← Henley's Twentieth Century Formulas, Recipes and Processes

Henley’s Book of Recipes (part 7)

A good bug killer is benzine, pure and simple, or mixed with a little oil of mirbane. It evaporates quickly and leaves no stain. The only trouble is the inflammability of its vapor.

The following is a popular preparation: To half a gallon of kerosene oil add a quart of spirit of turpentine and an ounce of oil of pennyroyal. This mixture is far less dangerous than benzine. The pennyroyal as well as the turpentine are not only poisonous but exceedingly distasteful to insects of all kinds. The kerosene while less quickly fatal to bugs than benzine is cheaper and safer, and when combined with the other ingredients becomes as efficient.

Where the wall paper and wood work of a room have become invaded, the usual remedy is burning sulphur. To be efficient the room must have every door, window, crevice, and crack closed. The floor should be wet in advance so as to moisten the air. A rubber tube should lead from the burning sulphur to a key-hole or auger-hole and through it, and by aid of a pair of bellows air should be blown to facilitate the combustion of the sulphur.

Pastes.

—Some housewives are partial to corrosive sublimate for bedbugs; but it is effective only if the bug eats the poison. The corrosive sublimate cannot penetrate the waxy coat of the insect. But inasmuch as people insist on having this a few formulas are given.

I.— Common soap 1 av. ounce

Ammonium chloride 3 av. ounces

Corrosive sublimate 3 av. ounces

Water enough to make 32 fluidounces.

Dissolve the salts in the water and add the soap.

This will make a paste that can be painted with a brush around in the cracks and crevices. Besides, it will make an excellent filling to keep the cracks of the wall and wainscoting free from bugs of all kinds. The formula could be modified so as to permit the use {421} of Paris green or London purple, if desired. A decoction of quassia could be used to dissolve the soap. The latter paste would, of course, not be poisonous, and in many instances it would be preferred. It is possible to make a cold infusion of white hellebore of 25 per cent strength, and in 1 quart of infusion dissolve 1 ounce of common soap. The advantage of the soap paste is simply to keep the poisonous substance thoroughly distributed throughout the mass at all times. The density of the paste can be varied to suit. Kerosene oil or turpentine could replace 6 ounces or 8 ounces of the water in making the paste, and either of these would make a valuable addition.

Another paste preparation which will meet with hearty recommendation is blue ointment. This ointment, mixed with turpentine or kerosene oil, can be used to good advantage; especially so as the turpentine is so penetrating that both it and the mercury have a chance to act more effectually. It can be said that turpentine will kill the bedbug if the two come in contact; and kerosene is not far behindhand in its deadly work.

II.— Blue ointment 1 ounce

Turpentine 3 ounces

Stir well together.

Liquid Bedbug Preparations.

—There is no doubt that the liquid form is the best to use; unlike a powder, or even a paste, it will follow down a crack into remote places where bugs hide, and will prevent their escape, and it will also kill the eggs and nits. The following substances are the most employed, and are probably the best: Kerosene, turpentine, benzine, carbolic acid, corrosive sublimate solution, oil pennyroyal, and strong solution of soap. Here are several good formulas that can be depended upon:

I.— Oil of pennyroyal 1 drachm

Turpentine 8 ounces

Kerosene oil, enough to make 1 gallon.

Put up in 8-ounce bottles as a bedbug exterminator.

II.— Oil of eucalyptus 1 drachm

Eucalyptus leaves 1 ounce

Benzine 2 ounces

Turpentine 2 ounces

Kerosene enough to make 16 ounces.

Mix the turpentine, benzine, and kerosene oil, and macerate the eucalyptus leaves in it for 24 hours; then strain and make up the measure to 1 pint, having first added the oil of eucalyptus.

Fly-killers.

A fly poison that is harmless to man may be made from quassia wood as follows:

Quassia 1,000 parts

Molasses 150 parts

Alcohol 50 parts

Water 5,750 parts

Macerate the quassia in 500 parts of water for 24 hours, boil for half an hour, set aside for 24 hours, then press out the liquid. Mix this with the molasses and evaporate to 200 parts. Add the alcohol and the remaining 750 parts of water, and without filtering, saturate absorbent paper with it.

This being set out on a plate with a little water attracts the flies, which are killed by partaking of the liquid.

Sticky Preparations.—

I.— Rosin 150 parts

Linseed oil 50 parts

Honey 18 parts

Melt the rosin and oil together and stir in the honey.

II.— Rapeseed oil 70 parts

Rosin 30 parts

Mix and melt together.

III.— Rosin 60 parts

Linseed oil 38 parts

Yellow wax 2 parts

IV.— Rosin 10 parts

Turpentine 5 parts

Rapeseed oil 5 parts

Honey 1 part

Sprinkling Powders For Flies.—

I.— Long peppers, powdered 5 parts

Quassia wood, powdered 5 parts

Sugar, powdered 10 parts

Mix, moisten the mixture with 4 parts of alcohol, dry, and again powder. Keep the powder in closely stoppered jars, taking out a sufficient quantity as desired.

II.— Orris root, powdered 4 parts

Starch, powdered 15 parts

Eucalyptol 1 part

Mix. Keep in a closely stoppered jar or box. Strew in places affected by flies.

Fly Essences.—

I.— Eucalyptol 10 parts

Bergamot oil 3 parts

Acetic ether 10 parts

Cologne water 50 parts

Alcohol, 90 per cent 100 parts

Mix. One part of this “essence” is {422} to be added to 10 parts of water and sprayed around the rooms frequently.

II.— Eucalyptol 10 parts

Acetic ether 5 parts

Cologne water 40 parts

Tincture of insect powder (1:5) 50 parts

Remedies Against Human Parasites:

By weight

I.— Yellow wax 85 parts

Spermaceti 60 parts

Sweet oil 500 parts

Melt and add:

Boiling distilled water 150 parts

After cooling add:

Clove oil 2 parts

Thyme oil 3 parts

Eucalyptus oil 4 parts

II.— Bay oil, pressed 100 parts

Acetic ether 12 parts

Clove oil 4 parts

Eucalyptus oil 3 parts

For Head Lice In Children.

—One of the best remedies is a vinegar of sabadilla. This is prepared as follows: Sabadilla seed, 5 parts; alcohol, 5 parts; acetic acid, 9 parts; and water, 36 parts. Macerate for 3 days, express and filter. The directions are: Moisten the scalp and hair thoroughly at bedtime, binding a cloth around the head, and let remain overnight. If there are any sore spots on the scalp, these should be well greased before applying the vinegar.

To Exterminate Mites.

—Mix together 10 parts of naphthalene, 10 parts of phenic acid, 5 parts of camphor, 5 parts of lemon oil, 2 parts of thyme oil, 2 parts of oil of lavender, and 2 parts of the oil of juniper, in 500 parts of pure alcohol.

Vermin Killer.—

Sabadilla, powder 2 av. ounces

Acetic acid / 2 fluidounce

Wood alcohol 2 fluidounces

Water sufficient to make 16 fluid ounces.

Mix the acetic acid with 14 fluidounces of water and boil the sabadilla in this mixture for 5 to 10 minutes, and when nearly cold add the alcohol, let stand, and decant the clear solution and bottle.

Directions: Shake the bottle and apply to the affected parts night and morning.

Insecticides For Plants.

Two formulas for insecticides with especial reference to vermin which attack plants:

I.— Kerosene 2 gallons

Common soap / 2 pound

Water 1 gallon

Heat the solution of soap, add it boiling hot to the kerosene and churn until it forms a perfect emulsion. For use upon scale insects it is diluted with 9 parts of water; upon other ordinary insects with 15 parts of water, and upon soft insects, like plant lice, with from 20 to 25 parts of water.

For lice, etc., which attack the roots of vines and trees the following is recommended:

II.— Caustic soda 5 pounds

Rosin 40 pounds

Water, a sufficient quantity.

Dissolve the soda in 4 gallons of water, by the aid of heat, add the rosin and after it is dissolved and while boiling add, slowly, enough water to make 50 gallons. For use, 1 part of this mixture is diluted with 10 parts of water and about 5 gallons of the product poured into a depression near the root of the vine or tree.

For Cochineal Insects.

—An emulsion for fumagine (malady of orange trees caused by the cochineal insect) and other diseases caused by insects is as follows:

Dissolve, hot, 4 parts of black soap in 15 parts of hot water. Let cool to 104° F., and pour in 10 parts of ordinary petroleum, shaking vigorously. Thus an emulsion of café au lait color is obtained, which may be preserved indefinitely. For employment, each part of the emulsion is diluted, according to circumstances, with from 10 to 20 parts of water.

For Locusts.

—Much trouble is experienced in the Transvaal and Natal with locust pests, the remedies used being either a soap spray, containing 1 pound ordinary household soap in 5 gallons of water, or arsenite of soda, the latter being issued by the government for the purpose, and also used for the destruction of prickly pear, and as a basis of tick dips. A solution of 1 pound in 10 gallons of water is employed for full-grown insects, and of 1 pound in 20 gallons of water for newly hatched ones, 1 pound of sugar being added to each pound of arsenite dissolved. The solution sometimes causes sores on the skin, and the natives employed in its use are given grease to rub over themselves as a measure of protection. An advantage of the arsenite solution over soap is that much less liquid need be used.

A composition for the destruction of pear blight, which has been patented in {423} the United States, is as follows: Peppermint oil, 16 parts; ammonia water, 60 parts; calomel, 30 parts; and linseed oil, 1,000 parts.

For Moths And Caterpillars.—

I.— Venice turpentine 200 parts

Rosin 1,000 parts

Turpentine 140 parts

Tar 80 parts

Lard 500 parts

Rape oil 240 parts

Tallow 200 parts

II.— Rosin 50 parts

Lard 40 parts

Stearine oil 40 parts

For Non-masticating Insects.

—For protection against all non-masticating and many mandibulate insects, kerosene oil is much used. It is exhibited in the form of emulsion, which may be made as follows:

Kerosene 2 gallons

Common soap 8 ounces

Water 1 gallon

Dissolve the soap in the water by the aid of heat, bring to the boiling point, and add the kerosene in portions, agitating well after each addition. This is conveniently done by means of the pump to be used for spraying the mixture.

For Scale Insects.

—For destroying scale insects dilute the cochineal emulsion (see above) with 9 times its volume of water; in the case of most others, except lice, dilute with 14 volumes, and for the latter with 20 to 25 volumes.

For the extermination of scale insects, resinous preparations are also employed, which kill by covering them with an impervious coating. Such a wash may be made as follows:

Rosin 3 / 2 pounds

Caustic soda 1 pound

Fish oil 8 ounces

Water 20 gallons

Boil the rosin, soda, and oil with a small portion of the water, adding the remainder as solution is effected.

For the San José scale a stronger preparation is required, the proportion of water being decreased by half, but such a solution is applied only when the tree is dormant.

Scale Insects On Orange Trees.

—Scale insect enemies of orange trees are directly controlled in two ways: (1) By spraying the infested trees with some liquid insecticide, and (2) by subjecting them to the fumes of hydrocyanic acid gas, commonly designated as “gassing.” The latter method is claimed to be the most effective means known of destroying scale insects. In practice the method consists in closing a tree at night with a tent and filling the latter with the poisonous fumes generated by treating refined potassium cyanide (98 per cent) with commercial sulphuric acid (66 per cent) and water. The treatment should continue from 30 to 40 minutes, the longer time being preferable. The work is done at night to avoid the scalding which follows day applications, at least in bright sunshine.

The oily washes are said to be the best for the use by the spraying method. “Kerosene emulsion” is a type of these washes. A formula published by the United States Department of Agriculture follows: Kerosene, 2 gallons; whale-oil soap, / 2 pound; water, 1 gallon. The soap is dissolved in hot water, the kerosene added, and the whole thoroughly emulsified by means of a power pump until a rather heavy, creamy emulsion is produced. The quantity of soap may be increased if desired. The insecticide is applied by spraying the infected tree with an ordinary force pump with spraying nozzle.

Coating Against The Plant Louse.

—(a)—Mix 75 parts of green soap, 50 parts of linseed oil, and 25 parts of carbolic acid. Afterwards mix the mass with 15,000 parts of water.

(b) Mix 4 parts of carbolic acid with 100 parts water glass.

Louse Washes.—

Unslaked lime 18 parts

Sulphur 9 parts

Salt 6.75 parts

Mix as follows: A fourth part of the lime is slaked and boiled for / 3 of an hour with the sulphur in 22.6 parts of water. The remainder of the lime is then slaked and added with the salt to the hot mixture. The whole is burned for another half hour or an hour, and then diluted to 353 parts. The fluid is applied lukewarm when the plants are not in active growth.

For Slugs On Roses.—

Powdered pyrethrum 8 ounces

Powdered colocynth 4 ounces

Powdered hellebore 16 ounces

Flea Powder.—

Naphthalene 4 ounces

Talcum 10 ounces

Tobacco dust 2 ounces

{424}

To Keep Flaxseed Free From Bugs.

—As a container use a tin can with a close-fitting top. At the bottom of the can place a small vial of chloroform with a loose-fitting cork stopper. Then pour the flaxseed, whole or ground, into the can, covering the vial. Enough of the chloroform will escape from the vial to kill such insects as infest the flaxseed.

Insect Powders.

Pyrethrum, whale oil (in the form of soap), fish oil (in the form of soap), soft soap, paraffine, Prussic acid, Paris green, white lead, sulphur, carbon bisulphide, acorus calamus, camphor, Cayenne pepper, tobacco, snuff, asafetida, white hellebore, eucalyptol, quassia, borax, acetic ether are most important substances used as insecticides, alone, or in combination of two or more of them. The Prussic acid and Paris green are dangerous poisons and require to be used with extreme care:

Insect powder is used for all small insects and as a destroyer of roaches. The observations of some experimenters seem to show that the poisonous principle of these flowers is non-volatile, but the most favorable conditions under which to use them are in a room tightly closed and well warmed. There may be two poisonous principles, one of which is volatile. Disappointment sometimes arises in their use from getting powder either adulterated, or which has been exposed to the air and consequently lost some of its efficiency.

The dust resulting from the use of insect powder sometimes proves irritating to the mucous membranes of the one applying the powder. This is best avoided by the use of a spray atomizer.

Persistence in the use of any means is an important element in the work of destroying insects. A given poison may be employed and no visible result follow at first, when in reality many may have been destroyed, enough being left to deceive the observer as to numbers. They multiply very rapidly, too, it must be remembered, and vigorous work is required to combat this increase. Where they can easily migrate from one householder’s premises to those of another, as in city “flats,” it requires constant vigilance to keep them down, and entire extermination is scarcely to be expected.

The ordinary insect powder on the market is made from pyrethrum carneum, pyrethrum roseum, and pyrethrum cinerariæ-folium. The first two are generally ground together and are commercially called Persian insect powder; while the third is commonly called Dalmatian insect powder. These powders are sold in the stores under many names and in combination with other powders under proprietary names.

The powder is obtained by crushing the dried flowers of the pellitory (pyrethrum). The leaves, too, are often used. They are cultivated in the Caucasus, whence the specific name Caucasicum sometimes used. Pyrethrum belongs to the natural order compositæ, and is closely allied to the chrysanthemum. The active principle is not a volatile oil, as stated by some writers, but a rosin, which can be dissolved out from the dry flowers by means of ether. The leaves also contain this rosin but in smaller proportions than the flowers. Tincture of pyrethrum is made by infusing the dried flowers in five times their weight of rectified spirit of wine. Diluted with water it is used as a lotion.

Borax powder also makes a very good insectifuge. It appears to be particularly effective against the common or kitchen cockroach. Camphor is sometimes used, and the powdered dried root of acorus calamus, the sweet flag. A mixture of white lead with four times its weight of chalk is also highly recommended. The fish-oil soaps used in a powdered form are made from various recipes; of which the following is a typical example:

Powdered rosin 2 pounds

Caustic soda 8 ounces

Fish or whale oil 4 ounces

Boil together in a gallon of water for at least an hour, replacing some of the water if required.

The following insect-powder formulas are perfectly safe to use. In each instance insect powder relates to either one of the pyrethrum plants powdered, or to a mixture:

I.— Insect powder 8 ounces av.

Powdered borax 8 ounces av.

Oil of pennyroyal 2 fluidrachms

II.— Insect powder 8 ounces av.

Borax 8 ounces av.

Sulphur 4 ounces av.

Oil of eucalyptus 2 fluidrachms

This formula is especially good for cockroaches:

III.— Insect powder 14 ounces av.

Quassia in fine powder 6 ounces av.

White hellebore, powdered 2 ounces av.

{425}

Beetle Powder.—

Cocoa powder 4 ounces

Starch 8 ounces

Borax 37 ounces

Mix thoroughly.

Remedies Against Mosquitoes.

—A remedy to keep off mosquitoes, etc., is composed as follows: Cinnamon oil, 1 part; patchouli oil, 1 part; sandal oil, 4 parts; alcohol, 400 parts. This has a pleasant odor.

Oil of pennyroyal is commonly used to keep mosquitoes away. Some form of petroleum rubbed on the skin is even more efficient, but unpleasant to use, and if left on long enough will burn the skin.

A 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde for mosquito bites gives remarkably quick and good results. It should be applied to the bites as soon as possible with the cork of the bottle, and allowed to dry on. Diluted ammonia is also used to rub on the bites.

Roach Exterminators.

—Borax, starch, and cocoa are said to be the principal ingredients of some of the roach foods on the market. A formula for a poison of this class is as follows:

Borax 37 ounces

Starch 9 ounces

Cocoa 4 ounces

Moth Exterminators.

—Cold storage is the most effective means of avoiding the ravages of moths. Where this is impracticable, as in bureau drawers, camphor balls may be scattered about with satisfactory result. The following is also effective:

Spanish pepper 100 parts

Turpentine oil 50 parts

Camphor 25 parts

Clove oil 10 parts

Alcohol, 96 per cent 900 parts

Cut the Spanish pepper into little bits, and pour over them the alcohol and oil of turpentine. Let stand 2 or 3 days, then decant, and press out. To the liquid thus obtained add the camphor and clove oil, let stand a few days, then filter and fill into suitable bottles. To use, imbibe bits of bibulous paper in the liquid and put them in the folds of clothing to be protected.

Protecting Stuffed Furniture From Moths.

—The stuffing, no matter whether consisting of tow, hair, or fiber, as well as the covering, should be coated with a 10 per cent solution of sulphur in carbon sulphide. The carbon sulphide dissolves the sulphur so as to cause a very fine division and to penetrate the fibers completely.

Powder To Keep Moths Away.—

Cloves 2 ounces

Cinnamon 2 ounces

Mace 2 ounces

Black pepper 2 ounces

Orris root 2 ounces

Powder coarsely and mix well together.

Book-worms.

—When these insects infest books they are most difficult to deal with, as the ordinary destructive agents injuriously affect the paper of the book. The books should be well beaten and exposed to the sun, and a rag moistened with formalin passed through the binding and the covers where possible. In other cases the bottom edge of the binding should be moistened with formalin before putting on the shelves, so that formaldehyde vapor can be diffused.

INSECT POWDERS: See Insecticides.

Insect Trap.

Into a china wash-basin, half filled with water, pour a glass of beer; cover the basin with a newspaper, in the center of which a small round hole is cut. Place it so that the edges of the paper lie on the floor and the hole is over the center of the basin. At night beetles and other insects, attracted by the smell of beer, climb the paper and fall through the hole into the liquid.

INSTRUMENT ALLOYS: See Alloys.

INSTRUMENT CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

INSTRUMENT LACQUER: See Lacquers.

Insulation

Electric Insulation:

Insulating Varnishes.

—For earth cables and exposed strong current wires:

I.—Melt 2 parts of asphalt together with 0.4 parts of sulphur, add 5 parts of linseed-oil varnish, linseed oil or cottonseed oil, keep at 320° F. for 6 hours; next pour in oil of turpentine as required.

II.—Maintain 3 parts of elaterite with 2 parts of linseed-oil varnish at 392° F. for 5 to 6 hours; next melt 3 parts of asphalt, pour both substances together, and again maintain the temperature of {426} 392° F. for 3 to 4 hours, and then add 1 part of linseed-oil varnish and oil of turpentine as required.

III.—Insulating Varnish for Dynamos and Conduits with Low Tension.—Shellac, 4 parts; sandarac, 2 parts; linoleic acid, 2 parts; alcohol, 15 parts.

IV.—An insulating material which contains no caoutchouc is made by dissolving natural or coal-tar asphalt in wood oil, adding sulphur and vulcanizing at 572° F. The mixture of asphalt and wood oil may also be vulcanized with chloride of sulphur by the ordinary process used for caoutchouc. Before vulcanizing, a solution of rubber scraps in naphthalene is sometimes added and the naphthalene expelled by a current of steam. Substitutes for hard rubber are made of natural or artificial asphalt combined with heavy oil of tar and talc or infusorial earth.

Most of the insulating materials advertised under alluring names consist of asphalt combined with rosin, tar, and an inert powder such as clay or asbestos. Some contain graphite, which is a good conductor and therefore a very undesirable ingredient in an insulator.

Insulation Against Heat.

An asbestos jacket is the usual insulator for boilers, steampipes, etc. The thicker the covering around the steampipe, the more heat is retained. A chief requirement for such protective mass is that it contains air in fine channels, so that there is no connection with the closed-in air. Most substances suitable for insulating are such that they can only with difficulty be used for a protective mass. The most ordinary way is to mix infusorial earth, kieselguhr, slag-wool, hair, ground cork, etc., with loam or clay, so that this plastic mass may be applied moist on the pipes. In using such substances care should be taken carefully to clean and heat the surfaces to be covered. The mass for the first coating is made into a paste by gradual addition of water and put on thick with a brush. After drying each time a further coating is applied. This is repeated until the desired thickness is reached. The last layer put on is rubbed smooth with the flat hand. Finally, strips of linen are wound around, which is coated with tar or oil paint as a protection against outside injuries. Cork stones consist of crushed cork with a mineral binding agent, and are sold pressed into various shapes.

Leather Waste Insulation.

—Portions of leather, such as the fibers of sole leather of any size and form, are first rendered soft. The surface is then carded or the surface fibers scratched or raised in such a manner that when several pieces are pressed together their surface fibers adhere, and a compact, durable piece of leather is produced. The carding can be done by an ordinary batting machine, the action of which is so regulated that not only are the pieces of leather softened, but the fibers on their surfaces raised. The structure of the separate pieces of leather remains essentially unaltered. The raised fibers give the appearance of a furry substance to the leather. The batted pieces of leather are well mixed with paste or some suitable gum, either in or outside of the machine, and are then put into specially shaped troughs, where they are pressed together into layers of the required size and thickness. The separate pieces of leather adhere and are matted together. An agglutinant, if accessible, will contribute materially to the strength and durability of the product. The layers are dried, rolled, and are then ready for use. The pieces need not be packed together promiscuously. If larger portions of waste can be secured, the separate pieces can be arranged one upon another in rows. The larger pieces can also be used for the top and bottom of a leather pad, the middle portion of which consists of smaller pieces.

Insulation Against Moisture, Weather, Etc.

Experiments have shown that with the aid of red lead a very serviceable, resistive, and weatherproof insulation material may be produced from inferior fibers, to take the place, in many cases, of gutta-percha and other substances employed for insulating purposes, and particularly to effect the permanent insulation of aerial conductors exposed to the action of the weather. Hackethal used for the purpose any vegetable fiber which is wrapped around the conductors to be insulated. The fiber is then saturated with liquid red lead. The latter is accomplished in the proportion of 4 to 5 parts of red lead, by weight, to 1 part, by weight, of linseed oil, by the hot or cold process, by mere immersion or under pressure. All the three substances, fiber, oil, and red lead, possess in themselves a certain insulating capacity, but none of them is alone of utility for such purposes. Even the red lead mixed with linseed oil does not possess in the liquid state a high degree of insulating power. {427} Only when both substances, the ingredients of the linseed oil capable of absorbing oxygen and the lead oxide rich in oxygen, oxidize in the air, a new gummy product of great insulating capacity results.

INTENSIFIERS: See Photography.

Iodine Solvent.

Iodine is quickly dissolved in oils by first rubbing up the iodine with one-fourth of its weight of potassium iodide and a few drops of glycerine, then adding a little oil and rubbing up again. The addition of the resultant liquid to the rest of the oil and a sharp agitation finishes the process.

IODINE SOAP: See Soap.

Iodoform Deodorizer.

Rub the part with about a teaspoonful of wine vinegar, after a previous thorough washing with soap.

Iron

(See also Metals and Steel.)

To Color Iron Blue.

—One hundred and forty parts of hyposulphite of soda are dissolved in 1,000 parts of water; 35 parts of acetate of lead are dissolved in 1,000 parts of water; the two solutions are mixed, boiled, and the iron is immersed therein. The metal takes a blue color, such as is obtained by heating.

To Distinguish Iron From Steel.

—The piece of metal to be tested is washed and then plunged into a solution of bichromate of potash, with the addition of considerable sulphuric acid. In half a minute or a minute the metal can be taken out, washed, and wiped. Soft steels and cast iron assume under this treatment an ash-gray tint. Tempered steels become almost black, without any metallic reflection. Puddled and refined irons remain nearly white and always have metallic reflections on the part of their surface previously filed, the remainder of the surface presenting irregular blackish spots.

Another method is to apply a magnet. Steel responds much more quickly and actively to the magnetic influence than does iron.

Powder For Hardening Iron And Steel.

—For wrought iron place in the charge 20 parts, by weight, of common salt; 2 parts, by weight, of potassium cyanide; 0.3 parts, by weight, of potassium bichromate; 0.15 parts, by weight, of broken glass; and 0.1 part, by weight, of potassium nitrate for case-hardening. For cooling and hardening cast iron: To 60 parts, by weight, of water add 2.5 parts, by weight, of vinegar; 3 parts, by weight, of common salt; and 0.25 parts, by weight, of hydrochloric acid.

Preventing The Peeling Of Coatings For Iron.

—To obviate the scaling of coatings on iron, if exposed to the attacks of the weather, it is advisable to wash the iron thoroughly and to paint it next with a layer of boiling linseed oil. If thus treated, the paint never cracks off. If the iron objects are small and can be heated, it is advantageous to heat them previously and to dip them into linseed oil. The boiling oil enters all the pores of the metal and drives out the moisture. The coating adheres so firmly that frost, rain, nor wind can injure it.

To Soften Iron Castings.

—To soften hard iron castings, heat the object to a high temperature, cover it over with fine coal dust or some similar substance, and allow it to cool gradually. When the articles are of small size, a number of them are packed in a crucible with substances yielding carbon to iron at a glowing heat. The crucible is then tightly closed, and placed in a stove or on an open fire. It is gradually heated and kept at a red heat for several hours, and then allowed to cool slowly. Cast-iron turnings, carbonate of soda, and unrefined sugar are recommended as substances suitable for packing in the crucible with the castings. If unrefined sugar alone is added, the quantity must not be too small. By this process the iron may be rendered extremely soft.

To Whiten Iron.

—Mix ammoniacal salt in powder with an equal volume of mercury. This is dissolved in cold water and mixed thoroughly. Immerse the metal, heated to redness, in this bath and it will come out possessing the whiteness and beauty of silver. Care should be taken not to overheat the article and thus burn it.

IRON, BITING OFF RED HOT: See Pyrotechnics.

IRON, CEMENTS FOR: See Adhesives.

IRON, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

IRON TO CLOTH, GLUING: See Adhesives. {428}

IRON, HOW TO ATTACH RUBBER TO: See Adhesives, under Rubber Cements.

IRON OXALATE DEVELOPER: See Photography.

IRON SOLDERS: See Solders.

IRONING WAX: See Laundry Preparations.

IRON VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

ITCH, BARBERS’: See Ointments.

Ivory

(See also Bones, Shell, and Horn.)

To Color Ivory:

Red.—The article is placed for 24 hours in water, 1,000 parts of which carry 100 parts of vinegar (acetic acid, 6 per cent), and from 1 to 5 parts of aniline red. As soon as it acquires the desired color pour off the liquid, let the ivory dry, and polish with Vienna lime.

Black.—Wash the article first in potash or soda lye and then put into a neutral solution of silver nitrate. Drain off the liquid and lay in the direct sunshine.

Red-Purple.—Put the article in a weak solution of triple gold chloride and then into direct sunshine.

Red.—For a different shade of red (from the first given), place the article for a short time in water weakly acidified with nitric acid and then in a solution of cochineal in ammonia.

Yellow.—Leave for several hours in a solution of lead acetate, rinse and dry. When quite dry place in a solution of potassium chromate.

To Color Billiard Balls Red.—

Fiery Red.—Wash the article first in a solution of carbonate of soda, then plunge for a few seconds in a bath of equal parts of water and nitric acid. Remove, rinse in running water; then put in an alcoholic solution of fuchsine and let it remain until it is the required color.

Cherry Red.—Clean by washing in the sodium carbonate solution, rinse and lay in a 2 per cent solution of tin chloride, for a few moments, then boil in a solution of logwood. Finally lay in a solution of potassium carbonate until it assumes the desired color.

Pale Red.—Wash in soda solution, rinse and lay for 25 minutes in a 5 per cent solution of nitric acid, rinse, then lay for several minutes in a weak solution of tin chloride. Finally boil in the following solution: Carmine, 2 parts; sodium carbonate, 12 parts; water, 200 parts; acetic acid enough to saturate.

Brown.—Apply several coats of an ammoniacal solution of potassium permanganate. Similar results are obtained if the solution is diluted with vinegar, and the ivory article allowed to remain in the liquid for some time.

Etching On Ivory

(see also Etching).—Although decorations on ivory articles, such as umbrella handles, cuff-buttons, fans, book-covers, boxes, etc., are generally engraved, the work is frequently done by etching. The patterns must be very delicate, and are executed in lines only. The simplest way is to cover the surface with a thin rosin varnish. Then transfer the pattern and scratch it out accurately with a pointed needle. Otherwise proceed same as in etching on metal and stone, making an edge of modeling wax around the surface to be etched and pouring on the acid, which consists, in this case, of sulphuric acid, 1 part, to which 5 to 6 parts of water are added. It acts very quickly. The lines turn a deep black. If brown lines are desired, dissolve 1 part of silver nitrate in 5 parts of water, etch for a short time, and expose the article for a few hours to the light, until the design turns brown. Very often etchings in ivory are gilded. For this purpose, fill the etched patterns accurately with siccatives, using a writing pen, dry, and dab on gold leaf. After a few hours remove the superfluous gold with wadding, and the design will be nicely gilded. Etched ivory articles present a very handsome appearance if they are first covered with a silvery gloss, the design being gilded afterwards. For the former purpose the etched object is laid in the above described solution of silver nitrate until it has acquired a dark yellow color. Then rinse it off in clean water and, while still moist, expose to direct sunlight. After 3 to 4 hours the surface becomes entirely black, but will take on a fine silvery luster if rubbed with soft leather.

Flexible Ivory.

—To soften ivory and render it flexible put pure phosphoric acid (specific gravity, 1.13) into a wide-mouthed bottle or jar that can be covered, and steep the ivory in this until it partially loses its opacity; then wash the ivory in cold, soft water and dry, when the ivory will be found soft and flexible. {429} It regains its hardness in course of time when freely exposed to air, although its flexibility can be restored by immersing the ivory in hot water.

