List of Illustrations
Fig. Page
. Nerve-cells, from larger and smaller animals (Minot, after Irving Hardesty) 37
. Relative magnitudes of some minute organisms (Zsigmondy) 39
. Curves of growth in man (Quetelet and Bowditch) 61
, 5. Mean annual increments of stature and weight in man (do.) 66, 69
. The ratio, throughout life, of female weight to male (do.) 71
–9. Curves of growth of child, before and after birth (His and Rüssow) 74–6
. Curve of growth of bamboo (Ostwald, after Kraus) 77
. Coefficients of variability in human stature (Boas and Wissler) 80
. Growth in weight of mouse (Wolfgang Ostwald) 83
. Do. of silkworm (Luciani and Lo Monaco) 84
. Do. of tadpole (Ostwald, after Schaper) 85
. Larval eels, or Leptocephali, and young elver (Joh. Schmidt) 86
. Growth in length of Spirogyra (Hofmeister) 87
. Pulsations of growth in Crocus (Bose) 88
. Relative growth of brain, heart and body of man (Quetelet) 90
. Ratio of stature to span of arms (do.) 94
. Rates of growth near the tip of a bean-root (Sachs) 96
, 22. The weight-length ratio of the plaice, and its annual periodic changes 99, 100
. Variability of tail-forceps in earwigs (Bateson) 104
. Variability of body-length in plaice 105
. Rate of growth in plants in relation to temperature (Sachs) 109
. Do. in maize, observed (Köppen), and calculated curves 112
. Do. in roots of peas (Miss I. Leitch) 113
, 29. Rate of growth of frog in relation to temperature (Jenkinson, after O. Hertwig), and calculated curves of do. 115, 6
. Seasonal fluctuation of rate of growth in man (Daffner) 119
. Do. in the rate of growth of trees (C. E. Hall) 120
. Long-period fluctuation in the rate of growth of Arizona trees (A. E. Douglass) 122
, 34. The varying form of brine-shrimps (Artemia), in relation to salinity (Abonyi) 128, 9
–39. Curves of regenerative growth in tadpoles’ tails (M. L. Durbin) 140 – 145
. Relation between amount of tail removed, amount restored, and time required for restoration (M. M. Ellis) 148
. Caryokinesis in trout’s egg (Prenant, after Prof. P. Bouin) 169
–51. Diagrams of mitotic cell-division (Prof. E. B. Wilson) 171–5
. Chromosomes in course of splitting and separation (Hatschek and Flemming) 180
. Annular chromosomes of mole-cricket (Wilson, after vom Rath) 181
–56. Diagrams illustrating a hypothetic field of force in caryokinesis (Prof. W. Peddie) 182–4
. An artificial figure of caryokinesis (Leduc) 186
. A segmented egg of Cerebratulus (Prenant, after Coe) 189
. Diagram of a field of force with two like poles 189
. A budding yeast-cell 213
. The roulettes of the conic sections 218
. Mode of development of an unduloid from a cylindrical tube 220
–65. Cylindrical, unduloid, nodoid and catenoid oil-globules (Plateau) 222, 3
. Diagram of the nodoid, or elastic curve 224
. Diagram of a cylinder capped by the corresponding portion of a sphere 226
. A liquid cylinder breaking up into spheres 227
. The same phenomenon in a protoplasmic cell of Trianea 234
. Some phases of a splash (A. M. Worthington) 235
. A breaking wave (do.) 236
. The calycles of some campanularian zoophytes 237
. A flagellate monad, Distigma proteus (Saville Kent) 246
. Noctiluca miliaris, diagrammatic 246
. Various species of Vorticella (Saville Kent and others) 247
. Various species of Salpingoeca (do.) 248
. Species of Tintinnus, Dinobryon and Codonella (do.) 248
. The tube or cup of Vaginicola 248
. The same of Folliculina 249
. Trachelophyllum (Wreszniowski) 249
. Trichodina pediculus 252
. Dinenymplia gracilis (Leidy) 253
. A “collar-cell” of Codosiga 254
. Various species of Lagena (Brady) 256
. Hanging drops, to illustrate the unduloid form (C. R. Darling) 257
. Diagram of a fluted cylinder 260
. Nodosaria scalaris (Brady) 262
. Fluted and pleated gonangia of certain Campanularians (Allman) 262
. Various species of Nodosaria, Sagrina and Rheophax (Brady) 263
. Trypanosoma tineae and Spirochaeta anodontae, to shew undulating membranes (Minchin and Fantham) 266
. Some species of Trichomastix and Trichomonas (Kofoid) 267
. Herpetomonas assuming the undulatory membrane of a Trypanosome (D. L. Mackinnon) 268
