the
country's democratic development. Although it still maintains a
large agricultural sector, Costa Rica has expanded its economy to
include strong technology and tourism industries. The standard of
living is relatively high. Land ownership is widespread.

Cote d'Ivoire
Close ties to France since independence in 1960, the
development of cocoa production for export, and foreign investment
made Cote d'Ivoire one of the most prosperous of the tropical
African states, but did not protect it from political turmoil. In
December 1999, a military coup - the first ever in Cote d'Ivoire's
history - overthrew the government. Junta leader Robert GUEI
blatantly rigged elections held in late 2000 and declared himself
the winner. Popular protest forced him to step aside and brought
runner-up Laurent GBAGBO into power. Ivorian dissidents and
disaffected members of the military launched a failed coup attempt
in September 2002. Rebel forces claimed the northern half of the
country, and in January 2003 were granted ministerial positions in a
unity government under the auspices of the Linas-Marcoussis Peace
Accord. President GBAGBO and rebel forces resumed implementation of
the peace accord in December 2003 after a three-month stalemate, but
issues that sparked the civil war, such as land reform and grounds
for citizenship, remain unresolved. The central government has yet
to exert control over the northern regions and tensions remain high
between GBAGBO and opposition leaders. Several thousand French and
West African troops remain in Cote d'Ivoire to maintain peace and
facilitate the disarmament, demobilization, and rehabilitation
process.

Croatia
The lands that today comprise Croatia were part of the
Austro-Hungarian Empire until the close of World War I. In 1918, the
Croats, Serbs, and Slovenes formed a kingdom known after 1929 as
Yugoslavia. Following World War II, Yugoslavia became a federal
independent Communist state under the strong hand of Marshal TITO.
Although Croatia declared its independence from Yugoslavia in 1991,
it took four years of sporadic, but often bitter, fighting before
occupying Serb armies were mostly cleared from Croatian lands. Under
UN supervision, the last Serb-held enclave in eastern Slavonia was
returned to Croatia in 1998.

Cuba
The native Amerindian population of Cuba began to decline after
the European discovery of the island by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1492
and following its development as a Spanish colony during the next
several centuries. Large numbers of African slaves were imported to
work the coffee and sugar plantations, and Havana became the
launching point for the annual treasure fleets bound for Spain from
Mexico and Peru. Spanish rule, marked initially by neglect, became
increasingly repressive, provoking an independence movement and
occasional rebellions that were harshly suppressed. It was US
intervention during the Spanish-American War in 1898 that finally
overthrew Spanish rule. The subsequent Treaty of Paris established
Cuban independence, which was granted in 1902 after a three-year
transition period. Fidel CASTRO led a rebel army to victory in 1959;
his iron rule has held the regime together since then. Cuba's
Communist revolution, with Soviet support, was exported throughout
Latin America and Africa during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. The
country is now slowly recovering from a severe economic recession in
1990, following the withdrawal of former Soviet subsidies, worth $4
billion to $6 billion annually. Cuba portrays its difficulties as
the result of the US embargo in place since 1961. Illicit migration
to the US - using homemade rafts, alien smugglers, air flights, or
via the southwest border - is a continuing problem. The US Coast
Guard intercepted 2,712 individuals attempting to cross the Straits
of Florida in fiscal year 2005.

Cyprus
A former British colony, Cyprus became independent in 1960
following years of resistance to British rule. Tensions between the
Greek Cypriot majority and Turkish Cypriot minority came to a head
in December 1963, when violence broke out in the capital of Nicosia.
Despite the deployment of UN peacekeepers in 1964, sporadic
intercommunal violence continued forcing most Turkish Cypriots into
enclaves throughout the island. In 1974, a Greek
Government-sponsored attempt to seize control of Cyprus was met by
military intervention from Turkey, which soon controlled more than a
third of the island. In 1983, the Turkish-held area declared itself
the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus," but it is recognized only
by Turkey. The latest two-year round of UN-brokered talks - between
the leaders of the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities to
reach an agreement to reunite the divided island - ended when the
Greek Cypriots rejected the UN settlement plan in an April 2004
referendum. The entire island entered the EU on 1 May 2004, although
the EU acquis - the body of common rights and obligations - applies
only to the areas under direct Republic of Cyprus control, and is
suspended in the areas administered by Turkish Cypriots. At present,
every Cypriot carrying a Cyprus passport has the status of a
European citizen; however, EU laws do not apply to north Cyprus.
Nicosia continues to oppose EU efforts to establish direct trade and
economic links to north Cyprus as a way of encouraging the Turkish
Cypriot community to continue to support reunification.

Czech Republic
Following the First World War, the closely related
Czechs and Slovaks of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire merged to
form Czechoslovakia. During the interwar years, the new country's
leaders were frequently preoccupied with meeting the demands of
other ethnic minorities within the republic, most notably the
Sudeten Germans and the Ruthenians (Ukrainians). After World War II,
a truncated Czechoslovakia fell within the Soviet sphere of
influence. In 1968, an invasion by Warsaw Pact troops ended the
efforts of the country's leaders to liberalize Communist party rule
and create "socialism with a human face." Anti-Soviet demonstrations
the following year ushered in a period of harsh repression. With the
collapse of Soviet authority in 1989, Czechoslovakia regained its
freedom through a peaceful "Velvet Revolution." On 1 January 1993,
the country underwent a "velvet divorce" into its two national
components, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Czech Republic
joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004.

Denmark
Once the seat of Viking raiders and later a major north
European power, Denmark has evolved into a modern, prosperous nation
that is participating in the general political and economic
integration of Europe. It joined NATO in 1949 and the EEC (now the
EU) in 1973. However, the country has opted out of certain elements
of the European Union's Maastricht Treaty, including the European
Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), European defense cooperation, and
issues concerning certain justice and home affairs.

Dhekelia
By terms of the 1960 Treaty of Establishment that created
the independent Republic of Cyprus, the UK retained full sovereignty
and jurisdiction over two areas of almost 254 square kilometers -
Akrotiri and Dhekelia. The larger of these is the Dhekelia Sovereign
Base Area, which is also referred to as the Eastern Sovereign Base
Area.

Djibouti
The French Territory of the Afars and the Issas became
Djibouti in 1977. Hassan Gouled APTIDON installed an authoritarian
one-party state and proceeded to serve as president until 1999.
Unrest among the Afars minority during the 1990s led to a civil war
that ended in 2001 following the conclusion of a peace accord
between Afar rebels and the Issa-dominated government. In 1999,
Djibouti's first multi-party presidential elections resulted in the
election of Ismail Omar GUELLEH; he was re-elected to a second and
final term in 2005. Djibouti occupies a strategic geographic
location at the mouth of the Red Sea and serves as an important
transshipment location for goods entering and leaving the east
African highlands. The present leadership favors close ties to
France, which maintains a significant military presence in the
country, but is also developing stronger ties with the US. Djibouti
hosts the only US military base in sub-Saharan Africa and is a
front-line state in the global war on terrorism.

Dominica
Dominica was the last of the Caribbean islands to be
colonized by Europeans due chiefly to the fierce resistance of the
native Caribs. France ceded possession to Great Britain in 1763,
which made the island a colony in 1805. In 1980, two years after
independence, Dominica's fortunes improved when a corrupt and
tyrannical administration was replaced by that of Mary Eugenia
CHARLES, the first female prime minister in the Caribbean, who
remained in office for 15 years. Some 3,000 Carib Indians still
living on Dominica are the only pre-Columbian population remaining
in the eastern Caribbean.

Dominican Republic
Explored and claimed by Christopher COLUMBUS on
his first voyage in 1492, the island of Hispaniola became a
springboard for Spanish conquest of the Caribbean and the American
mainland. In 1697, Spain recognized French dominion over the western
third of the island, which in 1804 became Haiti. The remainder of
the island, by then known as Santo Domingo, sought to gain its own
independence in 1821, but was conquered and ruled by the Haitians
for 22 years; it finally attained independence as the Dominican
Republic in 1844. In 1861, the Dominicans voluntarily returned to
the Spanish Empire, but two years later they launched a war that
restored independence in 1865. A legacy of unsettled, mostly
non-representative rule followed, capped by the dictatorship of
Rafael Leonidas TRUJILLO from 1930-1961. Juan BOSCH was elected
president in 1962, but was deposed in a military coup in 1963. In
1965, the United States led an intervention in the midst of a civil
war sparked by an uprising to restore BOSCH. In 1966, Joaquin
BALAGUER defeated BOSCH in an election to become president. BALAGUER
maintained a tight grip on power for most of the next 30 years when
international reaction to flawed elections forced him to curtail his
term in 1996. Since then, regular competitive elections have been
held in which opposition candidates have won the presidency. Former
President (1996-2000) Leonel FERNANDEZ Reyna won election to a
second term in 2004 following a constitutional amendment allowing
presidents to serve more than one term.

East Timor
The Portuguese began to trade with the island of Timor in
the early 16th century and colonized it in mid-century. Skirmishing
with the Dutch in the region eventually resulted in an 1859 treaty
in which Portugal ceded the western portion of the island. Imperial
Japan occupied East Timor from 1942 to 1945, but Portugal resumed
colonial authority after the Japanese defeat in World War II. East
Timor declared itself independent from Portugal on 28 November 1975
and was invaded and occupied by Indonesian forces nine days later.
It was incorporated into Indonesia in July 1976 as the province of
East Timor. An unsuccessful campaign of pacification followed over
the next two decades, during which an estimated 100,000 to 250,000
individuals lost their lives. On 30 August 1999, in a UN-supervised
popular referendum, an overwhelming majority of the people of East
Timor voted for independence from Indonesia. Between the referendum
and the arrival of a multinational peacekeeping force in late
September 1999, anti-independence Timorese militias - organized and
supported by the Indonesian military - commenced a large-scale,
scorched-earth campaign of retribution. The militias killed
approximately 1,400 Timorese and forcibly pushed 300,000 people into
West Timor as refugees. The majority of the country's
infrastructure, including homes, irrigation systems, water supply
systems, and schools, and nearly 100% of the country's electrical
grid were destroyed. On 20 September 1999 the Australian-led
peacekeeping troops of the International Force for East Timor
(INTERFET) deployed to the country and brought the violence to an
end. On 20 May 2002, East Timor was internationally recognized as an
independent state.

Ecuador
What is now Ecuador formed part of the northern Inca Empire
until the Spanish conquest in 1533. Quito became a seat of Spanish
colonial government in 1563 and part of the Viceroyalty of New
Granada in 1717. The territories of the Viceroyalty - New Granada
(Colombia), Venezuela, and Quito - gained their independence by 1819
and formed a federation known as Gran Colombia. When Quito withdrew
in 1830, the traditional name was changed in favor of the "Republic
of the Equator." Between 1904 and 1942, Ecuador lost territories in
a series of conflicts with its neighbors. A border war with Peru
that flared in 1995 was resolved in 1999. Although Ecuador marked 25
years of civilian governance in 2004, the period has been marred by
political instability. Seven presidents have governed Ecuador since
1996.

Egypt
The regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood,
coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east and
west, allowed for the development of one of the world's great
civilizations. A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C., and a series
of dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The last
native dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 B.C., who in turn were
replaced by the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. It was the Arabs who
introduced Islam and the Arabic language in the 7th century and who
ruled for the next six centuries. A local military caste, the
Mamluks took control about 1250 and continued to govern after the
conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. Following the
completion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became an important
world transportation hub, but also fell heavily into debt.
Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized control of
Egypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the Ottoman
Empire continued until 1914. Partially independent from the UK in
1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty following World War II. The
completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake
Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the
agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population (the
largest in the Arab world), limited arable land, and dependence on
the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress society. The
government has struggled to ready the economy for the new millennium
through economic reform and massive investment in communications and
physical infrastructure.

El Salvador
El Salvador achieved independence from Spain in 1821 and
from the Central American Federation in 1839. A 12-year civil war,
which cost about 75,000 lives, was brought to a close in 1992 when
the government and leftist rebels signed a treaty that provided for
military and political reforms.

Equatorial Guinea
Equatorial Guinea gained independence in 1968
after 190 years of Spanish rule. This tiny country, composed of a
mainland portion plus five inhabited islands, is one of the smallest
on the African continent. President Teodoro OBIANG NGUEMA MBASOGO
has ruled the country since 1979 when he seized power in a coup.
Although nominally a constitutional democracy since 1991, the 1996
and 2002 presidential elections - as well as the 1999 and 2004
legislative elections - were widely seen as flawed. The president
exerts almost total control over the political system and has
discouraged political opposition. Equatorial Guinea has experienced
rapid economic growth due to the discovery of large offshore oil
reserves, and in the last decade has become Sub-Saharan Africa's
third largest oil exporter. Despite the country's economic windfall
from oil production resulting in a massive increase in government
revenue in recent years, there have been few improvements in the
population's living standards.

Eritrea
Eritrea was awarded to Ethiopia in 1952 as part of a
federation. Ethiopia's annexation of Eritrea as a province 10 years
later sparked a 30-year struggle for independence that ended in 1991
with Eritrean rebels defeating governmental forces; independence was
overwhelmingly approved in a 1993 referendum. A two-and-a-half-year
border war with Ethiopia that erupted in 1998 ended under UN
auspices in December 2000. Eritrea currently hosts a UN peacekeeping
operation that is monitoring a 25 km-wide Temporary Security Zone on
the border with Ethiopia. An international commission, organized to
resolve the border dispute, posted its findings in 2002 but final
demarcation is on hold due to Ethiopian objections.

Estonia
After centuries of Danish, Swedish, German, and Russian
rule, Estonia attained independence in 1918. Forcibly incorporated
into the USSR in 1940, it regained its freedom in 1991, with the
collapse of the Soviet Union. Since the last Russian troops left in
1994, Estonia has been free to promote economic and political ties
with Western Europe. It joined both NATO and the EU in the spring of
2004.