Another softening fluid is prepared by mixing 1 ounce of spirit of niter with 5 ounces of water and steeping the ivory in the fluid for 4 or 5 days.

Hardened Ivory.

—To restore the hardness to ivory that has been softened by the above methods, wrap it in a sheet of white writing paper, cover it with dry decrepitated salt, and let it remain thus covered for 24 hours. The decrepitated salt is prepared by strewing common kitchen salt on a plate or dish and standing same before a fierce fire, when the salt loses its crystalline appearance and assumes a dense opaque whiteness.

Imitation Ivory:

Ivory And Bone Bleaches.

If simply dirty, scrub with soap and tepid water, using an old tooth or nail brush for the purpose. Grease stains may be sometimes removed by applying a paste of chalk or whiting and benzol, covering the article so that the benzol may not dry too rapidly. Carbon disulphide (the purified article) may be used in place of benzol. When dry, rub off with a stiff brush. If not removed with the first application, repeat the process. Delicately carved articles that show a tendency to brittleness should be soaked for a short time in dilute phosphoric acid before any attempt to clean them is made. This renders the minuter portions almost ductile, and prevents their breaking under cleaning.

The large scratched brush should be treated as follows: If the scratches are deep, the surface may be carefully rubbed down to the depth of the scratch, using the finest emery cloth, until the depth is nearly reached, then substituting crocus cloth.

To restore the polish nothing is superior to the genuine German putz pomade, following by rubbing first with chamois and finishing off with soft old silk. The more “elbow grease” put into the rubbing the easier the task, as the heat generated by friction seems to lend a sort of ductility to the surface. To remove the yellow hue due to age, proceed as follows: Make a little tripod with wire, to hold the object a few inches above a little vessel containing lime chloride moistened with hydrochloric acid; put the object on the stand, cover the whole with a bell glass, and expose to direct sunlight. When bleached, remove and wash in a solution of sodium bicarbonate, rinse in clear water and dry.

Like mother-of-pearl, ivory is readily cleaned by dipping in a bath of oxygenized water or immersing for 15 minutes in spirits of turpentine, and subsequently exposing to the sun for 3 or 4 days. For a simple cleaning of smooth articles, wash them in hot water, in which there has been previously dissolved 100 parts (by weight) of bicarbonate of soda per 1,000 parts of water. To clean carved ivory make a paste of very fine, damp sawdust, and put on this the juice of 1 or 2 lemons, according to the article to be treated. Now apply a layer of this sawdust on the ivory, and when dry brush it off and rub the object with a chamois.

Ivory Tests.

Many years ago an article was introduced in the industrial world which in contradistinction to the genuine animal ivory, has its origin in the vegetable kingdom, being derived from the nut of a palm-like shrub called phytelephasmacrocarpa, whose fruit reaches the size of an apple. This fruit has a very white, exceedingly hard kernel which can be worked like ivory. A hundred of these fruits only costing about $1, their use offers great advantages. Worked on the lathe this ivory can be passed off as the genuine article, it being so much like it that it is often sold at the same price. It can also be colored just like genuine ivory.

To distinguish the two varieties of ivory, the following method may be employed: Concentrated sulphuric acid applied to vegetable ivory will cause a pink coloring in about 10 or 12 minutes, which can be removed again by washing with water. Applied on genuine ivory, this acid does not affect it in any manner.

IVORY BLACK: See Bone Black.

IVORY CEMENT: See Adhesives.

IVORY GILDING: See Plating.

IVORY POLISHES: See Polishes.

JAPAN BLACK: See Paints.

JAPANNING AND JAPAN TINNING: See Varnishes.

JASMINE MILK: See Cosmetics.

JELLY (FRUIT) EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts.

JEWELERS’ CEMENTS: See Adhesives.

JEWELERS’ CLEANING PROCESSES: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

Jewelers’ Formulas

(See also Gems, Gold, and Watchmakers’ Recipes.)

Coloring Gold Jewelry.

—Following are several recipes for coloring: Saltpeter, 40 parts; alum, 30 parts; sea salt, 30 parts; or, liquid ammonia, 100 parts; sea salt, 3 parts; water, 100 parts. Heat without allowing to boil and plunge {431} the objects into it for 2 or 3 minutes, stirring constantly; rinse in alum water and then in clean water. Another recipe: Calcium bromide, 100 parts; bromine, 5 parts. Place the articles in this solution, with stirring, for 2 to 3 minutes; next wash in a solution of hyposulphite of sodium and rinse in clean water. Another: Verdigris, 30 parts; sea salt, 30 parts; blood stone, 30 parts; sal ammoniac, 30 parts; alum, 5 parts. Grind all and stir with strong vinegar; or, verdigris, 100 parts; hydrochlorate of ammonia, 100 parts; saltpeter, 65 parts; copper filings, 40 parts. Bray all and mix with strong vinegar.

To Widen A Jewel Hole.

—Chuck the hole in a lathe with cement. Place a spirit lamp underneath to prevent the cement from hardening. Hold the pointed bit against the hole, while the lathe is running, until the hole is true, when the lamp should be removed. The broach to widen the hole should be made of copper, of the required size and shape, and the point, after being oiled, should be rolled in diamond dust until it is entirely covered. The diamond dust should then be beaten in with a burnisher, using very light blows so as not to bruise the broach. After the hole is widened as desired, it requires polishing with a broach made of ivory and used with oil and the finest diamond dust, loose, not driven into the broach.

To Clean Jet Jewelry.

—Reduce bread crumbs into small particles, and introduce into all the curves and hollows of the jewelry, while rubbing with a flannel.

Coloring Common Gold.

—In coloring gold below 18 carat, the following mixture may be used with success, and if carefully employed, even 12 carat gold may be colored by it: Take nitrate of potassa (saltpeter), 4 parts, by weight; alum, 2 parts; and common salt, 2 parts. Add sufficient warm water to mix the ingredients into a thin paste; place the mixture in a small pipkin or crucible and allow to boil. The article to be colored should be suspended by a wire and dipped into the mixture, where it should remain from 10 to 20 minutes. The article should then be removed and well rinsed in hot water, when it must be scratch brushed, again rinsed and returned to the coloring salts for a few minutes; it is then to be again rinsed in hot water, scratch brushed, and finally brushed with soap and hot water, rinsed in hot water, and placed in boxwood sawdust. The object being merely to remove the alloy, as soon as the article has acquired the proper color of fine gold it may be considered sufficiently acted upon by the above mixture. The coloring salts should not be used for gold of a lower standard than 12 carat, and, even for this quality of gold, some care must be taken when the articles are of a very slight make.

Shades Of Red, Etc., On Matt Gold Bijouterie.

—For the production of the red and other shades on matt gold articles, the so-called gold varnishes are employed, which consist of shellac dissolved in alcohol and are colored with gum rosins. Thus a handsome golden yellow is obtained from shellac, 35 parts; seed-lac, 35 parts; dragon’s blood, 50 parts; gamboge, 50 parts; dissolved in 400 parts of alcohol; the clear solution is decanted and mixed with 75 parts of Venice turpentine. By changing the amounts of the coloring rosins, shades from bright gold yellow to copper color are obtained. The varnish is applied evenly and after drying is wiped off from the raised portions of the article by means of a pad of wadding dipped into alcohol, whereby a handsome patination effect is produced, since the lacquer remains in the cavities. Chased articles are simply rubbed with earth colors ground into a paste with turpentine oil, for which purpose burnt sienna, fine ochers of a golden color, golden yellow, and various shades of green are employed.

I.— Yellow wax 32 parts

Red bole 3 parts

Crystallized verdigris 2 parts

Alum 2 parts

II.— Yellow wax 95 parts

Red bole 64 parts

Colcothar 2 parts

Crystallized verdigris 32 parts

Copper ashes 20 parts

Zinc vitriol 32 parts

Green vitriol 16 parts

Borax 1 part

The wax is melted and the finely powdered chemicals are stirred in, in rotation. If the gilt bronze goods are to obtain a lustrous orange shade, apply a mixture of ferric oxide, alum, cooking salt, and vinegar in the heated articles by means of a brush, heating to about 266° F. until the shade commences to turn black and water sprinkled on will evaporate with a hissing sound, then cool in water, dip in a mixture of 1 part of nitric acid with 40 parts of water, rinse {432} thoroughly, dry, and polish. For the production of a pale-gold shade use a wax preparation consisting of:

III.— Yellow wax 19 parts

Zinc vitriol 10 parts

Burnt borax 3 parts

Green-gold color is produced by a mixture of:

IV.— Saltpeter 6 parts

Green vitriol 2 parts

Zinc vitriol 1 part

Alum 1 part

To Matt Gilt Articles.

—If it is desired to matt gilt articles partly or entirely, the portions which are to remain burnished are covered with a mixture of chalk, sugar, and mucilage, heating until this “stopping-off” covering shows a black color. On the places not covered apply a matting powder consisting of:

Saltpeter 40 parts

Alum 25 parts

Cooking salt 35 parts

Heat the objects to about 608° F., whereby the powder is melted and acquires the consistency of a thin paste. In case of too high a temperature decomposition will set in.

To Find The Number Of Carats.

—To find the number of carats of gold in an object, first weigh the gold and mix with seven times its weight in silver. This alloy is beaten into thin leaves, and nitric acid is added; this dissolves the silver and copper. The remainder (gold) is then fused and weighed; by comparing the first and last weights the number of carats of pure gold is found. To check repeat several times.

Acid Test For Gold.

—The ordinary ready method of ascertaining whether a piece of jewelry is made of gold consists in touching it with a glass stopper wetted with nitric acid, which leaves gold untouched, but colors base alloys blue from the formation of nitrate of copper.

Imitation Diamonds.

—I.—Minium, 75 parts (by weight); washed white sand, 50 parts; calcined potash, 18 parts; calcined borax, 6 parts; bioxide of arsenic, 1 part. The sand must be washed in hydrochloric acid and then several times in clean water. The specific gravity of this crystal glass is almost the same as that of the diamond.

II.—Washed white sand, 100 parts (by weight): minium, 35 parts; calcined potash, 25 parts; calcined borax, 20 parts; nitrate of potash (crystals), 10 parts; peroxide of manganese, 5 parts. The sand must be washed as above stated.

Diamantine.

—This substance consists of crystallized boron, the basis of borax. By melting 100 parts of boracic acid and 80 parts of aluminum crystals is obtained the so-called bort, which even attacks diamond. The diamantine of commerce is not so hard.

To Refine Board Sweepings.

—The residue resulting from a jobbing jeweler’s business, such as board sweepings and other residuum, which is continually accumulating and which invariably consists of all mixed qualities of standard, may have the precious metals recovered therefrom in a very simple manner, as follows: Collect the residue and burn it in an iron ladle or pan, until all grease or other organic matter is destroyed. When cool mix with / 5 part soda-ash, and melt in a clay crucible. When the metal is thoroughly melted it will leave the flux and sink to the bottom of the crucible; at this stage the flux assumes the appearance of a thin fluid, and then is the time to withdraw the pot from the fire. The metal in the crucible—but not the flux—may now be poured into a vessel of water, stirring the water in a circular direction while the metal is being poured in, which causes it to form into small grains, and so prepares it for the next process. Dissolve the grains in a mixture of nitric acid and water in equal quantities. It takes about four times the quantity of liquid as metal to dissolve. The gold remains undissolved in this mixture, and may be recovered by filtering or decanting the liquid above it in the dissolving vessel; it is then dried, mixed with a little flux, and melted in the usual manner, whereupon pure gold will be obtained. To recover the silver, dilute the solution which has been withdrawn from the gold with six times its bulk of water, and add by degrees small quantities of finely powdered common salt, and this will throw down the silver into a white, curdy powder of chloride of silver. Continue to add salt until no cloudiness is observed in the solution, when the water above the sediment may be poured off; the sediment is next well washed with warm water several times, then dried and melted in the same manner as the gold, and you will have a lump of pure silver.

Restoration Of The Color Of Turquoises.

—After a certain time turquoises lose a part of their fine color. It is easy to restore the color by immersing them in a solution of carbonate of soda. But it seems that the blue cannot be restored anew after this operation, if it again becomes dull. The above applies to {433} common turquoises, and not to those of the Orient, of which the color does not change.

Colorings For Jewelers’ Work.

—I.—Take 40 parts of saltpeter; 30 parts of alum; 30 parts of sea salt; or 100 grams of liquid ammonia; 3 parts sea salt; and 100 parts water. This is heated without bringing it to a boil, and the articles dipped into it for from 2 to 3 minutes, stirring the liquid constantly; after this bath they are dipped in alum water and then thoroughly rinsed in clean water.

II.—One hundred parts of calcium bromide and 2 parts of bromium. The objects are allowed to remain in this solution (which must be also constantly stirred) for from 2 to 3 minutes, then washed in a solution of sodium hyposulphite, after which they must be rinsed in clean water.

III.—Thirty parts of verdigris; 30 parts of sea salt; 30 parts of hematite; 30 parts of sal ammoniac, and 5 parts of alum. This must be all ground up together and mixed with strong vinegar; or we may also use 100 parts of verdigris; 100 parts of hydrochlorate of ammonia; 65 parts of saltpeter, and 40 parts of copper filings, all of which are to be well mixed with strong vinegar.

22-carat Solder.

—Soldering is a process which, by means of a more fusible compound, the connecting surfaces of metals are firmly secured to each other, but, for many practical purposes, it is advisable to have the fusing point of the metal and solder as near each other as possible, which, in the majority of cases, preserves a union more lasting, and the joint less distinguishable, in consequence of the similarity of the metal and solder in color, which age does not destroy, and this is not the case with solders the fusible points of which are very low. The metal to be soldered together must have an affinity for the solder, otherwise the union will be imperfect; and the solder should likewise act upon the metal, partly by this affinity or chemical attraction, and partly by cohesive force, to unite the connections soundly and firmly together. Solders should therefore be prepared suitable to the work in hand, if a good and lasting job is to be made. It should always be borne in mind that the higher the fusing point of the gold alloy—and this can be made to vary considerably, even with any specified quality—the harder solder must be used, for, in the case of a more fusible mixture of gold, the latter would melt before the solder and cause the work to be destroyed. A very good formula for the first, or ordinary, 22-carat alloy is this:

dwts. grs.

Fine gold 1 0

Fine silver 0 3

Fine copper 0 2

1 5

This mixture will answer all the many purposes of the jobber; for soldering high quality gold wares that come for repairs, particularly wedding rings, it will be found admirably suited. If an easier solder is wanted, and such is very often the case with jobbing jewelers, especially where several solderings have to be accomplished, it is as well to have at hand a solder which will not disturb the previous soldering places, for if this is not prevented a very simple job is made very difficult, and a lot of time and patience wholly wasted. To guard against a thing of this kind the following solder may be employed on the top of the previous one:

dwts. grs.

Fine gold 1 0

Fine silver 0 3

Yellow brass 0 2

1 5

This solder is of the same value as the previous one, but its melting point is lower, and it will be found useful for many purposes that can be turned to good account in a jobbing jeweler’s business.

Jewelers’ Alloys:

18-carat Gold For Rings.

—Gold coin, 19 / 2 grains; pure copper, 3 grains; pure silver, 1 / 2 grains.

Cheap Gold, 12 Carat.

—Gold coin, 25 grains; pure copper, 13 / 2 grains; pure silver, 7 / 3 grains.

Very Cheap 4-carat Gold.

—Copper, 18 parts; gold, 4 parts; silver, 2 parts.

Imitations Of Gold.

—I.—Platina, 4 pennyweights; pure copper, 2 / 4 pennyweights; sheet zinc, 1 pennyweight; block tin, 1 / 4 pennyweights; pure lead, 1 / 2 pennyweight. If this should be found too hard or brittle for practical use, remelting the composition with a little sal ammoniac will generally render it malleable as desired.

II.—Platina, 2 parts; silver, 1 part; copper, 3 parts. These compositions, when properly prepared, so nearly resemble pure gold that it is very difficult to {434} distinguish them therefrom. A little powdered charcoal, mixed with metals while melting, will be found of service.

Best Oreide Of Gold.

—Pure copper, 4 ounces; sheet zinc, 1 / 4 ounces; magnesia, / 8 ounce; sal ammoniac, / 32 ounce; quicklime, / 32 ounce; cream tartar, / 8 ounce. First melt the copper at as low a temperature as it will melt; then add the zinc, and afterwards the other articles in powder, in the order named. Use a charcoal fire to melt these metals.

Bushing Alloy For Pivot Holes, Etc.

—Gold coin, 3 pennyweights; silver, 1 pennyweight, 20 grains; copper, 3 pennyweights, 20 grains; palladium, 1 pennyweight. The best composition known for the purpose named.

Gold Solder For 14- to 16-carat Work.

—Gold coin, 1 pennyweight; pure silver, 9 grains; pure copper, 6 grains; brass, 3 grains.

Darker Solder.

—Gold coin, 1 pennyweight; pure copper, 8 grains; pure silver, 5 grains; brass, 2 grains. Melt together in charcoal fire.

Solder For Gold.

—Gold, 6 pennyweights; silver, 1 pennyweight; copper, 2 pennyweights.

Soft Gold Solder.

—Gold, 4 parts; silver, 1 part; copper, 1 part.

Solders For Silver

(for the use of jewelers).—Fine silver, 19 pennyweights; copper, 1 pennyweight; sheet brass, 10 pennyweights.

White Solder For Silver.

—Silver, 1 ounce; tin, 1 ounce.

Silver Solder For Plated Metal.

—Fine silver, 1 ounce; brass, 10 pennyweights.

Solders For Gold.

—I.—Silver, 7 parts; copper, 1 part; with borax.

II.—Gold, 2 parts; silver, 1 part; copper, 1 part.

III.—Gold, 3 parts; silver, 3 parts; copper, 1 part; zinc, / 2 part.

For Silver.

—Silver, 2 parts; brass, 1 part; with borax; or, silver, 4 parts; brass, 3 parts; zinc, / 18 part; with borax.

Gold Solders

(see also Solders).—I.—Copper, 24.24 parts; silver, 27.57 parts; gold, 48.19 parts.

II.—Enamel Solder.—Copper, 25 parts; silver, 7.07 parts; gold, 67.93 parts.

III.—Copper, 26.55 parts; zinc, 6.25 parts; silver, 31.25 parts; gold, 36 parts.

IV.—Enamel Solder.—Silver, 19.57 parts; gold, 80.43 parts.

Solder For 22-carat Gold.

—Gold of 22 carats, 1 pennyweight; silver, 2 grains; copper, 1 grain.

For 18-carat Gold.

—Gold of 18 carats, 1 pennyweight; silver, 2 grains; copper, 1 grain.

For Cheaper Gold.

—I.—Gold, 1 pennyweight; silver, 10 grains; copper, 8 grains.

II.—Fine gold, 1 pennyweight; silver, 1 pennyweight; copper, 1 pennyweight.

Silver Solders

(see also Solders).—I. (Hard.)—Copper, 30 parts; zinc, 12.85 parts; silver, 57.15 parts.

II.—Copper, 23.33 parts; zinc, 10 parts; silver, 66.67 parts.

III.—Copper, 26.66 parts; zinc, 10 parts; silver, 63.34 parts.

IV. (Soft.)—Copper, 14.75 parts; zinc, 8.50 parts; silver, 77.05 parts.

V.—Copper, 22.34 parts; zinc, 10.48 parts; silver, 67.18 parts.

VI.—Tin, 63 parts; lead, 37 parts.

For Silversmiths:

I.—Sterling Silver.—Fine silver, 11 ounces, 2 pennyweights; fine copper, 18 pennyweights.

II.—Equal to Sterling.—Fine silver, 1 ounce; fine copper, 1 pennyweight, 12 grains.

III.—Fine silver, 1 ounce; fine copper, 5 pennyweights.

IV.—Common Silver for Chains.—Fine silver, 6 pennyweights; fine copper, 4 pennyweights.

V.—Solder.—Fine silver, 16 pennyweights; fine copper, 12 grains; pin brass, 3 pennyweights, 12 grains.

VI.—Alloy for Plating.—Fine silver, 1 ounce; fine copper, 10 pennyweights.

VII.—Silver Solder.—Fine silver, 1 ounce; pin brass, 10 pennyweights; pure spelter, 2 pennyweights.

VIII.—Copper Solder for Plating.—Fine silver, 10 pennyweights; fine copper, 10 pennyweights.

IX.—Common Silver Solder.—Fine silver, 10 ounces; pin brass, 6 ounces, 12 pennyweights; spelter, 12 pennyweights.

X.—Silver Solder for Enameling.—Fine silver, 14 pennyweights; fine copper, 8 pennyweights.

XI.—For Filling Signet Rings.—Fine silver, 10 ounces; fine copper, 1 ounce, 16 pennyweights; fine pin brass, 6 ounces, 12 pennyweights; spelter, 12 pennyweights. {435}

XII.—Silver Solder for Gold Plating.—Fine silver, 1 ounce; fine copper, 5 pennyweights; pin brass, 5 pennyweights.

XIII.—Mercury Solder.—Fine silver, 1 ounce; pin brass, 10 pennyweights; bar tin, 2 pennyweights.

XIV.—Imitation Silver.—Fine silver, 1 ounce; nickel, 1 ounce, 11 grains; fine copper, 2 ounces, 9 grains.

XV.—Fine silver, 3 ounces; nickel, 1 ounce, 11 pennyweights; fine copper, 2 ounces, 9 grains; spelter, 10 pennyweights.

XVI.—Fine Silver Solder for Filigree Work.—Fine silver, 4 pennyweights, 6 grains; pin brass, 1 pennyweight.

Bismuth Solder.—Bismuth, 3 ounces; lead, 3 ounces, 18 pennyweights; tin, 5 ounces, 6 pennyweights.

Brass:

I.—Yellow Brass for Turning.—(Common article.)—Copper, 20 pounds; zinc, 10 pounds; lead, 4 ounces.

II.—Copper, 32 pounds; zinc, 10 pounds; lead, 1 pound.

III.—Red Brass Free, for Turning.—Copper, 100 pounds; zinc, 50 pounds; lead, 10 pounds; antimony, 44 ounces.

IV.—Best Red Brass for Fine Castings.—Copper, 24 pounds; zinc, 5 pounds; bismuth, 1 ounce.

V.—Red Tombac.—Copper, 10 pounds; zinc, 1 pound.

VI.—Tombac.—Copper, 16 pounds; tin, 1 pound; zinc, 1 pound.

VII.—Brass for Heavy Castings.—Copper, 6 to 7 parts; tin, 1 part; zinc, 1 part.

VIII.—Malleable Brass.—Copper, 70.10 parts; zinc, 29.90 parts.

IX.—Superior Malleable Brass.—Copper, 60 parts; zinc, 40 parts.

X.—Brass.—Copper, 73 parts; zinc, 27 parts.

XI.—Copper, 65 parts; zinc, 35 parts.

XII.—Copper, 70 parts; zinc, 30 parts.

XIII.—German Brass.—Copper, 1 pound; zinc, 1 pound.

XIV.—Watchmakers’ Brass.—Copper, 1 part; zinc, 2 parts.

XV.—Brass for Wire.—Copper, 34 parts; calamine, 56 parts.

XVI.—Brass for Tubes.—Copper, 2 parts; zinc, 1 part.

XVII.—Brass for Heavy Work.—Copper, 100 parts; tin, 15 parts; zinc, 15 parts.

XVIII.—Copper, 112 parts; tin, 13 parts; zinc, 1 part.

XIX.—Tombac or Red Brass.—Copper, 8 parts; zinc, 1 part.

XX.—Brass.—Copper, 3 parts; melt, then add zinc, 1 part.

XXI.—Buttonmakers’ Fine Brass.—Brass, 8 parts; zinc, 5 parts.

XXII.—Buttonmakers’ Common Brass.—Button brass, 6 parts; tin, 1 part; lead, 1 part. Mix.

XXIII.—Mallet’s Brass.—Copper, 25.4 parts; zinc, 74.6 parts. Used to preserve iron from oxidizing.

XXIV.—Best Brass for Clocks.—Rose copper, 85 parts; zinc, 14 parts; lead, 1 part.

Gold Alloys:

To Quickly Remove A Ring From A Swollen Finger.

—If the ring is of gold, pull the folds of the swollen muscles apart, so that it can be seen, then drop on it a little absolute alcohol and place the finger in a bowl of metallic mercury. In a very few minutes the ring will snap apart. If the ring is of brass, scrape the surface slightly, or put on a few drops of a solution of oxalic acid, or even strong vinegar, let remain in contact for a moment or two, then put into the mercury, and the result will be as before.

Soldering A Jeweled Ring.

—In order to prevent the bursting of the jewels of a ring while the latter is being soldered, cut a juicy potato into halves and make a hollow in both portions in which the part of the ring having jewels may fit exactly. Wrap the jeweled portion in soft paper, place it in the hollow, and bind up the closed potato with binding wire. Now solder with easy-flowing gold solder, the potato being held in the hand. Another method is to fill a small crucible with wet sand, bury the jeweled portion in the sand, and solder in the usual way.

JEWELRY, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

Kalsomine

Sodium carbonate 8 parts

Linseed oil 32 parts

Hot water 8 parts

White glue 12 parts

Whiting 160 parts

Dissolve the sodium carbonate in the hot water, add the oil and saponify by heating and agitation. Cover the glue, broken into small pieces, with cold water and let soak overnight. In the morning pour the whole on a stout piece of stuff and let the residual water drain off, getting rid of as much as possible by slightly twisting the cloth. Throw the swelled glue into a capsule, put on the water bath, and heat gently until it is melted. Add the saponified oil and mix well; remove from the bath, and stir in the whiting, a little at a time, adding hot water as it becomes necessary. When the whiting is all stirred in, continue adding hot water, until a liquid is obtained that flows freely from the kalsomining brush.

The addition of a little soluble blue to the mixture increases the intensity of the white.

Sizing Walls For Kalsomine.

—A size to coat over “hot walls” for the reception of the kalsomine is made by using shellac, 1 part; sal soda, / 2 part. Put these ingredients in / 2 gallon of water and dissolve by steady heat. Another size is made of glue size prepared in the usual way, and alum. To / 2 pound of white glue add / 4 pound of alum, dissolving the alum in hot water before adding it to the glue size.

KARATS, TO FIND NUMBER OF: See Jewelers’ Formulas.

KERAMICS: See Ceramics.

KERIT: See Rubber.

KEROCLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

Kerosene Deodorizer:

Koumiss Substitute:

Lacquers

(See also Enamels, Glazes, Paints, Varnishes, and Waterproofing.)

Lac And The Art Of Lacquering.

The art of lacquering includes various steps, which are divulged as little as possible. Without them nothing but a varnish of good quality would be realized. Thus in Tonkin, where the abundant {438} production is the object of an important trade with the Chinese, it is so used only for varnishing, while in China the same product from the same sources contributes to most artistic applications.

When the Annamites propose to lacquer an object, a box, for example, they first stop up the holes and crevices, covering all the imperfections with a coating of diluted lac, by means of a flat, close, short brush. Then they cover the whole with a thick coating of lac and white clay. This clay, oily to the touch, is found at the bottom of certain lakes in Tonkin; it is dried, pulverized, and sifted with a piece of fine silk before being embodied with the lac. This operation is designed to conceal the inequalities of the wood and produce a uniform surface which, when completely dry, is rendered smooth with pumice stone.

If the object has portions cut or sunk the clayey mixture is not applied, for it would make the details clammy, but in its place a single, uniform layer of pure lac.

In any case, after the pumicing, a third coating, now pure lac, is passed over the piece, which at this time has a mouse-gray color. This layer, known under the name of sou lot, colors the piece a brilliant black. As the lac possesses the remarkable property of not drying in dry air, the object is left in a damp place. When perfectly dried the piece is varnished, and the desired color imparted by a single operation. If the metallic applications are excepted, the lac is colored only black, brown, or red.

The following formulas are in use:

Black.—One part of turpentine is warmed for 20 minutes beyond the fusing point; then poured into 3 parts of lac; at the same time pheu deu (copperas) is added. The mixture is stirred for at least a day, sometimes more, by means of a large paddle.

Maroon.—This is prepared by a process similar to the preceding, replacing half of the copperas by an equal quantity of China vermilion.

Red.—The lac, previously stirred for 6 hours, is mixed with hot oil of trau, and the whole is stirred for a day, after which vermilion is added. The latter should be of good quality, so as to have it brilliant and unchangeable.

The operation of lacquering is then ended, but there are parts to be gilded. These are again covered with a mixture of lac and oil of trau. When this layer is dry the metallic leaves are applied, which are themselves protected by a coating, composed also of lac and oil of trau. All these lac and oil of trau mixtures are carefully filtered, which the natives effect by pressing the liquid on a double filtering surface formed of wadding and of a tissue on which it rests. It can only be applied after several months when the metallic leaf is of gold. In the case of silver or tin the protecting coat can be laid on in a few days. It favorably modifies the white tints of these two metals by communicating a golden color. The hue, at first reddish, gradually improves and acquires its full brilliancy in a few months.

Little information is procurable concerning the processes employed by the Chinese. The wood to be lacquered should be absolutely dry. It receives successive applications, of which the number is not less than 33 for perfect work. When the lac coating attains the thickness of / 4 of an inch it is ready for the engravers. The Chinese, like the inhabitants of Tonkin, make use of oil of trau to mix with the lac, or oil of aleurites, and the greatest care is exercised in the drying of the different layers. The operation is conducted in dim-lighted rooms specially fitted up for the purpose; the moisture is maintained to a suitable extent by systematically watering the earth which covers the walls of this “cold stove.”

Lacquer For Aluminum.

—Dissolve 100 parts of gum lac in 300 parts of ammonia, and heat the solution for about 1 hour moderately on the water bath. After cooling, the mixture is ready for use. The aluminum to be coated is cleaned in the customary manner. After it has been painted with the varnish, it is heated in the oven to about 572° F. The coating and heating may be repeated.

Lacquer For Brass.—

Annatto / 4 ounce

Saffron / 4 ounce

Turmeric 1 ounce

Seed lac in coarse powder 3 ounces

Alcohol 1 pint

Digest the annatto, saffron, and turmeric in the alcohol for several days, then strain into a bottle containing the seed lac; cork and shake until dissolved.

Lacquer For Bronze.

—I.—The following process yields a protective varnish for bronze articles and other metallic objects in various shadings, the lacquer produced excelling in high luster and permanency: Fill 40 parts of best pale shellac; 12 parts of pulverized Florentine {439} lake; 30 parts gamboge; and 6 parts of dragon’s blood, likewise powdered, into a bottle and add 400 parts of spirit. Allow this mixture to form a solution preferably by heating the flask on the water bath, to nearly the boiling point of the water, and shaking now and then until all has dissolved. After the cooling pour off the liquid from the sediment, if any is present; this liquid constitutes a lacquer of dark-red color. In a second bottle dissolve in the same manner 24 parts of gamboge in 400 parts of spirit, which affords a lacquer of golden yellow color. According to the desired shade, the red lacquer is now mixed with the yellow one, thus producing any hue required from the deepest red to a golden tone. If necessary, thin with spirit of wine. The varnish is applied, as usual, on the somewhat warmed article, a certain temperature having to be adhered to, which can be ascertained by trials and is easily regulated by feeling.