. Diagram of a human blood-corpuscle 271
. Sperm-cells of decapod crustacea, Inachus and Galathea (Koltzoff) 273
. The same, in saline solutions of varying density (do.) 274
. A sperm-cell of Dromia (do.) 275
. Chondriosomes in cells of kidney and pancreas (Barratt and Mathews) 285
. Adsorptive concentration of potassium salts in various plant-cells (Macallum) 290
– 101. Equilibrium of surface-tension in a floating drop 294, 5
. Plateau’s “bourrelet” in plant-cells; diagrammatic (Berthold) 298
. Parenchyma of maize, shewing the same phenomenon 298
, 5. Diagrams of the partition-wall between two soap-bubbles 299, 300
. Diagram of a partition in a conical cell 300
. Chains of cells in Nostoc, Anabaena and other low algae 300
. Diagram of a symmetrically divided soap-bubble 301
. Arrangement of partitions in dividing spores of Pellia (Campbell) 302
. Cells of Dictyota (Reinke) 303
, 2. Terminal and other cells of Chara, and young antheridium of do. 303
. Diagram of cell-walls and partitions under various conditions of tension 304
, 5. The partition-surfaces of three interconnected bubbles 307, 8
. Diagram of four interconnected cells or bubbles 309
. Various configurations of four cells in a frog’s egg (Rauber) 311
. Another diagram of two conjoined soap-bubbles 313
. A froth of bubbles, shewing its outer or “epidermal” layer 314
. A tetrahedron, or tetrahedral system, shewing its centre of symmetry 317
. A group of hexagonal cells (Bonanni) 319
, 3. Artificial cellular tissues (Leduc) 320
. Epidermis of Girardia (Goebel) 321
. Soap-froth, and the same under compression (Rhumbler) 322
. Epidermal cells of Elodea canadensis (Berthold) 322
. Lithostrotion Martini (Nicholson) 325
. Cyathophyllum hexagonum (Nicholson, after Zittel) 325
. Arachnophyllum pentagonum (Nicholson) 326
. Heliolites (Woods) 326
. Confluent septa in Thamnastraea and Comoseris (Nicholson, after Zittel) 327
. Geometrical construction of a bee’s cell 330
. Stellate cells in the pith of a rush; diagrammatic 335
. Diagram of soap-films formed in a cubical wire skeleton (Plateau) 337
. Polar furrows in systems of four soap-bubbles (Robert) 341
–8. Diagrams illustrating the division of a cube by partitions of minimal area 347–50
. Cells from hairs of Sphacelaria (Berthold) 351
. The bisection of an isosceles triangle by minimal partitions 353
. The similar partitioning of spheroidal and conical cells 353
. S-shaped partitions from cells of algae and mosses (Reinke and others) 355
. Diagrammatic explanation of the S-shaped partitions 356
. Development of Erythrotrichia (Berthold) 359
. Periclinal, anticlinal and radial partitioning of a quadrant 359
. Construction for the minimal partitioning of a quadrant 361
. Another diagram of anticlinal and periclinal partitions 362
. Mode of segmentation of an artificially flattened frog’s egg (Roux) 363
. The bisection, by minimal partitions, of a prism of small angle 364
. Comparative diagram of the various modes of bisection of a prismatic sector 365
. Diagram of the further growth of the two halves of a quadrantal cell 367
. Diagram of the origin of an epidermic layer of cells 370
. A discoidal cell dividing into octants 371
. A germinating spore of Riccia (after Campbell), to shew the manner of space-partitioning in the cellular tissue 372
, 6. Theoretical arrangement of successive partitions in a discoidal cell 373
. Sections of a moss-embryo (Kienitz-Gerloff) 374
. Various possible arrangements of partitions in groups of four to eight cells 375
. Three modes of partitioning in a system of six cells 376
, 1. Segmenting eggs of Trochus (Robert), and of Cynthia (Conklin) 377
. Section of the apical cone of Salvinia (Pringsheim) 377
, 4. Segmenting eggs of Pyrosoma (Korotneff), and of Echinus (Driesch) 377
. Segmenting egg of a cephalopod (Watase) 378
, 7. Eggs segmenting under pressure: of Echinus and Nereis (Driesch), and of a frog (Roux) 378
. Various arrangements of a group of eight cells on the surface of a frog’s egg (Rauber) 381
. Diagram of the partitions and interfacial contacts in a system of eight cells 383