Ethiopia
Unique among African countries, the ancient Ethiopian
monarchy maintained its freedom from colonial rule with the
exception of the 1936-41 Italian occupation during World War II. In
1974, a military junta, the Derg, deposed Emperor Haile SELASSIE
(who had ruled since 1930) and established a socialist state. Torn
by bloody coups, uprisings, wide-scale drought, and massive refugee
problems, the regime was finally toppled in 1991 by a coalition of
rebel forces, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front
(EPRDF). A constitution was adopted in 1994, and Ethiopia's first
multiparty elections were held in 1995. A border war with Eritrea
late in the 1990's ended with a peace treaty in December 2000. Final
demarcation of the boundary is currently on hold due to Ethiopian
objections to an international commission's finding requiring it to
surrender territory considered sensitive to Ethiopia.

Europa Island
A French possession since 1897, the island is heavily
wooded; it is the site of a small military garrison that staffs a
weather station.

European Union
Following the two devastating World Wars of the first
half of the 20th century, a number of European leaders in the late
1940s became convinced that the only way to establish a lasting
peace was to unite the two chief belligerent nations - France and
Germany - both economically and politically. In 1950, the French
Foreign Minister Robert SCHUMAN proposed an eventual union of all
Europe, the first step of which would be the integration of the coal
and steel industries of Western Europe. The following year the
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was set up when six
members, Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the
Netherlands, signed the Treaty of Paris. The ECSC was so successful
that within a few years the decision was made to integrate other
parts of the countries' economies. In 1957, the Treaties of Rome
created the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European
Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), and the six member states
undertook to eliminate trade barriers among themselves by forming a
common market. In 1967, the institutions of all three communities
were formally merged into the European Community (EC), creating a
single Commission, a single Council of Ministers, and the European
Parliament. Members of the European Parliament were initially
selected by national parliaments, but in 1979 the first direct
elections were undertaken and they have been held every five years
since. In 1973, the first enlargement of the EC took place with the
addition of Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom. The 1980s saw
further membership expansion with Greece joining in 1981 and Spain
and Portugal in 1986. The 1992 Treaty of Maastricht laid the basis
for further forms of cooperation in foreign and defense policy, in
judicial and internal affairs, and in the creation of an economic
and monetary union - including a common currency. This further
integration created the European Union (EU). In 1995, Austria,
Finland, and Sweden joined the EU, raising the membership total to
15. A new currency, the euro, was launched in world money markets on
1 January 1999; it became the unit of exchange for all of the EU
states except the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Denmark. In 2002,
citizens of the 12 euro-area countries began using the euro
banknotes and coins. Ten new countries joined the EU in 2004 -
Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania,
Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia - bringing the current
membership to 25. In order to ensure that the EU can continue to
function efficiently with an expanded membership, the 2003 Treaty of
Nice set forth rules streamlining the size and procedures of EU
institutions. An EU Constitutional Treaty, signed in Rome on 29
October 2004, gave member states two years to ratify the document
before it was scheduled to take effect on 1 November 2006. Referenda
held in France and the Netherlands in May-June 2005 rejected the
proposed constitution. This development suspended the ratification
effort and left the longer-term political integration of the EU in
limbo.

Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)
Although first sighted by an
English navigator in 1592, the first landing (English) did not occur
until almost a century later in 1690, and the first settlement
(French) was not established until 1764. The colony was turned over
to Spain two years later and the islands have since been the subject
of a territorial dispute, first between Britain and Spain, then
between Britain and Argentina. The UK asserted its claim to the
islands by establishing a naval garrison there in 1833. Argentina
invaded the islands on 2 April 1982. The British responded with an
expeditionary force that landed seven weeks later and after fierce
fighting forced Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982.

Faroe Islands
The population of the Faroe Islands is largely
descended from Viking settlers who arrived in the 9th century. The
islands have been connected politically to Denmark since the 14th
century. A high degree of self government was attained in 1948.

Fiji
Fiji became independent in 1970, after nearly a century as a
British colony. Democratic rule was interrupted by two military
coups in 1987, caused by concern over a government perceived as
dominated by the Indian community (descendants of contract laborers
brought to the islands by the British in the 19th century). The
coups and a 1990 constitution that cemented native Melanesian
control of Fiji, led to heavy Indian emigration; the population loss
resulted in economic difficulties, but ensured that Melanesians
became the majority. A new constitution enacted in 1997 was more
equitable. Free and peaceful elections in 1999 resulted in a
government led by an Indo-Fijian, but a civilian-led coup in May
2000 ushered in a prolonged period of political turmoil.
Parliamentary elections held in August 2001 provided Fiji with a
democratically elected government led by Prime Minister Laisenia
QARASE.

Finland
Finland was a province and then a grand duchy under Sweden
from the 12th to the 19th centuries and an autonomous grand duchy of
Russia after 1809. It won its complete independence in 1917. During
World War II, it was able to successfully defend its freedom and
resist invasions by the Soviet Union - albeit with some loss of
territory. In the subsequent half century, the Finns made a
remarkable transformation from a farm/forest economy to a
diversified modern industrial economy; per capita income is now on
par with Western Europe. As a member of the European Union, Finland
was the only Nordic state to join the euro system at its initiation
in January 1999.

France
Although ultimately a victor in World Wars I and II, France
suffered extensive losses in its empire, wealth, manpower, and rank
as a dominant nation-state. Nevertheless, France today is one of the
most modern countries in the world and is a leader among European
nations. Since 1958, it has constructed a presidential democracy
resistant to the instabilities experienced in earlier parliamentary
democracies. In recent years, its reconciliation and cooperation
with Germany have proved central to the economic integration of
Europe, including the introduction of a common exchange currency,
the euro, in January 1999. At present, France is at the forefront of
efforts to develop the EU's military capabilities to supplement
progress toward an EU foreign policy.

French Guiana
First settled by the French in 1604, French Guiana was
the site of notorious penal settlements until 1951. The European
Space Agency launches its communication satellites from Kourou.

French Polynesia
The French annexed various Polynesian island groups
during the 19th century. In September 1995, France stirred up
widespread protests by resuming nuclear testing on the Mururoa atoll
after a three-year moratorium. The tests were suspended in January
1996. In recent years, French Polynesia's autonomy has been
considerably expanded.

French Southern and Antarctic Lands The Southern Lands consist of two archipelagos, Iles Crozet and Iles Kerguelen, and two volcanic islands, Ile Amsterdam and Ile Saint-Paul. They contain no permanent inhabitants and are visited only by researchers studying the native fauna. The Antarctic portion consists of "Adelie Land," a thin slice of the Antarctic continent discovered and claimed by the French in 1840.

Gabon
Only two autocratic presidents have ruled Gabon since
independence from France in 1960. The current president of Gabon, El
Hadj Omar BONGO Ondimba - one of the longest-serving heads of state
in the world - has dominated the contry's political scene for almost
four decades. President BONGO introduced a nominal multiparty system
and a new constitution in the early 1990s. However, allegations of
electoral fraud during local elections in 2002-03 and the
presidential elections in 2005 have exposed the weaknesses of formal
political structures in Gabon. Gabon's political opposition remains
weak, divided, and financially dependent on the current regime.
Despite political conditions, a small population, abundant natural
resources, and considerable foreign support have helped make Gabon
one of the more prosperous and stable African countries.

Gambia, The
The Gambia gained its independence from the UK in 1965;
it formed a short-lived federation of Senegambia with Senegal
between 1982 and 1989. In 1991 the two nations signed a friendship
and cooperation treaty. A military coup in 1994 overthrew the
president and banned political activity, but a 1996 constitution and
presidential elections, followed by parliamentary balloting in 1997,
completed a nominal return to civilian rule. The country undertook
another round of presidential and legislative elections in late 2001
and early 2002. Yahya A. J. J. JAMMEH, the leader of the coup, has
been elected president in all subsequent elections.

Gaza Strip
The Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on Interim
Self-Government Arrangements (the DOP), signed in Washington on 13
September 1993, provided for a transitional period not exceeding
five years of Palestinian interim self-government in the Gaza Strip
and the West Bank. Under the DOP, Israel agreed to transfer certain
powers and responsibilities to the Palestinian Authority (PA) as
part of the interim self-governing arrangements in the West Bank and
Gaza Strip. A transfer of powers and responsibilities for the Gaza
Strip and Jericho took place pursuant to the Israel-PLO 4 May 1994
Cairo Agreement on the Gaza Strip and the Jericho Area and in
additional areas of the West Bank pursuant to the Israel-PLO 28
September 1995 Interim Agreement, the Israel-PLO 15 January 1997
Protocol Concerning Redeployment in Hebron, the Israel-PLO 23
October 1998 Wye River Memorandum, and the 4 September 1999 Sharm
el-Sheikh Agreement. The DOP provides that Israel will retain
responsibility during the transitional period for external and
internal security and for public order of settlements and Israeli
citizens. Direct negotiations to determine the permanent status of
Gaza and West Bank began in September 1999 after a three-year
hiatus, but were derailed by a second intifadah that broke out in
September 2000. In April 2003 the Quartet (US, EU, UN, and Russia)
presented a roadmap to a final settlement of the conflict by 2005
based on reciprocal steps by the two parties leading to two states,
Israel and a democratic Palestine. The proposed date for a permanent
status agreement has been postponed indefinitely due to violence and
accusations that both sides have not followed through on their
commitments. Longtime Palestinian leader Yasir ARAFAT died in
November 2004 and Mahmud ABBAS was elected PA president in January
2005, bringing hope of a turning point in the conflict. In February
2005 Israel and the PA agreed to the Sharm el-Sheikh Commitments,
focused on security issues, in an effort to move the peace process
forward. Progress has been slow because of different interpretations
of the verbal agreement by the two sides. In September 2005, Israel
withdrew all its settlers and soldiers and dismantled its military
facilities in the Gaza Strip and four northern West Bank
settlements. Nonetheless, Israel controls maritime, airspace, and
most access to the Gaza Strip. An agreement signed by the PA and
Israel in November 2005 authorized the reopening of the Rafah border
crossing between the Gaza Strip and Egypt under joint PA and
Egyptian control, with monitoring provided by the EU.

Georgia
The region of present-day Georgia contained the ancient
kingdoms of Colchis and Kartli-Iberia. The area came under Roman
influence in the first centuries A.D. and Christianity became the
state religion in the 330s. Domination by Persians, Arabs, and Turks
was followed by a Georgian golden age (11th-13th centuries) that was
cut short by the Mongol invasion of 1236. Subsequently, the Ottoman
and Persian empires competed for influence in the region. Georgia
was absorbed into the Russian Empire in the 19th century.
Independent for three years (1918-1921) following the Russian
revolution, it was forcibly incorporated into the USSR until the
Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. An attempt by the incumbent Georgian
government to manipulate national legislative elections in November
2003 touched off widespread protests that led to the resignation of
Eduard SHEVARDNADZE, president since 1995. New elections in early
2004 swept Mikheil SAAKASHVILI into power along with his National
Movement Party. Progress on market reforms and democratization has
been made in the years since independence, but this progress has
been complicated by two civil conflicts in the breakaway regions of
Abkhazia and South Ossetia. These two territories remain outside the
control of the central government and are ruled by de facto,
unrecognized governments, supported by Russia. Russian-led
peacekeeping operations continue in both regions. The Georgian
Government put forward a new peace initiative for the peaceful
resolution of the status of South Ossetia in 2005.

Germany
As Europe's largest economy and second most populous nation,
Germany remains a key member of the continent's economic, political,
and defense organizations. European power struggles immersed Germany
in two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th century
and left the country occupied by the victorious Allied powers of the
US, UK, France, and the Soviet Union in 1945. With the advent of the
Cold War, two German states were formed in 1949: the western Federal
Republic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern German Democratic Republic
(GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itself in key Western economic
and security organizations, the EC, which became the EU, and NATO,
while the Communist GDR was on the front line of the Soviet-led
Warsaw Pact. The decline of the USSR and the end of the Cold War
allowed for German unification in 1990. Since then, Germany has
expended considerable funds to bring Eastern productivity and wages
up to Western standards. In January 1999, Germany and 10 other EU
countries introduced a common European exchange currency, the euro.

Ghana
Formed from the merger of the British colony of the Gold Coast
and the Togoland trust territory, Ghana in 1957 became the first
sub-Saharan country in colonial Africa to gain its independence. A
long series of coups resulted in the suspension of the constitution
in 1981 and a ban on political parties. A new constitution,
restoring multiparty politics, was approved in 1992. Lt. Jerry
RAWLINGS, head of state since 1981, won presidential elections in
1992 and 1996, but was constitutionally prevented from running for a
third term in 2000. John KUFUOR, who defeated former Vice President
Atta MILLS in a free and fair election, succeeded him.

Gibraltar
Strategically important, Gibraltar was reluctantly ceded
to Great Britain by Spain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht; the British
garrison was formally declared a colony in 1830. In a referendum
held in 1967, Gibraltarians voted overwhelmingly to remain a British
dependency. Although the current 1969 Constitution for Gibraltar
states that the British government will never allow the people of
Gibraltar to pass under the sovereignty of another state against
their freely and democratically expressed wishes, a series of talks
were held by the UK and Spain between 1997 and 2002 on establishing
temporary joint sovereignty over Gibraltar. In response to these
talks, the Gibraltarian Government set up a referendum in late 2002
in which a majority of the citizens voted overwhelmingly against any
sharing of sovereignty with Spain. Since the referendum, tripartite
talks have been held with Spain, the UK, and Gibraltar, and in
September 2006 a three-way agreement was signed. Spain agreed to
allow airlines other than British to serve Gibraltar, to speed up
customs procedures, and to add more telephone lines into Gibraltar.
Britain agreed to pay pensions to Spaniards who had been employed in
Gibraltar before the border closed in 1969. Spain will be allowed to
open a cultural institute from which the Spanish flag will fly.