II.—The following is equally suitable for boots and leather goods as for application on iron, stone, glass, paper, cloth, and other surfaces. The inexperienced should note before making this liquid that it does not give a yellowish bronze like gold paint, but a darkish iridescent one, and as it is a pleasing variation in aids to home decoration, it would doubtless sell well. Some pretty effects are obtained by using a little phloxine instead of part of the violet aniline, or phloxine alone will produce a rich reddish bronze, and a lustrous peacock green is obtained with brilliant aniline green crystals.

Quantities: Flexile methylated collodion, 1 gallon; pure violet aniline, 1 pound. Mix, stand away for a few days to allow the aniline to dissolve and stir frequently, taking care to bung down securely, as the collodion is a volatile liquid, then strain and bottle off. It is applied with a brush, dries rapidly, and does not rub off or peal.

Celluloid Lacquer.

—Dissolve uncolored celluloid in a mixture of strong alcohol and ether. The celluloid first swells up in the solvent, and after vigorous shaking, the bottle is allowed to stand quietly for the undissolved portion to settle, when the clear, supernatant fluid is poured off. The latter may be immediately used; it yields a colorless glossy lacquer, or may be colored, as desired, with aniline colors.

Colored Lacquer.

—Make a strong solution of any coloring matter which is soluble in methylated spirit, such as cochineal, saffron, the aniline dyes, etc. Filter through fine cambric, and to this filtered solution add brown shellac in flakes in the proportion of 4 to 5 ounces of shellac to each pint of methylated spirit. Shake once a day for about 8 days. If too thick it may be thinned by adding more colored spirit or plain spirit as required, and any lighter shade can be obtained by mixing with plain lacquer mixed in the above proportions. Lacquer works best in a warm, dry place, and the process is improved by slightly warming the articles, which must be absolutely free from grease, dirt, or moisture. The best results are obtained by applying many coats of thin, light-colored lacquer, each coat to be thoroughly dry before applying the next.

Apply with a soft camel’s-hair brush; it is better to use too small a brush than too large. When complete, warm the articles for a few seconds before a clear fire; the hotter the better; if too hot, however, the colors will fade. This makes the lacquer adhere firmly, especially to metallic surfaces. Aniline green works very well.

Lacquer For Copper.

—A lacquer which to a certain degree resists heat and acid liquids, but not alkaline ones, is obtained by heating fine, thickly liquid amber varnish, whereby it is rendered sufficiently liquid to be applied with the brush. The copper article is coated with this and left to stand until the lacquer has dried perfectly. Next, the object is heated until the lacquer commences to smoke and turns brown. If the operation is repeated twice, a coating is finally obtained, which, as regards resisting qualities to acid bodies, excels even enamel, but which is strongly attacked even by weakly alkaline liquids.

Ebony Lacquer.

—The ebony lacquer recommended by the well-known English authority, Mr. H. C. Standage, consists of / 3 ounce aniline hydrochloride, / 3 ounce alcohol, 1 part sulphate of copper, 100 parts of water. The aniline dye is dissolved in the alcohol and the copper sulphate in the water. The wood is first coated with the copper sulphate solution, and after this coating has been given plenty of time to dry the aniline salt tincture is applied. Shortly the copper salt absorbed by the wood will react on the aniline hydrochloride, developing a deep, rich black which acids or alkalies are powerless to destroy. Coat with shellac and give a French polish, thus bringing the ebony finish up to a durable and unsurpassed luster. {440}

Gold Lacquers:

I.—For Brassware.—A gold lacquer to improve the natural color of brassware is prepared from 16 parts gum lac, 4 parts dragon’s blood, and 1 part curcuma powder dissolved in 320 parts spirits of wine in the warmth and filtered well. The articles must be thoroughly cleaned by burning, grinding, or turning either dull or burnished, and then coated with a thin layer of the above mixture, applied with a soft hair brush or a pad of wadding. If the objects are colored the lacquer must be laid on by stippling. Should the color be too dark, it may be lightened by reduction with a little spirit until the correct shade is produced. The most suitable temperature for the metal during the work is about the warmth of the hand; if too hot or too cold, the lacquer may smear, and will then have to be taken off again with spirit or hot potash lye, the goods being dried in sawdust or recleaned as at first, before applying the lacquer again. Round articles may be fixed in the lathe and the lacquer laid on with a pad of wadding. In order to color brassware, a solution of 30 parts caustic soda; 10 parts cupric carbonate; 200 parts water (or 200 parts ammonia neutralized by acetic acid); 100 parts verdigris, and 60 parts sal ammoniac is employed, into which the warmed articles are dipped. After having dried they are coated with colorless shellac varnish.

II.—For Tin.—Transparent gold lacquer for tin (all colors) may be made as follows: Take / 2 pint of alcohol, add 1 ounce gum shellac; / 2 ounce turmeric; 1 / 4 ounce red sanders. Set the vessel in a warm place and shake frequently for half a day. Then strain off the liquor, rinse the bottle and return it, corking tightly for use. When this is used, it must be applied to the work freely and flowed on full, or if the work admits it, it may be dipped. One or more coats may be given as the color is required light or dark. For rose color substitute / 4 ounce of finely ground lake in place of the turmeric. For blue, substitute Prussian blue. For purple, add a little of the blue to the turmeric.

For Bottle Caps, etc.—

I.— Gum gutta 10 parts

Shellac 100 parts

Turpentine 10 parts

Alcohol 450 parts

II.— Gum gutta 40 parts

Dragon’s blood 5 parts

Alcoholic extract of sandalwood 5 parts

Sandarac 75 parts

Venice turpentine 25 parts

Alcohol, 95 per cent 900 parts

Mix and dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat.

Liquid Bottle Lac.

—Into a half-gallon bottle put 8 ounces of shellac, and pour over it 1 / 2 pints of alcohol of 94 per cent, and 2 / 2 ounces of sulphuric ether. Let stand, with occasional shaking, until the shellac is melted, and then add 4 ounces of thick turpentine and / 2 ounce of boric acid. Shake until dissolved. To color, use the aniline colors soluble in alcohol—for red, eosine; blue, phenol blue; black, negrosin; green, aniline green; violet, methyl violet, etc. If it is desired to have the lac opaque, add 8 ounces of pulverized steatite, but remember to keep the lac constantly stirred while using, as otherwise the steatite falls to the bottom.

Lithographic Lacquer.

—Dissolve 15 parts, by weight, of red lithol R or G in paste of 17 per cent, in 150 parts, by weight, of hot water. Boil for 2 minutes, shaking with 2.5 parts, by weight, of barium chloride. Dissolve in 25 parts, by weight, of water. Add to the mixture 100 parts, by weight, of aluminum hydrate of about 4 per cent. Cool, filter, and dry.

Lacquer For Microscopes, Mathematical Instruments, Etc.

—Pulverize 160 parts, by weight, turmeric root, cover it with 1,700 parts alcohol, digest in a warm place for 24 hours, and then filter. Dissolve 80 parts dragon’s blood, 80 parts sandarac, 80 parts gum elemi, 50 parts gum gutta, and 70 parts seed lac, put in a retort with 250 parts powdered glass, pour over them the colored alcohol first made, and hasten solution by warming in the sand or water bath. When completely dissolved, filter.

To Fix Alcoholic Lacquers On Metallic Surfaces.

—Dissolve 0.5 parts of crystallized boracic acid in 100 parts of the respective spirit varnish whereby the latter after being applied forms so hard a coating upon a smooth tin surface that it cannot be scratched off even with the finger-nails. The aforementioned percentage of boracic acid should not be exceeded in preparing the solution; otherwise the varnish will lose in intensity of color.

Lacquer For Oil Paintings.

—Dilute 100 parts of sulphate of baryta with 600 parts of water containing in solution 60 parts of red lithol R or G in paste of 17 {441} per cent. Boil the mixture for several minutes in a solution of 10 parts of barium chloride in 100 parts of water. After cooling, filter and dry.

Lacquers For Papers.

—I.—With base of baryta: Dissolve 30 parts of red lithol R or G in paste of 17 per cent, in 300 parts of hot water. Add an emulsion obtained by mixing 10 parts of sulphate of alumina in 100 parts of water and 5 parts of calcined soda dissolved in 50 parts of water. Precipitate with a solution of 17.5 parts of barium chloride in 125 parts of water. Cool and filter.

II.—With base of lime: Dissolve 30 parts red lithol R or G in paste of 17 per cent, in 300 parts of hot water. Boil for a few minutes with an emulsion prepared by mixing 10 parts sulphate of alumina with 100 parts of water and 2.5 parts of slaked lime in 100 parts of water. Filter after cooling.

Lacquer For Stoves And Other Articles To Withstand Heat.

—This is not altered by heat, and does not give off disagreeable odors on heating: Thin 1 part of sodium water glass with 2 parts of water in order to make the vehicle. This is to be thickened with the following materials in order to get the desired color: White, barium sulphate or white lead; yellow, baryta chromate, ocher, or uranium yellow; green, chromium oxide or ultramarine green; brown, cadmium oxide, manganese oxide, or sienna brown; red, either iron or chrome red. The coloring materials must be free from lumps, and well ground in with the vehicle. Bronze powders may also be used either alone or mixed with other coloring stuffs, but care must be taken, in either instance, to secure a sufficient quantity. The colors should be made up as wanted, and no more than can conveniently be applied at the time should be prepared. An excellent way to use the bronze powders is to lay on the coloring matter, and then to dust on the powder before the glass sets. Lines or ornamentation of any sort may be put on by allowing the coating of enamel to dry, and then drawing the lines or any desired design with a fresh solution of the water glass colored to suit the taste, or dusted over with bronze.

Miscellaneous Recipes:

Russian Polishing Lac.—

I.— Sticklac 925 parts

Sandarac 875 parts

Larch turpentine 270 parts

Alcohol, 96 per cent 3,500 parts

The sticklac is broken up and mixed with the sandarac, put into a suitable container with a wide mouth, the spirit poured over it and set aside. After standing for a week in a warm place, frequently stirring in the meantime (best with a glass rod) and fully dissolving, stir in the turpentine. Let stand 2 or 3 days longer, then filter through glass wool. The sandarac dissolves completely in the spirit, but the stick leaves a slight residue which may be added to the next lot of lac made up and thus be treated to a fresh portion of spirit. The larch turpentine should be of the best quality. This lac is used by woodcarvers and turners and is very much prized by them.

Mastic Lac.—

II.— Mastic, select 150 parts

Sandarac 400 parts

Camphor 15 parts

Alcohol, 96 per cent 1,000 parts

Prepare as directed in the first recipe.

Leather Polish Lac.—

III.— Shellac 16 parts

Venice turpentine 8 parts

Sandarac 4 parts

Lampblack, Swedish 2 parts

Turpentine oil 4 parts

Alcohol, 96 per cent 960 parts

The alcohol and turpentine oil are mixed and warmed under constant stirring in the sand or water bath. The shellac and sandarac are now stirred in, the stirring being maintained until both are dissolved. Finally add the turpentine and dissolve. Stir the lampblack with a little vinegar and then add and stir in. Instead of lampblack 125 to 150 parts of nigrosin may be used. This lac should be well shaken before application.

LACQUERED WARE, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

LAKES: See Dyes.

Lampblack:

Production of Lampblack.—The last oil obtained in the distillation of coal tar, and freed from naphthalene as far as possible, viz., soot oil, is burned in a special furnace for the production of various grades of lampblack. In this furnace is an iron plate, which must always be kept glowing; upon this plate the soot oil trickles through a small tube fixed above it. It is decomposed and {442} the smoke (soot) rises into four chambers through small apertures. When the quantity of oil destined for decomposition has been used up, the furnace is allowed to stand undisturbed for a few days, and only after this time has elapsed are the chambers opened by windows provided for that purpose. In the fourth chamber is the very finest lampblack, which the lithographers use, and in the third the fine grade employed by manufacturers of printers’ ink, while the first and second contain the coarser soot, which, well sifted, is sold as flame lampblack.

From grade No. 1 the calcined lampblack for paper makers is also produced. For preparing this black capsules of iron plate with closing lid are filled, the stuff is stamped firmly into them and the cover smeared up with fine loam. The capsules are next placed in a well drawing stove and calcined, whereby the empyreumatic oils evaporate and the remaining lampblack becomes odorless. Allow the capsules to cool for a few days before opening them, as the soot dries very slowly, and easily ignites again as soon as air is admitted if the capsules are opened before. This is semi-calcined lampblack.

For the purpose of preparing completely calcined lampblack, the semi-calcined article is again jammed into fresh capsules, closing them up well and calcining thoroughly once more. After 2 days the capsules are opened containing the all-calcined lampblack in compact pieces.

For the manufacture of coal soot another furnace is employed. Asphalt or pitch is burned in it with exclusion of air as far as practicable. It is thrown in through the doors, and the smoke escapes through the chimney to the soot chambers, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, assorting itself there.

When the amount of asphalt pitch destined for combustion has burned up completely, the furnace is left alone for several days without opening it. After this time has elapsed the outside doors are slowly opened and some air is admitted. Later on they can be opened altogether after one is satisfied that the soot has cooled completely. Chamber 4 contains the finest soot black, destined for the manufacture of leather cloth and oil cloth. In the other chambers is fine and ordinary flame black, which is sifted and packed in suitable barrels. Calcined lampblack may also be produced from it, the operation being the same as for oil black.

LAMP BURNERS AND THEIR CARE: See Household Formulas.

Lamps:

Coloring Incandescent Lamps.

—Incandescent light globes are colored by dipping the bulbs into a thin solution of collodion previously colored to suit with anilines soluble in collodion. Dip and rotate quickly, bulb down, till dry.

For office desks, room lights, and in churches, it appears often desirable to modify the glaring yellowish rays of the incandescent light. A slight collodion film of a delicate bluish, greenish, or pink shade will do that.

For advertising purposes the bulbs are often colored in two or more colors. It is also easy with a little practice to paint words or pictures, etc., on the bulbs with colored collodion with a brush.

Another use of colored collodion in pharmacy is to color the show globes on their inside, thus avoiding freezing and the additional weight of the now used colored liquids. Pour a quantity of colored collodion into the clean, dry globe, close the mouth and quickly let the collodion cover all parts of the inside. Remove the balance of the collodion at once, and keep it to color electric bulbs for your trade.

LANOLINE CREAMS: See Cosmetics.

LANOLINE SOAP: See Soap.

LANTERN SLIDES: See Photography.

Lard:

Detection Of Cottonseed Oil In Lard.

—Make a 2 per cent solution of silver nitrate in distilled water, and acidify it by adding 1 per cent of nitrate acid, C. P. Into a test tube put a sample of the suspected lard and heat gently until it liquefies. Now add an equal quantity of the silver nitrate solution, agitate a little, and bring to a boil. Continue the boiling vigorously for about 8 minutes. If the lard remain clear and colorless, it may be accepted as pure. The presence of cottonseed oil or fat will make itself known by a coloration, varying from yellow, grayish green to brown, according to the amount present.

LATHE LUBRICANT: See Lubricants. {443}

LAUNDRY INKS: See Household Formulas.

Laundry Preparations

Bluing Compounds:

Laundry Blue.

—The soluble blue of commerce, when properly made, dissolves freely in water, and solutions so made are put up as liquid laundry blue. The water employed in making the solution should be free from mineral substances, especially lime, or precipitation may occur. If rain water or distilled water and a good article of blue be used, a staple preparation ought apparently to result; but whether time alone affects the matter of solubility it is impossible to state. As it is essential that the solution should be a perfect one, it is best to filter it through several thicknesses of fine cotton cloth before bottling; or if made in large quantities this method may be modified by allowing it to stand some days to settle, when the top portion can be siphoned off for use, the bottom only requiring filtration.

This soluble blue is said to be potassium ferri-ferrocyanide, and is prepared by gradually adding to a boiling solution of potassium ferricyanide (red prussiate of potash) an equivalent quantity of hot solution of ferrous sulphate, boiling for 2 hours and washing the precipitate on a filter until the washings assume a dark-blue color; the moist precipitate can then at once be dissolved by the further addition of a sufficient quantity of water. About 64 parts of the iron salt are necessary to convert 100 parts of the potassium salt into the blue compound.

Leaf bluing for laundry use may be prepared by coating thick sized paper with soluble blue formed into a paste with a mixture of dextrin mucilage and glycerine. Dissolve a given quantity of dextrine in water enough to make a solution about as dense as ordinary syrup, add about as much glycerine as there was dextrine, rub the blue smooth with a sufficient quantity of this vehicle and coat the sheets with the paint. The amount of blue to be used will depend of course on the intended cost of the product, and the amount of glycerine will require adjustment so as to give a mixture which will not “smear” after the water has dried out and yet remain readily soluble.

Ultramarine is now very generally used as a laundry blue where the insoluble or “bag blue” is desired. It is mixed with glucose, or glucose and dextrine, and pressed into balls or cakes. When glucose alone is used, the product has a tendency, it is said, to become soft on keeping, which tendency may be counteracted by a proper proportion of dextrin. Bicarbonate of sodium is added as a “filler” to cheapen the product, the quantity used and the quality of the ultramarine employed being both regulated by the price at which the product is to sell.

The coal-tar or aniline blues are not offered to the general public as laundry blues, but laundry proprietors have them frequently brought under their notice, chiefly in the form of solutions, usually 1 to 1 / 2 per cent strong. These dyes are strong bluing materials, and, being in the form of solution, are not liable to speck the clothes. Naturally their properties depend upon the particular dye used; some are fast to acids and alkalies, others are fast to one but not to another; some will not stand ironing, while others again are not affected by the operation; generally they are not fast to light, but this is only of minor importance. The soluble, or cotton, blues are those most favored; these are made in a great variety of tints, varying from a reddish blue to a pure blue in hue, distinguished by such brands as 3R, 6B, etc. Occasionally the methyl violets are used, especially the blue tints. Blackley blue is very largely used for this purpose, being rather faster than the soluble blues. It may be mentioned that a 1 per cent solution of this dye is usually strong enough. Unless care is taken in dissolving these dyes they are apt to produce specks. The heat to which the pure blues are exposed in ironing the clothes causes some kinds to assume a purple tinge.

The cheapest aniline blue costs about three times as much as soluble blue, yet the tinctorial power of the aniline colors is so great that possibly they might be cheapened.

Soluble Blue.

—I.—Dissolve 217 parts of prussiate of potash in 800 parts of hot water and bring the whole to 1,000 parts. Likewise dissolve 100 parts of ferric chloride in water and bring the solution also to 1,000 parts. To each of these solutions add 2,000 parts of cooking salt or Glauber’s salt solution saturated in the cold and mix well. The solutions thus prepared of prussiate of potash and ferric chloride are now mixed together with stirring. Allow to settle and remove by suction the clear liquid containing undecomposed ferrocyanide of {444} potassium and Glauber’s salt; this is kept and used for the next manufacture by boiling it down and allowing the salts to crystallize out. The percentage of ferrocyanide of potassium is estimated by analysis, and for the next production proportionally less is used, employing that obtained by concentration.

After siphoning off the solution the precipitate is washed with warm water, placed on a filter and washed out on the latter by pouring on cold water until the water running off commences to assume a strong blue color. The precipitate is then squeezed out and dried at a moderate heat (104° F.). The Paris blue thus obtained dissolves readily in water and can be extensively employed in a similar manner as indigo carmine.

II.—Make ordinary Prussian blue (that which has been purified by acids, chlorine, or the hypochlorites) into a thick paste with distilled or rain water, and add a saturated solution of oxalic acid sufficient to dissolve. If time be of no consequence, by leaving this solution exposed to the atmosphere, in the course of 60 days the blue will be entirely precipitated in soluble form. Wash with weak alcohol and dry at about 100° F. The resultant mass dissolves in pure water and remains in solution indefinitely. It gives a deep, brilliant blue, and is not injurious to the clothing or the hands of the washwoman.

The same result may be obtained by precipitating the soluble blue from its oxide solution by the addition of alcohol of 95 per cent, or with a concentrated solution of sodium sulphate. Pour off the mother liquid and wash with very dilute alcohol; or throw on a filter and wash with water until the latter begins to come off colored a deep blue.

Liquid Laundry Blue.

—This may be prepared either with liquid Prussian blue or indigo carmine. Make a solution of gum dragon (gum tragacanth) by dissolving 1 to 2 ounces of the powdered gum in 1 gallon of cold water in which / 2 ounce oxalic acid has been dissolved. The gum will take several days to dissolve, and will require frequent stirring and straining before use. To the strained portion add as much Prussian blue in fine powder as the liquid will dissolve without precipitating, and the compound is ready for use.

Instead of powdered Prussian blue, soluble Prussian blue may be used. This is made by dissolving solid Prussian blue in a solution of oxalic acid, but as the use of oxalic acid is to be deprecated for the use of laundresses, as it would set up blood poisoning should it get into any cuts in the flesh, it is best to prepare liquid blue by making a solution of yellow prussiate of potash (ferrocyanide of potassium) with water, and then by adding a sufficient quantity of chloride of iron to produce a blue, but not enough to be precipitated.

Ball Blue.

—The ball sold for laundry use consists usually, if not always, of ultramarine. The balls are formed by compression, starch or some other excipient of like character being added to render the mass cohesive. Blocks of blue can, of course, be made by the same process. The manufacturers of ultramarine prepare balls and cubes of the pigment on a large scale, and it does not seem likely that there would be a sufficient margin of profit to justify the making of them in a small way from the powdered pigment. Careful experiments, however, would be necessary to determine this positively. Ultramarine is of many qualities, and it may be expected that the balls will vary also in the amount of “filling” according to the price at which they are to be sold.

Below is a “filled” formula:

Ultramarine 6 ounces

Sodium carbonate 4 ounces

Glucose 1 ounce

Water, a sufficient quantity.

Make a thick paste, roll into sheets, and cut into tablets. The balls in bulk can be obtained only in large packages of the manufacturers, say barrels of 200 pounds; but put up in 1-pound boxes they can be bought in cases as small as 28 pounds.

Laundry Blue Tablets.—

Ultramarine 6 ounces

Sodium carbonate 4 ounces

Glucose 1 ounce

Water, a sufficient quantity.

Make a thick paste, roll into sheets, and cut into tablets.

Polishes Or Glazes For Laundry Work.

—I.—To a mixture of 200 parts each of Japan wax and paraffine, add 100 parts of stearic acid, melt together, and cast in molds. If the heated smoothing iron be rubbed with this wax the iron will not merely get over the surface much more rapidly, but will leave a handsome polish.

Laundry Gloss Dressing.—

II.—Dissolve white wax, 5.0 parts, in ether, 20.5 parts, and add spirit, 75.0 parts. Shake before use.

Heat until melted, in a pot, 1,000 parts {445} of wax and 1,000 parts of stearine, as well as a few drops of an essential oil. To the hot liquid add with careful stirring 250 parts of ammonia lye of 10 per cent, whereby a thick, soft mass results immediately. Upon further heating same turns thin again, whereupon it is diluted with 20,000 parts of boiling water, mixed with 100 parts of starch and poured into molds.

Starches.

Most laundry starches now contain some polishing mixture for giving a high luster.

I.—Dissolve in a vessel of sufficient capacity, 42 parts of crystallized magnesium chloride in 30 parts of water. In another vessel stir 12 parts of starch in 20 parts of water to a smooth paste. Mix the two and heat under pressure until the starch is fluidified.

II.—Pour 250 parts, by weight, of water, over 5 parts, by weight, of powdered gum tragacanth until the powder swells uniformly; then add 750 parts, by weight, of boiling water, dissolve 50 parts, by weight, of borax in it, and stir 50 parts, by weight, of stearine and 50 parts, by weight, of talcum into the whole. Of this fluid add 250 parts to 1,000 parts of boiled starch, or else the ironing oil is applied by means of a sponge on the starched wash, which is then ironed.

By weight

III.— Starch 1,044 parts

Borax 9 parts

Common salt 1 part

Gum arabic 8 parts

Stearine 20 parts

Washing Fluids, Bricks And Powders:

Washing Fluids.

—Rub up 75 parts of milk of sulphur with 125 parts of glycerine in a mortar, next add 50 parts of camphorated spirit and 1 part of lavender oil, and finally stir in 250 parts of rose water and 1,000 parts of distilled water. The liquid must be stirred constantly when filling it into bottles, since the sulphur settles rapidly and would thus be unevenly distributed.

Grosser’s Washing Brick.—

Water 54 parts

Sodium hydrate 38.21 parts

Sodium biborate 6.61 parts

Sodium silicate 1.70 parts

Haenkel’s Bleaching Solution.—

Water 36.15 parts

Sodium hydrate 40.22 parts

Sodium silicate 23.14 parts

Luhn’s Washing Extract.—

Water 34.50 parts

Sodium hydrate 25.33 parts

Soap 39.40 parts

Washing Powders.—

I.— Sodium carbonate, partly effloresced 2 parts

Soda ash 1 part

II.— Sodium carbonate, partly effloresced 6 parts

Soda ash 3 parts

Yellow soap 1 part

III.— Sodium carbonate, partly effloresced 3 parts

Soap bark 1 part

IV.— Sodium carbonate, partly effloresced 1 part

Borax 1 part

Yellow soap 1 part

V.—A good powder can be made from 100 parts of crystal soda, 25 parts of dark-yellow rosin-cured soap, and 5 parts of soft soap. The two latter are placed in a pan, along with one-half the soda (the curd soap being cut into small lumps), and slowly heated, with continual crutching, until they are thoroughly melted—without, however, beginning to boil. The fire is then drawn and the remaining soda crutched in until it, too, is melted, this being effected by the residual heat of the mass and the pan. The mass will be fairly thick by the time the soda is all absorbed. After leaving a little longer, with occasional stirring, the contents are spread out on several thin sheets of iron in a cool room, to be then turned over by the shovel at short intervals, in order to further cool and break down the mixture. The soap will then be in a friable condition, and can be rubbed through the sieve, the best results being obtained by passing through a coarse sieve first, and one of finer mesh afterwards. With these ingredients a fine yellow-colored powder will be obtained. White stock soap may also be used, and, if desired, colored with palm oil and the same colorings as are used for toilet soaps. The object of adding soft soap is to increase the solubility and softness of the powder, but the proportion used should not exceed one-third of the hard soap, or the powder will be smeary and handle moist. The quality of the foregoing product is good, the powder being stable and not liable to ball, even after prolonged storage; neither does it wet the paper in which it is packed, nor swell up, and therefore the packets retain their appearance. {446}

In making ammonia-turpentine soap powder the ammonia and oil of turpentine are crutched into the mass shortly before removing it from the pan, and if the powder is scented—for which purpose oil of mirbane is mostly used—the perfume is added at the same stage.

To Whiten Flannels.

—Dissolve, by the aid of heat, 40 parts of white castile soap, shaved fine, in 1,200 parts of soft water, and to the solution, when cold, gradually add, under constant stirring, 1 part of the strongest water of ammonia. Soak the goods in this solution for 2 hours, then let them be washed as usual for fine flannels. A better process, in the hands of experts, is to soak the goods for an hour or so in a dilute solution of sodium hyposulphite, remove, add to the solution sufficient dilute hydrochloric acid to decompose the hyposulphite. Replace the goods, cover the tub closely, and let remain for 15 minutes longer. Then remove the running water, if convenient, and if not, wring out quickly, and rinse in clear water. One not an expert at such work must be very careful in the rinsing, as care must be taken to get out every trace of chemical. This is best done by a second rinsing.

Ink For The Laundry.

—The following is said to make a fine, jet-black laundry ink:

a. Copper chloride, crystals 85 parts

Sodium chlorate 106 parts

Ammonium chloride 53 parts

Water, distilled 600 parts

b. Glycerine 100 parts

Mucilage gum arabic (gum, 1 part; water, 2 parts) 200 parts

Aniline hydrochlorate 200 parts

Distilled water 300 parts

Make solutions a and b and preserve in separate bottles. When wanted for use, mix 1 part of solution a with 4 parts of solution b.

Laces, Curtains, Etc.

—I.—To give lace curtains, etc., a cream color, take 1 part of chrysoidin and mix with 2 parts of dextrin and dissolve in 250 parts of water. The articles to be washed clean are plunged in this solution. About an ounce of chrysoidin is sufficient for 5 curtains.

II.—Washing curtains in coffee will give them an ecru color, but the simplest way to color curtains is with “Philadelphia yellow” (G. or R. of the Berlin Aktiengesellschaft’s scale).

LAUNDRY SOAP: See Soap.

LAVATORY DEODORANT: See Household Formulas.

LAXATIVES FOR CATTLE AND HORSES: See Veterinary Formulas.

Lead:

Simple Test For Red Lead And Orange Lead.

—Take a little of the sample in a test tube, add pure, strong nitric acid and heat by a Bunsen burner until a white, solid residue is obtained. Then add water, when a clear, colorless solution will be obtained. A white residue would indicate adulteration with barytes, a red residue or a yellow solution with oxide of iron. The presence of iron may be ascertained by adding a few drops of a solution of potassium ferrocyanide (yellow prussiate of potash) to the solution, when a blue precipitate will be obtained if there be the least trace of iron present.

LEAD, TO TAKE BOILING, IN THE MOUTH: See Pyrotechnics.

LEAD ALLOYS: See Alloys.

LEAD PAPER: See Paper.

LEAD PLATE, TINNED: See Plating.

LEAKS, IN BOILERS, STOPPING: See Putties.

Leaks:

To Stop Leakage In Iron Hot-water Pipes.

—Take some fine iron borings or filings and mix with them sufficient vinegar to form a sort of paste, though the mixture is not adhesive. With this mixture fill up the cracks where the leakage is found, having previously dried the pipe. It must be kept dry until the paste has become quite hard. If an iron pipe should burst, or there should be a hole broken into it by accident, a piece of iron may be securely fastened over it, by bedding it on in paste made of the borings and vinegar as above, but the pipe should not be disturbed until it has become perfectly dry.

To Prevent Wooden Vessels From Leaking.

(See also Casks.)—Wooden {447} vessels, such as pails, barrels, etc., often become so dry that the joints do not meet, thus causing leakage. In order to obviate this evil stir together 60 parts hog’s lard, 40 parts salt, and 33 parts wax, and allow the mixture to dissolve slowly over a fire. Then add 40 parts charcoal to the liquid mass. The leaks in the vessels are dried off well and filled up with putty while still warm. When the latter has become dry, the barrels, etc., will be perfectly tight. If any putty is left, keep in a dry place and heat it to be used again.

Leather

(See also Shoes.)

Artificial Leather.