. Various modes of aggregation of eight oil-drops (Roux) 384
. Forms, or species, of Asterolampra (Greville) 386
. Diagrammatic section of an alcyonarian polype 387
, 4. Sections of Heterophyllia (Nicholson and Martin Duncan) 388, 9
. Diagrammatic section of a ctenophore (Eucharis) 391
, 7. Diagrams of the construction of a Pluteus larva 392, 3
, 9. Diagrams of the development of stomata, in Sedum and in the hyacinth 394
. Various spores and pollen-grains (Berthold and others) 396
. Spore of Anthoceros (Campbell) 397
, 4, 9. Diagrammatic modes of division of a cell under certain conditions of asymmetry 400–5
. Development of the embryo of Sphagnum (Campbell) 402
. The gemma of a moss (do.) 403
. The antheridium of Riccia (do.) 404
. Section of growing shoot of Selaginella, diagrammatic 404
. An embryo of Jungermannia (Kienitz-Gerloff) 404
. Development of the sporangium of Osmunda (Bower) 406
. Embryos of Phascum and of Adiantum (Kienitz-Gerloff) 408
. A section of Girardia (Goebel) 408
. An antheridium of Pteris (Strasburger) 409
. Spicules of Siphonogorgia and Anthogorgia (Studer) 413
–7. Calcospherites, deposited in white of egg (Harting) 421, 2
. Sections of the shell of Mya (Carpenter) 422
. Concretions, or spicules, artificially deposited in cartilage (Harting) 423
. Further illustrations of alcyonarian spicules: Eunicea (Studer) 424
–3. Associated, aggregated and composite calcospherites (Harting) 425, 6
. Harting’s “conostats” 427
. Liesegang’s rings (Leduc) 428
. Relay-crystals of common salt (Bowman) 429
. Wheel-like crystals in a colloid medium (do.) 429
. A concentrically striated calcospherite or spherocrystal (Harting) 432
. Otoliths of plaice, shewing “age-rings” (Wallace) 432
. Spicules, or calcospherites, of Astrosclera (Lister) 436
. 2. C- and S-shaped spicules of sponges and holothurians (Sollas and Théel) 442
. An amphidisc of Hyalonema 442
–7. Spicules of calcareous, tetractinellid and hexactinellid sponges, and of various holothurians (Haeckel, Schultze, Sollas and Théel) 445–452
. Diagram of a solid body confined by surface-energy to a liquid boundary-film 460
. Astrorhiza limicola and arenaria (Brady) 464
. A nuclear “reticulum plasmatique” (Carnoy) 468
. A spherical radiolarian, Aulonia hexagona (Haeckel) 469
. Actinomma arcadophorum (do.) 469
. Ethmosphaera conosiphonia (do.) 470
. Portions of shells of Cenosphaera favosa and vesparia (do.) 470
. Aulastrum triceros (do.) 471
. Part of the skeleton of Cannorhaphis (do.) 472
. A Nassellarian skeleton, Callimitra carolotae (do.) 472
, 9. Portions of Dictyocha stapedia (do.) 474
. Diagram to illustrate the conformation of Callimitra 476
. Skeletons of various radiolarians (Haeckel) 479
. Diagrammatic structure of the skeleton of Dorataspis (do.) 481
, 4. Phatnaspis cristata (Haeckel), and a diagram of the same 483
. Phractaspis prototypus (Haeckel) 484
. Annular and spiral thickenings in the walls of plant-cells 488
. A radiograph of the shell of Nautilus (Green and Gardiner) 494
. A spiral foraminifer, Globigerina (Brady) 495
–42. Diagrams to illustrate the development or growth of a logarithmic spiral 407–501
. A helicoid and a scorpioid cyme 502
. An Archimedean spiral 503
–7. More diagrams of the development of a logarithmic spiral 505, 6
–57. Various diagrams illustrating the mathematical theory of gnomons 508–13
. A shell of Haliotis, to shew how each increment of the shell constitutes a gnomon to the preexisting structure 514
, 60. Spiral foraminifera, Pulvinulina and Cristellaria, to illustrate the same principle 514, 5
. Another diagram of a logarithmic spiral 517
. A diagram of the logarithmic spiral of Nautilus (Moseley) 519
, 4. Opercula of Turbo and of Nerita (Moseley) 521, 2
. A section of the shell of Melo ethiopicus 525
. Shells of Harpa and Dolium, to illustrate generating curves and gene 526
. D’Orbigny’s Helicometer 529
. Section of a nautiloid shell, to shew the “protoconch” 531
–73. Diagrams of logarithmic spirals, of various angles 532–5
, 6, 7. Constructions for determining the angle of a logarithmic spiral 537, 8
. An ammonite, to shew its corrugated surface pattern 537