Glorioso Islands
A French possession since 1892, the Glorioso
Islands are composed of two lushly vegetated coral islands (Ile
Glorieuse and Ile du Lys) and three rock islets. A military garrison
operates a weather and radio station on Ile Glorieuse.

Greece
Greece achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1829.
During the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the
20th century, it gradually added neighboring islands and
territories, most with Greek-speaking populations. In World War II,
Greece was first invaded by Italy (1940) and subsequently occupied
by Germany (1941-44); fighting endured in a protracted civil war
between supporters of the king and Communist rebels. Following the
latter's defeat in 1949, Greece joined NATO in 1952. A military
dictatorship, which in 1967 suspended many political liberties and
forced the king to flee the country, lasted seven years. The 1974
democratic elections and a referendum created a parliamentary
republic and abolished the monarchy. In 1981 Greece joined the EC
(now the EU); it became the 12th member of the euro zone in 2001.

Greenland
Greenland, the world's largest island, is about 81%
ice-capped. Vikings reached the island in the 10th century from
Iceland; Danish colonization began in the 18th century, and
Greenland was made an integral part of Denmark in 1953. It joined
the European Community (now the EU) with Denmark in 1973 but
withdrew in 1985 over a dispute over stringent fishing quotas.
Greenland was granted self-government in 1979 by the Danish
parliament. The law went into effect the following year. Denmark
continues to exercise control of Greenland's foreign affairs.

Grenada
Carib Indians inhabited Grenada when COLUMBUS discovered the
island in 1498, but it remained uncolonized for more than a century.
The French settled Grenada in the 17th century, established sugar
estates, and imported large numbers of African slaves. Britain took
the island in 1762 and vigorously expanded sugar production. In the
19th century, cacao eventually surpassed sugar as the main export
crop; in the 20th century, nutmeg became the leading export. In
1967, Britain gave Grenada autonomy over its internal affairs. Full
independence was attained in 1974 making Grenada one of the smallest
independent countries in the Western Hemisphere. Grenada was seized
by a Marxist military council on 19 October 1983. Six days later the
island was invaded by US forces and those of six other Caribbean
nations, which quickly captured the ringleaders and their hundreds
of Cuban advisers. Free elections were reinstituted the following
year and have continued since that time. Hurricane Ivan struck
Grenada in September of 2004 causing severe damage.

Guadeloupe
Guadeloupe has been a French possession since 1635. The
island of Saint Martin is shared with the Netherlands; its southern
portion is named Sint Maarten and is part of the Netherlands
Antilles and its northern portion is named Saint-Martin and is part
of Guadeloupe

Guam
Guam was ceded to the US by Spain in 1898. Captured by the
Japanese in 1941, it was retaken by the US three years later. The
military installation on the island is one of the most strategically
important US bases in the Pacific.

Guatemala
The Maya civilization flourished in Guatemala and
surrounding regions during the first millennium A.D. After almost
three centuries as a Spanish colony, Guatemala won its independence
in 1821. During the second half of the 20th century, it experienced
a variety of military and civilian governments, as well as a 36-year
guerrilla war. In 1996, the government signed a peace agreement
formally ending the conflict, which had left more than 100,000
people dead and had created some 1 million refugees.

Guernsey
The island of Guernsey and the other Channel Islands
represent the last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy,
which held sway in both France and England. The islands were the
only British soil occupied by German troops in World War II.
Guernsey is a British crown dependency, but is not part of the UK.

Guinea
Guinea has had only two presidents since gaining its
independence from France in 1958. Lansana CONTE came to power in
1984 when the military seized the government after the death of the
first president, Sekou TOURE. Guinea did not hold democratic
elections until 1993 when Gen. CONTE (head of the military
government) was elected president of the civilian government. He was
reelected in 1998 and again in 2003. Unrest in Sierra Leone and
Liberia has spilled over into Guinea on several occasions over the
past decade, threatening stability and creating humanitarian
emergencies.

Guinea-Bissau
Since independence from Portugal in 1974,
Guinea-Bissau has experienced considerable political and military
upheaval. In 1980, a military coup established authoritarian
dictator Joao Bernardo 'Nino' VIEIRA as president. Despite setting a
path to a market economy and multiparty system, VIEIRA's regime was
characterized by the suppression of political opposition and the
purging of political rivals. Several coup attempts through the 1980s
and early 1990s failed to unseat him. In 1994 VIEIRA was elected
president in the country's first free elections. A military mutiny
and resulting civil war in 1998 eventually led to VIEIRA's ouster in
May 1999. In February 2000, a transitional government turned over
power to opposition leader Kumba YALA, after he was elected
president in transparent polling. In September 2003, after only
three years in office, YALA was ousted by the military in a
bloodless coup, and businessman Henrique ROSA was sworn in as
interim president. In August 2005, former President VIEIRA was
re-elected president in the second round of presidential polling.
Since formally assuming office in October 2005, Vieira has pledged
to pursue economic development and national reconciliation.

Guyana
Originally a Dutch colony in the 17th century, by 1815 Guyana
had become a British possession. The abolition of slavery led to
black settlement of urban areas and the importation of indentured
servants from India to work the sugar plantations. This
ethnocultural divide has persisted and has led to turbulent
politics. Guyana achieved independence from the UK in 1966, and
since then it has been ruled mostly by socialist-oriented
governments. In 1992, Cheddi JAGAN was elected president in what is
considered the country's first free and fair election since
independence. After his death five years later, his wife, Jane
JAGAN, became president but resigned in 1999 due to poor health. Her
successor, Bharrat JAGDEO, was reelected in 2001.

Haiti
The native Taino Amerindians - who inhabited the island of
Hispaniola when it was discovered by COLUMBUS in 1492 - were
virtually annihilated by Spanish settlers within 25 years. In the
early 17th century, the French established a presence on Hispaniola,
and in 1697, Spain ceded to the French the western third of the
island, which later became Haiti. The French colony, based on
forestry and sugar-related industries, became one of the wealthiest
in the Caribbean, but only through the heavy importation of African
slaves and considerable environmental degradation. In the late 18th
century, Haiti's nearly half million slaves revolted under Toussaint
L'OUVERTURE. After a prolonged struggle, Haiti became the first
black republic to declare its independence in 1804. The poorest
country in the Western Hemisphere, Haiti has been plagued by
political violence for most of its history. After an armed rebellion
led to the departure of President Jean-Betrand ARISTIDE in February
2004, an interim government took office to organize new elections
under the auspices of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in
Haiti (MINUSTAH). Continued violence and technical delays have
prompted repeated postponements, and Haiti missed the
constitutionally-mandated presidential inauguration date of 7
February 2006.

Heard Island and McDonald Islands
These uninhabited, barren,
sub-Antarctic islands were transferred from the UK to Australia in
1947. Populated by large numbers of seal and bird species, the
islands have been designated a nature preserve.

Holy See (Vatican City)
Popes in their secular role ruled portions
of the Italian peninsula for more than a thousand years until the
mid 19th century, when many of the Papal States were seized by the
newly united Kingdom of Italy. In 1870, the pope's holdings were
further circumscribed when Rome itself was annexed. Disputes between
a series of "prisoner" popes and Italy were resolved in 1929 by
three Lateran Treaties, which established the independent state of
Vatican City and granted Roman Catholicism special status in Italy.
In 1984, a concordat between the Holy See and Italy modified certain
of the earlier treaty provisions, including the primacy of Roman
Catholicism as the Italian state religion. Present concerns of the
Holy See include religious freedom, international development, the
Middle East, terrorism, interreligious dialogue and reconciliation,
and the application of church doctrine in an era of rapid change and
globalization. About 1 billion people worldwide profess the Catholic
faith.

Honduras
Once part of Spain's vast empire in the New World, Honduras
became an independent nation in 1821. After two and a half decades
of mostly military rule, a freely elected civilian government came
to power in 1982. During the 1980s, Honduras proved a haven for
anti-Sandinista contras fighting the Marxist Nicaraguan Government
and an ally to Salvadoran Government forces fighting leftist
guerrillas. The country was devastated by Hurricane Mitch in 1998,
which killed about 5,600 people and caused approximately $2 billion
in damage.

Hong Kong
Occupied by the UK in 1841, Hong Kong was formally ceded
by China the following year; various adjacent lands were added later
in the 19th century. Pursuant to an agreement signed by China and
the UK on 19 December 1984, Hong Kong became the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region (SAR) of China on 1 July 1997. In this
agreement, China has promised that, under its "one country, two
systems" formula, China's socialist economic system will not be
imposed on Hong Kong and that Hong Kong will enjoy a high degree of
autonomy in all matters except foreign and defense affairs for the
next 50 years.

Howland Island
Discovered by the US early in the 19th century, the
island was officially claimed by the US in 1857. Both US and British
companies mined for guano until about 1890. Earhart Light is a day
beacon near the middle of the west coast that was partially
destroyed during World War II, but has since been rebuilt; it is
named in memory of the famed aviatrix Amelia EARHART. The island is
administered by the US Department of the Interior as a National
Wildlife Refuge.

Hungary
Hungary was part of the polyglot Austro-Hungarian Empire,
which collapsed during World War I. The country fell under Communist
rule following World War II. In 1956, a revolt and announced
withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact were met with a massive military
intervention by Moscow. Under the leadership of Janos KADAR in 1968,
Hungary began liberalizing its economy, introducing so-called
"Goulash Communism." Hungary held its first multiparty elections in
1990 and initiated a free market economy. It joined NATO in 1999 and
the EU in 2004.

Iceland
Settled by Norwegian and Celtic (Scottish and Irish)
immigrants during the late 9th and 10th centuries A.D., Iceland
boasts the world's oldest functioning legislative assembly, the
Althing, established in 930. Independent for over 300 years, Iceland
was subsequently ruled by Norway and Denmark. Fallout from the Askja
volcano of 1875 devastated the Icelandic economy and caused
widespread famine. Over the next quarter century, 20% of the
island's population emigrated, mostly to Canada and the US. Limited
home rule from Denmark was granted in 1874 and complete independence
attained in 1944. Literacy, longevity, income, and social cohesion
are first-rate by world standards.

Iles Eparses
The Iles Eparses, or scattered islands, are a group of
five French entities - Bassas da India, Europa Island, Glorioso
Islands, Juan de Nova Island, and Tromelin Island - which on 1 April
1960 came under the authority of the Minister in charge of overseas
possessions. On 19 September 1960 by decree, the islands were
transferred to the charge of the Prefet of Reunion where they
remained until 3 January 2005 when they were transferred by another
decree to the Senior Administrator of the Territory of the French
Southern and Antarctic Lands (TAAF).
Bassas da India: A French possession since 1897, this atoll is a
volcanic seamount surrounded by reefs and awash at high tide.
Europa Island: A French possession since 1897, the island is heavily
wooded; it is the site of a small military garrison that staffs a
weather station.
Glorioso Islands: A French possession since 1892, the Glorioso
Islands are composed of two lushly vegetated coral islands (Ile
Glorieuse and Ile du Lys) and three rock islets. A military garrison
operates a weather and radio station on Ile Glorieuse.
Juan de Nova Island: Named after a famous 15th century Spanish
navigator and explorer, the island has been a French possession
since 1897. It has been exploited for its guano and phosphate.
Presently a small military garrison oversees a meteorological
station.
Tromelin Island: First explored by the French in 1776, the island
came under the jurisdiction of Reunion in 1814. At present, it
serves as a sea turtle sanctuary and is the site of an important
meteorological station.

India
The Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest in the world,
dates back at least 5,000 years. Aryan tribes from the northwest
infiltrated onto Indian lands about 1500 B.C.; their merger with the
earlier Dravidian inhabitants created the classical Indian culture.
Arab incursions starting in the 8th century and Turkish in the 12th
were followed by those of European traders, beginning in the late
15th century. By the 19th century, Britain had assumed political
control of virtually all Indian lands. Indian armed forces in the
British army played a vital role in both World Wars. Nonviolent
resistance to British colonialism led by Mohandas GANDHI and
Jawaharlal NEHRU brought independence in 1947. The subcontinent was
divided into the secular state of India and the smaller Muslim state
of Pakistan. A third war between the two countries in 1971 resulted
in East Pakistan becoming the separate nation of Bangladesh. Despite
impressive gains in economic investment and output, India faces
pressing problems such as the ongoing dispute with Pakistan over
Kashmir, massive overpopulation, environmental degradation,
extensive poverty, and ethnic and religious strife.

Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's
five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but larger
than the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). Four critically important
access waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb
(Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait of
Malacca (Indonesia-Malaysia). The decision by the International
Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth
ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Indian Ocean
south of 60 degrees south latitude.

Indonesia
The Dutch began to colonize Indonesia in the early 17th
century; the islands were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945.
Indonesia declared its independence after Japan's surrender, but it
required four years of intermittent negotiations, recurring
hostilities, and UN mediation before the Netherlands agreed to
relinquish its colony. Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic
state and home to the world's largest Muslim population. Current
issues include: alleviating poverty, preventing terrorism,
consolidating democracy after four decades of authoritarianism,
implementing financial sector reforms, stemming corruption, and
holding the military and police accountable for human rights
violations. Indonesia was the nation worst hit by the December 2004
tsunami, which particularly affected Aceh province causing over
100,000 deaths and over $4 billion in damage. An additional
earthquake in March 2005 created heavy destruction on the island of
Nias. Reconstruction in these areas may take up to a decade. In
2005, Indonesia reached a historic peace agreement with armed
separatists in Aceh, but it continues to face a low intensity
separatist guerilla movement in Papua.