—Pure Italian hemp is cut up fine; 1 part of this and / 2 part of coarse, cleaned wool are carded together and formed into wadding. This wadding is packed in linen and felted by treatment with hot acid vapors. The resulting felt is washed out, dried, and impregnated with a substance whose composition varies according to the leather to be produced. Thus, good sole leather, for instance, is produced according to a Danish patent, in the following manner: Mix together 50 parts of boiled linseed oil; 20 parts of colophony; 25 parts of French turpentine; 10 parts of glycerine, and 10 parts of vegetable wax, and heat over a water bath with some ammonia water. When the mass has become homogeneous, add 25 parts of glue, soaked in water, as well as a casein solution, which latter is produced by dissolving 50 parts, by weight, of moist, freshly precipitated casein in a saturated solution of 16 parts of borax and adding 10 parts of potassium bichromate, the last two also by weight. Finally, mineral dyestuffs as well as antiseptic substances may be added to the mass. The whole mixture is now boiled until it becomes sticky and the felt is impregnated with it by immersion. The impregnated felt is dried for 24 hours at an ordinary temperature; next laid into a solution of aluminum acetate and finally dried completely, dyed, and pressed between hot rollers.

Black Dye For Tanned Leather.

—This recipe takes the place of the ill-smelling iron blacking, and is not injurious to the leather. Gallnuts, pulverized, 150 parts; vitriol, green or black, 10 parts; rock candy, 60 parts; alum, 15 parts; vinegar, 250 parts; cooking salt, 20 parts. Dissolve with 4,000 parts of distilled water.

Boil this solution slowly and the blacking is done. When it has cooled and settled, pour through linen, thus obtaining a pure, good leather blacking.

Bronze Leather.

—All sorts of skins—sheepskins, goatskins, coltskins, and light calfskins—are adapted for the preparation of bronze leather. In this preparation the advantage lies not only in the use of the faultless skins, but scarified skins and those of inferior quality may also be employed. The dressing of the previously tanned skin must be carried out with the greatest care, to prevent the appearance of spots and other faults. After tanning, the pelts are well washed, scraped, and dried. Then they are bleached. For coloring, it is customary to employ methyl violet which has previously been dissolved in hot water, taking 100 parts, by weight, of the aniline color to 8,000 parts, by weight, of water. If in the leather-dressing establishment a line of steam piping be convenient, it is advisable to boil up all the coloring dyes, rather than simply to dissolve them; for in this way complete solution is effected. Where steam is used no special appliance is required for boiling up the dyes, for this may take place without inconvenience in the separate dye vats. A length of steam hose and a brass nozzle with a valve is all that is needed. It may be as well to add here that the violet color for dyeing may be made cheaper than as above described. To 3,000 parts, by weight, of pretty strong logwood decoction add 50 parts, by weight, of alum and 100 parts, by weight, of methyl violet. This compound is almost as strong as the pure violet solution, and instead of 8,000 parts, by weight, we now have 30,000 parts, by weight, of color.

The color is applied and well worked in with a stiff brush, and the skins allowed to stand for a short time, sufficient to allow the dye to penetrate the pores, when it is fulled. As for the shade of the bronze, it may be made reddish, bluish, or brownish, according to taste.

For a reddish or brownish ground the skins are simply fulled in warm water, planished, fulled again, and then dyed. According to the color desired, the skins are treated with cotton blue and methyl violet R, whereupon the application of the bronze follows.

The bronze is dissolved in alcohol, and it is usual to take 200 parts, by weight, of bronze to 1,000 of alcohol. By means of this mixture the peculiar component parts of the bronze are dissolved. For a fundamental or thorough {448} solution a fortnight is required. All bronze mixtures are to be well shaken or agitated before using. Skins may be bronzed, however, without the use of the bronze colors, for it is well known that all the aniline dyes present a bronze appearance when highly concentrated, and this is particularly the case with the violet and red dyes. If, therefore, the violet be applied in very strong solutions, the effect will be much the same as when the regular bronze color is employed.

Bronze color on a brown ground is the most beautiful of all, and is used to the greatest advantage when it is desirable to cover up defects. Instead of warm clear water in such a case, use a decoction of logwood to which a small quantity of alum has been added, and thus, during the fulling, impart to the skins a proper basic tint, which may, by the application of a little violet or bronze color, be converted into a most brilliant bronze. By no means is it to be forgotten that too much coloring matter will never produce the desired results, for here, as with the other colors, too much will bring out a greenish tint, nor will the gloss turn out so beautiful and clear. Next rinse the skins well in clean water, and air them, after which they may be dried with artificial heat. Ordinary as well as damaged skins which are not suitable for chevreaux (kid) and which it is desirable to provide with a very high polish, in order the more readily to conceal the defects in the grain, and other imperfections, are, after the drying, coated with a mixture, compounded according to the following simple formula: Stir well 1 pint of ox blood and 1 pint of unboiled milk in 10 quarts of water, and with a soft sponge apply this to the surface of the skin. The blood has no damaging effect upon the color. Skins thus moistened must not be laid one upon another, but must be placed separately in a thoroughly well-warmed chamber to dry. When dry they are glossed, and may then be pressed into shagreen or pebbled. The thin light goatskins are worked into kid or chevreaux. Properly speaking, they are only imitation chevreaux (kid), for although they are truly goatskins, under the term chevreaux one understands only such skins as have been cured in alum and treated with albumen and flour.

After drying, these skins are drawn over the perching stick with the round knife, then glossed, stretched, glossed again, and finally vigorously brushed upon the flesh side with a stiff brush. The brushing should be done preferably by hand, for the brushing machines commonly pull the skins out of all shape. Brushing is intended only to give the flesh side more of a flaky appearance.

During the second glossing care must be taken that the pressure is light, for the object is merely to bring the skin back into its proper shape, lost in the stretching; the glossing proper should have been accomplished during the first operation.

Cracked Leather.

—The badly cracked and fissured carriage surface greets the painter on every hand. The following is the recipe for filling up and facing over such a surface: Finest pumice stone, 6 parts; lampblack (in bulk), 1 part; common roughstuff filler, 3 parts. Mix to stiff paste in good coach japan, 5 parts; hard drying rubbing varnish, 1 part. Thin to a brushing consistency with turpentine, and apply 1 coat per day. Put on 2 coats of this filler and then 2 coats of ordinary roughstuff. Rub with lump pumice stone and water. This process does not equal burning off in getting permanently rid of the cracks, but when the price of painting forbids burning off, it serves as an effective substitute. Upon a job that is well cared for, and not subjected to too exacting service, this filler will secrete the cracks and fissures for from 3 to 5 months.

Dressings For Leather:

For Carriage Tops.

—I.—Here is an inexpensive and quickly prepared dressing for carriage tops or the like: Take 2 parts of common glue; soak and liquefy it over a fire. Three parts of castile soap are then dissolved over a moderate heat. Of water, 120 parts are added to dissolve the soap and glue, after which an intimate mixture of the ingredients is effected. Then 4 parts of spirit varnish are added; next, 2 parts of wheat starch, previously mixed in water, are thrown in. Lampblack in a sufficient quantity to give the mixture a good coloring power, without killing the gloss, is now added. This preparation may be used as above prepared, or it may be placed over a gentle fire and the liquid ingredients slowly evaporated. The evaporated mass is then liquefied with beer as shop needs demand.

II.—Shabby dark leather will look like new if rubbed over with either linseed oil or the well-beaten white of an egg mixed with a little black ink. Polish with soft dusters until quite dry and glossy.

Polishes.

—I.—Dissolve sticklac, 25 {449} parts; shellac, 20 parts; and gum benzoin, 4 parts, all finely powdered, in a rolling cask containing 100 parts of 96 per cent alcohol; perfume with 1 part of oil of rosemary. Upon letting stand for several days, filter the solution, whereupon a good glossy polish for leather, etc., will be obtained.

II.—Dissolve 2 pounds of borax in 4 gallons of water and add 5 pounds of shellac to the boiling liquid in portions, till all is dissolved. Then boil half an hour, and finally stir in 5 pounds of sugar, 2 / 2 pounds of glycerine, and 1 / 2 pounds of soluble nigrosin. When cold add 4 pounds of 95 per cent methylated spirit.

III.— Ox blood, fresh, clean 1,000 parts

Commercial glycerine 200 parts

Oil of turpentine 300 parts

Pine oil (rosin oil) 5,000 parts

Ox gall 200 parts

Formalin 15 parts

Mix in the order named, stirring in each ingredient. When mixed strain through linen.

Kid Leather Dressings.

—Creams for greasing fine varieties of leather, such as kid, patent leather, etc., are produced as follows, according to tried recipes:

White Cream.—

Lard 75 parts

Glycerine, technical 25 parts

Mirbane oil, ad libitum.

Black Cream.—

Lard 100 parts

Yellow vaseline 20 parts

Glycerine, technical 10 parts

Castor oil, technical 10 parts

Dye black with lampblack and perfume with oil of mirbane.

Colored Cream.—

Lard 100 parts

Castor oil 20 parts

Yellow wax 25 parts

White vaseline 30 parts

Dye with any desired dyestuff, e. g., red with anchusine, green with chlorophyl. In summer it is well to add some wax to the first and second prescriptions.

These are for either Morocco or kid:

I.— Shellac 2 parts

Benzoin 2 parts

Yellow wax 5 parts

Soap liniment 7 parts

Alcohol 600 parts

Digest until solution is effected, then allow the liquid to stand in a cool place for 12 hours and strain. Apply with a bit of sponge or soft rag; spread thinly and evenly over the surface, without rubbing much. If dirty, the leather should first be washed with a little soft soap and warm water, wiped well, and allowed to dry thoroughly before the dressing is put on.

II.— Oil of turpentine 8 ounces

Suet 2 pounds

Soft soap 8 ounces

Water 16 ounces

Lampblack 4 ounces

Patent Leather Dressings.—

I.— Wax 22 parts

Olive oil 60 parts

Oil turpentine, best 20 parts

Lavender oil 10 parts

With gentle heat, melt the wax in the oil, and as soon as melted remove from the fire. Add the turpentine oil, incorporate, and when nearly cold, add and incorporate the lavender oil.

II.— Wax 22 parts

Olive oil 60 parts

Oil of turpentine 30 parts

With gentle heat, melt the wax in the olive oil, and as soon as melted remove from the fire. When nearly cold stir in the turpentine.

Red Russia Leather Varnish.—

Shellac 1.20 parts

Dammar rosin, powdered 0.15 parts

Turpentine, Venice 0.60 parts

Dissolve with frequent shaking in 12 parts of alcohol (95 per cent), add 1.8 parts of powdered red sanders wood, let stand for 3 days and filter. The object of this varnish is to restore the original color to worn Russia leather boots, previously cleaned with benzine.

Russet Leather Dressing.

—The following formulas are said to yield efficient preparations that are at once detersive and polishing, thus rendering the use of an extra cleaning liquid unnecessary.

I.— Soft soap 2 parts

Linseed oil 3 parts

Annatto solution (in oil) 8 parts

Beeswax 3 parts

Turpentine 8 parts

Water 8 parts

Dissolve the soap in the water, and add the annatto; melt the wax in the oil and turpentine, and gradually stir in the soap solution, stirring until cold. {450}

II.— Palm oil 16 parts

Common soap 48 parts

Oleic acid 32 parts

Glycerine 10 parts

Tannic acid 1 part

Melt the soap and palm oil together at a gentle heat, and add the oleic acid; dissolve the tannic acid in the glycerine, add to the hot soap and oil mixture, and stir until perfectly cold.

Shoe Leather Dressing.

—Over a water bath melt 50 parts, by weight, of oil of turpentine; 100 parts, by weight, of olive oil; 100 parts, by weight, of train oil; 40 parts, by weight, of carnauba wax; 15 parts, by weight, of asphaltum; and 2 parts, by weight, of oil of bitter almonds.

Dyeing Leather.

In dyeing leather, aniline or coal-tar colors are generally used. These dyes, owing to their extremely rapid action on organic substances, such as leather, do not readily adapt themselves to the staining process, because a full brushful of dye liquor would give a much deeper coloration than a half-exhausted brush would give. Consequently, to alter and to color leather by the staining process results in a patchy coloration of the skin. In the dyeing operation a zinc shallow trough, 4 to 6 inches deep, is used, into which the dye liquor is put, and to produce the best results the contents of the trough are kept at a uniform temperature by means of a heating apparatus beneath the trough, such as a gas jet or two, which readily allows of a heat being regulated. The skins to be dyed are spread out flat in the dye trough, one at a time, each skin remaining in the dye liquor the time prescribed by the recipe. The best coloration of the skin is produced by using 3 dye troughs of the same dye liquor, each of different strength, the skin being put in the weakest liquor first, then passed into the second, and from there into the third dye liquor, where it is allowed to remain until its full depth of color is obtained. Very great skill is required in the employment of aniline dyes, as if the heat be too great, or the skins remain too long in the final bath, “bronzing” of the color occurs. The only remedy for this (and that not always effectual) is to sponge the skin with plenty of cold, clean water, directly it is taken out of the final dye bath. The dyed skins are dried and finished as before.

Leather Brown.—

Extract of fustic 5 ounces

Extract of hypernic 1 ounce

Extract of logwood / 2 ounce

Water 2 gallons

Boil all these ingredients for 15 minutes, and then dilute with water to make 10 gallons of dye liquor. Use the dye liquor at a temperature of 110° F.

Mordant.—Dissolve 3 ounces of white tartar and 4 ounces of alum in 10 gallons of water.

Fast Brown.

—Prepare a dye liquor by dissolving 1 / 2 ounces fast brown in 1 gallon of water, and make a 10-gallon bulk of this. Use at a temperature of 110° F., and employ the same mordanting liquor as in last recipe.

Bismarck Brown.—

Extract of fustic 4 ounces

Extract of hypernic 1 ounce

Extract of logwood / 2 ounce

Water 2 gallons

Preparation.—Boil all together for 15 minutes.

Method of Dyeing.—First mordant the skins with a mordanting fluid made by dissolving 3 ounces tartar and / 2 ounce borax in 10 gallons of water. Then put the skins into the above foundation bath at a temperature of 100° F. Take them out, and then put in 1 ounce of Bismarck brown, dissolved in boiling water. Put the skins in again until colored deep enough, then lift out, drip and dry.

Harness Preparations:

Blacking For Harness.

—I.—In a water bath dissolve 90 parts of yellow wax in 900 parts of oil of turpentine; aside from this mix well together, all the ingredients being finely powdered, 10 parts of Prussian blue, 5 parts of indigo, 50 parts of bone black, and work this into a portion of the above-mentioned waxy solution. Now throw this into the original solution, which still remains in the water bath, and stir it vigorously until the mass becomes homogeneous, after which pour it into any convenient earthenware receptacle.

II.—Best glue, 4 ounces; good vinegar, 1 / 2 pints; best gum arabic, 2 ounces; good black ink, / 2 pint; best isinglass, 2 drachms. Dissolve the gum in the ink, and melt the isinglass in another vessel in as much hot water as will cover it. Having first steeped the glue in the vinegar until soft, dissolve it completely by the aid of heat, stirring to prevent burning. The heat should not exceed 180° F. Add the gum and ink, and allow the mixture to rise again to the same temperature. Lastly mix the solution in isinglass, and remove from fire. When {451} used, a small portion must be heated until fluid, and then applied with a sponge and allowed to dry on.

Dressings For Harness.—

I.— Ox blood, fresh and well purified 100 parts

Glycerine, technical 20 parts

Turpentine oil 30 parts

Pine oil 50 parts

Ox gall 20 parts

Formalin 1 / 2 parts

The raw materials are stirred together cold in the order named. Pour the mixture through thin linen. It imparts a wonderful mild, permanent gloss.

II.—A French harness dressing of good quality consists of oil of turpentine, 900 parts; yellow wax, 90 parts; Berlin blue, 10 parts; indigo, 5 parts; and bone black, 50 parts. Dissolve the yellow wax in the oil of turpentine with the aid of moderate heat in a water bath, mix the remaining substances, which should previously be well pulverized, and work them with a small portion of the wax solution. Finally, add the rest of the wax solution, and mix the whole well in the water bath. When a homogeneous liquid has resulted, pour it into earthen receptacles.

Harness Oils.—

I.— Neatsfoot oil 10 ounces

Oil of turpentine 2 ounces

Petrolatum 4 ounces

Lampblack / 2 ounce

Mix the lampblack with the turpentine and the neatsfoot oil, melt the petrolatum and mix by shaking together.

II.— Black aniline 35 grains

Muriatic acid 50 minims

Bone black 175 grains

Lampblack 18 grains

Yellow wax 2 / 2 av. ounces

Oil of turpentine 22 fluidounces

III.— Oil of turpentine 8 fluidounces

Yellow wax 2 av. ounces

Prussian blue / 2 av. ounce

Lampblack / 4 av. ounce

Melt the wax, add the turpentine, a portion first to the finely powdered Prussian blue and lampblack, and thin with neatsfoot oil.

Harness Pastes.—

I.— Ceresine, natural yellow 1.5 parts

Yellow beeswax 1.5 parts

Japan wax 1.5 parts

Melt on the water bath, and when half cooled stir in 8 parts of turpentine oil.

Harness Grease.—

By weight

II.— Ceresine, natural yellow 2.5 parts

Beeswax, yellow 0.8 parts

French colophony, pale 0.4 parts

III.— French oil turpentine 2.0 parts

Intimately mixed in the cold with American lampblack 1.5 parts

Put mixture I in a kettle and melt over a fire. Remove from the fire and stir in mixture II in small portions. Then pour through a fine sieve into a second vessel, and continue pouring from one kettle into the other until the mass is rather thickish. Next fill in cans.

Should the mixture have become too cold during the filling of the cans, the vessel containing the grease need only be placed in hot water, whereby the contents are rendered liquid again, so that pouring out is practicable. For perfuming, use cinnamon oil as required.

This harness grease is applied by means of a rag and brushed.

Waterproof Harness Composition.—

Patent And Enameled Leather.

Patent leather for boots and shoes is prepared from sealskins, enameled leather for harness from heavy bullock’s hides. The process of tanning is what is called “union tannage” (a mixture of oak and hemlock barks). These tanned skins are subjected to the process of soaking, unhairing, liming, etc., and are then subjected to the tanning process. When about one-third tanned a buffing is taken off (if the hides are heavy), and the hide is split into three layers. The top or grain side is reserved for enameling in fancy colors for use on tops of carriages; the middle layer is finished for splatter {452} boards and carriage trimmings, and some parts of harness; the underneath layer, or flesh side is used for shoe uppers and other purposes. The tanning of the splits is completed by subjecting them to a gambier liquor instead of a bark liquor.

When the splits are fully tanned they are laid on a table and scored, and then stretched in frames and dried, after which each one is covered on one side with the following compound, so as to close the pores of the leather that it may present a suitable surface for receiving the varnish: Into 14 parts of raw linseed oil put 1 part dry white lead and 1 part silver litharge, and boil, stirring constantly until the compound is thick enough to dry in 15 or 20 minutes (when spread on a sheet of iron or china) into a tough, elastic mass, like caoutchouc. This compound is laid on one side of the leather while it is still stretched in the frame. If for enameled leather (i. e., not the best patent), chalk or yellow ocher may be mixed in the above compound while boiling, or afterwards, but before spreading it on the leather.

The frames are then put into a rack in a drying closet, and the coated leather dried by steam heat at 80° to 160° F., the heat being raised gradually. After removal from the drying closet, the grounding coat previously laid on is pumiced, to smooth out the surface, and then given 2 or 3 coats of the enameling varnish, which consists of Prussian blue and lampblack boiled with linseed oil and diluted with turpentine, so as to enable it to flow evenly over the surface of the coated leather. When spread on with a brush, each coating of the enamel is dried before applying the next, and pumiced or rubbed with tripoli powder on a piece of flannel (the coat last laid on is not subjected to this rubbing), when the leather is ready for market.

To prepare the enameling composition, boil 1 part asphaltum with 20 parts raw linseed oil until thoroughly combined; then add 10 parts thick copal varnish, and when this mixture is homogeneous dilute with 20 parts spirit of turpentine.

Instead of the foregoing enameling varnish the following is used for superior articles:

Prussian blue 18 ounces

Vegetable black 4 ounces

Raw linseed oil 160 fluidounces

Boil together as previously directed, and dilute with turpentine as occasion requires. These enameling varnishes should be made and kept several weeks in the same room as the varnishing is carried on, so that they are always subjected to the same temperature.

Stains For Patent Leather:

Black Stain.—

Vinegar 1 gallon

Ivory black 14 ounces

Ground iron scales 6 pounds

Mix well and allow to stand a few days.

Red Stain.

—Water, 1 quart; spirit of hartshorn, 1 quart; cochineal, / 4 pound. Heat the water to near the boiling point, and then dissolve in it the cochineal, afterwards adding the spirit of hartshorn. Stir well to incorporate.

Liquid Cochineal Stain.—

Good French carmine 2 / 2 drachms

Solution of potash / 2 ounce

Rectified spirit of wine 2 ounces

Pure glycerine 4 ounces

Distilled water to make 1 pint.

To the carmine in a 20-ounce bottle add 14 ounces of distilled water. Then gradually introduce solution of potash, shaking now and again until dissolved. Add glycerine and spirit of wine, making up to 20 ounces with distilled water, and filter.

Blue Black.

—Ale droppings, 2 gallons; bruised galls, / 2 pound; logwood extract, / 4 pound; indigo extract, 2 ounces; sulphate of iron, 3 / 2 ounces. Heat together and strain.

Finishers’ Ink.

—Soft water, 1 gallon; logwood extract, 1 / 4 ounces; green vitriol, 2 / 2 ounces; potassium bichromate, / 2 ounce; gum arabic, / 2 ounce.

Grind the gum and potassium bichromate to powder and then add all the coloring ingredients to the water and boil.

To Restore Patent Leather Dash.

—Take raw linseed oil, 1 part; cider vinegar, 4 ounces; alcohol, 2 ounces; butter of antimony, 1 ounce; aqua ammonia, / 2 ounce; spirits of camphor, / 2 ounce; lavender, / 2 ounce. Shake well together; apply with a soft brush.

Preservatives For Leather.

I.— Mutton suet 50 parts

Sweet oil 50 parts

Turpentine 1 part

Melt together.

The application should be made on the dry leather warmed to the point where it will liquefy and absorb the fat.

II.—Equal parts of mutton fat and linseed oil, mixed with one-tenth their {453} weight of Venice turpentine, and melted together in an earthen pipkin, will produce a “dubbin” which is very efficacious in preserving leather when exposed to wet or snow, etc. The mixture should be applied when the leather is quite dry and warm.

III.—A solution of 1 ounce of solid paraffine in 1 pint light naphtha, to which 6 drops of sweet oil have been added, is put cold on the soles, until they will absorb no more. One dressing will do for the uppers. This process is claimed to vastly increase the tensile strength.

Patent Leather Preserver.—

Carnauba wax 1.0 part

Turpentine oil 9.5 parts

Aniline black, soluble in fat 0.06 parts

Melt the wax, stir in the turpentine oil and the dye and scent with a little mirbane oil or lavender oil. The paste is rubbed out on the patent leather by means of a soft rag, and when dry should be polished with a soft brush.

Revivers And Regenerators.

By weight.

I.— Methylic alcohol 22 / 2 parts

Ground ruby shellac 2.250 parts

Dark rosin 0.910 parts

Gum rosin 0.115 parts

Sandarac 0.115 parts

Lampblack 0.115 parts

Aniline black, spirit-soluble 0.115 parts

The gums are dissolved in spirit and next the aniline black soluble in spirit is added; the lampblack is ground with a little liquid to a paste, which is added to the whole, and filtering follows.

Kid Reviver.—

By weight.

II.— Clear chloride of lime solution 3.5 parts

Spirit of sal ammoniac 0.5 parts

Scraped Marseilles soap 4.5 parts

Water 6.0 parts

Mix chloride of lime solution and spirit of sal ammoniac and stir in the soap dissolved in water. Revive the gloves with the pulpy mass obtained, by means of a flannel rag.

Tanning Leather.

Pickling Process.

—Eitner and Stiazny have made a systematic series of experiments with mixtures of salt and various acids for pickling skins preparatory to tanning. Experiments with hydrochloric acid, acetic and lactic acids showed that these offered no advantages over sulphuric acid for use in pickling, the pickled pelts and the leather produced from them being similar in appearance and quality. By varying the concentration of the pickle liquors, it was found that the amount of salt absorbed by the pelt from the pickle liquor was controlled by the concentration of the solution, 23 to 25 per cent of the total amount used being taken up by the pelt, and that the absorption capacity of the pelt for acid was limited.

The goods pickled with the largest amount of acid possessed a more leathery feel and after drying were fuller and stretched much better than those in which smaller amounts of acids were employed. Dried, pickled pieces, containing as much as 3 per cent of sulphuric acid, showed no deterioration or tendering of fiber. The pickled skins after chrome tanning still retained these characteristics. An analysis of the leather produced by tanning with sumac showed that no free acid was retained in the finished leather. An Australian pickled pelt was found to contain 19.2 per cent of salt and 2.8 per cent of sulphuric acid.

From a very large number of experiments the following conclusions were drawn: 1. That sulphuric acid is quite equal in efficiency to other acids for the purpose. 2. To a certain limit increasing softness is produced by increasing the quantity of acid used. 3. For naturally soft skins and when a leather not very soft is required the best results are obtained by using 22 pounds of salt, 2.2 pounds of sulphuric acid, and 25 gallons of water for 110 pounds of pelt in the drum. 4. For material which is naturally hard and when a soft leather is required, the amount of acid should be increased to 4.4 pounds, using similar amounts as those given above of pelt, salt, and water.

French Hide Tanning Process.

—I.—The prepared pelts are submitted to a 3 to 4 hours’ immersion in a solution of rosin soap, containing 5 to 10 per cent of caustic soda. The goods are afterwards placed in a 6 to 12 per cent solution of a salt of chromium, iron, copper, or aluminum (preferably aluminum sulphate) for 3 to 4 hours.

II.—The hides are soaked in a solution of sodium carbonate of 10° Bé. for 3 to 6 hours. After washing with water they are allowed to remain for 5 hours in {454} a bath of caustic soda, the strength of which may vary from 2° to 30° Bé. From this they are transferred to a bath of hydrochloric acid (1° to 5° Bé.) in which they remain for 2 hours. Finally the hides are washed and the beam-work finished in the usual way. The tannage consists of a special bath of sodium or ammonium sulphoricinoleate (2 to 30 per cent) and sumac extract, or similar tanning material (2 to 50 per cent). The strength of this bath is gradually raised from 4° to 30° or 40° Bé.

Tanning Hides For Robes.

—The hides should be very thoroughly soaked in order to soften them completely. For dry hides this will require a longer time than for salted. A heavy hide requires longer soaking than a skin. Thus it is impossible to fix a certain length of time. After soaking, the hide is fleshed clean, and is now ready to go into the tan liquor, which is made up as follows: One part alum; 1 part salt; / 4 to / 2 part japonica. These are dissolved in hot water in sufficient quantity to make a 35° liquor. The hide, according to the thickness, is left in the tan from 5 to 10 days. Skins are finished in about 2 or 3 days. The hide should be run in a drum for about 2 hours before going into tan, and again after that process. In tanning hides for robes, shaving them down is a main requisite for success, as it is impossible to get soft leather otherwise. After shaving put back into the tan liquor again for a day or two and hang up to dry. When good and hard, shave again and lay away in moist sawdust and give a heavy coat of oil. When dry, apply a solution of soft soap; roll up and lay away in moist sawdust again. Run the hides on a drum or wheel until thoroughly soft. The composition of the tan liquor may be changed considerably. If the brownish tinge of the japonica be objectionable, that article may be left out entirely. The japonica has the effect of making the robe more able to resist water, as the alum and salt alone are readily soaked out by rain.

Lace Leather.

—Take cow hides averaging from 25 to 30 pounds each; 35 hides will make a convenient soak for a vat containing 1,000 gallons of water, or 25 hides to a soak of 700 gallons. Soak 2 days or more, as required. Change water every 24 hours. Split and flesh; resoak if necessary. When thoroughly soft put in limes. Handle and strengthen once a day, for 5 or 6 days. Unhair and wash. Bathe in hen manure, 90° F. Work out of drench, wash well, drain 4 of 5 hours. Then process, using 45 pounds vitriol and 600 pounds of soft water to 700 gallons of water. In renewing process for second or consecutive packs, use 15 pounds vitriol and 200 pounds salt, always keeping stock constantly in motion during time of processing. After processing, drain over night, then put in tan in agitated liquors, keeping the stock in motion during the whole time of tanning. Pack down overnight. Use 200 pounds dry leather to each mill in stuffing.

For stuffing, use 3 gallons curriers’ hard grease and 3 gallons American cod oil. Strike out from mill, on flesh. Set out on grain. Dry slowly. Trim and board, length and cross. The stock is then ready to cut. The time for soaking the hides may be reduced one-half by putting the stock into a rapidly revolving reel pit, with a good inflow of water, so that the dirty water washes over and runs off. After 10 hours in the soak, put the stock into a drum, and keep it tumbling 5 hours. This produces soft stock.

In liming, where the saving of the hair is no object, softer leather is obtainable by using 35 pounds sulphide of sodium with 60 pounds lime. Then, when the stock comes from the limes, the hair is dissolved and immediately washes off, and saves the labor of unhairing and caring for the hair, which in some cases does not pay.

Miscellaneous Recipes:

Russian Leather.

—This leather owes its name to the country of its origin. The skins used for its production are goat, large sheep, calfskin, and cow or steer hide. The preliminary operations of soaking, unhairing, and fleshing are done in the usual manner, and then the hides are permitted to swell in a mixture of rye flour, oat flour, yeast, and salt. This compound is made into a paste with water, and is then thinned with sufficient water to steep a hundred hides in the mixture. The proportions of ingredients used for this mixture are 22 pounds rye flour, 10 pounds oat flour, a little salt, and sufficient yeast to set up fermentation.

The hides are steeped in this compound for 2 days, until swelled up, and then put into a solution of willow and poplar barks, in which they are allowed to remain 8 days, being frequently turned about. The tanning process is then completed by putting them into a tanning liquor composed of pine and willow barks, equal parts. They are steeped 8 days in this liquor, and then a {455} fresh liquor of the same ingredients and proportions is made up. The hides are hardened and split, and then steeped in the freshly made liquor for another 8 days, when they are sufficiently tanned.

The hides are then cut down the middle (from head to tail) into sides, and scoured, rinsed, and dried by dripping, and then passed on to the currier, who slightly dampens the dry sides and puts them in a heap or folds them together for a couple of days to temper, and then impregnates them with a compound consisting of / 3 parts birch oil and / 3 parts seal oil. This is applied on the flesh side for light leather, and on the grain side also for heavy leather. The leather is then “set out,” “whitened,” and well boarded and dried before dyeing.

A decoction of sandalwood, alone or mixed with cochineal, is used for producing the Russian red color, and this dye liquor is applied several times, allowing each application to dry before applying the following one. A brush is used, and the dye liquor is spread on the grain side. A solution of tin chloride is used in Russia as a mordant for the leather before laying on the dye. The dye liquor is prepared by boiling 18 ounces of sandalwood in 13 pints of water for 1 hour, and then filtering the liquid and dissolving in the filtering fluid 1 ounce of prepared tartar and soda, which is then given an hour’s boiling and set aside for a few days before use.

After dyeing, the leather is again impregnated with the mixture of birch and seal oils (applied to the grain side on a piece of flannel) and when the dyed leather has dried, a thin smear of gum-dragon mucilage is given to the dyed side to protect the color from fading, while the flesh side is smeared with bark-tan juice and the dyed leather then grained for market.