–80. Illustrations of the “angle of retardation” 542–4
. A shell of Macroscaphites, to shew change of curvature 550
. Construction for determining the length of the coiled spire 551
. Section of the shell of Triton corrugatus (Woodward) 554
. Lamellaria perspicua and Sigaretus haliotoides (do.) 555
, 6. Sections of the shells of Terebra maculata and Trochus niloticus 559, 60
–9. Diagrams illustrating the lines of growth on a lamellibranch shell 563–5
. Caprinella adversa (Woodward) 567
. Section of the shell of Productus (Woods) 567
. The “skeletal loop” of Terebratula (do.) 568
, 4. The spiral arms of Spirifer and of Atrypa (do.) 569
–7. Shells of Cleodora, Hyalaea and other pteropods (Boas) 570, 1
, 9. Coordinate diagrams of the shell-outline in certain pteropods 572, 3
. Development of the shell of Hyalaea tridentata (Tesch) 573
. Pteropod shells, of Cleodora and Hyalaea, viewed from the side (Boas) 575
, 3. Diagrams of septa in a conical shell 579
. A section of Nautilus, shewing the logarithmic spirals of the septa to which the shell-spiral is the evolute 581
. Cast of the interior of the shell of Nautilus, to shew the contours of the septa at their junction with the shell-wall 582
. Ammonites Sowerbyi, to shew septal outlines (Zittel, after Steinmann and Döderlein) 584
. Suture-line of Pinacoceras (Zittel, after Hauer) 584
. Shells of Hastigerina, to shew the “mouth” (Brady) 588
. Nummulina antiquior (V. von Möller) 591
. Cornuspira foliacea and Operculina complanata (Brady) 594
. Miliolina pulchella and linnaeana (Brady) 596
, 3. Cyclammina cancellata (do.), and diagrammatic figure of the same 596, 7
. Orbulina universa (Brady) 598
. Cristellaria reniformis (do.) 600
. Discorbina bertheloti (do.) 603
. Textularia trochus and concava (do.) 604
. Diagrammatic figure of a ram’s horns (Sir V. Brooke) 615
. Head of an Arabian wild goat (Sclater) 616
. Head of Ovis Ammon, shewing St Venant’s curves 621
. St Venant’s diagram of a triangular prism under torsion (Thomson and Tait) 623
. Diagram of the same phenomenon in a ram’s horn 623
. Antlers of a Swedish elk (Lönnberg) 629
. Head and antlers of Cervus duvauceli (Lydekker) 630
, 6. Diagrams of spiral phyllotaxis (P. G. Tait) 644, 5
. Further diagrams of phyllotaxis, to shew how various spiral appearances may arise out of one and the same angular leaf-divergence 648
. Diagrammatic outlines of various sea-urchins 664
, 30. Diagrams of the angle of branching in blood-vessels (Hess) 667, 8
, 2. Diagrams illustrating the flexure of a beam 674, 8
. An example of the mode of arrangement of bast-fibres in a plant-stem (Schwendener) 680
. Section of the head of a femur, to shew its trabecular structure (Schäfer, after Robinson) 681
. Comparative diagrams of a crane-head and the head of a femur (Culmann and H. Meyer) 682
. Diagram of stress-lines in the human foot (Sir D. MacAlister, after H. Meyer) 684
. Trabecular structure of the os calcis (do.) 685
. Diagram of shearing-stress in a loaded pillar 686
. Diagrams of tied arch, and bowstring girder (Fidler) 693
, 1. Diagrams of a bridge: shewing proposed span, the corresponding stress-diagram and reciprocal plan of construction (do.) 696
. A loaded bracket and its reciprocal construction-diagram (Culmann) 697
, 4. A cantilever bridge, with its reciprocal diagrams (Fidler) 698
. A two-armed cantilever of the Forth Bridge (do.) 700
. A two-armed cantilever with load distributed over two pier-heads, as in the quadrupedal skeleton 700
–9. Stress-diagrams. or diagrams of bending moments, in the backbones of the horse, of a Dinosaur, and of Titanotherium 701–4
. The skeleton of Stegosaurus 707
. Bending-moments in a beam with fixed ends, to illustrate the mechanics of chevron-bones 709
, 3. Coordinate diagrams of a circle, and its deformation into an ellipse 729
. Comparison, by means of Cartesian coordinates, of the cannon-bones of various ruminant animals 729
, 6. Logarithmic coordinates, and the circle of Fig. 352 inscribed therein 729, 31
, 8. Diagrams of oblique and radial coordinates 731
. Lanceolate, ovate and cordate leaves, compared by the help of radial coordinates 732