Iran
Known as Persia until 1935, Iran became an Islamic republic in
1979 after the ruling monarchy was overthrown and the shah was
forced into exile. Conservative clerical forces established a
theocratic system of government with ultimate political authority
nominally vested in a learned religious scholar. Iranian-US
relations have been strained since a group of Iranian students
seized the US Embassy in Tehran on 4 November 1979 and held it until
20 January 1981. During 1980-88, Iran fought a bloody, indecisive
war with Iraq that eventually expanded into the Persian Gulf and led
to clashes between US Navy and Iranian military forces between
1987-1988. Iran has been designated a state sponsor of terrorism for
its activities in Lebanon and elsewhere in the world and remains
subject to US economic sanctions and export controls because of its
continued involvement. Following the elections of a reformist
president and Majlis in the late 1990s, attempts to foster political
reform in response to popular dissatisfaction floundered as
conservative politicians prevented reform measures from being
enacted, increased repressive measures, and made electoral gains
against reformers. Parliamentary elections in 2004 and the August
2005 inauguration of a conservative stalwart as president, completed
the reconsolidation of conservative power in Iran's government.

Iraq
Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied by
Britain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared a
League of Nations mandate under UK administration. In stages over
the next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a kingdom in
1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a series
of military strongmen ruled the country, the latest was SADDAM
Husayn. Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive and
costly eight-year war (1980-88). In August 1990, Iraq seized Kuwait,
but was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces during the Gulf War
of January-February 1991. Following Kuwait's liberation, the UN
Security Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons of mass
destruction and long-range missiles and to allow UN verification
inspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance with UNSC resolutions
over a period of 12 years led to the US-led invasion of Iraq in
March 2003 and the ouster of the SADDAM Husayn regime. Coalition
forces remain in Iraq, helping to restore degraded infrastructure
and facilitating the establishment of a freely elected government,
while simultaneously dealing with a robust insurgency. The Coalition
Provisional Authority, which temporarily administered Iraq after the
invasion, transferred full governmental authority on 28 June 2004,
to the Iraqi Interim Government (IG), which governed under the
Transitional Administrative Law for Iraq (TAL). Under the TAL,
elections for a 275-member Transitional National Assembly (TNA) were
held in Iraq on 30 January 2005. Following these elections, the
Iraqi Transitional Government (ITG) assumed office. The TNA was
charged with drafting Iraq's permanent constitution, which was
approved in a 15 October 2005 constitutional referendum. An election
under the constitution for a 275-member Council of Representatives
(CoR) was held in December 2005. The CoR approval in the selection
of most of the cabinet ministers on 20 May 2006 marked the
transition from the ITG to Iraq's full-term government.

Ireland
Celtic tribes arrived on the island between 600-150 B.C.
Invasions by Norsemen that began in the late 8th century were
finally ended when King Brian BORU defeated the Danes in 1014.
English invasions began in the 12th century and set off more than
seven centuries of Anglo-Irish struggle marked by fierce rebellions
and harsh repressions. A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched
off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in
independence from the UK for 26 southern counties; six northern
(Ulster) counties remained part of the UK. In 1948 Ireland withdrew
from the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in
1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification of
Ireland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups. A
peace settlement for Northern Ireland, known as the Good Friday
Agreement and approved in 1998, is being implemented with some
difficulties.

Isle of Man
Part of the Norwegian Kingdom of the Hebrides until the
13th century when it was ceded to Scotland, the isle came under the
British crown in 1765. Current concerns include reviving the almost
extinct Manx Gaelic language. Isle of Man is a British crown
dependency, but is not part of the UK.

Israel
Following World War II, the British withdrew from their
mandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab and
Jewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently,
the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without ending
the deep tensions between the two sides. The territories occupied by
Israel since the 1967 war are not included in the Israel country
profile, unless otherwise noted. On 25 April 1982, Israel withdrew
from the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.
Israel and Palestinian officials signed on 13 September 1993 a
Declaration of Principles (also known as the "Oslo Accords") guiding
an interim period of Palestinian self-rule. Outstanding territorial
and other disputes with Jordan were resolved in the 26 October 1994
Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace. In addition, on 25 May 2000, Israel
withdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon, which it had occupied
since 1982. In keeping with the framework established at the Madrid
Conference in October 1991, bilateral negotiations were conducted
between Israel and Palestinian representatives and Syria to achieve
a permanent settlement. In April 2003, US President BUSH, working in
conjunction with the EU, UN, and Russia - the "Quartet" - took the
lead in laying out a roadmap to a final settlement of the conflict
by 2005, based on reciprocal steps by the two parties leading to two
states, Israel and a democratic Palestine. However, progress toward
a permanent status agreement was undermined by Palestinian-Israeli
violence between September 2000 and February 2005. An agreement
reached at Sharm al-Sheikh in February 2005 significantly reduced
the violence. The election in January 2005 of Mahmud ABBAS as the
new Palestinian leader following the November 2004 death of Yasir
ARAFAT, the formation of a Likud-Labor-United Torah Judaism
coalition government in January 2005, and the successful Israeli
disengagement from the Gaza Strip (August-September 2005), presented
an opportunity for a renewed peace effort. However, internal Israeli
political events between October and December 2005 have destabilized
the political situation and forced early elections, scheduled for
March 2006.

Italy
Italy became a nation-state in 1861 when the regional states
of the peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, were united under
King Victor EMMANUEL II. An era of parliamentary government came to
a close in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINI established a
Fascist dictatorship. His disastrous alliance with Nazi Germany led
to Italy's defeat in World War II. A democratic republic replaced
the monarchy in 1946 and economic revival followed. Italy was a
charter member of NATO and the European Economic Community (EEC). It
has been at the forefront of European economic and political
unification, joining the Economic and Monetary Union in 1999.
Persistent problems include illegal immigration, organized crime,
corruption, high unemployment, sluggish economic growth, and the low
incomes and technical standards of southern Italy compared with the
prosperous north.

Jamaica
The island - discovered by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1494 -
was settled by the Spanish early in the 16th century. The native
Taino Indians, who had inhabited Jamaica for centuries, were
gradually exterminated, replaced by African slaves. England siezed
the island in 1655 and a plantation economy - based on sugar, cocoa,
and coffee - was established. The abolition of slavery in 1834 freed
a quarter million slaves, many of which became small farmers.
Jamaica gradually obtained increasing independence from Britain, and
in 1958 it joined other British Caribbean colonies in forming the
Federation of the West Indies. Jamaica gained full independence when
it withdrew from the federation in 1962. Deteriorating economic
conditions during the 1970s led to recurrent violence as rival gangs
created by the major political parties evolved into powerful
organized crime networks involved in international drug smuggling
and money laundering. The cycle of violence, drugs, and poverty has
served to impoverish large sectors of the populace. Nonetheless,
many rural and resort areas remain relatively safe and contribute
substantially to the economy.

Jan Mayen
This desolate, mountainous island was named after a Dutch
whaling captain who indisputably discovered it in 1614 (earlier
claims are inconclusive). Visited only occasionally by seal hunters
and trappers over the following centuries, the island came under
Norwegian sovereignty in 1929. The long dormant Haakon VII
Toppen/Beerenberg volcano resumed activity in 1970; it is the
northernmost active volcano on earth.

Japan
In 1603, a Tokugawa shogunate (military dictatorship) ushered
in a long period of isolation from foreign influence in order to
secure its power. For 250 years this policy enabled Japan to enjoy
stability and a flowering of its indigenous culture. Following the
Treaty of Kanagawa with the US in 1854, Japan opened its ports and
began to intensively modernize and industrialize. During the late
19th and early 20th centuries, Japan became a regional power that
was able to defeat the forces of both China and Russia. It occupied
Korea, Formosa (Taiwan), and southern Sakhalin Island. In 1931-32
Japan occupied Manchuria, and in 1937 it launched a full-scale
invasion of China. Japan attacked US forces in 1941 - triggering
America's entry into World War II - and soon occupied much of East
and Southeast Asia. After its defeat in World War II, Japan
recovered to become an economic power and a staunch ally of the US.
While the emperor retains his throne as a symbol of national unity,
actual power rests in networks of powerful politicians, bureaucrats,
and business executives. The economy experienced a major slowdown
starting in the 1990s following three decades of unprecedented
growth, but Japan still remains a major economic power, both in Asia
and globally. In 2005, Japan began a two-year term as a
non-permanent member of the UN Security Council.

Jarvis Island
First discovered by the British in 1821, the
uninhabited island was annexed by the US in 1858, but abandoned in
1879 after tons of guano had been removed. The UK annexed the island
in 1889, but never carried out plans for further exploitation. The
US occupied and reclaimed the island in 1935. Abandoned after World
War II, the island is currently a National Wildlife Refuge
administered by the US Department of the Interior.

Jersey
Jersey and the other Channel Islands represent the last
remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held sway in both
France and England. These islands were the only British soil
occupied by German troops in World War II. Jersey is a British crown
dependency, but is not part of the UK.

Johnston Atoll
Both the US and the Kingdom of Hawaii annexed
Johnston Atoll in 1858, but it was the US that mined the guano
deposits until the late 1880s. Johnston and Sand Islands were
designated wildlife refuges in 1926. The US Navy took over the atoll
in 1934, and subsequently the US Air Force assumed control in 1948.
The site was used for high-altitude nuclear tests in the 1950s and
1960s, and until late in 2000 the atoll was maintained as a storage
and disposal site for chemical weapons. Munitions destruction is now
complete. Cleanup and closure of the facility was completed by May
2005.

Jordan
Following World War I and the dissolution of the Ottoman
Empire, the UK received a mandate to govern much of the Middle East.
Britain separated out a semi-autonomous region of Transjordan from
Palestine in the early 1920s, and the area gained its independence
in 1946; it adopted the name of Jordan in 1950. The country's
long-time ruler was King HUSSEIN (1953-99). A pragmatic leader, he
successfully navigated competing pressures from the major powers
(US, USSR, and UK), various Arab states, Israel, and a large
internal Palestinian population, despite several wars and coup
attempts. In 1989 he reinstituted parliamentary elections and
gradual political liberalization; in 1994 he signed a peace treaty
with Israel. King ABDALLAH II, the son of King HUSSEIN, assumed the
throne following his father's death in February 1999. Since then, he
has consolidated his power and undertaken an aggressive economic
reform program. Jordan acceded to the World Trade Organization in
2000, and began to participate in the European Free Trade
Association in 2001. After a two-year delay, parliamentary and
municipal elections took place in the summer of 2003. The prime
minister appointed in November 2005 stated the government would
focus on political reforms, improving conditions for the poor, and
fighting corruption.

Juan de Nova Island
Named after a famous 15th century Spanish
navigator and explorer, the island has been a French possession
since 1897. It has been exploited for its guano and phosphate.
Presently a small military garrison oversees a meteorological
station.

Kazakhstan
Native Kazakhs, a mix of Turkic and Mongol nomadic tribes
who migrated into the region in the 13th century, were rarely united
as a single nation. The area was conquered by Russia in the 18th
century, and Kazakhstan became a Soviet Republic in 1936. During the
1950s and 1960s agricultural "Virgin Lands" program, Soviet citizens
were encouraged to help cultivate Kazakhstan's northern pastures.
This influx of immigrants (mostly Russians, but also some other
deported nationalities) skewed the ethnic mixture and enabled
non-Kazakhs to outnumber natives. Independence in 1991 caused many
of these newcomers to emigrate. Current issues include: developing a
cohesive national identity; expanding the development of the
country's vast energy resources and exporting them to world markets;
achieving a sustainable economic growth outside the oil, gas, and
mining sectors; and strengthening relations with neighboring states
and other foreign powers.

Kenya
Founding president and liberation struggle icon Jomo KENYATTA
led Kenya from independence in 1963 until his death in 1978, when
President Daniel Toroitich arap MOI took power in a constitutional
succession. The country was a de facto one-party state from 1969
until 1982 when the ruling Kenya African National Union (KANU) made
itself the sole legal party in Kenya. MOI acceded to internal and
external pressure for political liberalization in late 1991. The
ethnically fractured opposition failed to dislodge KANU from power
in elections in 1992 and 1997, which were marred by violence and
fraud, but were viewed as having generally reflected the will of the
Kenyan people. President MOI stepped down in December 2002 following
fair and peaceful elections. Mwai KIBAKI, running as the candidate
of the multiethnic, united opposition group, the National Rainbow
Coalition, defeated KANU candidate Uhuru KENYATTA and assumed the
presidency following a campaign centered on an anticorruption
platform.

Kingman Reef
The US annexed the reef in 1922. Its sheltered lagoon
served as a way station for flying boats on Hawaii-to-American Samoa
flights during the late 1930s. There are no terrestrial plants on
the reef, which is frequently awash, but it does support abundant
and diverse marine fauna and flora. In 2001, the waters surrounding
the reef out to 12 nm were designated a US National Wildlife Refuge.

Kiribati
The Gilbert Islands were granted self-rule by the UK in
1971 and complete independence in 1979 under the new name of
Kiribati. The US relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabited
Phoenix and Line Island groups in a 1979 treaty of friendship with
Kiribati.