Toughening Leather.

—Leather is toughened and also rendered impervious by impregnating with a solution of 1 part of caoutchouc or gutta-percha in 16 parts of benzene or other solvent, to which is added 10 parts of linseed oil. Wax and rosin may be added to thicken the solution.

Painting On Leather.

—When the leather is finished in the tanneries it is at the same time provided with the necessary greasy particles to give it the required pliancy and prevent it from cracking. It is claimed that some tanners strive to obtain a greater weight thereby, thus increasing their profit, since a pound of fat is only one-eighth as dear as a pound of leather.

If such leather, so called kips, which are much used for carriage covers and knee caps, is to be prepared for painting purposes, it is above all necessary to close up the pores of the leather, so that the said fat particles cannot strike through. They would combine with the applied paint and prevent the latter from drying, as the grease consists mainly of fish oil. For this reason an elastic spirit leather varnish is employed, which protects the succeeding paint coat sufficiently from the fat.

For further treatment take a good coach varnish to which / 4 of stand oil (linseed oil which has thickened by standing) has been added and allow the mixture to stand for a few days. With this varnish grind the desired colors, thinning them only with turpentine oil. Put on 2 coats. In this manner the most delicate colors may be applied to the leather, only it is needful to put on pale and delicate shades several times. In some countries the legs or tops of boots are painted yellow, red, green, or blue in this manner. Inferior leather, such as sheepskin and goat leather, which is treated with alum by the tanner, may likewise be provided with color in the manner stated. Subsequently it can be painted, gilded, or bronzed.

Stains For Oak Leather.

—I.—Apply an intimate mixture of 4 ounces of umber (burnt or raw); / 2 ounce of lampblack, and 17 fluidounces ox gall.

II.—The moistened leather is primed with a solution of 1 part, by weight, of copper acetate in 50 parts of water, slicked out and then painted with solution of yellow prussiate potash in feebly acid water.

LEATHER AS AN INSULATOR: See Insulation.

LEATHER CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Cements.

LEATHER-CLEANING PROCESSES: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

LEATHER, GLUES FOR: See Adhesives.

LEATHER LAC: See Lacquers.

LEATHER LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants. {456}

LEATHER VARNISH: See Varnish.

LEATHER WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.

Lemons:

See also Essences, Extracts, and Fruits.

Preservation Of Fresh Lemon Juice.

—The fresh juice is cleared by gently heating it with a little egg albumen, without stirring the mixture. This causes all solid matter to sink with the coagulated white, or to make its way to the surface. The juice is then filtered through a woolen cloth and put into bottles, filled as full as possible, and closed with a cork stopper, in such a way that the cork may be directly in contact with the liquid. Seal at once and keep in a cool place. The bottles should be asepticized with boiling water just before using.

LEMON EXTRACT (ADULTERATED), TESTS FOR: See Foods.

LEMON SHERBET POWDER: See Salts, Effervescent.

LEMONADES, LEMONADE POWDERS, AND LEMONADE DROPS: See Beverages.

LEMONADE POWDER: See Salts, Effervescent.

Lenses and Their Care:

Unclean Lenses

(see also Cleaning Preparations and Methods).—If in either objective or eyepiece the lenses are not clean, the definition may be seriously impaired or destroyed. Uncleanliness may be due to finger marks upon the front lens of the objective, or upon the eyepiece lenses; dust which in time may settle upon the rear lens of the objective or on the eye lens; a film which forms upon one or the other lens, due occasionally to the fact that glass is hygroscopic, but generally to the exhalation from the interior finish of the mountings, and, in immersion objectives, because the front lens is not properly cleaned; or oil that has leaked on to its rear surface, or air bubbles that have formed in the oil between the cover glass and front lens.

Remedy.—Keep all lenses scrupulously clean. For cleaning, use well-washed linen (an old handkerchief) or Japanese lens paper.

Eyepieces.—To find impurities, revolve the eyepieces during the observation; breathe upon the lenses, and wipe gently with a circular motion and blow off any particles which may adhere.

Dry Objectives.—Clean the front lens as described. To examine the rear and interior lenses use a 2-inch magnifier, looking through the rear. Remove the dust from the rear lens with a camel’s-hair brush.

Oil Immersion Objectives.—Invariably clean the front lens after use with moistened linen or paper, and wipe dry.

In applying oil examine the front of the objective with a magnifier, and if there are any air bubbles, remove them with a pointed quill, or remove the oil entirely and apply a fresh quantity.

LETTERS, TO REMOVE FROM CHINA: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, under Miscellaneous Methods.

LETTER-HEAD SENSITIZERS: See Photography, under Paper-Sensitizing Processes.

Lettering

CEMENTS FOR ATTACHING LETTERS ON GLASS: See Adhesives, under Sign-Letter Cements.

Gold Lettering.

—This is usually done by first drawing the lettering, then covering with an adhesive mixture, such as size, and finally applying gold bronze powder or real gold leaf. A good method for amateurs to follow in marking letters on glass is to apply first a coat of whiting, mixed simply with water, and then to mark out the letters on this surface, using a pointed stick or the like. After this has been done the letters may easily be painted or gilded on the reverse side of the glass. When done, wash off the whiting from the other side, and the work is complete.

Bronze Lettering.

—The following is the best method for card work: Write with asphaltum thinned with turpentine until it flows easily, and, when nearly dry, dust bronze powder over the letters. When the letters are perfectly dry tap the card to take off the extra bronze, and it will leave the letters clean and sharp. The letters should be made with a camel’s-hair brush and not with the automatic pen, as oil paints do not work satisfactorily with these pens.

For bronzed letters made with the pen, use black letterine or any water color. {457} If a water color is used add considerable gum arabic. Each letter should be bronzed as it is made, as the water color dries much more quickly than the asphaltum.

Another method is to mix the bronze powder with bronze sizing to about the consistency of the asphaltum. Make the letter with a camel’s-hair brush, using the bronze paint as one would any oil paint.

This method requires much skill, as the gold paint spreads quickly and is apt to flood over the edge of the letter. For use on oilcloth this is the most practical method.

Bronzes may be purchased at any hardware store. They are made in copper, red, green, silver, gold, and copper shades.

Lettering On Glass.

—White lettering on glass and mirrors produces a rich effect. Dry zinc, chemically pure, should be used. It can be obtained in any first-class paint store and is inexpensive. To every teaspoonful of zinc, 10 drops of mucilage should be added. The two should be worked up into a thick paste, water being gradually added until the mixture is about the consistency of thick cream. The paint should then be applied with a camel’s-hair brush.

Another useful paint for this purpose is Chemnitz white. If this distemper color is obtained in a jar, care should be exercised to keep water standing above the color to prevent drying. By using mucilage as a sizing these colors will adhere to the glass until it is washed off. Both mixtures are equally desirable for lettering on block card-board.

Any distemper color may be employed on glass without in any way injuring it. An attractive combination is—first to letter the sign with Turkey red, and then to outline the letters with a very narrow white stripe. The letter can be rendered still more attractive by shading one side in black.

Signs On Show Cases.

—Most show cases have mirrors at the back, either in the form of sliding panels or spring doors. Lettering in distemper colors on these mirrors can easily be read through the fronts or tops of cases. If the mirror is on a sliding panel, it will be necessary to detach it from the case in order to letter it. When the mirror is on a spring door the sign can be lettered with less trouble.

By tracing letters in chalk on the outside of the glass, and then painting them on the inside, attractive signs can be produced on all show cases; but painting letters on the inside of a show case glass is more or less difficult, and it is not advisable to attempt it in very shallow cases.

“Spatter” Work.

—Some lettering which appears very difficult to the uninitiated is, in fact, easily produced. The beautiful effect of lettering and ornamentation in the form of foliage or conventional scrolls in a speckled ground is simple and can be produced with little effort. Pressed leaves and letters or designs cut from newspapers or magazines may be tacked or pasted on cardboard or a mat with flour paste. As little paste as possible should be used—only enough to hold the design in place. When all the designs are in the positions desired, a toothbrush should be dipped in the ink or paint to be employed. A toothpick or other small piece of wood is drawn to and fro over the bristles, which are held toward the sign, the entire surface of which should be spattered or sprinkled with the color. When the color is dry the designs pasted on should be carefully removed and the paste which held them in place should be scraped off. This leaves the letters and other designs clean cut and white against the “spatter” background. The beginner should experiment first with a few simple designs. After he is able to produce attractive work with a few figures or letters he may confidently undertake more elaborate combinations.

Lettering On Mirrors.

—From a bar of fresh common brown soap cut off a one-inch-wide strip across its end. Cut this into 2 or 3 strips. Take one strip and with a table-knife cut from two opposite sides a wedge-shaped point resembling that of a shading pen, but allow the edge to be fully / 8 inch thick. Clean the mirror thoroughly and proceed to letter in exactly the same manner as with a shading pen.

To Fill Engraved Letters On Metal Signs.

—Letters engraved on metal may be filled in with a mixture of asphaltum, brown japan, and lampblack, the mixture being so made as to be a putty-like mass. It should be well pressed down with a spatula. Any of the mass adhering to the plate about the edges of the letters is removed with turpentine, and when the cement is thoroughly dried the plate may be polished.

If white letters are desired, make a putty of dry white lead, with equal parts of coach japan and rubbing varnish. Fill the letters nearly level with the {458} surface, and when hard, apply a stout coat of flake white in japan thinned with turpentine. This will give a clean white finish that may be polished.

The white cement may be tinted to any desired shade, using coach colors ground in japan.

Tinseled Letters, Or Chinese Painting On Glass.

—This is done by painting the groundwork with any color, leaving the letter or figure naked. When dry, place tin foil or any of the various colored copper foils over the letters on the back of the glass, after crumpling them in the hand, and then partially straightening them out.

LICE KILLERS: See Insecticides.

LICHEN REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, under Miscellaneous Methods and Household Formulas.

Licorice:

Stable Solutions Of Licorice Juice.

—A percolator, with alternate layers of broken glass, which have been well washed, first with hydrochloric acid and plentifully rinsed with distilled water, is the first requisite. This is charged with pieces of crude licorice juice, from the size of a hazel nut to that of a walnut, which are weighted down with well-washed pebbles. The percolate is kept for 3 days in well corked flasks which have been rinsed out with alcohol beforehand. Decant and filter and evaporate down rapidly, under constant stirring, or in vacuo. The extract should be kept in vessels first washed with alcohol and closed with parchment paper, in a dry place—never in the cellar.

To dissolve this extract, use water, first boiled for 15 minutes. The solution should be kept in small flasks, first rinsed with alcohol and well corked. If to be kept for a long time, the flasks should be subjected for 3 consecutive days, a half hour each day, to a stream of steam, and the corks paraffined.

There is frequently met with in commerce a purified juice that remains clear in the mixtura solvens. It is usually obtained by supersaturation with pure ammonia, allowing to stand for 3 days, decanting, filtering the decanted liquor, and quick evaporation. Since solutions with water alone rapidly spoil, it is well to observe with them the precautions common for narcotic extracts.

To Test Extract Of Licorice.

—Mere solubility is no test for the purity of extract of licorice. It is, therefore, proposed to make the glycyrrhizin content and the nature of the ash the determining test. To determine the glycyrrhizin quantitatively proceed as follows: Macerate / 10 ounce of the extract, in coarse powder, in 10 fluidounces distilled water for several hours, with more or less frequent agitation. When solution is complete, add 10 fluidounces alcohol of 90 per cent, filter and wash the filter with alcohol of 40 per cent until the latter comes off colorless. Drive off the alcohol, which was added merely to facilitate filtration, by evaporation in the water bath; let the residue cool down and precipitate the glycyrrhizin by addition of sulphuric acid. Filter the liquid and wash the precipitate on the filter with distilled water until the wash water comes off neutral. Dissolve the glycyrrhizin from the filter by the addition of ammonia water, drop by drop, collecting the filtered solution in a tared capsule. Evaporate in the water bath, dry the residual glycyrrhizin at 212° F., and weigh. Repeated examinations of known pure extracts have yielded a range of percentage of glycyrrhizin running from 8.06 per cent to 11.90 per cent. The ash should be acid in reaction and a total percentage of from 5.64 to 8.64 of the extract.

LIGHT, INACTINIC: See Photography.

LIGNALOE SOAP: See Soap.

LIMEADE: See Beverages, under Lemonades.

LIME AS A FERTILIZER: See Fertilizers.

Lime, Bird.

Bird lime is a thick, soft, tough, and sticky mass of a greenish color, has an unpleasant smell and bitter taste, melts easily on heating, and hardens when exposed in thin layers to the air. It is difficult to dissolve in alcohol, but easily soluble in hot alcohol, oil of turpentine, fat oils, and also somewhat in vinegar. The best quality is prepared from the inner green bark of the holly (Ilex aquifolium), which is boiled, then put in barrels, and submitted for 14 days to slight fermentation until it becomes sticky. Another process of preparing it is to mix the boiled bark with juice of mistletoe berries and burying it in the ground until {459} fermented. The bark is then pulverized, boiled, and washed. Artificial bird lime is prepared by boiling and then igniting linseed oil, or boiling printing varnish until it is very tough and sticky. It is also prepared by dissolving cabinetmakers’ glue in water and adding a concentrated solution of chloride of zinc. The mixture is very sticky, does not dry on exposure to the air, and has the advantage that it can be easily washed off the feathers of the birds.

LIME JUICE: See Essences and Extracts.

LIME-JUICE CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

LIME WAFERS: See Confectionery.

LINEN, TO DISTINGUISH COTTON FROM: See Cotton.

LINEN DRESSING: See Laundry Preparations.

Liniments:

For External Use Only.

—I.—The following penetrating oily liniment reduces all kinds of inflammatory processes:

Paraffine oil 4 ounces

Capsicum powder / 2 ounce

Digest on a sand bath and filter. To this may be added directly the following: Oil of wintergreen or peppermint, phenol, thymol, camphor or eucalyptol, etc.

II.— Camphor 2 ounces

Menthol 1 ounce

Oil of thyme 1 ounce

Oil of sassafras 1 ounce

Tincture of myrrh 1 ounce

Tincture of capsicum 1 ounce

Chloroform 1 ounce

Alcohol 2 pints

LINIMENTS FOR HORSES: See Veterinary Formulas.

Linoleum:

Composition For Linoleum, Oilcloth, Etc.

—This is composed of whiting, dried linseed oil, and any ordinary dryer, such as litharge, to which ingredients a proportion of gum tragacanth is to be added, replacing a part of the oil and serving to impart flexibility to the fabric, and to the composition a pasty mass the property of drying more rapidly. In the production of linoleum, the whiting is replaced in whole or in part by pulverized cork. The proportions are approximately the following by weight: Whiting or powdered cork, 13 parts; gum tragacanth, 5 parts; dried linseed oil, 5 / 2 parts; siccative, / 2 part.

Dressings For Linoleum.

—A weak solution of beeswax in spirits of turpentine has been recommended for brightening the appearance of linoleum. Here are some other formulas:

I.— Palm oil 1 ounce

Paraffine 18 ounces

Kerosene 4 ounces

Melt the paraffine and oil, remove from the fire and incorporate the kerosene.

II.— Yellow wax 5 ounces

Oil turpentine 11 ounces

Amber varnish 5 ounces

Melt the wax, add the oil, and then the varnish. Apply with a rag.

Treatment Of Newly Laid Linoleum.

—The proper way to cleanse a linoleum flooring is first to sweep off the dust and then wipe up with a damp cloth. Several times a year the surface should be well rubbed with floor wax. Care must be had that the mass is well pulverized and free from grit. Granite linoleum and figured coverings are cleansed without the application of water. A floor covering which has been treated from the beginning with floor wax need only be wiped off daily with a dry cloth, either woolen or felt, and afterwards rubbed well with a cloth filled with the mass. It will improve its appearance, too, if it be washed several times a year with warm water and a neutral soap.

LINOLEUM, CLEANING AND POLISHING: See Household Formulas.

LINOLEUM ON IRON STAIRS OR CEMENT FLOORS, TO GLUE: See Adhesives, under Glues.

Linseed Oil:

Bleaching Of Linseed Oil And Poppyseed Oil.

—In order to bleach linseed oil and poppyseed oil for painting purposes, thoroughly shake 2.5 parts of it in a glass vessel with a solution of potassium permanganate, 50 parts, in 1,250 parts of water; let stand for 24 hours in a warm temperature, and then mix with 75 parts of pulverized sodium sulphite. Now shake until the latter has dissolved and add 100 parts of crude hydrochloric acid, 20°. Agitate frequently and wash, after the previously brown mass has become light colored, with water, in which a little {460} chalk has been finely distributed, until the water is neutral. Finally filter over calcined Glauber’s salt.

Adulteration Of Linseed Oil.

—This is common, and a simple and cheap method of testing is by nitric acid. Pour equal parts of the linseed oil and nitric acid into a flask, shake vigorously, and let it stand for 20 minutes. If the oil is pure, the upper stratum is of straw yellow color and the lower one colorless. If impure, the former is dark brown or black, the latter pale orange or dark yellow, according to the admixtures to the oil.

The addition of rosin oil to linseed oil or other paint oils can be readily detected by the increase in specific gravity, the low flash point, and the odor of rosin on heating; while the amount may be approximately ascertained from the amount of unsaponifiable oil left after boiling with caustic soda.

LIP SALVES AND LIPOL: See Cosmetics.

LIPOWITZ METAL: See Alloys.

LIQUEURS: See Wines and Liquors.

LIQUOR AMMONII ANISATUS: See Ammonia.

LIQUORS: See Wines and Liquors.

LITHOGRAPHERS’ LACQUER: See Lacquers.

LITHOGRAPHS: See Pictures and Engravings.

LIVER-SPOT REMEDIES: See Cosmetics.

LOCKSMITH’S VARNISH: See Varnishes.

LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants.

LOCUST KILLER: See Insecticides.

LOUSE WASH: See Insecticides.

Lubricants

Oil For Firearms.

—Either pure vaseline oil, white, 0.870, or else pure white-bone oil, proof to cold, is employed for this purpose, since these two oils are not only free from acid, but do not oxidize or resinify.

Leather Lubricants.

—Russian tallow, 1 pound; beeswax, 6 ounces; black pitch, 4 ounces; common castor oil, 3 pounds; soft paraffine, / 2 pound; oil of citronella, / 2 ounce. Melt all together in a saucepan, except the citronella, which add on cooling. Stir occasionally.

Machinery Oils.

—I.—The solid fat, called bakourine, a heavy lubricant which possesses extraordinary lubricating qualities has a neutral reaction and melts only at about 176° to 188° F. It is prepared as follows:

A mixture is made of 100 parts of Bienne petroleum or crude naphtha, with 25 parts of castor oil or some mineral oil, and subjected to the action of 60 or 70 parts of sulphuric acid of 66° Bé. The acid is poured in a small stream into the oil, while carefully stirring. The agitation is continued until a thick and blackish-brown mass is obtained free from non-incorporated petroleum. Very cold water of 2 or 3 times the weight of the mass is then added, and the whole is stirred until the mass turns white and becomes homogeneous. It is left at rest for 24 hours, after which the watery liquid, on the surface of which the fat is floating, must be poured off. After resting again from 3 to 4 days, the product is drawn off, carefully neutralized with caustic potash, and placed in barrels ready for shipping.

II.—Melt in a kettle holding 2 to 4 times as much as the volume of the mass which is to be boiled therein, 10 parts, by weight, of tallow in 20 parts of rape oil on a moderate fire; add 10 parts of freshly and well burnt lime, slaked in 30 or 40 parts of water; increase the fire somewhat, and boil with constant stirring until a thick froth forms and the mass sticks to the bottom of the kettle. Burning should be prevented by diligent stirring. Then add in portions of 10 parts each, gradually, 70 parts of rape oil and boil with a moderate fire, until the little lumps gradually forming have united to a whole uniform mass. With this operation it is of importance to be able to regulate the fire quickly. Samples are now continually taken, which are allowed to cool quickly on glass plates. The boiling down must not be carried so far that the samples harden on cooling; they must spin long, fine threads, when touched with the finger. When this point is reached add, with constant stirring, when the heat has abated sufficiently (which may be tested by pouring in a few drops of water), 25 to 30 parts of water. Now raise the fire, without {461} ceasing to stir, until the mass comes to a feeble, uniform boil. In order to be able to act quickly in case of a sudden boiling over, the fire must be such that it can be removed quickly, and a little cold water must always be kept on hand. Next, gradually add in small portions, so as not to disturb the boiling of the mass, 500 parts of paraffine oil (if very thick, 800 to 900 parts may be added), remove from the fire, allow the contents of the kettle to clarify, and skim off the warm grease from the sediment into a stirring apparatus. Agitate until the mass begins to thicken and cool; if the grease should still be too solid, stir in a little paraffine oil the second time. The odor of the paraffine oil may be disguised by the admixture of a little mirbane oil.

For Cutting Tools.

—The proportion of ingredients of a lubricating mixture for cutting tools is 6 gallons of water, 3 / 2 pounds of soft soap, and / 2 gallon of clean refuse oil. Heat the water and mix with the soap, preferably in a mechanical mixer; afterwards add the oil. A cast-iron circular tank to hold 12 gallons, fitted with a tap at the bottom and having three revolving arms fitted to a vertical shaft driven by bevels and a fast and loose pulley, answers all requirements for a mixer. This should be kept running all through the working day.

For Highspeed Bearings.

—To prevent heating and sticking of bearings on heavy machine tools due to running continuously at high speeds, take about / 8 of flake graphite, and the remainder kerosene oil. As soon as the bearing shows the slightest indication of heating or sticking, this mixture should be forcibly squirted through the oil hole until it flows out between the shaft and bearing, when a small quantity of thin machine oil may be applied.

For Heavy Bearings.

—An excellent lubricant for heavy bearings can be made from either of the following recipes:

I.— Paraffine 6 pounds

Palm oil 12 pounds

Oleonaphtha 8 pounds

II.— Paraffine 8 pounds

Palm oil 20 pounds

Oleonaphtha 12 pounds

The oleonaphtha should have a density of 0.9. First dissolve the paraffine in the oleonaphtha at a temperature of about 158° F. Then gradually stir in the palm oil a little at a time. The proportions will show that No. II gives a less liquid product than No. I. Quicklime may be added if desired.

For Lathe Centers.

—An excellent lubricant for lathe centers is made by using 1 part graphite and 4 parts tallow thoroughly mixed.

Sewing Machine Oil.

—I.—Petroleum oils are better adapted for the lubrication of sewing machines than any of the animal oils. Sperm oil has for a long time been considered the standard oil for this purpose, but it is really not well adapted to the conditions to which a sewing machine is subjected. If the machine were operated constantly or regularly every day, probably sperm oil could not be improved on. The difficulty is, however, that a family sewing machine will frequently be allowed to stand untouched for weeks at a time and will then be expected to run as smoothly as though just oiled. Under this kind of treatment almost any oil other than petroleum oil will become gummy. What is known in the trade as a “neutral” oil, of high viscosity, would probably answer better for this purpose than anything else. A mixture of 1 part of petrolatum and 7 parts of paraffine oil has also been recommended.

II.— Pale oil of almonds 9 ounces

Rectified benzoline 3 ounces

Foreign oil of lavender 1 ounce

Petroleum Jellies And Solidified Lubricants.

Petroleum jelly, vaseline, and petrolatum are different names for the same thing.

The pure qualities are made from American stock thickened with hot air until the desired melting point is attained. Three colors are made: white, yellow, and black of various qualities. Cheaper qualities are made by using ceresine wax in conjunction with the genuine article and pale mineral oil. This is the German method and is approved of by their pharmacopœia. Machinery qualities are made with cylinder oils, pale mineral oils, and ceresine wax.

I.— Yellow ceresine wax 11 parts

White ceresine wax 6 parts

American mineral oil, / 907 151 parts

Melt the waxes and stir in the oil. To make white, use all white ceresine wax. To color, use aniline dyes soluble in oil to any shade required.

II.— Ceresine wax 1 pound

Bloomless mineral oil, Sq. 910 1 gallon

Melt the wax and add the oil, varying according to the consistency required. To color black, add 28 pounds lampblack to 20 gallons oil. Any wax will do, according to quality of product desired.

White Petroleum Jelly.—

White tasteless oil 4 parts

White ceresine wax 1 part

Solidified Lubricants.—

I.— Refined cotton oil 2 parts

American mineral oil, / 907 2 parts

Oleate of alumina 1 part

Gently heat together.

II.— Petroleum jelly 120 parts

Ceresine wax 5 parts

Slaked lime / 2 part

Water 4 / 2 parts

Heat the wax and the petroleum jelly gently until liquid; then mix together the water and lime. Decant the former into packing receptacles, and add lime and water, stirring until it sets. For cheaper qualities use cream cylinder oil instead of petroleum jelly.

Wagon And Axle Greases:

For Axles Of Heavy Vehicles.

—I.—Tallow (free from acid), 19 / 2 parts; palm oil, 14 parts; sal soda, 5 / 2 parts; water, 3 parts, by weight. Dissolve the soda in the water and separately melt the tallow, then stir in the palm oil. This may be gently warmed before adding, as it greatly facilitates its incorporation with the tallow, unless the latter be made boiling hot, when it readily melts the semi-solid palm oil. When these two greases are thoroughly incorporated, pour the mixture slowly into the cold lye (or soda solution), and stir well until the mass is homogeneous. This lubricant can be made less solid by decreasing the tallow or increasing the palm oil.

II.—Slaked lime (in powder), 8 parts, is slowly sifted into rosin oil, 10 parts. Stir it continuously to incorporate it thoroughly, and gently heat the mixture until of a syrupy consistency. Color with lampblack, or a solution of turmeric in a strong solution of sal soda. For blue grease, 275 parts of rosin oil are heated with 1 part of slaked lime and then allowed to cool. The supernatant oil is removed from the precipitated matter, and 5 or 6 parts of the foregoing rosin-oil soap are stirred in until all is a soft, unctuous mass.

For Axles Of Ordinary Vehicles.

—I.—Mix 80 parts of fat and 20 parts of very fine black lead; melt the fat in a varnished earthen vessel; add the black lead while constantly stirring until it is cold, for otherwise the black lead, on account of its density, would not remain in suspension in the melted fat. Axles lubricated with this mixture can make 80 miles without the necessity of renewing the grease.

II.—Mix equal parts of red American rosin, melted tallow, linseed oil, and caustic soda lye (of 1.5 density).

III.—Melt 20 parts of rosin oil in 50 parts of yellow palm oil, saponify this with 25 parts of caustic soda lye of 15° Bé., and add 25 parts of mineral oil or paraffine.

IV.—Mix residue of the distillation of petroleum, 60 to 80 parts; tallow, 10 parts; colophony, 10 parts; and caustic soda solution of 40° Bé., 15 parts.

A Grease For Locomotive Axles.

—Saponify a mixture of 50 parts tallow, 28 parts palm oil, 2 parts sperm oil. Mix in soda lye made by dissolving 12 parts of soda in 137 parts of water.

Miscellaneous Lubricants:

For Cotton Belts.

—Carefully melt over a slow fire in a closed iron or self-regulating boiler 250 parts of caoutchouc or gum elastic, cut up in small pieces; then add 200 parts of colophony; when the whole is well melted and mixed, incorporate, while carefully stirring, 200 parts of yellow wax. Then heat 850 parts of train oil, mixing with it 250 parts of talc, and unite the two preparations, constantly stirring, until completely cold.

Chloriding Mineral Lubricating Oils.

—A process has been introduced for producing industrial vaselines and mineral oils for lubrication, based on the treatment of naphthas, petroleums, and similar hydrocarbides, by means of chlorine or mixtures of chlorides and hypochlorides, known under the name of decoloring chlorides. Mix and stir thoroughly 1,000 parts of naphtha of about 908 density; 55 parts of chloride of lime, and 500 parts of water. Decant and wash.

Glass Stop Cock Lubricant.

—(See also Stoppers).

Pure rubber 14 parts

Spermaceti 5 parts

Petroleum 1 part

Melt the rubber in a covered vessel and then stir in the other ingredients. A little more petroleum will be required when the compound is for winter use. {463}

Hard Metal Drilling Lubricant.

—For drilling in hard metal it is recommended to use carbolic acid instead of another fatty substance as a lubricant, since the latter, by decreasing the friction, diminishes the “biting” of the drill, whereas the carbolic acid has an etching action.

Plaster Model Lubricant.

—Take linseed oil, 1,000 parts; calcined lead, 50 parts; litharge, 60 parts; umber, 30 parts; talc, 25 parts. Boil for 2 hours on a moderate fire; skim frequently and keep in well-closed flasks.

Graphite Lubricating Compound.

—Graphite mixed with tallow gives a good lubricating compound that is free from any oxidizing if the tallow be rendered free from rancidity. The proportions are: Plumbago, 1 part; tallow, 4 parts. The plumbago being stirred into the melted tallow and incorporated by passing it through a mixing mill, add a few pounds per hundredweight of camphor in powder to the hot compound.

Lubricants For Redrawing Shells.

—Zinc shells should be clean and free from all grit and should be immersed in boiling hot soap water. They must be redrawn while hot to get the best results. On some shells hot oil is used in preference to soap water.

For redrawing aluminum shells use a cheap grade of vaseline. It may not be amiss to add that the draw part of the redrawing die should not be made too long, so as to prevent too much friction, which causes the shells to split and shrivel up.

For redrawing copper shells use good thick soap water as a lubricant. The soap used should be of a kind that will produce plenty of “slip.” If none such is to be had, mix a quantity of lard oil with the soap water on hand and boil the two together. Sprinkling graphite over the shells just before redrawing sometimes helps out on a mean job.

Rope Grease.

—For hemp ropes, fuse together 20 pounds of tallow and 30 pounds of linseed oil. Then add 20 pounds of paraffine, 30 pounds of vaseline, and 60 pounds of rosin. Finally mix with 10 pounds of graphite, first rubbed up with 50 pounds of boiled oil. For wire ropes fuse 100 pounds of suint with 20 pounds of dark colophony (rosin). Then stir in 30 pounds of rosin oil and 10 pounds of dark petroleum.

Sheet Metal Lubricant.

—Mix 1 quart of whale oil, 1 pound of white lead, 1 pint of water, and 3 ounces of the finest graphite. This is applied to the metal with a brush before it enters the dies.

Steam Cylinder Lubricant.

—To obtain a very viscous oil that does not decompose in the presence of steam even at a high temperature, it is necessary to expose neutral wool fats, that have been freed from wool-fatty acids, such as crude lanolin or wool wax, either quite alone or in combination with mineral oils, to a high heat. This is best accomplished in the presence of ordinary steam or superheated steam at a heat of 572° F., and a pressure of 50 atmospheres, corresponding with the conditions in the cylinder in which it is to be used. Instead of separating any slight quantities of acid that may arise, they may be dissolved out as neutral salts.

Wooden Gears.

—An excellent lubricating agent for wooden gears consists of tallow, 30 parts (by weight); palm oil, 20 parts; fish oil, 10 parts; and graphite, 20 parts. The fats are melted at moderate heat, and the finely powdered and washed graphite mixed with them intimately by long-continued stirring. The teeth of wooden combs are kept in a perfectly serviceable condition for a much longer time if to the ordinary tallow or graphite grease one-tenth part of their weight of powdered glass is added.