. A leaf of Begonia daedalea 733
. A network of logarithmic spiral coordinates 735
, 3. Feet of ox, sheep and giraffe, compared by means of Cartesian coordinates 738, 40
, 6. “Proportional diagrams” of human physiognomy (Albert Dürer) 740, 2
. Median and lateral toes of a tapir, compared by means of rectangular and oblique coordinates 741
, 8. A comparison of the copepods Oithona and Sapphirina 742
. The carapaces of certain crabs, Geryon, Corystes and others, compared by means of rectilinear and curvilinear coordinates 744
. A comparison of certain amphipods, Harpinia, Stegocephalus and Hyperia 746
. The calycles of certain campanularian zoophytes, inscribed in corresponding Cartesian networks 747
. The calycles of certain species of Aglaophenia, similarly compared by means of curvilinear coordinates 748
, 4. The fishes Argyropelecus and Sternoptyx, compared by means of rectangular and oblique coordinate systems 748
, 6. Scarus and Pomacanthus, similarly compared by means of rectangular and coaxial systems 749
–80. A comparison of the fishes Polyprion, Pseudopriacanthus, Scorpaena and Antigonia 750
, 2. A similar comparison of Diodon and Orthagoriscus 751
. The same of various crocodiles: C. porosus, C. americanus and Notosuchus terrestris 753
. The pelvic girdles of Stegosaurus and Camptosaurus 754
, 6. The shoulder-girdles of Cryptocleidus and of Ichthyosaurus 755
. The skulls of Dimorphodon and of Pteranodon 756
–92. The pelves of Archaeopteryx and of Apatornis compared, and a method illustrated whereby intermediate configurations may be found by interpolation (G. Heilmann) 757–9
. The same pelves, together with three of the intermediate or interpolated forms 760
, 5. Comparison of the skulls of two extinct rhinoceroses, Hyrachyus and Aceratherium (Osborn) 761
. Occipital views of various extinct rhinoceroses (do.) 762
–400. Comparison with each other, and with the skull of Hyrachyus, of the skulls of Titanotherium, tapir, horse and rabbit 763, 4
, 2. Coordinate diagrams of the skulls of Eohippus and of Equus, with various actual and hypothetical intermediate types (Heilmann) 765–7
. A comparison of various human scapulae (Dwight) 769
. A human skull, inscribed in Cartesian coordinates 770
. The same coordinates on a new projection, adapted to the skull of the chimpanzee 770
. Chimpanzee’s skull, inscribed in the network of Fig. 405 771
, 8. Corresponding diagrams of a baboon’s skull, and of a dog’s 771, 3
“Cum formarum naturalium et corporalium esse non consistat nisi in unione ad materiam, ejusdem agentis esse videtur eas producere cujus est materiam transmutare. Secundo, quia cum hujusmodi formae non excedant virtutem et ordinem et facultatem principiorum agentium in natura, nulla videtur necessitas eorum originem in principia reducere altiora.” Aquinas, De Pot. Q. iii, a, 11. (Quoted in Brit. Assoc. Address, Section D, 1911.)
“...I would that all other natural phenomena might similarly be deduced from mechanical principles. For many things move me to suspect that everything depends upon certain forces, in virtue of which the particles of bodies, through forces not yet understood, are either impelled together so as to cohere in regular figures, or are repelled and recede from one another.” Newton, in Preface to the Principia. (Quoted by Mr W. Spottiswoode, Brit. Assoc. Presidential Address, 1878.)
“When Science shall have subjected all natural phenomena to the laws of Theoretical Mechanics, when she shall be able to predict the result of every combination as unerringly as Hamilton predicted conical refraction, or Adams revealed to us the existence of Neptune,—that we cannot say. That day may never come, and it is certainly far in the dim future. We may not anticipate it, we may not even call it possible. But none the less are we bound to look to that day, and to labour for it as the crowning triumph of Science:—when Theoretical Mechanics shall be recognised as the key to every physical enigma, the chart for every traveller through the dark Infinite of Nature.” J. H. Jellett, in Brit. Assoc. Address, Section A, 1874.