Korea, North An independent kingdom for much of its long history, Korea was occupied by Japan in 1905 following the Russo-Japanese War. Five years later, Japan formally annexed the entire peninsula. Following World War II, Korea was split with the northern half coming under Soviet-sponsored Communist domination. After failing in the Korean War (1950-53) to conquer the US-backed Republic of Korea (ROK) in the southern portion by force, North Korea (DPRK), under its founder President KIM Il-so'ng, adopted a policy of ostensible diplomatic and economic "self-reliance" as a check against excessive Soviet or Communist Chinese influence. The DPRK demonized the US as the ultimate threat to its social system through state-funded propaganda, and molded political, economic, and military policies around the core ideological objective of eventual unification of Korea under Pyongyang's control. KIM's son, the current ruler KIM Jong Il, was officially designated as his father's successor in 1980, assuming a growing political and managerial role until the elder KIM's death in 1994. After decades of economic mismanagement and resource misallocation, the DPRK since the mid-1990s has relied heavily on international aid to feed its population while continuing to expend resources to maintain an army of 1 million. North Korea's long-range missile development, as well as its nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons programs and massive conventional armed forces, are of major concern to the international community. In December 2002, following revelations that the DPRK was pursuing a nuclear weapons program based on enriched uranium in violation of a 1994 agreement with the US to freeze and ultimately dismantle its existing plutonium-based program, North Korea expelled monitors from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). In January 2003, it declared its withdrawal from the international Non-Proliferation Treaty. In mid-2003 Pyongyang announced it had completed the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel rods (to extract weapons-grade plutonium) and was developing a "nuclear deterrent." Since August 2003, North Korea has participated in the Six-Party Talks with China, Japan, Russia, South Korea, and the US designed to resolve the stalemate over its nuclear programs. The fourth round of Six-Party Talks were held in Beijing during July-September 2005. All parties agreed to a Joint Statement of Principles in which, among other things, the six parties unanimously reaffirmed the goal of verifiable denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula in a peaceful manner. In the Joint Statement, the DPRK committed to "abandoning all nuclear weapons and existing nuclear programs and returning, at an early date, to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and to IAEA safeguards." The Joint Statement also commits the US and other parties to certain actions as the DPRK denuclearizes. The US offered a security assurance, specifying that it had no nuclear weapons on ROK territory and no intention to attack or invade the DPRK with nuclear or other weapons. The US and DPRK will take steps to normalize relations, subject to the DPRK's implementing its denuclearization pledge and resolving other longstanding concerns. While the Joint Statement provides a vision of the end-point of the Six-Party process, much work lies ahead to implement the elements of the agreement.

Korea, South
Korea was an independent kingdom for much of its
millennia-long history. Following its victory in the Russo-Japanese
War in 1905, Japan occupied Korea; five years later it formally
annexed the entire peninsula. After World War II, a Republic of
Korea (ROK) was set up in the southern half of the Korean Peninsula
while a Communist-style government was installed in the north (the
DPRK). During the Korean War (1950-53), US troops and UN forces
fought alongside soldiers from the ROK to defend South Korea from
DPRK attacks supported by China and the Soviet Union. An armistice
was signed in 1953, splitting the peninsula along a demilitarized
zone at about the 38th parallel. Thereafter, South Korea achieved
rapid economic growth with per capita income rising to roughly 14
times the level of North Korea. In 1993, KIM Yo'ng-sam became South
Korea's first civilian president following 32 years of military
rule. South Korea today is a fully functioning modern democracy. In
June 2000, a historic first North-South summit took place between
the South's President KIM Dae-jung and the North's leader KIM Jong
Il.

Kuwait
Britain oversaw foreign relations and defense for the ruling
Kuwaiti AL-SABAH dynasty from 1899 until independence in 1961.
Kuwait was attacked and overrun by Iraq on 2 August 1990. Following
several weeks of aerial bombardment, a US-led, UN coalition began a
ground assault on 23 February 1991 that liberated Kuwait in four
days. Kuwait spent more than $5 billion to repair oil infrastructure
damaged during 1990-91.

Kyrgyzstan
A Central Asian country of incredible natural beauty and
proud nomadic traditions, Kyrgyzstan was annexed by Russia in 1864;
it achieved independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Nationwide
demonstrations in the spring of 2005 resulted in the ouster of
President Askar AKAYEV, who had run the country since 1990.
Subsequent presidential elections in July 2005 were won
overwhelmingly by former prime minister Kurmanbek BAKIYEV. Current
concerns include: privatization of state-owned enterprises,
expansion of democracy and political freedoms, reduction of
corruption, improving interethnic relations, and combating terrorism.

Laos
Modern-day Laos has its roots in the ancient Lao kingdom of Lan
Xang, established in the 14th Century under King FA NGUM. For three
hundred years Lan Xang included large parts of present-day Cambodia
and Thailand, as well as all of what is now Laos. After centuries of
gradual decline, Laos came under the control of Siam (Thailand) from
the late 18th century until the late 19th century when it became
part of French Indochina. The Franco-Siamese Treaty of 1907 defined
the current Lao border with Thailand. In 1975, the Communist Pathet
Lao took control of the government ending a six-century-old monarchy
and instituting a strict socialist regime closely aligned to
Vietnam. A gradual return to private enterprise and the
liberalization of foreign investment laws began in 1986. Laos became
a member of ASEAN in 1997.

Latvia
After a brief period of independence between the two World
Wars, Latvia was annexed by the USSR in 1940. It reestablished its
independence in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union.
Although the last Russian troops left in 1994, the status of the
Russian minority (some 30% of the population) remains of concern to
Moscow. Latvia joined both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.

Lebanon
Following the capture of Syria from the Ottoman Empire by
Anglo-French forces in 1918, France received a mandate over this
territory and separated out a region of Lebanon in 1920. France
granted this area independence in 1943. A 15-year civil war
(1976-1991) devastated the country, but Lebanon has since made
progress toward rebuilding its political institutions. Under the
Ta'if Accord - the blueprint for national reconciliation - the
Lebanese established a more equitable political system, particularly
by giving Muslims a greater voice in the political process while
institutionalizing sectarian divisions in the government. Since the
end of the war, Lebanon has conducted several successful elections,
most militias have been disbanded, and the Lebanese Armed Forces
(LAF) have extended authority over about two-thirds of the country.
Hizballah, a radical Shi'a organization listed by the US State
Department as a Foreign Terrorist Organization, retains its weapons.
During Lebanon's civil war, the Arab League legitimized in the Ta'if
Accord Syria's troop deployment, numbering about 16,000 based mainly
east of Beirut and in the Bekaa Valley. Damascus justified its
continued military presence in Lebanon by citing Beirut's requests
and the failure of the Lebanese Government to implement all of the
constitutional reforms in the Ta'if Accord. Israel's withdrawal from
southern Lebanon in May 2000, however, encouraged some Lebanese
groups to demand that Syria withdraw its forces as well. The passage
of UNSCR 1559 in early October 2004 - a resolution calling for Syria
to withdraw from Lebanon and end its interference in Lebanese
affairs - further emboldened Lebanese groups opposed to Syria's
presence in Lebanon. The assassination of former Prime Minister
Rafiq HARIRI and 20 others in February 2005 led to massive
demonstrations in Beirut against the Syrian presence ("the Cedar
Revolution"). Syria finally withdrew the remainder of its military
forces from Lebanon in April 2005. In May-June 2005, Lebanon held
its first legislative elections since the end of the civil war free
of foreign interference, handing a two-thirds majority to the bloc
led by Saad HARIRI, the slain prime minister's son.

Lesotho
Basutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho upon
independence from the UK in 1966. The Basuto National Party ruled
for the first two decades. King MOSHOESHOE was exiled in 1990, but
returned to Lesotho in 1992 and reinstated in 1995. Constitutional
government was restored in 1993 after 7 years of military rule. In
1998, violent protests and a military mutiny following a contentious
election prompted a brief but bloody intervention by South African
and Botswanan military forces under the aegis of the Southern
African Development Community. Constitutional reforms have since
restored political stability; peaceful parliamentary elections were
held in 2002.

Liberia
Settlement of freed slaves from the US in what is today
Liberia began in 1822; by 1847, the Americo-Liberians were able to
establish a republic. William TUBMAN, president from 1944-71, did
much to promote foreign investment and to bridge the economic,
social, and political gaps between the descendents of the original
settlers and the inhabitants of the interior. In 1980, a military
coup led by Samuel DOE assassinated President William TOLBERT
(1971-80) and ushered in a decade of authoritarian rule followed by
a prolonged civil war, in which DOE himself was killed. In August
2003, a comprehensive peace agreement ended 14 years of intermittent
fighting and prompted the resignation of former president Charles
TAYLOR, who was exiled to Nigeria. After two years of rule by a
transitional government, democratic elections in late 2005 brought
President Ellen JOHNSON-SIRLEAF to power. The UN Mission in Liberia
(UNMIL), which maintains a strong presence throughout the country,
completed a disarmament program for former combatants in late 2004,
but the security situation is still volatile and the process of
rebuilding the social and economic structure of this war-torn
country remains sluggish.

Libya
The Italians supplanted the Ottoman Turks from the area around
Tripoli in 1911 and did not reliquish their hold until 1943 when
defeated in World War II. Libya then passed to UN administration and
achieved independence in 1951. Following a 1969 military coup, Col.
Muammar Abu Minyar al-QADHAFI began to espouse his own political
system, the Third Universal Theory. The system is a combination of
socialism and Islam derived in part from tribal practices and is
supposed to be implemented by the Libyan people themselves in a
unique form of "direct democracy." QADHAFI has always seen himself
as a revolutionary and visionary leader. He used oil funds during
the 1970s and 1980s to promote his ideology outside Libya,
supporting subversives and terrorists abroad to hasten the end of
Marxism and capitalism. In addition, beginning in 1973, he engaged
in military operations in northern Chad's Aozou Strip - to gain
access to minerals and to use as a base of influence in Chadian
politics - but was forced to retreat in 1987. UN sanctions in 1992
isolated QADHAFI politically following the downing of Pan AM Flight
103 over Lockerbie, Scotland. Libyan support for terrorism appeared
to have decreased after the imposition of sanctions. During the
1990s, QADHAFI also began to rebuild his relationships with Europe.
UN sanctions were suspended in April 1999 and finally lifted in
September 2003 after Libya resolved the Lockerbie case. In December
2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to reveal and end its
programs to develop weapons of mass destruction, and QADHAFI has
made significant strides in normalizing relations with western
nations since then. He has received various Western European leaders
as well as many working-level and commercial delegations, and made
his first trip to Western Europe in 15 years when he traveled to
Brussels in April 2004. QADHAFI also finally resolved in 2004
several outstanding cases against his government for terrorist
activities in the 1980s by compensating the families of victims of
the UTA and La Belle disco bombings.

Liechtenstein
The Principality of Liechtenstein was established
within the Holy Roman Empire in 1719; it became a sovereign state in
1806. Until the end of World War I, it was closely tied to Austria,
but the economic devastation caused by that conflict forced
Liechtenstein to enter into a customs and monetary union with
Switzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein remained
neutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding economic
growth. Shortcomings in banking regulatory oversight have resulted
in concerns about the use of the financial institutions for money
laundering. Liechtenstein has, however, implemented new
anti-money-laundering legislation and recently concluded a Mutual
Legal Assistance Treaty with the US.

Lithuania
Independent between the two World Wars, Lithuania was
annexed by the USSR in 1940. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became the
first of the Soviet republics to declare its independence, but
Moscow did not recognize this proclamation until September of 1991
(following the abortive coup in Moscow). The last Russian troops
withdrew in 1993. Lithuania subsequently restructured its economy
for integration into Western European institutions; it joined both
NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.

Luxembourg
Founded in 963, Luxembourg became a grand duchy in 1815
and an independent state under the Netherlands. It lost more than
half of its territory to Belgium in 1839, but gained a larger
measure of autonomy. Full independence was attained in 1867. Overrun
by Germany in both World Wars, it ended its neutrality in 1948 when
it entered into the Benelux Customs Union and when it joined NATO
the following year. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the six
founding countries of the European Economic Community (later the
European Union), and in 1999 it joined the euro currency area.

Macau
Colonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Macau was the
first European settlement in the Far East. Pursuant to an agreement
signed by China and Portugal on 13 April 1987, Macau became the
Macau Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China on 20 December
1999. China has promised that, under its "one country, two systems"
formula, China's socialist economic system will not be practiced in
Macau, and that Macau will enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all
matters except foreign and defense affairs for the next 50 years.

Macedonia
Macedonia gained its independence peacefully from
Yugoslavia in 1991, but Greece's objection to the new state's use of
what it considered a Hellenic name and symbols delayed international
recognition, which occurred under the provisional designation of the
"Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia." In 1995, Greece lifted a
20-month trade embargo and the two countries agreed to normalize
relations, although differences over Macedonia's name remain. The
undetermined status of neighboring Kosovo, implementation of the
Framework Agreement - which ended the 2001 ethnic Albanian armed
insurgency - and a weak economy continue to be challenges for
Macedonia.

Madagascar
Formerly an independent kingdom, Madagascar became a
French colony in 1896, but regained its independence in 1960. During
1992-93, free presidential and National Assembly elections were
held, ending 17 years of single-party rule. In 1997, in the second
presidential race, Didier RATSIRAKA, the leader during the 1970s and
1980s, was returned to the presidency. The 2001 presidential
election was contested between the followers of Didier RATSIRAKA and
Marc RAVALOMANANA, nearly causing secession of half of the country.
In April 2002, the High Constitutional Court announced RAVALOMANANA
the winner.

Malawi
Established in 1891, the British protectorate of Nyasaland
became the independent nation of Malawi in 1964. After three decades
of one-party rule under President Hastings Kamuzu BANDA the country
held multiparty elections in 1994, under a provisional constitution
which came into full effect the following year. Current President
Bingu wa MUTHARIKA, elected in May 2004 after a failed attempt by
the previous president to amend the constitution to permit another
term, has struggled to assert his authority against his predecessor,
who still leads their shared political party. MUTHARIKA's
anti-corruption efforts have led to several high-level arrests and
one prominent conviction. Increasing corruption, population growth,
increasing pressure on agricultural lands, and the spread of
HIV/AIDS pose major problems for the country.