Tests For Lubricants.

In testing lubricants in general, a great deal depends upon the class of work in which they are to be employed. In dealing with lubricating greases the specific gravity should always be determined. The viscosity is, of course, also a matter of the utmost importance. If possible the viscosity should be taken at the temperature at which the grease is to be subjected when used, but this cannot always be done; 300° F. will be found to be a very suitable temperature for the determination of the viscosity of heavy lubricants. Although one of the standard viscosimeters is the most satisfactory instrument with which to carry out the test, yet it is not a necessity. Provided the test be always conducted in exactly the same manner, and at a fixed temperature, using a standard sample for comparison, the form of apparatus used is not of great importance. Most dealers in scientific apparatus will provide a simple and cheap instrument, the results obtained with which will be found reliable. With the exercise of a little ingenuity any one can fit up a viscosimeter for himself at a very small outlay.

Acidity is another important point to {464} note in dealing with lubricating greases. Calculated as sulphuric acid, the free acid should not exceed .01 per cent, and free fatty acids should not be present to any extent. Cylinder oil should dissolve completely in petroleum benzine (specific gravity, .700), giving a clear solution. In dealing with machine oils the conditions are somewhat different. Fatty oils in mixture with mineral oils are very useful, as they give better lubrication and driving power, especially for heavy axles, for which these mixtures should always be used. The specific gravity should be from .900 to .915 and the freezing point should not be above 58° F. The flash point of heavy machine oils is not a matter of great importance. The viscosity of dynamo oils, taken in Engler’s apparatus, should be 15–16 at 68° F. and 3 / 2–4 at 122° F. In dealing with wagon oils and greases it should be remembered that the best kinds are those which are free from rosin and rosin products, and their flash point should be above 212° F.

To Test Grease.

—To be assured of the purity of grease, its density is examined as compared with water; a piece of fat of the size of a pea is placed in a glass of water. If it remains on the surface or sinks very slowly the fat is pure; if it sinks rapidly to the bottom the fat is mixed with heavy matters and coom is the result.

LUBRICANTS FOR WATCHMAKERS: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.

LUPULINE BITTERS: See Wines and Liquors.

Luster Paste.

This is used for plate glass, picture frames, and metal. Five parts of very finely washed and pulverized chalk; 5 parts of Vienna lime, powdered; 5 parts of bolus, powdered; 5 parts of wood ashes, powdered; 5 parts of English red, powdered; 5 parts of soap powder. Work all together in a kneading machine, to make a smooth, even paste, adding spirit. The consistency of the paste can be varied, by varying the amount of spirit, from a solid to a soft mass.

LUTES: See Adhesives.

MACHINE OIL: See Lubricants.

MACHINERY, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

MAGIC: See Pyrotechnics.

Magnesium Citrate.

Magnesium carbonate 10 ounces

Citric acid 20 ounces

Sugar 21 ounces

Oil of lemon / 2 drachm

Water enough to make 240 ounces

Introduce the magnesium carbonate into a wide-mouthed 2-gallon bottle, drop the oil of lemon on it, stir with a wooden stick: then add the citric acid, the sugar, and water enough to come up to a mark on the bottle indicating 240 ounces. For this purpose use cold water, adding about half of the quantity first, and the remainder when the substances are mostly dissolved. By allowing the solution to stand for a half to a whole day, it will filter better and more quickly than when hot water is used.

MAGNESIUM ORGEAT POWDER: See Salts, Effervescent.

MAGNESIUM FLASH-LIGHT POWDERS: See Photography.

Magnetic Curves of Iron Filings, Their Fixation.

One of the experiments made in every physical laboratory in teaching the elements of magnetism and electricity is the production of the magnetic curves by sprinkling iron filings over a glass plate, after the well-known method.

For fixing these curves so that they may be preserved indefinitely, a plate of glass is warmed on the smooth upper surface of a shallow iron chest containing water raised to a suitable temperature by means of a spirit-lamp. A piece of paraffine is placed on the glass, and in the course of 3 or 4 minutes spreads itself evenly in a thin layer over the surface. The glass plate is removed, the surplus paraffine running off. The image is formed with iron filings on the cooled paraffine, which does not adhere to the iron, so that if the image is unsatisfactory the filings may be removed and a new figure taken. To fix the curves, the plate of glass is again placed on the warming stove. Finally, the surface of the paraffine is covered with white paint, so that the curves appear black on a white ground. Very well-defined figures may thus be obtained. A similar though much simpler process consists in covering one surface of stiff white paper with a layer of paraffine, by warming {465} over an iron plate, spreading the filings over the cooled surface, and fixing them with a hot iron or a gas flame.

MAGNOLIA METAL: See Alloys.

MAHOGANY: See Wood.

MALTED FOOD: See Foods.

MALTED MILK: See Milk.

MALT, HOT: See Beverages.

MANGANESE ALLOYS: See Alloys.

MANGANESE STEEL: See Steel.

MANGE CURES: See Veterinary Formulas.

MANICURE PREPARATIONS: See Cosmetics.

Mantles.

These are prepared after processes differing slightly from one another, but all based on the original formula of Welsbach—the impregnation of vegetable fibers with certain mineral oxides in solution, drying out, and arranging on platinum wire.

Lanthanum oxide 30 parts

Yttrium oxide 20 parts

Burnt magnesia 50 parts

Acetic acid 50 parts

Water, distilled 100 parts

The salts are dissolved in the water, and to the solution another 150 parts of distilled water are added and the whole filtered. The vegetable fiber (in its knitted or woven form) is impregnated with this solution dried, and arranged on platinum wire. In the formula the acetic acid may be replaced with dilute nitric acid. The latter seems to have some advantages over the former, among which is the fact that the residual ash where acetic acid is used has a tendency to ball up and make a vitreous residue, while that of the nitric acid remains in powdery form.

Self-igniting Mantles.

—A fabric of platinum wire and cotton thread is sewed or woven into the tissue of the incandescent body; next it is impregnated with a solution of thorium salts and dried. The thorium nitrate in glowing gives a very loose but nevertheless fireproof residue. A mixture of thorium nitrate with platinic chloride leaves after incandescence a fire-resisting sponge possessing to a great extent the property of igniting gas mixtures containing oxygen. Employ a mixture of 1 part of thorium nitrate to 2 / 2 parts of platinic chloride.

MANURES: See Fertilizers.

MANUSCRIPT COPYING: See Copying.

MAPLE: See Wood.

MARASCHINO: See Wines and Liquors.

MARBLE CEMENTS: See Adhesives.

MARBLE CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

MARBLE COLORS: See Stone.

MARBLE ETCHING: See Etching.

MARBLE, IMITATION: See Plaster.

MARBLE, PAINTING ON: See Painting.

MARBLE POLISHING: See Polishes.

MARBLING CRAYONS: See Crayons.

MARGERINE: See Butter.

Marking Fluid:

Matches

(See also Phosphorus.)

Manufacture Of Matches.

—Each factory uses its own methods and chemical mixtures, though, in a general way the latter do not vary greatly. It is {466} impossible here to give a full account of the different steps of manufacture, and of all the precautions necessary to turn out good, marketable matches. In the manufacture of the ordinary safety match, the wood is first comminuted and reduced to the final shape and then steeped in a solution of ammonium phosphate (2 per cent of this salt with 1 or 1 / 2 per cent of phosphoric acid), or in a solution of ammonium sulphate (2 / 2 per cent), then drained and dried. The object of this application is to prevent the match from continuing to glow after it has been burned out. Next the matches are dipped into a paraffine or stearine bath, and after that into the match bath proper, which is best done by machines constructed for the purpose. Here are a few formulas:

I.— Potassium chlorate 2,000 parts

Lead binoxide 1,150 parts

Red lead 2,500 parts

Antimony trisulphide 1,250 parts

Gum arabic 670 parts

Paraffine 250 parts

Potassium bichromate 1,318 parts

Directions: See No. II.

II.— Potassium chlorate 2,000 parts

Lead binoxide 2,150 parts

Red lead 2,500 parts

Antimony trisulphide 1,250 parts

Gum arabic 670 parts

Paraffine 250 parts

Rub the paraffine and antimony trisulphide together, and then add the other ingredients. Enough water is added to bring the mass to a proper consistency when heated. Conduct heating operations on a water bath. The sticks are first dipped in a solution of paraffine in benzine and then are dried. For striking surfaces, mix red phosphorus, 9 parts; pulverized iron pyrites, 7 parts; pulverized glass, 3 parts; and gum arabic or glue, 1 part, with water, quantity sufficient. To make the matches water or damp proof, employ glue instead of gum arable in the above formula, and conduct the operations in a darkened room. For parlor matches dry the splints and immerse the ends in melted stearine. Then dip in the following mixture and dry:

Red phosphorus 3.0 parts

Gum arabic or tragacanth 0.5 parts

Water 3.0 parts

Sand (finely ground) 2.0 parts

Lead binoxide 2.0 parts

Perfume by dipping in a solution of benzoic acid.

III.—M. O. Lindner, of Paris, has patented a match which may be lighted by friction upon any surface whatever, and which possesses the advantages of being free from danger and of emitting no unpleasant odor. The mixture into which the splints are first dipped consists of

Chlorate of potash 6 parts

Sulphide of antimony 2 parts

Gum 1 / 2 parts

Powdered clay 1 / 2 parts

The inflammable compound consists of

Chlorate of potash 2 to 3 parts

Amorphous phosphorus 6 parts

Gum 1 / 2 parts

Aniline 1 / 2 parts

Red or amorphous is substituted for yellow phosphorus in the match heads. The composition of the igniting paste is given as follows:

By weight

Soaked glue (1 to 5 of water) 37.0 parts

Powdered glass 7.5 parts

Whiting 7.5 parts

Amorphous phosphorus (pure) 10.0 parts

Paraffine wax 4.0 parts

Chlorate of potash 27.0 parts

Sugar or lampblack 7.0 parts

Silicate of soda may be substituted for the glue, bichromate of potash added for damp climates, and sulphur for large matches.

The different compositions for tipping the matches in use in different countries and factories all consist essentially of emulsions of phosphorus in a solution of glue or gum, with or without other matters for increasing the combustibility, for coloring, etc.

I.—English.—Fine glue, 2 parts, broken into small pieces, and soaked in water till quite soft, is added to water, 4 parts, and heated by means of a water bath until it is quite fluid, and at a temperature of 200° to 212° F. The vessel is then removed from the fire, and phosphorus, 1 / 2 to 2 parts, is gradually added, the mixture being agitated briskly and continually with a stirrer having wooden pegs or bristles projecting at its lower end. When a uniform emulsion is obtained, chlorate of potassa, 4 to 5 {467} parts; powdered glass, 3 to 4 parts; and red lead, smalt, or other coloring matter, a sufficient quantity (all in a state of very fine powder), are added, one at a time, to prevent accidents, and the stirring continued until the mixture is comparatively cool. The above proportions are those of the best quality of English composition. The matches tipped with it deflagrate with a snapping noise.

II.—German (Böttger).—Dissolve gum arabic, 16 parts, in the least possible quantity of water; add of phosphorus (in powder), 9 parts, and mix by trituration. Then add niter, 14 parts; vermilion or binoxide of manganese, 16 parts, and form the whole into a paste as directed above. Into this the matches are to be dipped, and then exposed to dry. As soon as they are quite dry they are to be dipped into very dilute copal varnish or lac varnish, and again exposed to dry, by which means they are rendered waterproof, or at least less likely to suffer from exposure in damp weather.

III. (Böttger.)—Glue, 6 parts, is soaked in a little cold water for 24 hours, after which it is liquefied by trituration in a heated mortar; phosphorus, 4 parts, is added, and rubbed down at a heat not exceeding 150° F.; niter (in fine powder), 10 parts, is next mixed in, and afterwards red ocher, 5 parts, and smalt, 2 parts, are further added, and the whole formed into a uniform paste, into which the matches are dipped, as before. This is cheaper than the previous one.

IV. (Diesel.)—Phosphorus, 17 parts; glue, 21 parts; red lead, 24 parts; niter, 38 parts. Proceed as above.

Matches tipped with II, III, or IV, inflame without fulmination when rubbed against a rough surface, and are hence termed noiseless matches by the makers.

Safety Paste For Matches.

—The danger of explosion during the preparation of match composition may be minimized by addition to the paste of the following mixture: Finely powdered cork, 3 parts, by weight; oxide of iron, 15 parts; flour, 23 parts; and water, about 40 parts. In practice, 30 parts of gum arabic are dissolved in water, 40 parts, and to the solution are added powdered potassium chlorate, 57 parts, and when this is well distributed, amorphous phosphorus, 7 parts, and powdered glass, 15 parts, are stirred in. The above mixture is then immediately introduced, and when mixing is complete, the composition can be applied to wooden sticks which need not have been previously dried or paraffined. The head of the match is finally coated with tallow, which prevents atmospheric action and also spontaneous ignition.

Most chemists agree that the greatest improvement of note in the manufacture of matches is that of Landstrom, of Jonkoping, in Sweden. It consists in dividing the ingredient of the match mixture into two separate compositions, one being placed on the ends of the splints, as usual, and the other, which contains the phosphorus, being spread in a thin layer upon the end or lid of the box. The following are the compositions used: (a) For the splints: Chlorate of potassa, 6 parts; sulphuret of antimony, 2 to 3 parts; glue, 1 part. (b) For the friction surface: Amorphous phosphorus, 10 parts; sulphuret of antimony or peroxide of manganese, 8 parts; glue, 3 to 6 parts; spread thinly upon the surface, which has been previously made rough by a coating of glue and sand. By thus dividing the composition the danger of fire arising from ignition of the matches by accidental friction is avoided, as neither the portion on the splint nor that on the box can be ignited by rubbing against an unprepared surface. Again, by using the innocuous red or amorphous phosphorus, the danger of poisoning is entirely prevented.

MATCH MARKS ON PAINT, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

MATCH PHOSPHORUS, SUBSTITUTE FOR: See Phosphorus Substitute.

Matrix Masses

Matrix For Medals, Coins, Etc.

—I.—Sharp impressions of coins, medals, etc., are obtained, according to Böttger, with the following: Mix molten, thinly liquid sulphur with an equal quantity of infusorial earth, adding some graphite. If a sufficient quantity of this mass, made liquid over a flame, is quickly applied with a spatula or spoon on the coin, etc., an impression of great sharpness is obtained after cooling, which usually takes place promptly. Owing to the addition of graphite the articles do not become dull or unsightly.

II.—Bronze and silver medals should always be coated with a separating grease layer. The whole coin is greased slightly and then carefully wiped off again with a little wadding, but in such a manner {468} that a thin film of grease remains on the surface. Next, a ring of strong cardboard or thin pasteboard is placed around the edge, and the ends are sealed together. Now stir up a little gypsum in a small dish and put a teaspoonful of it on the surface of which the mold is to be taken, distributing it carefully with a badger’s-hair brush, entering the finest cavities, which operation will be assisted by blowing on it. When the object is covered with a thin layer of plaster of Paris, the plaster, which has meanwhile become somewhat stiffer, is poured on, so that the thickness of the mold will be about / 20 of an inch. The removal of the cast can be effected only after a time, when the plaster has become warm, has cooled again, and has thoroughly hardened. If it be attempted to remove the cast from the metal too early and by the use of force, fine pieces are liable to break off and remain adhering to the model. In order to obtain a positive mold from the concave one, it is laid in water for a short time, so that it becomes saturated with the water it absorbs. The dripping, wet mold is again provided with an edge, and plaster of Paris is poured on. The latter readily flows out on the wet surface, and only in rare cases blisters will form. Naturally this casting method will furnish a surface of pure gypsum, which is not the case if the plaster is poured into a greased mold. In this case the surface of the cast contains a soapy layer, for the liquid plaster forms with oil a subsequently rather hard lime soap. The freshly cast plaster must likewise be taken off only when a quarter of an hour has elapsed, after it has become heated and has cooled again.

MATS FOR METALS: See Metals.

Matzoon.

Add 2 tablespoonfuls of bakers’ yeast to 1 pint of rich milk, which has been slightly warmed, stirring well together and setting aside in a warm room in a pitcher covered with a wet cloth for a time varying from 6 to 12 hours, according to the season or temperature of the room. Take from this, when curdled, 6 tablespoonfuls, add to another pint of milk, and again ferment as before, and continue for five successive fermentations in all, when the product will have become free from the taste of the yeast. As soon as the milk thickens, which is finally to be kept for use, it should be stirred again and then put into a refrigerator to prevent further fermentation. It should be smooth, of the consistence of thick cream, and of a slightly acid taste.

The milk should be prepared fresh every day, and the new supply is made by adding 6 tablespoonfuls of the previous day’s lot to a pint of milk and proceeding as before.

The curd is to be eaten with a spoon, not drunk, and preferably with some bread broken into it. It is also sometimes eaten with sugar, which is said not to impair its digestibility.

MAY WINE: See Wines and Liquors.

Mead.

In its best form Mead is made as follows: 12 gallons of pure, soft water (clean rain water is, next to distilled water, best) are mixed with 30 gallons of expressed honey in a big caldron, 4 ounces of hops added, and the whole brought to a boil. The boiling is continued with diligent skimming, for at least an hour and a half. The fire is then drawn, and the liquid allowed to cool down slowly. When cold, it is drawn off into a clean barrel, which it should fill to the bung, with a little over. A pint of fresh wine yeast or ferment is added, and the barrel put in a moderately warm place, with the bung left out, to ferment for from 8 to 14 days, according to the weather (the warmer it is the shorter the period occupied in the primary or chief fermentation). Every day the foam escaping from the bung should be carefully skimmed off, and every 2 or 3 days there should be added a little honey and water to keep the barrel quite full, and in the meantime a pan or cup should be inverted over the hole, to keep out dust, insects, etc. When fermentation ceases, the procedure varies. Some merely drive in the bung securely and let the liquor stand for a few weeks, then bottle; but the best German makers proceed as follows, this being a far superior process: The liquor is removed from the barrel in which it fermented to another, clean, barrel, being strained through a haircloth sieve to prevent the admission of the old yeast. A second portion of yeast is added, and the liquid allowed to pass through the secondary fermentation, lasting usually as long as the first. The bung is driven into the barrel, the liquid allowed to stand a few days to settle thoroughly and then drawn off into bottles and stored in the usual way. Some add nutmeg, cinnamon, etc., prior to the last fermentation. {469}

MEASURES: See Weights and Measures.

MEASURES, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

MEAT EXTRACT CONTAINING ALBUMEN: See Foods.

MEAT PEPTONOIDS: See Peptonoids.

MEAT PRESERVATIVES: See Foods.

MEAT PRODUCTS (ADULTERATED): See Foods.

MEDAL IMPRESSIONS: See Matrix Mass.

MEDALS, CLEANING AND PRESERVING: See Cleaning Compounds.

MEDALLION METAL: See Alloys.

MEDICINE DOSES: See Doses.

Meerschaum:

To Color A Meerschaum Pipe.

—I.—Fill the pipe and smoke down about one-third, or to the height to which you wish to color. Leave the remainder of the tobacco in the pipe, and do not empty or disturb it for several weeks, or until the desired color is obtained. When smoking put fresh tobacco on the top and smoke to the same level. A new pipe should never be smoked outdoors in extremely cold weather.

II.—The pipe is boiled in a preparation of wax, 8 parts; olive oil, 2 parts; and nicotine, 1 part, for 10 or 15 minutes. The pipe absorbs this, and a thin coating of wax is held on the surface of the pipe, and made to take a high polish. Under the wax is retained the oil of tobacco, which is absorbed by the pipe; and its hue grows darker in proportion to the tobacco used. A meerschaum pipe at first should be smoked very slowly, and before a second bowlful is lighted the pipe should cool off. This is to keep the wax as far up on the bowl as possible; rapid smoking will overheat, driving the wax off and leaving the pipe dry and raw.

To Repair Meerschaum Pipes.

—To cement meerschaum pipes, make a glue of finely powdered and sifted chalk and white of egg. Put a little of this glue on the parts to be repaired and hold them pressed together for a moment.

To Tell Genuine Meerschaum.

—For the purpose of distinguishing imitation meerschaum from the true article, rub with silver. If the silver leaves lead pencil-like marks on the mass, it is not genuine but artificial meerschaum. If no such lines are produced, the article is genuine.

MENTHOL COUGH DROPS: See Confectionery.

MENTHOL TOOTH POWDER: See Dentifrices.

MERCURY SALVES: See Ointments.

MERCURY STAINS, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

METACARBOL DEVELOPER: See Photography.

Metals and Their Treatment

METAL CEMENTS: See Adhesives and Lutes.

METAL CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

METAL INLAYING: See Damaskeening.

METAL POLISHES: See Polishes.

METAL PROTECTIVES: See Rust Preventives.

METAL VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

METALS, HOW TO ATTACH TO RUBBER: See Adhesives, under Rubber Cements.

METALS, SECURING WOOD TO: See Adhesives.

Metals, Brightening And Deadening, By Dipping:

Brightening Pickle.

—To brighten articles by dipping, the dipping liquid must not be too hot, otherwise the pickled surface turns dull; neither must it be prepared too thin, nor must wet articles be entered, else only tarnished surfaces will be obtained.

For a burnish-dip any aqua fortis over 33° Bé., i. e., possessing a specific gravity of 1.30, may be employed. It is advisable not to use highly concentrated aqua fortis, to reduce the danger of obtaining matt work. It is important that the quantity of oil of vitriol, which is added, {470} is correct. It is added because the action of the aqua fortis is very uncertain. Within a short time it becomes so heated in acting on the metals that it turns out only dull work, and pores or even holes are apt to be the result of the violent chemical action. If the aqua fortis is diluted with water the articles do not become bright, but tarnish. For this reason sulphuric acid should be used. This does not attack the metals; it only dilutes the aqua fortis and distributes the heat generated in pickling over a larger space. It is also much cheaper, and it absorbs water from the aqua fortis and, therefore, keeps it in a concentrated state and yet distributed over the space.

In the case of too much oil of vitriol the dilution becomes too great and the goods are tarnished; if too little is added, the mixture soon ceases to turn out bright articles, because of overheating. On this experience are based the formulas given below.

Dip the articles, which must be free from grease, into the pickle, after they have been either annealed and quenched in diluted sulphuric acid or washed out with benzine. Leave them in the dipping mixture until they become covered with a greenish froth. Then quickly immerse them in a vessel containing plenty of water, and wash them out well with running water. Before entering the dipped articles in the baths it is well to remove all traces of acid, by passing them through a weak soda or potassium cyanide solution and washing them out again. If the brightly dipped goods are to remain bright they must be coated with a thin spirit or zapon lacquer.

Following are two formulas for the pickle:

I.— Aqua fortis, 36° Bé., by weight 100 parts

Oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid), 66° Bé., by weight 70 parts

Cooking salt, by volume 1 / 2 parts

Shining soot (lampblack), by volume 1 / 2 parts

II.— Aqua fortis, 40° Bé., by weight 100 parts

Oil of vitriol, 66° Bé., by weight 100 parts

Cooking salt, by volume 2 parts

Shining soot, by volume 2 parts

Matting Or Deadening Pickle.

—When, instead of brilliancy, a matted appearance is desired for metals, the article is corroded either mechanically or chemically. In the first case it is pierced with fine holes near together, rubbed with emery powder or pumice stone and tamponned. In the other case the corrosion is effected in acid baths thus composed:

Nitric acid of 36° Bé., 200 parts, by volume; sulphuric acid of 56° Bé., 200 parts, by volume; sea salt, 1 part, by volume; zinc sulphate, 1 to 5 parts, by volume.

With this proportion of acids the articles can remain from 5 to 20 minutes in the mixture cold; the prominence of the matt depends on the length of time of the immersion. The pieces on being taken from the bath have an earthy appearance which is lightened by dipping them quickly in a brightening acid. If left too long the matted appearance is destroyed.

Cotton Matt.

—This matt, thus called on account of its soft shade, is rarely employed except for articles of stamped brass, statuettes, or small objects. As much zinc is dissolved in the bath as it will take. The pieces are left in it from 15 to 30 minutes. On coming from the bath they are dull, and to brighten them somewhat they are generally dipped into acids as before described.

Silver Matt.

—Articles of value for which gilding is desired are matted by covering them with a light coating of silver by the battery. It is known that this deposit is always matt, unless the bath contains too large a quantity of potassium cyanide. A brilliant silvering can be regularly obtained with electric baths only by adding carbon sulphide. Four drachms are put in an emery flask containing a quart of the bath fluid and allowed to rest for 24 hours, at the end of which a blackish precipitate is formed. After decanting, a quart is poured into the electric bath for each quart before every operation of silvering.

Dangers Of Dipping.

—The operation of dipping should be carried out only in a place where the escaping fumes of hyponitric acid and chlorine can pass off without molesting the workmen, e. g., under a well-drawing chimney, preferably in a vapor chamber. If such an arrangement is not present the operator should choose a draughty place and protect himself from the fumes by tying a wet sponge under his nose. The vapors are liable to produce very violent and dangerous inflammations of the respiratory organs, coming on in a surprisingly {471} quick manner after one has felt no previous injurious effect at all.

Coloring Metals:

Processes By Oxidation.

—By heat:—Coloration of Steel.—The steel, heated uniformly, is covered in the air with a pellicle of oxide and has successively the following colors: Straw yellow, blue (480° to 570° F.), violet, purple, water-green, disappearance of the color; lastly the steel reddens. For producing the blue readily, plunge the object into a bath of 25 parts of lead and 1 part of tin; its temperature is sufficient for bluing small pieces.

Bronzing of Steel.—I.—The piece to be bronzed is wet by the use of a sponge with a solution formed of iron perchloride, cupric sulphate, and a nitric acid. It is dried in a stove at 86° F., then kept for 20 minutes over boiling water. It is dried again at 86° F., and rubbed with a scratch brush.

This operation is repeated several times.

Bronzing of Steel.—II.—Rust and grease are removed from the objects with a paste of whiting and soda. They are immersed in a bath of dilute sulphuric acid, and rubbed with very fine pumice-stone powder. They are then exposed from 2 to 3 minutes to the vapor of a mixture of equal parts of concentrated chlorhydric and nitric acids.

The object is heated to 570° to 660° F. until the bronze color appears. When cooled, it is covered with paraffine or vaseline while rubbing, and heated a second time until the vaseline or paraffine commences to decompose. The operation is repeated. The shades obtained are beautiful, and the bronzing is not changeable. By subjecting the object to the vapors of the mixture of chlorhydric and nitric acids, shades of a light reddish brown are obtained. By adding to these two acids acetic acid, beautiful yellow bronze tints are procured. By varying the proportion of these three acids, all the colors from light reddish brown to deep brown, or from light yellow bronze to deep yellow bronze, are produced at will.

Bronzing.—III.—Under the name of Tuker bronze, a colored metal is found in trade which imitates ornamental bronze perfectly. It is obtained by deoxidizing or, if preferred, by burnishing cast iron. A thin layer of linseed oil or of linseed-oil varnish is spread on. It is heated at a temperature sufficient for producing in the open air the oxidation of the metal. The temperature is raised more or less, according as a simple yellow coloration or a deep brown is desired.

Lustrous Black.—In a quantity of oil of turpentine, sulphuric acid is poured drop by drop, stirring continually until a precipitate is no longer formed. Then the whole is poured into water, shaken, decanted, and the washing of the precipitate commenced again until blue litmus paper immersed in the water is no longer reddened. The precipitate will thus be completely freed from acid. After having drained it on a cloth, it is ready for use. It is spread on the iron and burned at the fire.

If the precipitate spreads with difficulty over the metal, a little turpentine can be added. It is afterwards rubbed with a linen rag, soaked with linseed oil, until the surface assumes a beautiful lustrous black. This covering is not liable to be detached.

Bluish Black.—Make a solution composed of nitric acid, 15 parts; cupric sulphate, 8 parts; alcohol, 20 parts; and water, 125 parts. Spread over the metal when well cleaned and grease removed. Dry and rub with linen rag.

Black.—Make a solution composed of cupric sulphate, 80 parts; alcohol, 40 parts; ferric chloride, 30 parts; nitric acid, 20 parts; ether, 20 parts; water, 400 to 500 parts, and pass over the object to be blackened.

Magnetic Oxide.—I.—A coating of magnetic oxide preserves from rust. To obtain it, heat the object in a furnace to a temperature sufficient to decompose steam. Then inject from 4 to 6 hours superheated steam at 1,100° F. The thickness of the layer of oxide formed varies with the duration of the operation. This process may replace zincking, enameling, or tinning.

II.—A deposit of magnetic oxide may be obtained by electrolysis. The iron object is placed at the anode in a bath of distilled water heated to 176° F. The cathode is a plate of copper, or the vessel itself if it is of iron or copper. By electrolysis a layer of magnetic oxide is formed.

In the same way other peroxides may be deposited. With an alkaline solution of litharge a brilliant black deposit of lead peroxide, very adherent, is obtained.

The employment of too strong a current must be avoided. It will produce a pulverulent deposit. To obtain a good coating, it is necessary after leaving the objects for a moment at the opposite {472} pole, to place them at the other pole until the outside is completely reduced, then bring them back to the first place.

Processes By Sulphuration.

—Oxidized Brown Color.—The object is plunged into some melted sulphur mingled with lampblack, or into a liquid containing the flowers of sulphur mingled with lampblack. It is drained and dried. The bronzing obtained resists acids, and may acquire a beautiful polish which has the appearance of oxidized bronze, due perhaps to the formation of ferric sulphide, a sort of pyrites remarkable for its beautiful metallic reflections and its resistance to chemical agents.

Brilliant Black.—Boil 1 part of sulphur and 10 parts turpentine oil. A sulphurous oil is obtained of disagreeable odor. Spread this oil with the brush as lightly as possible, and heat the object in the flame of an alcohol lamp until the patina takes the tint desired. This process produces on iron and steel a brilliant black patina, which is extremely solid.

Blue.—Dissolve 500 drachms of hyposulphite of soda in 1 quart of water, and 35 grains of lead acetate in 1 quart of water. The two solutions mingled are heated to the boiling point. The iron is immersed, and assumes a blue coloration similar to that obtained by annealing.

Deposit Of A Metal Or Of A Non-oxidizable Compound.

—Bronze Color.—Rub the iron smartly with chloride of antimony. A single operation is not sufficient. It is necessary to repeat it, heating the object slightly.

Black.—I.—Make a paste composed of equal parts of chloride of antimony and linseed oil. Spread on the object, previously heated, with a brush or rag; then pass over it a coating of wax and brush it. Finally varnish with gum lac.

II.—Prepare a solution of bismuth chloride, 10 parts; mercury chloride, 20 parts; cupric chloride, 10 parts; hydrochloric acid, 60 parts; alcohol, 50 parts; water, 500 parts. Add fuchsine in sufficient quantity to mask the color.