Malaysia
During the late 18th and 19th centuries, Great Britain
established colonies and protectorates in the area of current
Malaysia; these were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945. In 1948,
the British-ruled territories on the Malay Peninsula formed the
Federation of Malaya, which became independent in 1957. Malaysia was
formed in 1963 when the former British colonies of Singapore and the
East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak on the northern coast of
Borneo joined the Federation. The first several years of the
country's history were marred by Indonesian efforts to control
Malaysia, Philippine claims to Sabah, and Singapore's secession from
the Federation in 1965. During the 22-year term of Prime Minister
MAHATHIR bin Mohamad (1981-2003), Malaysia was successful in
diversifying its economy from dependence on exports of raw
materials, to expansion in manufacturing, services, and tourism.

Maldives
The Maldives was long a sultanate, first under Dutch and
then under British protection. It became a republic in 1968, three
years after independence. Since 1978, President Maumoon Abdul GAYOOM
- currently in his sixth term in office - has dominated the islands'
political scene. Following riots in the capital Male in August 2004,
the president and his government have pledged to embark upon
democratic reforms, including a more representative political system
and expanded political freedoms. Tourism and fishing are being
developed on the archipelago.

Mali
The Sudanese Republic and Senegal became independent of France
in 1960 as the Mali Federation. When Senegal withdrew after only a
few months, what formerly made up the Sudanese Republic was renamed
Mali. Rule by dictatorship was brought to a close in 1991 by a coup
that ushered in democratic government. President Alpha KONARE won
Mali's first democratic presidential election in 1992 and was
reelected in 1997. In keeping with Mali's two-term constitutional
limit, KONARE stepped down in 2002 and was succeeded by Amadou TOURE.

Malta
Great Britain formally acquired possession of Malta in 1814.
The island staunchly supported the UK through both World Wars and
remained in the Commonwealth when it became independent in 1964. A
decade later Malta became a republic. Since about the mid-1980s, the
island has transformed itself into a freight transshipment point, a
financial center, and a tourist destination. Malta became an EU
member in May 2004.

Marshall Islands
After almost four decades under US administration
as the easternmost part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific
Islands, the Marshall Islands attained independence in 1986 under a
Compact of Free Association. Compensation claims continue as a
result of US nuclear testing on some of the atolls between 1947 and
1962. The Marshall Islands hosts the US Army Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA)
Reagan Missile Test Site, a key installation in the US missile
defense network.

Martinique
The French began to settle this island in 1635,
overcoming resistance from the local Carib inhabitants. In 1660, the
suviving natives were rounded up and permanently expelled. The
island has subsequently remained a French possession except for
three brief periods of foreign occupation.

Mauritania
Independent from France in 1960, Mauritania annexed the
southern third of the former Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) in
1976, but relinquished it after three years of raids by the
Polisario guerrilla front seeking independence for the territory.
Maaouya Ould Sid Ahmed TAYA seized power in a coup in 1984.
Opposition parties were legalized and a new constitution approved in
1991. Two multiparty presidential elections since then were widely
seen as flawed, but October 2001 legislative and municipal elections
were generally free and open. A bloodless coup in August 2005
deposed President TAYA and ushered in a military council headed by
Col. Ely Ould Mohamed VALL, which declared it would remain in power
for up to two years while it created conditions for genuine
democratic institutions and organized elections. For now, however,
Mauritania remains an autocratic state, and the country continues to
experience ethnic tensions among its black population and different
Moor (Arab-Berber) communities.

Mauritius
Although known to Arab and Malay sailors as early as the
10th century, Mauritius was first explored by the Portuguese in
1505; it was subsequently held by the Dutch, French, and British
before independence was attained in 1968. A stable democracy with
regular free elections and a positive human rights record, the
country has attracted considerable foreign investment and has earned
one of Africa's highest per capita incomes. Recent poor weather and
declining sugar prices have slowed economic growth, leading to some
protests over standards of living in the Creole community.

Mayotte
Mayotte was ceded to France along with the other islands of
the Comoros group in 1843. It was the only island in the archipelago
that voted in 1974 to retain its link with France and forego
independence.

Mexico
The site of advanced Amerindian civilizations, Mexico came
under Spanish rule for three centuries before achieving independence
early in the 19th century. A devaluation of the peso in late 1994
threw Mexico into economic turmoil, triggering the worst recession
in over half a century. The nation continues to make an impressive
recovery. Ongoing economic and social concerns include low real
wages, underemployment for a large segment of the population,
inequitable income distribution, and few advancement opportunities
for the largely Amerindian population in the impoverished southern
states. Elections held in July 2000 marked the first time since the
1910 Mexican Revolution that the opposition defeated the party in
government, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Vicente FOX
of the National Action Party (PAN) was sworn in on 1 December 2000
as the first chief executive elected in free and fair elections.

Micronesia, Federated States of
In 1979 the Federated States of
Micronesia, a UN Trust Territory under US administration, adopted a
constitution. In 1986 independence was attained under a Compact of
Free Association with the US, which was amended and renewed in 2004.
Present concerns include large-scale unemployment, overfishing, and
overdependence on US aid.

Midway Islands
The US took formal possession of the islands in 1867.
The laying of the trans-Pacific cable, which passed through the
islands, brought the first residents in 1903. Between 1935 and 1947,
Midway was used as a refueling stop for trans-Pacific flights. The
US naval victory over a Japanese fleet off Midway in 1942 was one of
the turning points of World War II. The islands continued to serve
as a naval station until closed in 1993. Today the islands are a
national wildlife refuge. From 1996 to 2001 the refuge was open to
the public; it is now temporarily closed.

Moldova
Formerly part of Romania, Moldova was incorporated into the
Soviet Union at the close of World War II. Although independent from
the USSR since 1991, Russian forces have remained on Moldovan
territory east of the Dniester River supporting the Slavic majority
population, mostly Ukrainians and Russians, who have proclaimed a
"Transnistria" republic. The poorest nation in Europe, Moldova
became the first former Soviet state to elect a Communist as its
president in 2001.

Monaco
The Genoese built a fortress on the site of present-day
Monaco in 1215. The current ruling Grimaldi family secured control
in the late 13th century, and a principality was established in
1338. Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century with
a railroad linkup to France and the opening of a casino. Since then,
the principality's mild climate, splendid scenery, and gambling
facilities have made Monaco world famous as a tourist and recreation
center.

Mongolia
The Mongols gained fame in the 13th century when under
Chinggis KHAN they conquered a huge Eurasian empire. After his death
the empire was divided into several powerful Mongol states, but
these broke apart in the 14th century. The Mongols eventually
retired to their original steppe homelands and later came under
Chinese rule. Mongolia won its independence in 1921 with Soviet
backing. A Communist regime was installed in 1924. The ex-Communist
Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) won elections in 1990
and 1992, but was defeated by the Democratic Union Coalition (DUC)
in the 1996 parliamentary election. Since then, parliamentary
elections returned the MPRP overwhelmingly to power in 2000 and
produced a coalition government in 2004.

Montenegro
The use of the name Montenegro began in the 15th century
when the Crnojevic dynasty began to rule the Serbian principality of
Zeta; over subsequent centuries it was able to maintain its
independence from the Ottoman Empire. From the 16th to 19th
centuries, Montenegro became a theocratic state ruled by a series of
bishop princes; in 1852, it was transformed into a secular
principality. After World War I, Montenegro was part of the Kingdom
of Yugoslavia, and, at the conclusion of World War II, it became a
constituent republic of the Socialist Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia. When the latter dissolved in 1992, Montenegro federated
with Serbia, first as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and, after
2003, in a looser union of Serbia and Montenegro. Following a
three-year postponement, Montenegro held an independence referendum
in the spring of 2006 under rules set by the EU. The vote for
severing ties with Serbia exceeded the 55% threshold, allowing
Montenegro to formally declare its independence on 3 June 2006.

Montserrat
English and Irish colonists from St. Kitts first settled
on Montserrat in 1632; the first African slaves arrived three
decades later. The British and French fought for possesion of the
island for most of the 18th century, but it finally was confirmed as
a British possession in 1783. The island's sugar plantation economy
was converted to small farm landholdings in the mid 19th century.
Much of this island was devastated and two-thirds of the population
fled abroad because of the eruption of the Soufriere Hills Volcano
that began on 18 July 1995. Montserrat has endured volcanic activity
since, with the last eruption occurring in July 2003.

Morocco
In 788, about a century after the Arab conquest of North
Africa, successive Moorish dynasties began to rule in Morocco. In
the 16th century, the Sa'adi monarchy, particularly under Ahmad
AL-MANSUR (1578-1603), repelled foreign invaders and inaugurated a
golden age. In 1860, Spain occupied northern Morocco and ushered in
a half century of trade rivalry among European powers that saw
Morocco's sovereignty steadily erode; in 1912, the French imposed a
protectorate over the country. A protracted independence struggle
with France ended successfully in 1956. The internationalized city
of Tangier and most Spanish possessions were turned over to the new
country that same year. Morocco virtually annexed Western Sahara
during the late 1970s, but final resolution on the status of the
territory remains unresolved. Gradual political reforms in the 1990s
resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature, which
first met in 1997. Parliamentary elections were held for the second
time in September 2002 and municipal elections were held in
September 2003.

Mozambique
Almost five centuries as a Portuguese colony came to a
close with independence in 1975. Large-scale emigration by whites,
economic dependence on South Africa, a severe drought, and a
prolonged civil war hindered the country's development. The ruling
Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) party formally
abandoned Marxism in 1989, and a new constitution the following year
provided for multiparty elections and a free market economy. A
UN-negotiated peace agreement between FRELIMO and rebel Mozambique
National Resistance (RENAMO) forces ended the fighting in 1992. In
December 2004, Mozambique underwent a delicate transition as Joaquim
CHISSANO stepped down after 18 years in office. His newly elected
successor, Armando Emilio GUEBUZA, has promised to continue the
sound economic policies that have encouraged foreign investment.

Namibia
South Africa occupied the German colony of South-West Africa
during World War I and administered it as a mandate until after
World War II, when it annexed the territory. In 1966 the Marxist
South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) guerrilla group
launched a war of independence for the area that was soon named
Namibia, but it was not until 1988 that South Africa agreed to end
its administration in accordance with a UN peace plan for the entire
region. Namibia won its independence in 1990 and has been governed
by SWAPO since. Hifikepunye POHAMBA was elected president in
November 2004 in a landslide victory replacing Sam NUJOMA who led
the country during its first 14 years of self rule.

Nauru
The exact origins of the Nauruans are unclear, since their
language does not resemble any other in the Pacific. The island was
annexed by Germany in 1888 and its phosphate deposits began to be
mined early in the 20th century by a German-British consortium.
Nauru was occupied by Australian forces in World War I and
subsequently became a League of Nations mandate. After the Second
World War - and a brutal occupation by Japan - Nauru became a UN
trust territory. It achieved its independence in 1968 and joined the
UN in 1999 as the world's smallest independent republic.

Navassa Island
This uninhabited island was claimed by the US in 1857
for its guano. Mining took place between 1865 and 1898. The
lighthouse, built in 1917, was shut down in 1996 and administration
of Navassa Island transferred from the Coast Guard to the Department
of the Interior. A 1998 scientific expedition to the island
described it as a unique preserve of Caribbean biodiversity; the
following year it became a National Wildlife Refuge and annual
scientific expeditions have continued.

Nepal
In 1951, the Nepalese monarch ended the century-old system of
rule by hereditary premiers and instituted a cabinet system of
government. Reforms in 1990 established a multiparty democracy
within the framework of a constitutional monarchy. A Maoist
insurgency, launched in 1996, has gained traction and is threatening
to bring down the regime, especially after a negotiated cease-fire
between the Maoists and government forces broke down in August 2003.
In 2001, the crown prince massacred ten members of the royal family,
including the king and queen, and then took his own life. In October
2002, the new king dismissed the prime minister and his cabinet for
"incompetence" after they dissolved the parliament and were
subsequently unable to hold elections because of the ongoing
insurgency. While stopping short of reestablishing parliament, the
king in June 2004 reinstated the most recently elected prime
minister who formed a four-party coalition government. Citing
dissatisfaction with the government's lack of progress in addressing
the Maoist insurgency and corruption, the king in February 2005
dissolved the government, declared a state of emergency, imprisoned
party leaders, and assumed power. The king's government subsequently
released party leaders and officially ended the state of emergency
in May 2005, but the monarch retained absolute power until April
2006. After nearly three weeks of mass protests organized by the
seven-party opposition and the Maoists, the king allowed parliament
to reconvene on 28 April 2006.

Netherlands
The Dutch United Provinces declared their independence
from Spain in 1579; during the 17th century, they became a leading
seafaring and commercial power, with settlements and colonies around
the world. After a 20-year French occupation, a Kingdom of the
Netherlands was formed in 1815. In 1830 Belgium seceded and formed a
separate kingdom. The Netherlands remained neutral in World War I,
but suffered invasion and occupation by Germany in World War II. A
modern, industrialized nation, the Netherlands is also a large
exporter of agricultural products. The country was a founding member
of NATO and the EEC (now the EU), and participated in the
introduction of the euro in 1999.

Netherlands Antilles
Once the center of the Caribbean slave trade,
the island of Curacao was hard hit by the abolition of slavery in
1863. Its prosperity (and that of neighboring Aruba) was restored in
the early 20th century with the construction of oil refineries to
service the newly discovered Venezuelan oil fields. The island of
Saint Martin is shared with France; its southern portion is named
Sint Maarten and is part of the Netherlands Antilles; its northern
portion is called Saint-Martin and is part of Guadeloupe (France).

New Caledonia
Settled by both Britain and France during the first
half of the 19th century, the island was made a French possession in
1853. It served as a penal colony for four decades after 1864.
Agitation for independence during the 1980s and early 1990s ended in
the 1998 Noumea Accord, which over a period of 15 to 20 years will
transfer an increasing amount of governing responsibility from
France to New Caledonia. The agreement also commits France to
conduct as many as three referenda between 2013 and 2018, to decide
whether New Caledonia should assume full sovereignty and
independence.

New Zealand
The Polynesian Maori reached New Zealand in about A.D.
800. In 1840, their chieftains entered into a compact with Britain,
the Treaty of Waitangi, in which they ceded sovereignty to Queen
Victoria while retaining territorial rights. In that same year, the
British began the first organized colonial settlement. A series of
land wars between 1843 and 1872 ended with the defeat of the native
peoples. The British colony of New Zealand became an independent
dominion in 1907 and supported the UK militarily in both World Wars.
New Zealand's full participation in a number of defense alliances
lapsed by the 1980s. In recent years, the government has sought to
address longstanding Maori grievances.

Nicaragua
The Pacific coast of Nicaragua was settled as a Spanish
colony from Panama in the early 16th century. Independence from
Spain was declared in 1821 and the country became an independent
republic in 1838. Britain occupied the Caribbean Coast in the first
half of the 19th century, but gradually ceded control of the region
in subsequent decades. Violent opposition to governmental
manipulation and corruption spread to all classes by 1978 and
resulted in a short-lived civil war that brought the Marxist
Sandinista guerrillas to power in 1979. Nicaraguan aid to leftist
rebels in El Salvador caused the US to sponsor anti-Sandinista
contra guerrillas through much of the 1980s. Free elections in 1990,
1996, and 2001, saw the Sandinistas defeated, but voting in 2006
announced the return of former Sandinista President Daniel ORTEGA
Saavedra. Nicaragua's infrastructure and economy - hard hit by the
earlier civil war and by Hurricane Mitch in 1998 - are slowly being
rebuilt.

Niger
Niger became independent from France in 1960 and experienced
single-party and military rule until 1991, when Gen. Ali SAIBOU was
forced by public pressure to allow multiparty elections, which
resulted in a democratic government in 1993. Political infighting
brought the government to a standstill and in 1996 led to a coup by
Col. Ibrahim BARE. In 1999 BARE was killed in a coup by military
officers who promptly restored democratic rule and held elections
that brought Mamadou TANDJA to power in December of that year.
TANDJA was reelected in 2004. Niger is one of the poorest countries
in the world with minimal government services and insufficient funds
to develop its resource base. The largely agrarian and
subsistence-based economy is frequently disrupted by extended
droughts common to the Sahel region of Africa.

Nigeria
British influence and control over what would become Nigeria
grew through the 19th century. A series of constitutions after World
War II granted Nigeria greater autonomy; independence came in 1960.
Following nearly 16 years of military rule, a new constitution was
adopted in 1999, and a peaceful transition to civilian government
was completed. The president faces the daunting task of reforming a
petroleum-based economy, whose revenues have been squandered through
corruption and mismanagement, and institutionalizing democracy. In
addition, the OBASANJO administration must defuse longstanding
ethnic and religious tensions, if it is to build a sound foundation
for economic growth and political stability. Although the April 2003
elections were marred by some irregularities, Nigeria is currently
experiencing its longest period of civilian rule since independence.

Niue
Niue's remoteness, as well as cultural and linguistic
differences between its Polynesian inhabitants and those of the rest
of the Cook Islands, have caused it to be separately administered.
The population of the island continues to drop (from a peak of 5,200
in 1966 to about 2,166 in 2006), with substantial emigration to New
Zealand, 2,400 km to the southwest.

Norfolk Island
Two British attempts at establishing the island as a
penal colony (1788-1814 and 1825-55) were ultimately abandoned. In
1856, the island was resettled by Pitcairn Islanders, descendants of
the Bounty mutineers and their Tahitian companions.

Northern Mariana Islands
Under US administration as part of the UN
Trust Territory of the Pacific, the people of the Northern Mariana
Islands decided in the 1970s not to seek independence but instead to
forge closer links with the US. Negotiations for territorial status
began in 1972. A covenant to establish a commonwealth in political
union with the US was approved in 1975, and came into force on 24
March 1976. A new government and constitution went into effect in
1978.

Norway
Two centuries of Viking raids into Europe tapered off
following the adoption of Christianity by King Olav TRYGGVASON in
994. Conversion of the Norwegian kingdom occurred over the next
several decades. In 1397, Norway was absorbed into a union with
Denmark that lasted more than four centuries. In 1814, Norwegians
resisted the cession of their country to Sweden and adopted a new
constitution. Sweden then invaded Norway but agreed to let Norway
keep its constitution in return for accepting the union under a
Swedish king. Rising nationalism throughout the 19th century led to
a 1905 referendum granting Norway independence. Although Norway
remained neutral in World War I, it suffered heavy losses to its
shipping. Norway proclaimed its neutrality at the outset of World
War II, but was nonetheless occupied for five years by Nazi Germany
(1940-45). In 1949, neutrality was abandoned and Norway became a
member of NATO. Discovery of oil and gas in adjacent waters in the
late 1960s boosted Norway's economic fortunes. The current focus is
on containing spending on the extensive welfare system and planning
for the time when petroleum reserves are depleted. In referenda held
in 1972 and 1994, Norway rejected joining the EU.

Oman
The inhabitants of the area of Oman have long prospered on
Indian Ocean trade. In the late 18th century, a newly established
sultanate in Muscat signed the first in a series of friendship
treaties with Britain. Over time, Oman's dependence on British
political and military advisors increased, but it never became a
British colony. In 1970, QABOOS bin Said al-Said overthrew the
restrictive rule of his father; he has ruled as sultan ever since.
His extensive modernization program has opened the country to the
outside world while preserving the longstanding close ties with the
UK. Oman's moderate, independent foreign policy has sought to
maintain good relations with all Middle Eastern countries.

Pacific Ocean
The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the world's five
oceans (followed by the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern
Ocean, and Arctic Ocean). Strategically important access waterways
include the La Perouse, Tsugaru, Tsushima, Taiwan, Singapore, and
Torres Straits. The decision by the International Hydrographic
Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth ocean, the
Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Pacific Ocean south of 60
degrees south.

Pakistan
The separation in 1947 of British India into the Muslim
state of Pakistan (with two sections West and East) and largely
Hindu India was never satisfactorily resolved, and India and
Pakistan fought two wars - in 1947-48 and 1965 - over the disputed
Kashmir territory. A third war between these countries in 1971 - in
which India capitalized on Islamabad's marginalization of Bengalis
in Pakistani politics - resulted in East Pakistan becoming the
separate nation of Bangladesh. In response to Indian nuclear weapons
testing, Pakistan conducted its own tests in 1998. The dispute over
the state of Kashmir is ongoing, but discussions and
confidence-building measures have led to decreased tensions since
2002.

Palau
After three decades as part of the UN Trust Territory of the
Pacific under US administration, this westernmost cluster of the
Caroline Islands opted for independence in 1978 rather than join the
Federated States of Micronesia. A Compact of Free Association with
the US was approved in 1986, but not ratified until 1993. It entered
into force the following year, when the islands gained independence.

Palmyra Atoll
The Kingdom of Hawaii claimed the atoll in 1862, and
the US included it among the Hawaiian Islands when it annexed the
archipelago in 1898. The Hawaii Statehood Act of 1959 did not
include Palmyra Atoll, which is now privately owned by the Nature
Conservancy. This organization is managing the atoll as a nature
preserve. The lagoons and surrounding waters within the 12 nautical
mile US territorial seas were transferred to the US Fish and
Wildlife Service and were designated a National Wildlife Refuge in
January 2001.

Panama
Explored and settled by the Spanish in the 16th century,
Panama broke with Spain in 1821 and joined a union of Colombia,
Venezuela, and Ecuador - named the Republic of Gran Colombia. When
the latter dissolved in 1830, Panama remained part of Colombia. With
US backing, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903 and promptly signed
a treaty with the US allowing for the construction of a canal and US
sovereignty over a strip of land on either side of the structure
(the Panama Canal Zone). The Panama Canal was built by the US Army
Corps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914. In 1977, an agreement was
signed for the complete transfer of the Canal from the US to Panama
by the end of the century. Certain portions of the Zone and
increasing responsibility over the Canal were turned over in the
subsequent decades. With US help, dictator Manuel NORIEGA was
deposed in 1989. The entire Panama Canal, the area supporting the
Canal, and remaining US military bases were transfered to Panama by
the end of 1999. In October 2006, Panamanians approved an ambitious
plan to expand the Canal. The project, which is to begin in 2007 and
could double the Canal's capacity, is expected to be completed in
2014-15.

Papua New Guinea
The eastern half of the island of New Guinea -
second largest in the world - was divided between Germany (north)
and the UK (south) in 1885. The latter area was transferred to
Australia in 1902, which occupied the northern portion during World
War I and continued to administer the combined areas until
independence in 1975. A nine-year secessionist revolt on the island
of Bougainville ended in 1997 after claiming some 20,000 lives.

Paracel Islands
The Paracel Islands are surrounded by productive
fishing grounds and by potential oil and gas reserves. In 1932,
French Indochina annexed the islands and set up a weather station on
Pattle Island; maintenance was continued by its successor, Vietnam.
China has occupied the Paracel Islands since 1974, when its troops
seized a South Vietnamese garrison occupying the western islands.
The islands are claimed by Taiwan and Vietnam.

Paraguay
In the disastrous War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70),
Paraguay lost two-thirds of all adult males and much of its
territory. It stagnated economically for the next half century. In
the Chaco War of 1932-35, large, economically important areas were
won from Bolivia. The 35-year military dictatorship of Alfredo
STROESSNER was overthrown in 1989, and, despite a marked increase in
political infighting in recent years, relatively free and regular
presidential elections have been held since then.

Peru
Ancient Peru was the seat of several prominent Andean
civilizations, most notably that of the Incas whose empire was
captured by the Spanish conquistadors in 1533. Peruvian independence
was declared in 1821, and remaining Spanish forces defeated in 1824.
After a dozen years of military rule, Peru returned to democratic
leadership in 1980, but experienced economic problems and the growth
of a violent insurgency. President Alberto FUJIMORI's election in
1990 ushered in a decade that saw a dramatic turnaround in the
economy and significant progress in curtailing guerrilla activity.
Nevertheless, the president's increasing reliance on authoritarian
measures and an economic slump in the late 1990s generated mounting
dissatisfaction with his regime, which led to his ouster in 2000. A
caretaker government oversaw new elections in the spring of 2001,
which ushered in Alejandro TOLEDO as the new head of government -
the first democratically elected president of Quechua ethnicity. The
presidential election of 2006 saw the return of Alan GARCIA who,
after a disappointing presidential term from 1985 to 1990, returned
to the presidency with promises to improve social conditions.

Philippines
The Philippine Islands became a Spanish colony during
the 16th century; they were ceded to the US in 1898 following the
Spanish-American War. In 1935 the Philippines became a
self-governing commonwealth. Manuel QUEZON was elected President and
was tasked with preparing the country for independence after a
10-year transition. In 1942 the islands fell under Japanese
occupation during WWII, and US forces and Filipinos fought together
during 1944-45 to regain control. On 4 July 1946 the Philippines
attained their independence. The 20-year rule of Ferdinand MARCOS
ended in 1986, when a widespread popular rebellion forced him into
exile and installed Corazon AQUINO as president. Her presidency was
hampered by several coup attempts, which prevented a return to full
political stability and economic development. Fidel RAMOS was
elected president in 1992 and his administration was marked by
greater stability and progress on economic reforms. In 1992, the US
closed its last military bases on the islands. Joseph ESTRADA was
elected president in 1998, but was succeeded by his vice-president,
Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO, in January 2001 after ESTRADA's stormy
impeachment trial on corruption charges broke down and widespread
demonstrations led to his ouster. MACAPAGAL-ARROYO was elected to a
six-year term in May 2004. The Philippine Government faces threats
from armed communist insurgencies and from Muslim separatists in the
south.

Pitcairn Islands
Pitcairn Island was discovered in 1767 by the
British and settled in 1790 by the Bounty mutineers and their
Tahitian companions. Pitcairn was the first Pacific island to become
a British colony (in 1838) and today remains the last vestige of
that empire in the South Pacific. Outmigration, primarily to New
Zealand, has thinned the population from a peak of 233 in 1937 to
less than 50 today.

Poland
Poland is an ancient nation that was conceived near the
middle of the 10th century. Its golden age occurred in the 16th
century. During the following century, the strengthening of the
gentry and internal disorders weakened the nation. In a series of
agreements between 1772 and 1795, Russia, Prussia, and Austria
partitioned Poland amongst themselves. Poland regained its
independence in 1918 only to be overrun by Germany and the Soviet
Union in World War II. It became a Soviet satellite state following
the war, but its government was comparatively tolerant and
progressive. Labor turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the
independent trade union "Solidarity" that over time became a
political force and by 1990 had swept parliamentary elections and
the presidency. A "shock therapy" program during the early 1990s
enabled the country to transform its economy into one of the most
robust in Central Europe, but Poland still faces the lingering
challenges of high unemployment, underdeveloped and dilapidated
infrastructure, and a poor rural underclass. Solidarity suffered a
major defeat in the 2001 parliamentary elections when it failed to
elect a single deputy to the lower house of Parliament, and the new
leaders of the Solidarity Trade Union subsequently pledged to reduce
the Trade Union's political role. Poland joined NATO in 1999 and the
European Union in 2004. With its transformation to a democratic,
market-oriented country largely completed, Poland is an increasingly
active member of Euro-Atlantic organizations.