The mercury chloride is poured into the hydrochloric acid, and the bismuth chloride and cupric chloride added; then the alcohol. Employ this mixture with a brush or a rag for smearing the object. The object may also be immersed in the liquid if it is well cleaned and free from grease. It is dried and afterwards submitted to boiling water for half an hour. The operation is repeated until the wished-for tint is obtained; then the object is passed into the oil bath and taken to the fire without wiping. The object may also be placed for 10 minutes in boiling linseed oil.

Brown Tint.—A solution is made of chloride of mercury, 20 parts; cupric chloride, 10 parts; hydrochloric acid, 60 parts; alcohol, 50 parts; water, 500 parts. The object is plunged into this solution after being well cleaned. The solution may also be applied with a brush, giving two coats. It is afterwards put into hot water. The surface of the object is covered with a uniform layer of vegetable oil. It is placed in a furnace at a high temperature, but not sufficient for carbonizing the oil. The iron is covered with a thin layer of brown oxide, which adheres strongly to the metal, and which can be beautifully burnished, producing the appearance of bronze.

Brilliant Black.—The process begins by depositing on the object, perfectly clean and free from grease, a layer of metallic copper. For this purpose the following solutions are prepared: (a) Cupric sulphate, 1 part; water, 16 parts. Add ammonia until complete dissolution. (b) Chloride of tin, 1 part; water, 2 parts; and chlorhydric acid, 2 parts. The object is immersed in solution b, and afterwards in solution a. In this way there is deposited on the iron a very adherent coating of copper. The object, washed with water, is afterwards rubbed with sulphur, or immersed in a solution of ammonium sulphhydrate. A dull black coating of cupric sulphide is produced, which becomes a brilliant black by burnishing.

Blue Black.—The iron object is first heated according to the previous recipe, but the copper is converted into cupric sulphide, not by a sulphhydrate, but by a hyposulphite. It is sufficient to dip the coppered object into a solution of sodium hyposulphite, acidulated with chlorhydric acid, and raised to the temperature of 175° to 195° F.

Thus a blue-black coating is obtained, unchangeable in air and in water. After polishing, it has the color of blue steel. It adheres strongly enough to resist the action of the scratch brush.

Deposition of Molybdenum.—Iron is preserved from rust by covering it with a coating of molybdenum, as follows: Water, 1,000 parts; ammonium molybdate, 1 part; ammonium nitrate, 15 to 20 parts. Suspend the object at the negative pole of a battery. The current ought to have a strength of 2 to 5 amperes per cubic decimeter.

Deposit of Manganese Peroxide.—The {473} iron or steel is first covered with a coating of manganese peroxide by immersing as an anode in a bath containing about 0.05 per cent of chloride or sulphate of manganese and from 5 to 25 per cent of ammonium nitrate. The bath is electrolyzed cold, making use of a cathode of charcoal. Feeble currents (1 or 2 amperes) produce an adherent and unchangeable deposit.

Bronzing of Cannon.—Prepare a solution of ferric chloride of density 1.281, 14 parts; mercury chloride, 3 parts; fuming nitric acid, 3 parts; cupric sulphate, 3 parts; water, 80 parts. Give to the piece of ordnance 2 or 3 coatings of the solution, taking care always to scratch the preceding layer with a steel brush before spreading the second. Afterwards, the object is plunged in a solution of potassium sulphide in 900 parts of water. It is left in this for 10 days. It is removed by washing with soap and hot water. The object is rinsed, dried, and finally brushed with linseed-oil varnish.

Green Bronzing.—Dissolve 1 part of acetate of silver in 20 parts of essence of lavender; coat the surface of iron with this liquid by means of a brush and raise the temperature to 292° F. A brilliant green color is developed on the surface.

Coating on Steel Imitating Gilding.—The object is first covered by the galvanic method by means of a solution of cyanide of copper and potassium, then covered electrolytically with a thin deposit of zinc. It is dried and cleaned with a little washed chalk and finally immersed in boiling linseed oil. The surface of the piece after a few seconds, at a temperature of 310° F., appears as if there had been a real penetration of copper and zinc; that is to say, as though there were a formation of tombac.

Bronzing of Cast Iron.—The piece, when scraped, is coppered with the following bath: Cupric chloride, 10 parts; hydrochloric acid, 80 parts; nitric acid, 10 parts. It is rubbed with a rag and washed with pure water, and then rubbed with the following solution: Ammonium chlorhydrate, 4 parts; oxalic acid, 1 part; water, 30 parts.

Gilding of Iron and Steel.—Chloride of gold is dissolved either in oil of turpentine or in ether, and this solution is applied with the brush on the metallic surface, after being perfectly scraped. It is allowed to dry, and then heated more or less strongly for obtaining the necessary adherence. When it is dry the gilding is burnished.

Process By Deposit Of A Color Or Varnish.

—Beautiful colorations, resistive to light, may be given to metals by the following method:

The metallic objects are immersed in a colorless varnish with pyroxyline, and dried in a current of hot air at 176° F. When the varnish is sufficiently dry, the objects are bathed for a few minutes in a 2 per cent alcoholic solution of alizarine or of a color of the same group. By washing with water the yellowish color covering the object on coming from the coloring bath passes to the golden red.

Coloring Copper.

—To redden copper hang it from a few minutes to an hour, according to the shade wanted, in a 5 to 10 per cent solution of ferrocyanide of potassium in water. By adding a little hydrochloric acid to the solution the color given to the copper may be made to assume a purple shade. On removing the copper, dry it in the air or in fine sawdust, rinse, and polish with a brush or chamois leather, after drying it again.

Coloring Brass.

—To redden brass, dip in solution of 5 ounces of sulphate of copper and 6 to 7 ounces of permanganate of potash in 500 ounces of water.

To blue copper or brass any one of the following recipes may be used:

I.—Dip the article in a solution of 2 ounces of liver of sulphur and 2 ounces of chlorate soda in 1,000 ounces of water.

II.—Dip the article in a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium very strongly acidulated with hydrochloric acid.

III.—Stir the article about constantly in a solution of liver of sulphur in 50 times its weight of water.

Fusion Point Of Metals.

—The point of fusion of common metals is as follows: Antimony, 808° F.; aluminum, 1,160° F.; bismuth, 517° F.; copper, 1,931° F.; gold, 1,913° F.; iron, 2,912° F.; lead, 850° F.; nickel, 2,642° F.; platinum, 3,225° F.; silver, 1,750° F.; tin, 551° F.; zinc, 812° F. Mercury, which is normally fluid, congeals at 38° below zero, F., this being its point of fusion.

To Produce Fine Leaves Of Metal.

—The metal plate is laid between parchment leaves and beaten out with hammers. Although films obtained in this manner reach a high degree of fineness, yet the mechanical production has its limit. If very fine films are desired the galvano-plastic precipitation is employed in the following manner:

A thin sheet of polished copper is entered in the bath and connected with the {474} electric conduit. The current precipitates gold on it. In order to loosen it, the gilt copper plate is placed in a solution of ferric chloride, which dissolves the copper and leaves the gold behind. In this manner gold leaf can be hammered out to almost incredible thinness.

Metal Foil.

Tin foil is the most common foil used, being a combination of tin, lead, and copper, sometimes with properties of other metals.

I
Per cent II
Per cent III
Per cent

Tin 97.60 98.47 96.21

Copper 2.11 0.38 0.95

Lead 0.04 0.84 2.41

Iron 0.11 0.12 0.09

Nickel — — 0.30

I is a mirror foil; III is a tin foil.

Tin Foils for Capsules.—

I
Per cent II
Per cent

Tin 20 22

Lead 80 77

Copper — 1

Tin Foils for Wrapping Cheese, etc.—

I
Per cent II
Per cent III
Per cent

Tin 97 90 92

Lead 2.5 7.8 7

Copper 0.5 0.2 1

Tin Foils, for Fine Wrapping, I and II; for Tea Boxes, III.—

I
Per cent II
Per cent III
Per cent

Tin 60 65 40

Lead 40 35 58.5

Copper — — 1.5

Imitation Gold Foils.—

Deep
gold
Per cent Pure
gold
Per cent Pale
gold
Per cent

Copper 84.5 78 76

Zinc 15.5 22 14

Deep
gold
Per cent Deep
gold
Per cent
Gold
Per cent

Copper 91 86 83

Zinc 9 14 17

reddish dark
yellow pale
yellow

Imitation Silver Foil.—Alloy of tin and zinc: harder than tin and softer than zinc: Zinc, 1 part; tin, 11 parts.

To Attach Gold Leaf Permanently.—Dissolve finely cut isinglass in a little water, with moderate heat, which must not be increased to a boil, and add as much nitric acid as has been used of the isinglass. The adhesive will not penetrate the cardboard or paper.

METH: See Mead.

METHEGLIN: See Mead.

METHYL SALICYLATE, TO DISTINGUISH FROM OIL OF WINTERGREEN: See Wintergreen.

METOL DEVELOPER: See Photography.

METRIC WEIGHTS: See Weights and Measures.

MICE POISON: See Rat Poison.

MICROPHOTOGRAPHS: See Photography.

Milk:

Determining Cream.

—An apparatus for determining cream in milk consists of a glass cylinder having a mark about half its height, and a second mark a little above the first. The milk is added up to the lower mark, and water up to the second. The amount of water thus added is about one-fourth the volume of the milk, and causes the cream to rise more quickly. The tube is graduated between the two marks in percentages of cream on the undiluted milk. A vertical blue strip in the side of the cylinder aids the reading of the meniscus.

Formaldehyde In Milk, Detection Of.

—To 10 parts of milk add 1 part of fuchsine sulphurous acid. Allow to stand 5 minutes, then add 2 parts of pure hydrochloric acid and shake. If formaldehyde is not present, the mixture remains yellowish white, while if present a blue-violet color is produced. This test will detect 1 grain of anhydrous formaldehyde in 1 quart of milk.

Malted Milk.

—To malt milk, add the following:

Powdered malt 1 ounce

Powdered oat meal 2 ounces

Sugar of milk 4 ounces

Roasted flour 1 pound

Milk Extracts.

—These are made from skimmed milk freed from casein, sugar and albumen, and resemble meat extracts. The milk is slightly acidulated with phosphoric or hydrochloric acid, and evaporated in vacuo to the {475} consistency of thick syrup. During the crystallization of the sugar, the liquid is sterilized.

Modification Of Milk For Infants.

—For an ill child note the percentages of milk taken; decide, if indigestion is present, which ingredient of the milk, fat or proteid, or both, is at fault, and make formula accordingly.

After allowing the milk to stand 8 hours, remove the top 8 ounces from a quart jar of 4 per cent fat milk by means of a dipper, and count this as 12 per cent fat cream. Count the lowest 8 ounces of the quart fat-free milk. From these the following formula may be obtained, covering fairly well the different percentages required for the different periods of life.

First Week.

12 per cent cream. Fat-free milk.

Fat 2.00 Cream 3 / 4 oz.

Sugar 5.00 Milk 1 / 2 oz.

Proteids 0.75 Milk sugar 2 meas.

Second Week.

Fat 2.50 Cream 4 / 4 oz.

Sugar 6.00 Milk 1 / 4 oz.

Proteids 1.00 Milk sugar 2 / 2 meas.

Third Week.

Fat 3.00 Cream 5 oz.

Sugar 6.00 Milk 1 oz.

Proteids 1.00 Milk sugar 2 / 2 meas.

Four to Six Weeks.

Fat 3.50 Cream 5 / 4 oz.

Sugar 6.50 Milk 1 / 4 oz.

Proteids 1.00 Milk sugar 2 / 2 meas.

Six to Eight Weeks.

Fat 3.50 Cream 5 / 4 oz.

Sugar 6.50 Milk 3 / 4 oz.

Proteids 1.50 Milk sugar 2 / 4 meas.

Two to Four Months.

Fat 4.00 Cream 6 / 4 oz.

Sugar 7.00 Milk 2 / 4 oz.

Proteids 1.50 Milk sugar 2 / 2 meas.

Four to Eight Months.

Fat 4.00 Cream 6 / 4 oz.

Sugar 7.00 Milk 4 / 4 oz.

Proteids 2.00 Milk sugar 2 / 4 meas.

Eight to Nine Months.

Fat 4.00 Cream 6 / 4 oz.

Sugar 7.00 Milk 7 / 2 oz.

Proteids 2.50 Milk sugar 2 meas.

Nine to Ten Months.

Fat 4.00 Cream 6 / 4 oz.

Sugar 7.00 Milk 10 / 2 oz.

Proteids 3.00 Milk sugar 1 / 2 meas.

Ten to Twelve Months.

Fat 4.00 Cream 6 / 4 oz.

Sugar 5.00 Milk 11 / 4 oz.

Proteids 3.50 Milk sugar / 2 meas.

After Twelve Months.

Unmodified cow’s milk.

Preservation Of Milk

(see also Foods).—I.—Shortly after the milk is strained add to it from 1 per cent to 2 per cent of a 12-volume solution of hydrogen peroxide, and set it aside for 10 to 12 hours. It thus acquires the property of keeping perfectly sweet and fresh for 3 or 4 days, and is far preferable to milk sterilized by heat. Two points are worthy of notice in the process. The addition of oxygenated water should be made as soon after it is taken from the cow, strained, etc., as possible; the peroxide appears to destroy instantly all anaërobic microbes (such as the bacillus of green diarrhea of childhood), but has no effect upon the bacillus of tuberculosis. This process is to be especially recommended in the heat of summer, and at all times in the milk of cattle known to be free of tuberculosis.

II.—Fresh milk in bottles has been treated with oxygen and carbonic acid under pressure of some atmospheres. By this method it is said to be possible to preserve milk fresh 50 to 60 days. The construction of the bottle is siphon-like.

Milk Substitute.

—Diamalt is a thick syrupy mass of pleasant, strong, somewhat sourish odor and sweetish taste, which is offered as a substitute for milk. The preparation has been analyzed. Its specific gravity is 1.4826; the percentage of water fluctuates between 24 and 28 per cent; the amount of ash is 1.3 per cent. There are present: Lactic acid, 0.718 to 1.51; nitrogenous matter, 4.68 to 5.06 per cent; and constituents rich in nitrogen, about 68 per cent. The latter consist principally of maltose. Dissolved in water it forms a greenish-yellow mixture. Turbidness is caused by starch grains, yeast cells, bacteria, and a shapeless coagulum.

MILK AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR CELLULOID, BONE, AND IVORY: See Casein.

MILK, CUCUMBER: See Cosmetics.

MILK OF SOAP: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, under Miscellaneous Methods.

MINARGENT: See Alloys. {476}

MINERAL WATERS: See Waters.

MINOFOR METAL: See Alloys.

MINT CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

Mirrors

(See also Glass.)

Mirror Silvering.

—Mirror silvering is sometimes a misnomer, inasmuch as the coating applied to glass in the manufacture of mirrors does not always contain silver. In formula I it is an amalgam of mercury and tin.

I.—A sheet of pure tin foil, slightly larger than the glass plate to be silvered, is spread evenly on a perfectly plane stone table having a raised edge, and is well cleaned from all dust and impurity. The foil must be free from the slightest flaw or crack. The tin is next covered uniformly to a depth of / 8 of an inch with mercury, preference being given by some to that containing a small proportion of tin from a previous operation. The glass plate, freed from all dust or grease, and repolished if necessary, is then carefully slid over the mercury. This part of the work requires skill and experience to exclude all air bubbles, and even the best workmen are not successful every time. If there is a single bubble or scratch the operation must be repeated and the tin foil is lost; not a small expense for large sizes. When this step has been satisfactorily accomplished the remainder is easy. The glass plate is loaded with heavy weights to press out the excess of mercury which is collected and is used again. After 24 hours the mirror is lifted from the table and placed on edge against a wall, where it is left to drain well.

II.—Solution No. 1 is composed as follows: To 8 ounces of distilled water, brought to a boil, add 12 grains of silver nitrate and 12 grains of Rochelle salts. Let it come to a boil for 6 to 7 minutes; then cool and filter.

Solution No. 2 is made as follows: Take 8 ounces of distilled water, and into a small quantity poured into a tumbler put 19 grains of silver nitrate. Stir well until dissolved. Then add several drops of 26° ammonia until the solution becomes clear. Add 16 grains more of nitrate of silver, stirring well until dissolved. Add balance of distilled water and filter. The filtering must be done through a glass funnel, in which the filter paper is placed. The solution must be stirred with a glass rod. Keep the solutions in separate bottles marked No. 1 and No. 2.

Directions for Silvering: Clean the glass with ammonia and wipe with a wet chamois. Then take half and half of the two solutions in a graduating glass, stirring well with a glass rod. Pour the contents on the middle of the glass to be silvered. It will spread over the surface of itself if the glass is laid flat. Leave it until the solution precipitates.

Silvering Globes.

—The insides of globes may be silvered, it is said, by the following methods:

I.—Take / 3 ounce of clean lead, and melt it with an equal weight of pure tin; then immediately add / 2 ounce of bismuth, and carefully skim off the dross; remove the alloy from the fire, and before it grows cold add 5 ounces of mercury, and stir the whole well together; then put the fluid amalgam into a clean glass, and it is fit for use. When this amalgam is used for silvering, it should be first strained through a linen rag; then gently pour some ounces of it into the globe intended to be silvered; the alloy should be poured into the globe by means of a paper or glass funnel reaching almost to the bottom of the globe, to prevent it splashing the sides; the globe should be turned every way very slowly, to fasten the silvering.

II.—Make an alloy of 3 ounces of lead, 2 ounces of tin, and 5 ounces of bismuth. Put a portion of this alloy into the globe and expose it to a gentle heat until the compound is melted; it melts at 197° F.; then by turning the globe slowly round, an equal coating may be laid on, which, when cold, hardens and firmly adheres.

Resilvering Mirrors

—If mirrors coated with amalgam become damaged they may sometimes be successfully repaired by one of the following processes:

I.—Place the old mirror in a weak solution of nitric acid—say 5 per cent—which immediately removes the silver. Rinse it a little, and then clean very thoroughly with a pledget of cotton-wool and a mixture of whiting and ammonia. Rouge will answer in place of whiting, or, as a last extreme, finest levigated pumice, first applied to a waste glass to crush down any possible grit. This cleaning is of the utmost importance, as upon its thoroughness depends eventual success. Front, back, and edges must alike be left in a state above suspicion. The {477} plate is then again flowed with weak acid, rinsed under the tap, then flowed back and front with distilled water, and kept immersed in a glass-covered dish of distilled water until the solutions are ready.

The depositing vessel is the next consideration, and it should be realized that unless most of the silver in the solution finds its way on to the face of the mirror it were cheaper that the glass should be sent to the professional mirror-maker. The best plan is to use a glass dish allowing a / 16 inch margin all round the mirror, inside. But such a glass dish is expensive, having to be made specially, there being no regular sizes near enough to 4 x 7 or 8 x 5 (usual mirror sizes). If too large, a dish must perforce be used, the sides or ends of which should be filled up with sealing wax. Four strips of glass are temporarily bound together with 2 or 3 turns of string, so as to form a hollow square. The side pieces are / 8 inch longer outside, and the end pieces / 8 inch wider than the mirror glass. This frame is placed in about the center of the dish, moistened with glycerine, and the molten wax flowed outside of it to a depth of about / 4 of an inch or more. For economy’s sake, good “parcel wax” may be used, but best red sealing wax is safer. This wax frame may be used repeatedly, being cleaned prior to each silvering operation. It is the only special appliance necessary, and half an hour is a liberal time allowance for making it.

Use a stock solution of silver nitrate of the strength of 25 grains to 1 ounce of distilled water: Take 2 drachms of silver nitrate stock solution and convert it to ammonia nitrate, by adding ammonia drop by drop until the precipitate is redissolved. Add 3 / 2 ounces of distilled water.

In another measure take 80 drops (approximately 74 minims) of 40 per cent formalin. Pour the solution of ammonio nitrate of silver into the measure containing the formalin, then back into the original measure, and finally into the dish containing the glass to be silvered. This should be done rapidly, and the dish containing the mirror well rocked until the silvering is complete, which may be ascertained by the precipitation of a black, flocculent deposit, and the clearing of the solution. The actual process of silvering takes about 2 minutes.

Cleanliness throughout is of the greatest importance. The vessels in which the solutions are mixed should be well rinsed with a solution of bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid, then washed out three or four times under the tap, and finally with distilled water. For cleansing, dip the glass for a short time in a solution of bichromate of potash, to which a little sulphuric acid is added. The glass is afterwards well rinsed for a minute or two under the tap, flooded with distilled water, and dried with a clean linen cloth. A little absolute alcohol is then rubbed on with a soft linen handkerchief, which is immediately rolled into a pad and used for well polishing the surface. The cleaning with alcohol is repeated to avoid risk of failure.

After the mirror has been silvered, hold it under the tap and allow water to flow over it for about 3 minutes. Rinse it with distilled water, and stand it up on edge on blotting paper. When it is quite dry take a pad of very soft wash-leather, spread a small quantity of finest opticians’ rouge on a sheet of clean glass, and well coat the pad with rouge by polishing the sheet of glass. A minute quantity of rouge is sufficient. Afterwards polish the mirror by gently rubbing the surface with the pad, using a circular stroke.

It will be seen that with this process it is unnecessary to suspend the mirror in the silvering solution, as usually recommended. The mirror is laid in the dish, which is a distinct advantage, as the progress of the silvering may be watched until complete. The film also is much more robust than that obtained by the older methods.

II.—Clean the bare portion of the glass by rubbing it gently with fine cotton, taking care to remove any trace of dust and grease. If this cleaning be not done very carefully, defects will appear around the place repaired. With the point of a penknife cut upon the back of another looking glass around a portion of the silvering of the required form, but a little larger. Upon it place a small drop of mercury; a drop the size of a pin’s head will be sufficient for a surface equal to the size of the nail. The mercury spreads immediately, penetrates the amalgam to where it was cut off with the knife, and the required piece may be now lifted and removed to the place to be repaired. This is the most difficult part of the operation. Then press lightly the renewed portion with cotton; it hardens almost immediately, and the glass presents the same appearance.

Clouding Of Mouth Mirrors.

—By means of the finger, slightly moistened, apply a film of soap of any brand or kind to the mirror; then rub this off with a clean, dry cloth; the mirror will be as {478} bright and clear as ever. Breathing on it will not affect its clearness and the mirror does not suffer from the operation.

Magic Mirrors.

—Among the many amusing and curious articles which the amateur mechanic can turn out, metallic mirrors having concealed designs on them, and which can be brought into view by breathing on the polished surface, are both funny and easy to produce. To produce steel mirrors either tough bronze or good cast mottled iron discs should be used, and the design should be on the bottom of the cast disc, as this is the soundest and densest part of the metal. The method of working is different with bronze and iron, and bronze will be dealt with first.

The cast disk of bronze should be turned up level on both sides, and the edges should be turned or shaped up, the metal being about half an inch thick. On the side which was at the bottom in casting, a line should be drawn to allow for working up the border or frame of the mirror, and on the rest of the smooth surface the design should be drawn, not having too much detail. It is best to mark the lines with a sharp scriber, to prevent their effacement during working. When the disk is marked out, it should be laid on a smoothly planed iron block, and the lines punched to a depth of about / 4 inch, a punch with round edges being used. Then the disk should be turned down to just below the surface of the punched-in metal, and the border or edge formed, finishing smoothly, but without burnishing. The back can be turned down and, with the outer edge, burnished; but the inside of the edge and the face of the mirror should be polished with fine abrasive powder, and finished with fine rouge. When dry, the mirror will appear equally bright all over; but when breathed on the design will show, again disappearing as the moisture is removed. The metal punched in will be more dense than the rest of the surface, and will also be very slightly raised, this being imperceptible unless the polishing has been too long continued.

With iron mirrors a good mottled iron must be used, selecting hematite for preference; but in any case it must be chillable metal. Preferably it should be melted in a crucible, as this causes the least change in the metallic content, and as the metal can be made hot and fluid, it works well. The design must be worked out in iron of about / 8 inch in thickness, and must be level, as it has to touch the molten metal in the bottom of the mold. If preferred, the design may be cast and ground flat, but this depends largely on the design. The chill pattern should be coated with plumbago, and in molding the disk pattern of about / 4 inch in thickness should be laid on a board, and on this the design—chill—should be placed, and the mold should be rammed up from the back in the ordinary manner. The casting should be allowed to get cold in the mold, and should then be removed and dressed in the usual way. It should then be ground bright all over on emery wheels of successively finer grades, and the mirror surface should be buffed and polished until a steely mirror surface is produced. With a good mottled iron the chilled design will not show until the surface is breathed on or rubbed with a greasy rag, but will then show clearly.

MIRROR ALLOYS: See Alloys.

MIRRORS, FROSTED: See Glass.

MIRROR-LETTERING: See Lettering.

MIRROR POLISHES: See Polishes.

MIRRORS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

MIRRORS, TO PREVENT DIMMING OF: See Glass.

MIRROR VARNISH: See Varnishes.

MITE KILLER: See Insecticides.

MIXING STICKS FOR PAINT: See Paint.

MODELING WAX: See Wax, Modeling.

MOISTURE: See Insulation.

Molds:

Molding Sand.

—A high grade of molding sand should be fat, i. e., strongly mixed with clay. Naturally the molds of this sand should be employed only in a perfectly dry state. The fat molding sand is prepared artificially from quartz sand (fine sprinkling sand), fat clay, free {479} from lime and ferric oxide (red ocher). The molding sand is fixed by breaking up the loose pieces in which it is partly dug; next it is passed through a fine sieve and mixed up to one-third of its volume with charcoal dust, or, better still, with lampblack, which, owing to its looseness and fatness, does not detract so much from the binding qualities of the sand. The utility of the sand may be tested by pressing the finger into it, whereupon the fine lines of the skin should appear sharply defined; its binding power is ascertained by dropping a lump pressed together with the hand from a height, which is increased until it breaks.

MOLDS OF PLASTER: See Plaster.

Moles:

Mordants:

Mordant For Cement Surfaces.

—Take green vitriol and dissolve it in hot water. If the cement is rather fresh add 1 part of vinegar for each part of green vitriol. Best suited, however, is triple vinegar (vinegar containing / 13 per cent of acetic acid), which is alone sufficient for well-dried places. For such surfaces that have been smoothed with a steel tool and have hardly any pores, take alcohol, 1 part, and green vitriol, 10 parts, and apply this twice until the iron has acquired a yellowish color. This mordant forms a neutral layer between cement and paint, and causes the latter to dry well.

Mordant For Gold Size.

—A mordant for gold size gilding that has been thoroughly tested and found to be often preferable to the shellac-mixed article, is prepared from yolk of egg and glycerine, The yolk of an egg is twirled in a cup and up to 30 drops of glycerine are added to it. The more glycerine added, the longer the mordant will take to dry. Or else an equal portion of ordinary syrup is mixed with the yolk of egg. Same must be thinly liquid. If the mass becomes too tough it is warmed a little or thinned with a few drops of warm water. A single application is sufficient. Naturally, this style of gilding is only practicable indoors; it cannot withstand the influence of moisture.

Mortar, Asbestos.

Asbestos mortar consists of a mixture of asbestos with 10 per cent of white lime. Canadian asbestos is generally used, which is composed of 80 per cent of asbestos and 20 per cent of serpentine. The asbestos is ground and the coarse powder used for the first rough cast, while the finer material is employed for the second top-plastering. This mortar is highly fire-resisting and waterproof, is only half as heavy as cement mortar, and tough enough to admit of nails being driven in without breaking it.

MOSQUITO REMEDIES: See Insecticides.

MOSS REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, under Miscellaneous Methods.

MOTHS: See Turpentine.

MOTH PAPER: See Paper.

MOTH TRAPS AND MOTH KILLERS: See Household Formulas.

MOTHER-OF-PEARL: See Pearl.

MOTORS, ANTI-FREEZING SOLUTION FOR: See Freezing Preventives.

Mountants:

Mounting Drawings, Photos, Etc., Upon Fine Pasteboard.

—It frequently happens that the pasteboard will warp toward the face of the picture, even if left in a press till the gluing medium is perfectly dry. This fault can be {480} obviated by moistening the back of the pasteboard moderately with a sponge, and, while this is still wet, pasting the picture on with good, thin glue. If moistening the pasteboard is impracticable (with sensitive drawings, paintings, etc.), paste which has been pressed through a fine cloth is rubbed on, always in the same direction, and the picture is carefully and evenly pressed on. Then bend the pasteboard backward in a wide semicircle, and place it between two heavy objects on the table. After a few hours, when the paste is completely dry, put the picture down flat and load proportionately. Papers of large size, which cannot conveniently be placed between two objects, are wrapped up, and twine is stretched around, thus keeping them bent.

Mounting Prints On Glass.

—Take 4 ounces of gelatin; soak / 2 hour in cold water; then place in a glass jar, adding 16 ounces of water; put the jar in a large dish of warm water and dissolve the gelatin. When dissolved pour in a shallow tray; have the prints rolled on a roller, albumen side up; take the print by the corners and pass rapidly through the gelatin, using great care to avoid air bubbles. Squeeze carefully onto the glass. The better the quality of glass, the finer the effect.

MOUTH ANTISEPTICS: See Antiseptics.

MOUTH WASHES: See Dentifrices.

MOVING OBJECTS AND HOW TO PHOTOGRAPH THEM: See Photography.

MUCILAGE: See Adhesives.

Music Boxes.

Care must be exercised in taking apart, for if the box is wound up and the fly is removed, the cylinder is ruined. The spring relaxes at a bound, causing the cylinder to turn with such rapidity that the pins cannot resist the teeth, whose force is intensified by the velocity of the cylinder. The pins originally bent forward are broken, or pressed backwards; as they are hardened, they cannot be bent forward again without breaking. This accident involves the cost of a new cylinder, the most expensive part of the apparatus. Besides, the comb almost always loses some teeth and the wheel-work also suffers in its turn.

To avoid such mishaps the careful operator will take the parts asunder in the following order:

1. Remove the comb.

2. Take the apparatus from the box and completely disarm the spring.

3. Remove the barrel.

4. Remove the escapement.

5. Remove the cylinder.

The barrel and the wheels are cleaned like those of a watch.

The cylinder should be handled carefully. The holes should be well cleaned. Oil should be put only on the pivots, especially none on the part of the arbor to which the cylinder is attached. It is the first piece to be replaced, care being taken to see that the arbor turns freely, but without play, between the bridges. When it is in position, put in the escapement, then the barrel, and finally the comb.

The comb, representing the musical part of a simple box, cannot receive too much care. Before replacing it examine the springs closely, and in supplying the ones that are lacking, take for the model of size and form those resembling them the most. If the parts have been put together properly, then, as soon as the comb is screwed in its place, these should be found in good working order: the levée (lift)—that is, that the pins do not lift the teeth too much or too little; the tombée (fall)—that is, that the chords, the bass, the medium, and the treble, fall together; and the visée (pointing)—that the pins catch at the center of the ends of the teeth.

MUSLIN, PAINTING ON: See Painting.

Mustache Fixing Fluid.

Balsam of Tolu 1 part

Rectified spirit 3 parts

Jockey club 1 part

Dissolve the balsam in the liquids. Apply a few drops to the mustache with a brush, then twist into the desired shape.

Mustard Paper.

I.— India rubber 1 part

Benzol 49 parts

Black mustard in powder, a sufficiency.