Portugal
Following its heyday as a world power during the 15th and
16th centuries, Portugal lost much of its wealth and status with the
destruction of Lisbon in a 1755 earthquake, occupation during the
Napoleonic Wars, and the independence in 1822 of Brazil as a colony.
A 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy; for most of the next six
decades, repressive governments ran the country. In 1974, a
left-wing military coup installed broad democratic reforms. The
following year, Portugal granted independence to all of its African
colonies. Portugal is a founding member of NATO and entered the EC
(now the EU) in 1986.

Puerto Rico
Populated for centuries by aboriginal peoples, the
island was claimed by the Spanish Crown in 1493 following COLUMBUS'
second voyage to the Americas. In 1898, after 400 years of colonial
rule that saw the indigenous population nearly exterminated and
African slave labor introduced, Puerto Rico was ceded to the US as a
result of the Spanish-American War. Puerto Ricans were granted US
citizenship in 1917. Popularly-elected governors have served since
1948. In 1952, a constitution was enacted providing for internal
self government. In plebiscites held in 1967, 1993, and 1998, voters
chose not to alter the existing political status.

Qatar
Ruled by the al-Thani family since the mid-1800s, Qatar
transformed itself from a poor British protectorate noted mainly for
pearling into an independent state with significant oil and natural
gas revenues. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Qatari
economy was crippled by a continuous siphoning off of petroleum
revenues by the amir, who had ruled the country since 1972. His son,
the current Amir HAMAD bin Khalifa al-Thani, overthrew him in a
bloodless coup in 1995. In 2001, Qatar resolved its longstanding
border disputes with both Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. Oil and natural
gas revenues enable Qatar to have one of the highest per capita
incomes in the world.

Reunion
The Portuguese discovered the uninhabited island in 1513.
From the 17th to the 19th centuries, French immigration,
supplemented by influxes of Africans, Chinese, Malays, and Malabar
Indians, gave the island its ethnic mix. The opening of the Suez
Canal in 1869 cost the island its importance as a stopover on the
East Indies trade route.

Romania
The principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia - for centuries
under the suzerainty of the Turkish Ottoman Empire - secured their
autonomy in 1856; they united in 1859 and a few years later adopted
the new name of Romania. The country gained recognition of its
independence in 1878. It joined the Allied Powers in World War I and
acquired new territories - most notably Transylvania - following the
conflict. In 1940, Romania allied with the Axis powers and
participated in the 1941 German invasion of the USSR. Three years
later, overrun by the Soviets, Romania signed an armistice. The
post-war Soviet occupation led to the formation of a Communist
"people's republic" in 1947 and the abdication of the king. The
decades-long rule of dictator Nicolae CEAUSESCU, who took power in
1965, and his Securitate police state became increasingly oppressive
and draconian through the 1980s. CEAUSESCU was overthrown and
executed in late 1989. Former Communists dominated the government
until 1996 when they were swept from power. Romania joined NATO in
March of 2004 and completed accession talks with the European Union
(EU) in December 2004; it is scheduled to accede to the EU in 2007.

Russia
Founded in the 12th century, the Principality of Muscovy, was
able to emerge from over 200 years of Mongol domination (13th-15th
centuries) and to gradually conquer and absorb surrounding
principalities. In the early 17th century, a new Romanov Dynasty
continued this policy of expansion across Siberia to the Pacific.
Under PETER I (ruled 1682-1725), hegemony was extended to the Baltic
Sea and the country was renamed the Russian Empire. During the 19th
century, more territorial acquisitions were made in Europe and Asia.
Repeated devastating defeats of the Russian army in World War I led
to widespread rioting in the major cities of the Russian Empire and
to the overthrow in 1917 of the imperial household. The Communists
under Vladimir LENIN seized power soon after and formed the USSR.
The brutal rule of Iosif STALIN (1928-53) strengthened communist
rule and Russian dominance of the Soviet Union at a cost of tens of
millions of lives. The Soviet economy and society stagnated in the
following decades until General Secretary Mikhail GORBACHEV
(1985-91) introduced glasnost (openness) and perestroika
(restructuring) in an attempt to modernize Communism, but his
initiatives inadvertently released forces that by December 1991
splintered the USSR into Russia and 14 other independent republics.
Since then, Russia has struggled in its efforts to build a
democratic political system and market economy to replace the strict
social, political, and economic controls of the Communist period.
While some progress has been made on the economic front, recent
years have seen a recentralization of power under Vladimir PUTIN and
the erosion of nascent democratic institutions. A determined
guerrilla conflict still plagues Russia in Chechnya and threatens to
destabilize the North Caucasus region.

Rwanda
In 1959, three years before independence from Belgium, the
majority ethnic group, the Hutus, overthrew the ruling Tutsi king.
Over the next several years, thousands of Tutsis were killed, and
some 150,000 driven into exile in neighboring countries. The
children of these exiles later formed a rebel group, the Rwandan
Patriotic Front (RPF), and began a civil war in 1990. The war, along
with several political and economic upheavals, exacerbated ethnic
tensions, culminating in April 1994 in the genocide of roughly
800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus. The Tutsi rebels defeated the
Hutu regime and ended the killing in July 1994, but approximately 2
million Hutu refugees - many fearing Tutsi retribution - fled to
neighboring Burundi, Tanzania, Uganda, and the former Zaire. Since
then, most of the refugees have returned to Rwanda, but about 10,000
remain in neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo and have
formed an extremist insurgency bent on retaking Rwanda, much as the
RPF tried in 1990. Despite substantial international assistance and
political reforms - including Rwanda's first local elections in
March 1999 and its first post-genocide presidential and legislative
elections in August and September 2003 - the country continues to
struggle to boost investment and agricultural output, and ethnic
reconciliation is complicated by the real and perceived Tutsi
political dominance. Kigali's increasing centralization and
intolerance of dissent, the nagging Hutu extremist insurgency across
the border, and Rwandan involvement in two wars in recent years in
the neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo continue to hinder
Rwanda's efforts to escape its bloody legacy.

Saint Helena
Saint Helena is a British Overseas Territory consisting
of Saint Helena and Ascension Islands, and the island group of
Tristan da Cunha.
Saint Helena: Uninhabited when first discovered by the Portuguese in
1502, Saint Helena was garrisoned by the British during the 17th
century. It acquired fame as the place of Napoleon BONAPARTE's
exile, from 1815 until his death in 1821, but its importance as a
port of call declined after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.
During the Anglo-Boer War in South Africa, several thousand Boer
prisoners were confined on the island between 1900 and 1903.
Ascension Island: This barren and uninhabited island was discovered
and named by the Portuguese in 1503. The British garrisoned the
island in 1815 to prevent a rescue of Napoleon from Saint Helena and
it served as a provisioning station for the Royal Navy's West Africa
Squadron on anti-slavery patrol. The island remained under Admiralty
control until 1922, when it became a dependency of Saint Helena.
During World War II, the UK permitted the US to construct an
airfield on Ascension in support of trans-Atlantic flights to Africa
and anti-submarine operations in the South Atlantic. In the 1960s
the island became an important space tracking station for the US. In
1982, Ascension was an essential staging area for British forces
during the Falklands War, and it remains a critical refueling point
in the air-bridge from the UK to the South Atlantic.
Tristan da Cunha: The island group consists of the islands of
Tristan da Cunha, Nightingale, Inaccessible, and Gough. Tristan da
Cunha is named after its Portuguese discoverer (1506); it was
garrisoned by the British in 1816 to prevent any attempt to rescue
Napoleon from Saint Helena. Gough and Inaccessible Islands have been
designated World Heritage Sites. South Africa leases the site for a
meteorological station on Gough Island.

Saint Kitts and Nevis
First settled by the British in 1623, the
islands became an associated state with full internal autonomy in
1967. The island of Anguilla rebelled and was allowed to secede in
1971. Saint Kitts and Nevis achieved independence in 1983. In 1998,
a vote in Nevis on a referendum to separate from Saint Kitts fell
short of the two-thirds majority needed. Nevis continues in its
efforts to try and separate from Saint Kitts.

Saint Lucia
The island, with its fine natural harbor at Castries,
was contested between England and France throughout the 17th and
early 18th centuries (changing possession 14 times); it was finally
ceded to the UK in 1814. Even after the abolition of slavery on its
plantations in 1834, Saint Lucia remained an agricultural island,
dedicated to producing tropical commodity crops. Self-government was
granted in 1967 and independence in 1979.

Saint Pierre and Miquelon
First settled by the French in the early
17th century, the islands represent the sole remaining vestige of
France's once vast North American possessions.

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Resistance by native Caribs
prevented colonization on St. Vincent until 1719. Disputed between
France and the United Kingdom for most of the 18th century, the
island was ceded to the latter in 1783. Between 1960 and 1962, Saint
Vincent and the Grenadines was a separate administrative unit of the
Federation of the West Indies. Autonomy was granted in 1969 and
independence in 1979.

Samoa
New Zealand occupied the German protectorate of Western Samoa
at the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It continued to administer
the islands as a mandate and then as a trust territory until 1962,
when the islands became the first Polynesian nation to reestablish
independence in the 20th century. The country dropped the "Western"
from its name in 1997.

San Marino
The third smallest state in Europe (after the Holy See
and Monaco) also claims to be the world's oldest republic. According
to tradition, it was founded by a Christian stonemason named Marino
in 301 A.D. San Marino's foreign policy is aligned with that of
Italy. Social and political trends in the republic also track
closely with those of its larger neighbor.

Sao Tome and Principe
Discovered and claimed by Portugal in the late
15th century, the islands' sugar-based economy gave way to coffee
and cocoa in the 19th century - all grown with plantation slave
labor, a form of which lingered into the 20th century. Although
independence was achieved in 1975, democratic reforms were not
instituted until the late 1980s. Though the first free elections
were held in 1991, the political environment has been one of
continued instability with frequent changes in leadership and coup
attempts in 1995 and 2003. The recent discovery of oil in the Gulf
of Guinea is likely to have a significant impact on the country's
economy.

Saudi Arabia
In 1902, ABD AL-AZIZ bin Abd al-Rahman Al Saud captured
Riyadh and set out on a 30-year campaign to unify the Arabian
Peninsula. A son of ABD AL-AZIZ rules the country today, and the
country's Basic Law stipulates that the throne shall remain in the
hands of the aging sons and grandsons of the kingdom's founder.
Following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, Saudi Arabia accepted
the Kuwaiti royal family and 400,000 refugees while allowing Western
and Arab troops to deploy on its soil for the liberation of Kuwait
the following year. The continuing presence of foreign troops on
Saudi soil after Operation Desert Storm remained a source of tension
between the royal family and the public until the US military's
near-complete withdrawal to neighboring Qatar in 2003. The first
major terrorist attacks in Saudi Arabia in several years, which
occurred in May and November 2003, prompted renewed efforts on the
part of the Saudi government to counter domestic terrorism and
extremism, which also coincided with a slight upsurge in media
freedom and announcement of government plans to phase in partial
political representation. As part of this effort, the government
permitted elections - held nationwide from February through April
2005 - for half the members of 179 municipal councils. A burgeoning
population, aquifer depletion, and an economy largely dependent on
petroleum output and prices are all ongoing governmental concerns.

Senegal
Independent from France in 1960, Senegal was ruled by the
Socialist Party for forty years until current President Abdoulaye
WADE was elected in 2000. Senegal joined with The Gambia to form the
nominal confederation of Senegambia in 1982, but the envisaged
integration of the two countries was never carried out, and the
union was dissolved in 1989. A southern separatist group
sporadically has clashed with government forces since 1982, but
Senegal remains one of the most stable democracies in Africa.
Senegal has a long history of participating in international
peacekeeping.

Serbia
The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was formed in
1918; its name was changed to Yugoslavia in 1929. Occupation by Nazi
Germany in 1941 was resisted by various paramilitary bands that
fought each other as well as the invaders. The group headed by Josip
TITO took full control of Yugoslavia upon German expulsion in 1945.
Although Communist, his new government and its successors (he died
in 1980) managed to steer their own path between the Warsaw Pact
nations and the West for the next four and a half decades. In the
early 1990s, post-TITO Yugoslavia began to unravel along ethnic
lines: Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina were
recognized as independent states in 1992. The remaining republics of
Serbia and Montenegro declared a new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
(FRY) in April 1992 and, under President Slobodan MILOSEVIC, Serbia
led various military intervention efforts to unite ethnic Serbs in
neighboring republics into a "Greater Serbia." These actions led to
Yugoslavia being ousted from the UN in 1992, but Serbia continued
its campaign until signing the Dayton Peace Accords in 1995. In
1998-99, massive expulsions by FRY forces and Serb paramilitaries of
ethnic Albanians living in Kosovo provoked an international
response, including the NATO bombing of Belgrade and the stationing
of a NATO-led force (KFOR), in Kosovo. Federal elections in the fall
of 2000, brought about the ouster of MILOSEVIC and installed
Vojislav KOSTUNICA as president. The arrest of MILOSEVIC in 2001
allowed for his subsequent transfer to the International Criminal
Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in The Hague to be tried for
crimes against humanity. In 2001, the country's suspension from the
UN was lifted, and it was once more accepted into UN organizations
under the name of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Kosovo has
been governed by the UN Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo
(UNMIK) since June 1999, under the authority of UN Security Council
Resolution 1244, pending a determination by the international
community of its future status. In 2002, the Serbian and Montenegrin
components of Yugoslavia began negotiations to forge a looser
relationship. In February 2003 lawmakers restructured the country
into a loose federation of two republics called Serbia and
Montenegro. The Constitutional Charter of Serbia and Montenegro
included a provision that allowed either republic to hold a
referendum after three years that would allow for their independence
from the state union. In the spring of 2006, Montenegro took
advantage of the provision to undertake a successful independence
vote enabling it to secede on 3 June. Two days later, Serbia
declared that it was the successor state to the union of Serbia and
Montenegro.