Dissolve the India rubber in the benzol, then stir in the mustard until the mixture is of a suitable consistence for spreading. It was further recommended to remove the fixed oil from the mustard by percolation with benzol. Mustard paper thus made is of good quality, very active, and keeps well. {481}

II.— Black and white mustard, in No. 60 powder, deprived of fixed oil 1 part

Benzol solution of India rubber (1 in 40) 4 parts

Mix to a smooth mass, and spread the same over one side of a suitable paper by means of a plaster-spreading machine, or passing the paper over the mass contained in a suitable shallow vessel. Expose to warm air for a short time to dry. Preserve the dry paper in well-closed boxes. It may be useful to know that mustard paper, after spreading, should not be long exposed to light and air. By so doing not only does the mustard bleach but the rubber soon perishes. Moreover, mustard paper is hygroscopic, so that in a moist atmosphere it soon loses its virtue. It is, therefore, highly important that mustard paper should be rapidly dried in a warm atmosphere with free ventilation, then at once stored in well-closed packets. Thus prepared they keep well and remain active for many years.

MUSTARDS: See Condiments.

MYRRH ASTRINGENT: See Dentifrices.

Nail, Ingrowing.

Copious applications of dried powdered alum are sufficient to cure every case of ingrowing nail in about 5 days. The applications are not painful in the least, and the destruction of the pathologic tissue results in the formation of a hard, resistant, and non-sensitive bed for the nail, a perfect cure for the ingrowing tendency. Apply a fomentation of soap and water for 24 hours beforehand and then pour the alum into the space between the nail and its bed, tamponing with cotton to keep the alum in place, and repeating the application daily. The suppuration rapidly dries up, and pain and discomfort are relieved almost at once.

NAIL POLISHES: See Cosmetics.

NAPOLEON CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

NAPHTHOL SOAP: See Soap.

Neatsfoot Oil.

Crude neatsfoot oil 5,000 parts

Alcohol, 90 per cent 2,500 parts

Tannin 5 parts

Place in a clearing flask, agitate vigorously and allow to stand for 8 days in a warm room with daily repetition of the shaking. Then draw off the spirit of wine on top, rinse again with 1,000 parts of spirit of wine (90 per cent) and place the oil in a temperature of about 53 / 2° F. Allow to stand in this temperature for at least 6 weeks, protected from the light, and then filter.

NEEDLES, ANTI-RUST PAPER FOR: See Rust Preventives.

NEGATIVES, HOW TO USE SPOILED: See Photography.

NERVE PASTE: See also Dental Cements, under Cements.

Arsenious acid 4 parts

Morphine sulphate 2 parts

Clove oil 1 part

Creosote, quantity sufficient to make a paste.

After the nerve is destroyed the following paste is to be put in the cavity:

Alum 1 part

Thymol 1 part

Zinc oxide 1 part

Glycerine 1 part

NERVINE OINTMENT: See Ointments.

NESSELRODE PUDDING: See Ice Creams.

NETS: See Cordage.

Nickel-Testing.

Pure nickel will remain nearly white, while “patent nickel,” or nickel-copper will not retain its primitive brilliancy, but soon becomes slightly oxidized and grayish in color. The magnet furnishes a good means of testing. The unadulterated nickel is distinctly sensitive to magnetism, while that much alloyed is destitute of this property.

NICKEL ALLOYS: See Alloys.

NICKEL, TO REMOVE RUST FROM: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

NICKEL-PLATING: See Plating.

NICKEL STEEL: See Steel.

NICKELING, TEST FOR: See Plating. {482}

NIELLO: See Steel.

NITROGLYCERINE: See Explosives.

NOYAUX LIQUEUR: See Wines and Liquors.

NUT CANDY STICKS: See Confectionery.

NUTMEG CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

NUTMEG ESSENCE: See Essences and Extracts.

OAK: See Wood.

ODONTER: See Dentifrices.

Oils

Clock Oil.

—Put 2,000 parts, by weight, of virgin oil in a decanting vessel, add a solution of 40 parts of ether tannin in 400 parts of water and shake until completely emulsified. Let stand for 8 days, with frequent shaking; next, add 100 parts of talcum and, when this has also been well shaken, 1,600 parts of water. Allow to settle for 24 hours, and then run off the lower water layer, repeating the washing as long as the wash water still shows a coloration with ferric chloride. Pour the contents of the decanting vessel into an evaporating dish; then add 200 parts of thoroughly dried and finely ground cooking salt; let stand for 24 hours and filter through paper. The clock oil is now ready, and should be filled in brown glass bottles, holding 20 to 25 parts (about 1 ounce), which must be corked up well and kept at a cool temperature.

Cod-liver Oil:

Aromatic Cod-liver Oil.—

Coumarin 0.01 parts

Saccharine 0.50 parts

Vanillin 0.10 parts

Alcohol, absolute 5.40 parts

Oil of lemon 5.00 parts

Oil of peppermint 1.00 part

Oil of neroli 1.00 part

Cod-liver oil to make 1,000 parts

Deodorized Cod-liver Oil.

—Mix 400 parts of cod-liver oil with 20 parts of ground coffee and 10 parts of bone black, warm the mixture in an open vessel to 140° F., let it stand 5 days, shaking occasionally, and strain through linen. The oil acquires the taste of coffee.

Cod-liver Oil Emulsions.—

I.— Calcium hypophosphite 80 grains

Sodium hypophosphite 120 grains

Sodium chloride 60 grains

Gum acacia, in powder 2 ounces

Elixir of glucoside 20 minims

Essential oil of almonds 15 minims

Glycerine 2 fluidounces

Cod-liver oil 8 fluidounces

Distilled water, a sufficient quantity to produce 16 fluidounces.

II.—Mix 190 parts of powdered sugar with 5 parts of acacia and 500 parts of tragacanth in a mortar. Mix in a large bottle and shake thoroughly together 500 parts of cod-liver oil and 200 parts of a cold infusion of coffee. Gradually add a part of this mixture to the powder in the mortar and triturate until emulsified. To the remaining liquid mixture add 100 parts of rum, then gradually incorporate with the contents of the mortar by trituration.

Extracting Oil From Cottonseed.

—Claim is made for a process of extraction, in an English patent, in which the seeds are placed in a rotable vessel mounted on a hollow shaft divided into compartments by means of a partition. The solvent is introduced at one end of this shaft and passes into the vessel, which is then made to rotate. After the extraction the bulk of the solvent and the extracted oil pass away through an exit pipe, and steam is then introduced through the same opening as the solvent, in order to cook the seeds and expel the residual solvent. The steam and the vapors pass through perforations in a scraper fixed to the shaft and thence through connected pipes into the other compartment of the shaft, the end of which is attached to a condenser.

Silver Nitrate Test For Cottonseed Oil.

—Investigations of Charabout and March throw some light on the value of this test in presence of olive oil. The free-fat acids obtained from cottonseed oil by saponification were treated in accordance with the method of Milliau on a water bath with a 3 per cent solution of silver nitrate, and the brown precipitate thus formed subjected to a chemical examination. It was found to consist chiefly of a brown silver salt composed of a fat acid melting at 52° F., and {483} congealing at 120° to 122° F., and of sulphide of silver. Olive oil, which contains a sulphur compound of an analogous composition, is also capable of forming a more or less distinct precipitate of a dark colored silver sulphide with nitrate of silver. It is important to bear this fact in mind when examining olive oil for cottonseed oil.

Floral Hair Oil.—

White vaseline 5,000 parts

Floricin, pure 800 parts

Linalool rosé 60 parts

Terpineol 50 parts

Aubepine (hawthorne), liquid 12 parts

Floral Hair Pomade.—

White ceresine 250 parts

Floricin, pure 1,600 parts

Vanillin 3 parts

Geranium oil 5 parts

Isoeugenol 4 parts

Floricin Brilliantine.—

Floricin oil 2,100 parts

White ceresine 250 parts

Ylang-ylang oil 2 parts

Kananga oil 5 parts

Oil of rose, artificial 1 part

Cheirantia 5 parts

Solid Linseed Oil.

—Cements for the manufacture of linoleum and other similar substances are composed to a large extent of linseed oil, oxidized or polymerized until it has become solid. The old process of preparing this solid oil is tedious, costly, and invites danger from fire. It consists in running linseed oil over sheets of thin cloth hung from the top of a high building. The thin layer of oil upon the cloth dries, and then a second layer is obtained in the same way. This is continued until a thick skin of solid oil is formed on either side of the cloth. A new method of solidifying linseed oil is by means of alkalies. The drying oils, when heated with basic substances such as the alkalies, polymerize and become solid. Hertkorn makes use of the oxides of the alkaline earths, or their salts with weak acids, such as their soaps. When chalk or lime is added to the oil during the process of oxidation, either during the liquid or the plastic stage, it forms a calcium soap, and causes polymerization to set in in the partially oxidized oil. Similarly, if caustic soda or caustic potash be added, the action is not caused by them in the free state, but by the soaps which they form. Oxidized oil is more readily saponified than raw oil, and the greater the oxidation, the more readily does saponification take place. Lime soaps are not soluble in water, whereas soda and potash soaps are. Consequently a cement made with the latter, if exposed to the weather, will be acted upon by rain and moisture, owing to the soluble soap contained in it, while a cement made with lime will not be acted upon. It is suggested that the action of the bases on linseed oil is simply due to their neutralization of the free acid. The acidity of linseed oil increases as it becomes oxidized. When the basic matter is added part of the free acid is neutralized, and polymerization sets in. The presence of a large amount of free acid must therefore hinder polymerization. From 5 to 10 per cent of chalk or lime is considered to be the amount which gives the best result in practice.

Decolorizing Or Bleaching Linseed Oil.

—Linseed oil may be bleached by the aid of chemical bodies, the process of oxidizing or bleaching being best performed by means of peroxide of hydrogen. For this purpose, the linseed oil to be bleached is mixed with 5 per cent peroxide of hydrogen in a tin or glass bottle, and the mixture is shaken repeatedly. After a few days have elapsed the linseed oil is entirely bleached and clarified, so that it can be poured off from the peroxide of hydrogen, which has been reduced to oxide of hydrogen, i. e., water, by the process of oxidation. The use of another oxidizing medium, such as chloride of lime and hydrochloric acid or bichromate of calcium and sulphuric acid, etc., cannot be recommended to the layman, as the operation requires more care and is not without danger. If there is no hurry about the preparation of bleached linseed oil, sun bleaching seems to be the most recommendable method. For this only a glass bottle is required, or, better still, a flat glass dish, of any shape, which can be covered with a protruding piece of glass. For the admission of air, lay some sticks of wood over the dish and the glass on top. The thinner the layer of linseed oil, the quicker will be the oxidation process. It is, of course, necessary to place the vessel in such a manner that it is exposed to the rays of the sun for many hours daily.

Linseed Oil For Varnish-making.

—Heat in a copper vessel 50 gallons Baltic oil to 280° F., add 2 / 2 pounds calcined white vitriol, and stir well together. Keep the oil at the above temperature for half an hour, then draw the fire, and in 24 hours decant the clear oil. It should stand for at least 4 weeks. {484}

Refining Linseed Oil.

—Put 236 gallons of oil into a copper boiler, pour in 6 pounds of oil of vitriol, and stir them together for 3 hours, then add 6 pounds fuller’s earth well mixed with 14 pounds hot lime, and stir for 3 hours. The oil must be put in a copper vessel with an equal quantity of water. Now boil for 3 hours, then extinguish the fire. When cold draw off the water. Let the mixture settle for a few weeks.

Mineral Oil:

Production of Consistent Mineral Oils.—

By weight

I.— Mineral oil 100 parts

Linseed oil 25 parts

Ground nut oil 25 parts

Lime 10 parts

II.— Mineral oil 100 parts

Rosin oil 100 parts

Rape seed oil 50 parts

Linseed oil 75 parts

Lime 25 parts

Mixing Castor Oil With Mineral Oils.

—Castor oil is heated for 6 hours in an autoclave at a temperature of 500° to 575° F., and under a pressure of 4 to 6 atmospheres. When cold the resulting product mixes in all proportions with mineral oils.

Bleaching Oils:

Linseed Oil Or Poppy Oil.

—Agitate in a glass balloon 25,000 parts, by weight, of oil with a solution of 50 parts, by weight, potassium permanganate in 1,250 parts, by volume, of water. Let stand for 24 hours at a gentle warmth and add 75 parts, by weight, of powdered sodium sulphite. Agitate strongly and add 100 parts, by weight, of hydrochloric acid and again agitate. Let stand until decolorization takes place, then wash the oil with a sufficiency of water, carrying in suspension chalk, finely powdered, until the liquid no longer has an acid reaction. Finally filter off over anhydrous sodium sulphate.

Boiled Oil.

—The following is especially adapted for zinc painting, but will also answer for any paint: Mix 1 part binoxide of manganese, in coarse powder, but not dusty, with 10 parts nut or linseed oil. Keep it gently heated and frequently stirred for about 30 hours, or until the oil begins to turn reddish.

British Oil.—

I.— Oil of turpentine 40 parts

Barbadoes pitch 26 parts

Oil of rosemary 1 part

Oil of origanum 1 part

II.— Oil of turpentine 2 parts

Rape oil 20 parts

Spirit of tar 2 parts

Alkanet root, quantity sufficient.

Macerate the alkanet root in the rape oil until the latter is colored deep red; then strain off and add the other ingredients.

Decolorizing And Deodorizing Oils.

—I.—One may partially or completely deodorize and decolorize rank fish and other oils by sending a current of hot air or of steam through them, after having heated them from 175° to 200° F. To decolorize palm oil pass through it a current of steam under pressure corresponding to a temperature of 230° F., agitating the oil constantly. The vapor is then passed through leaden tuyeres of about 2 inches diameter, 10 hours being sufficient for deodorizing 4 tons of oil.

II.—Another method that may be applied to almost all kinds of fats and oils with excellent results is the following: Melt say 112 parts, by weight, of palm oil in a boiler. When the mass is entirely liquefied add to it a solution of calcium chloride, made by dissolving 7 parts, by weight, of lime chloride for every 84 parts, by weight, of oil in water, and mix intimately. After cooling, the mass hardens and is cut into small bits and exposed to the air for a few weeks. After this exposure the material is reassembled in a boiler of iron, jacketed on the inside with lead; a quantity of sulphuric acid diluted to 5 per cent, equal in amount to the lime chloride previously used, is added, and heat is applied until the oil melts and separates from the other substances. It is then left to cool off and solidify.

Decomposition Of Oils, Fats, Etc.

—In many of the processes at present in use, whereby oils and fats are decomposed by steam at a high pressure, the time during which the oil or fat has to be exposed to high pressure and temperature has the effect of considerably darkening the resulting product. Hannig’s process claims to shorten the time required, by bringing the steam and oil into more intimate contact. The oil to be treated is projected in fine streams into the chamber containing steam at 8 to 10 atmospheres pressure. The streams of oil are projected with sufficient force to cause them to strike against the walls of the chamber, and they are thus broken up into minute globules which mix intimately with the steam. In this way the most satisfactory conditions for the decomposition of the oil are obtained. {485}

Driffield Oils.—

Barbadoes tar 1 ounce

Linseed oil 16 ounces

Oil turpentine 3 ounces

Oil vitriol / 2 ounce

Add the oil of vitriol to the other ingredients very gradually, with constant stirring.

Drying Oils.

—To dry oils for varnishes, paintings, etc., the most economical means is to boil them with shot, to leave them for some time in contact with shot, or else to boil them with litharge. Another method consists in boiling the oils with equal parts of lead, tin, and sulphate of zinc in the ratio of / 10 part (weight) of the united metals to 1 part of oil to be treated. These metals must be granulated, which is easily accomplished by melting them separately and putting them in cold water. They will be found at the bottom of the water in the shape of small balls. It is in this manner, by the way, that shot is produced.

Dust-laying Oil.

—A process has been patented for rendering mineral oils miscible in all proportions of water. The method consists of forming an intimate mixture of the oil with a soap which is soluble in water. The most simple method is as follows: The oil is placed in a tank provided with an agitator. The latter is set in motion and the fatty oil or free fatty acid from which the soap is to be formed is added, and mixed intimately with the mineral oil. When the mixture is seen to be thoroughly homogeneous, the alkali, in solution in water, is added little by little and the stirring continued until a thorough emulsion is obtained, of which the constituents do not separate, even after prolonged standing at ordinary temperatures. The agitation may be produced either by a mechanical apparatus or by forcing air in under pressure. As a rule, the operation can be carried out in the cold, but in certain cases the solution of the fatty body and its saponification requires the application of moderate heat. This may be obtained by using either a steam-jacketed pan, or by having the steam coil within the pan, or live steam may be blown through the mixture, serving at the same time both as a heating and stirring agent. Any fatty matter or fatty acid suitable for soap-making may be used, and the base may be any one capable of forming a soluble soap, most commonly the alkaline hydroxides, caustic soda, and caustic potash, as also ammonia. The raw materials are chosen according to the use to which the finished product is to be applied. A good formula, suitable for preparing an oily liquid for watering dusty roads, is as follows:

By weight

Heavy mineral oil 75 parts

Commercial olein 2 parts

Commercial ammonia 1.5 parts

Water 21.5 parts

Floor Oils.—

I.— Neatsfoot oil 1 part

Cottonseed oil 1 part

Petroleum oil 1 part

II.— Beeswax 8 parts

Water 56 parts

Potassium carbonate 4 parts

Dissolve the potash in 12 parts of water; heat together the wax and the remaining water till the wax is liquefied; then mix the two and boil together until a perfect emulsion is effected. Color, if desired, with a solution of annatto.

Ground-laying Oil For Ceramics.

—Boil together until thoroughly incorporated 1 pint of linseed oil, 1 pint of dissolved gum mastic, / 2 ounce of red lead, / 2 ounce of rosin. In using mix with Venice turpentine.

Oil Suitable For Use With Gold.

—Heat and incorporate linseed oil, 1 quart; rape oil, 1 pint; Canadian balsam, 3 pints; rectified spirits of tar, 1 quart.

Wool Oil.

—These are usually produced by the distillation in retorts of Yorkshire grease and other greases. The distilled oil is tested for quality, and is brought down to 70 per cent or 50 per cent grades by the addition of a suitable quantity of mineral oil. The lower the quality of the grease used the lower is the grade of the resulting wool oil.

OIL, CASTOR: See Castor Oil.

OIL FOR FORMING A BEAD ON LIQUORS: See Wines and Liquors.

OILS FOR HARNESS: See Leather.

OILS (EDIBLE), TESTS FOR: See Foods.

OIL, HOW TO POUR OUT: See Castor Oil.

OIL, LUBRICATING: See Lubricants. {486}

OILS, PURIFICATION OF: See Fats.

OILCLOTH: See Linoleum.

OILCLOTH ADHESIVES: See Adhesives.

OILCLOTH VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

OILING FIBERS AND FABRICS: See Waterproofing.

OILSKINS: See Waterproofing.

OIL REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

OIL, SOLIDIFIED: See Lubricants.

Ointments

Arnica Salve.—

Solid extract of arnica 2 parts

Rosin ointment 16 parts

Petrolatum 4 parts

Sultanas 16 parts

Fine cut tobacco 1 part

Boil the raisins and the tobacco in 40 ounces of water until exhausted, express the liquid, and evaporate down to 8 ounces. Soften the arnica extract in a little hot water and mix in the liquid. Melt the rosin ointment and petrolatum together, and add the liquid to the melted mass and incorporate thoroughly.

Barbers’ Itch.—

Ichthyol 30 grains

Salicylic acid 12 grains

Mercury oleate (10 per cent) 3 drachms

Lanolin 1 ounce

Mix. To be kept constantly applied to the affected parts.

Brown Ointment.—

Rosin 1 ounce

Lead plaster 4 ounces

Soap cerate 8 ounces

Yellow beeswax 1 ounce

Olive oil 7 / 2 fluidounces

Chilblains.

—The following are for unbroken chilblains:

I.— Sulphurous acid 3 parts

Glycerine 1 part

Water 1 part

II.— Balsam Peru 1 part

Alcohol 24 parts

Hydrochloric acid 1 part

Tincture benzoin compound 8 parts

Dissolve the balsam in the alcohol, and add the acid and tincture. Apply morning and evening.

Domestic Ointments.—

I.— Vaseline 80 parts

Diachylon ointment 30 parts

Carbolic acid 4 parts

Camphor 5 parts

II.— Butter, fresh (unsalted) 750 parts

Wax, yellow 125 parts

Rosin, white 100 parts

Nutmeg oil 15 parts

Peru balsam 1 part

III.— Lead plaster, simple 6,090 parts

Vaseline, yellow 1,000 parts

Camphor 65 parts

Carbolic acid 50 parts

Mix.

Green Salve.—

White pine turpentine 8 ounces

Lard, fresh 8 ounces

Honey 4 ounces

Beeswax, yellow 4 ounces

Melt, stir well, and add

Verdigris, powdered 4 drachms

Apply locally.

This cannot be surpassed when used for deep wounds, as it prevents the formation of proud flesh and keeps up a healthy discharge.

Salve For All Wounds.—

Lard, fresh 16 ounces

White lead, dry 3 ounces

Red lead, dry 1 ounce

Beeswax, yellow 3 ounces

Black rosin 2 ounces

Mix, melt, and boil for 45 minutes, then add

Common turpentine 4 ounces

Boil for 3 minutes and cool.

Apply locally to cuts, burns, sores, ulcers, etc. It first draws, then heals.

Irritating Plaster.—

Tar, purified 16 ounces

Burgundy pitch 1 ounce

White pine turpentine 1 ounce

Rosin, common 2 ounces

Melt and add

Mandrake root, powdered 1 drachm

Bloodroot, powdered 1 ounce

Poke root, powdered 1 ounce

Indian turnip root, powdered 1 ounce

Apply to the skin in the form of a {487} plaster (spread on muslin) and renew it daily.

This salve will raise a sore which is to be wiped with a dry cloth to remove matter, etc. The sore must not be wetted. This is a powerful counter-irritant for removing internal pains, and in other cases where an irritating plaster is necessary.

Mercury Salves.

—I.—Red Salve.—Red mercury oxide, 1 part; melted lard, 9 parts.

II.—White Salve.—Mercury precipitate, 1 part; melted lard, 9 parts.

Pink salve.

Ammoniated mercury 1 ounce

Mercuric oxide, precipitated 2 / 2 ounces

Red mercuric sulphide (vermilion) 60 grains

Perfume / 2 fluidounce

Lard 1 / 2 pounds

Prepared suet / 2 pound

Antiseptic Nervine Ointment.—

Iodoform 2 parts

Salol 4 parts

Boric acid 5 parts

Antipyrine 5 parts

Vaseline 80 parts

Photographers’ Ointment.

—The following protects the hands from photographic chemicals:

Best castile soap, in fine shavings 1 ounce

Water 1 ounce

Wax 1 ounce

Ammonia 45 minims

Lanolin 1 ounce

The soap is dissolved in the water heated for that purpose, the wax mixed in with much stirring, and, when all is in solution, the ammonia is added. When clear, the lanolin is put in, and then, if the mixture is very thick, water is added until the whole has the consistency of honey. Keep in a covered stoneware jar. The hands should be first washed with ordinary soap, and then, while the lather is still on them, a bit of the mixture about the size of a hazel nut is rubbed in until all is absorbed, and the hands are dry. At the close of the work, the film of wax is washed off in warm water and a little lanolin rubbed into the hands.

Pain-subduing Ointment.

—The following is an excellent formula:

Tincture of capsicum 5 parts

Tincture of camphor 1 part

Ammonia water 2 parts

Alcohol 2 parts

Soap liniment 2 parts

Skin Ointment.

—I.—Add about 2 per cent of phenol to petrolatum, perfuming it with oil of bergamot and color a dull green. It has been suggested that a mixture of Prussian blue and yellow ocher would answer as the coloring agent.

II.— Phenol 40 grains

Boric acid 2 drachms

Oil of bergamot 90 minims

Petrolatum 1 pound

Color with chlorophyll.

OINTMENTS FOR VETERINARY PURPOSES: See Veterinary Formulas.

OLEIN SOAP: See Soap.

OLEOMARGARINE: See Butter.

OLIVE-OIL PASTE: See Butter Substitutes.

ONYX CEMENTS: See Adhesives.

ORANGEADE: See Beverages, under Lemonades.

ORANGE BITTERS AND CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

ORANGE DROPS: See Confectionery.

ORANGE EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts.

ORANGE FRAPPÉ: See Beverages, under Lemonades.

ORANGE PHOSPHATE: See Beverages.

ORGEAT PUNCH: See Beverages, under Lemonades.

ORTOL DEVELOPER: See Photography.

OXIDIZING: See Bronzing, Plating, Painting.

OXIDE, MAGNETIC: See Rust Preventives.

OXOLIN: See Rubber.

OZONATINE: See Air Purifying.

PACKAGE POP: See Beverages, under Ginger Ale.

PACKAGE WAX: See Waxes. {488}

Packings:

Packing For Stuffing Boxes.—

Tallow 10 parts

Barrel soap, non-filled 30 parts

Cylinder oil 10 parts

Talcum Venetian, finely powdered 20 parts

Graphite, finely washed 6 parts

Powdered asbestos 6 parts

Melt the tallow and barrel soap together, add the other materials in rotation, mix intimately in a mixing machine, and fill in 4-pound cans.

Packing For Gasoline Pumps.

—For packing pumps on gasoline engines use asbestos wick-packing rubbed full of regular laundry soap; it will work without undue friction and will pack tightly. Common rubber packing is not as good, as the gasoline cuts it out.

PADS OF PAPER: See Paper Pads.

PAIN-SUBDUING OINTMENT: See Ointments.

Painting Processes:

Painting Ornaments Or Letters On Cloth And Paper.

—Dissolve gum shellac in 95 per cent alcohol at the rate of 1 pound of shellac to 3 pints of alcohol, and mix with it any dry color desired. If it becomes too thick, thin with more alcohol. This works free, does not bleed out, imparts brilliancy to the color, and wears well. The preparation can be used also on paper.

Painting On Marble.

—To paint marble in water colors, it must be first thoroughly cleaned and all grease completely removed. The slab is washed well, and then rubbed off with benzine by means of a rag or sponge. In order to be quite sure, add a little ox gall or aguoline to the colors. After marble has been painted with water colors it cannot be polished any more.

Painting On Muslin.

—To paint on muslin requires considerable skill. Select a smooth wall or partition, upon which tack the muslin, drawing the fabric taut and firm. Then make a solution of starch and water, adding one-fourth starch to three-fourths water, and apply a glaze of this to the muslin. To guard against the striking in of the paint, and to hold it more securely in place and texture, mix the pigment with rubbing varnish to the consistency of a stiff paste, and then thin with turpentine to a free working condition. A double thick camel’s-hair brush, of a width to correspond properly with the size of the surface to be coated, is the best tool with which to coat fine muslin. A fitch-hair tool is probably best suited to the coarser muslin. Many painters, when about to letter on muslin, wet the material with water; but this method is not so reliable as sizing with starch and water. Wetting canvas or duck operates very successfully in holding the paint or color in check, but these materials should not be confounded with muslin, which is of an entirely different texture.

PAINTING ON LEATHER: See Leather.

Paintings:

Protection For Oil Paintings.

—Oil paintings should under no circumstances be varnished over before the colors are surely and unmistakably dry, otherwise the fissuring and early decay of the surface may be anticipated. The contention of some people that oil paintings need the protection of a coat of varnish is based upon the claim that the picture, unvarnished, looks dead and lusterless in parts and glossy in still others, the value and real beauty of the color being thus unequally manifested. It is not to be inferred, however, that a heavy coating of varnish is required. When it is deemed advisable to varnish over an oil painting the varnish should be mastic, with perhaps 3 or 4 drops of refined linseed oil added to insure against cracking. A heavy body of varnish used over paintings must be strictly prohibited, inasmuch as the varnish, as it grows in age, naturally darkens in color, and in so doing carries with it a decided clouding and discoloration of the delicate pigments. A thinly applied coat of mastic varnish affords the required protection from all sorts and conditions of atmospheric impurities, besides fulfilling its mission in other directions.

Oil paintings, aquarelles, etc., may be also coated with a thin layer of Canada balsam, and placed smoothly on a pane of glass likewise coated with Canada balsam, so that both layers of balsam come together. Then the pictures are pressed down from the back, to remove all air bubbles.

To Renovate Old Oil Paintings.

—When old oil paintings have become dark and cracked, proceed as follows: Pour alcohol in a dish and put the picture over it, face downward. The fumes of the alcohol dissolve the paint of the picture, the fissures close up again, and {489} the color assumes a freshness which is surprising. Great caution is absolutely necessary, and one must look at the painting very often, otherwise it may happen that the colors will run together or even run off in drops.

PAINTINGS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

Paints

(See also Acid-Proofing, Ceramics, Enamels, Fireproofing, Glazing, Painting Processes, Pigments, Rust Preventives, Varnishes, and Waterproofing.)

Paint Bases:

Dry Bases For Paints.

—The following colors and minerals, mixed in the proportions given and then ground to fine powder, make excellent dry paints, and may be thinned with turpentine oil, and a small percentage of cheap varnish to consistency required.

Buff.—

Yellow ocher 44 pounds

Whiting 6 pounds

Oxide of zinc 5 pounds

Plaster of Paris ․ / 2 pound

Brick Brown.—

Yellow ocher 26 pounds

Calcined copperas 4 pounds

Red hematite 1 / 4 pounds

Best silica 7 pounds

Whiting 18 pounds

Gray.—

Oxide of zinc 30 pounds

White lead 6 pounds

Whiting 12 pounds

Bone black / 4 pound

Yellow ocher 2 pounds

Crimson.—

Indian red 25 pounds

Crocus martis 7 pounds

Oxide of zinc 6 pounds

Whiting 6 pounds

Vandyke Brown.—

Yellow ocher 25 pounds

Whiting 18 pounds

Umber 4 pounds

Oxide of zinc 7 pounds

Purple oxide of iron 1 pound

Blood Red.—

Crocus martis 30 pounds

Whiting 20 pounds

Hematite 3 pounds

Silica 6 pounds

Venetian red 2 pounds

Drab.—

Yellow ocher 40 pounds

Whiting 10 pounds

Oxide of zinc 8 / 2 pounds

Sulphate of barytes 1 pound

Paint For Blackboards.—

Shellac 1 pound

Alcohol 1 gallon

Lampblack (fine quality) 4 ounces

Powdered emery 4 ounces

Ultramarine blue 4 ounces

Dissolve the shellac in the alcohol. Place the lampblack, emery, and ultramarine blue on a cheese-cloth strainer, pour on part of the shellac solution, stirring constantly and gradually adding the solution until all of the powders have passed through the strainer.

Dark-green Paint For Blackboards.

—Mix 1 part Prussian blue and 1 part chrome green with equal parts of gilders’ size and alcohol to a thin cream consistency. Apply with a large, stiff brush and after an hour a second coat is given. After 24 to 48 hours smooth the surface with a felt cloth. This renders it rich and velvety. The shade must be a deep black green and the quantities of the colors have to be modified accordingly if necessary. Old blackboards should be previously thoroughly cleaned with soda.