A Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts, &c. Volume II (part 11)

RED, AN′ILINE. Syn. Rosaniline. This artificial base is prepared by the action of bichloride of tin, mercurial salts, arsenic acid, and many other oxidising agents, upon aniline. The aniline reps of commerce, now so largely used for dyeing, are saline compounds, more or less pure, of rosaline, with 1 equiv. of acid. These compounds are known under the names of ‘magenta,’ ‘fuchsine,’ ‘roseine,’ ‘azaleine,’ &c. In England the aniline red commonly employed is the acetate of rosaniline, which has been prepared by Mr Nicholson in splendid crystals of very considerable dimensions. In France the hydrochlorate of rosaniline is chiefly employed. The free base presents itself in colourless crystalline plates, but its compounds with 1 equiv. of acid have, when dry, a beautiful green colour, with golden lustre, and furnish with water an intensely coloured red solution. See Purple (Aniline) and Red dye, also Tar colours.

RED DYE. The substances principally employed for dyeing reds are cochineal, lac-dye, and madder, which, under proper treatment, yield permanent colours of considerable brilliancy, the first and third more particularly so. Extremely beautiful but fugitive colours are also obtained from Brazil wood, safflower, archil, and some other substances. For purple-red or crimsons (magenta, fuchsine, &c.), on silk or wool, the aniline reds (salts of rosaniline) are now extensively used. (See Tar-colours.) The mode of applying them is noticed under Purple dye. Silk is usually dyed of a permanent red or scarlet with cochineal, safflower, or lac dye; wool, with cochineal and, still more frequently, with madder; and cotton, with madder (chiefly), Brazil wood, &c. The leading properties of these substances are given under their respective names, and the methods of employing them are generally referred to in the articles Dyeing, Mordants, &c., and, therefore, need not be repeated here. The following may, however, be useful to the reader:—

1. First, give the ‘goods’ a mordant of alum, or of alum-and-tartar, rinse, dry, and boil them in a bath of madder. If acetate of iron be used instead of alum, the colour will be purple, and by combining the two, as mordants, any intermediate shade may be produced.

2. The yarn or cloth is put into a very weak alkaline bath at the boiling temperature, then washed, dried, and ‘galled’ (or, when the calico is to be printed, for this bath may be substituted one of cow-dung, subsequent exposure to the air for a day or two, and immersion in very dilute sulphuric acid. In this way the stuff gets opened, and takes and retains the colour better). After the ‘galling’ the goods are dried, and alumed twice; then dried, rinsed, and passed through a madder bath, composed of ⁄4 lb. of good madder for every lb. weight of the goods; this bath is slowly raised to the boiling point in the course of 50 or 60 minutes, more or less, according to the shade of colour required; after a few minutes the stuff is taken out, and slightly washed; the operation is then repeated, in the same manner, with fresh madder; it is, lastly, washed and dried, or passed through a hot soap bath, which carries off the fawn-coloured particles.

3. (Adrianople red, Turkey r.) This commences with cleansing or scouring the goods by alkaline baths, after which they are steeped in oily liquors brought to a creamy state by a little carbonate of soda; a bath of sheep’s dung is next often used as an intermediate or secondary steep; the oleaginous bath, and the operation of removing the superfluous or loosely adhering oil with an alkaline bath, is repeated two or three times, due care being taken to dry the goods thoroughly after each distinct process; then follow the distinct operations of galling, aluming, maddering, and brightening, the last for removing the dun-coloured principle, by boiling at an elevated temperature with alkaline liquids and soap; the whole is generally concluded with treatment by spirit of tin. In this way are given the most brilliant reds on cotton.

Obs. Wool takes from half its weight of madder to an equal weight to dye it red; cotton and linen take rather less. On account of the comparative insolubility of the colouring matter of madder, this dye-stuff must be boiled along with the goods to be dyed, and not removed from the decoction, as is the practice in using many other articles. Other dye-stuffs are frequently added to the madder bath, to vary the shades of colour. Decoction of fustic, weld, logwood, quercitron, &c., are often thus employed, the mordants being modified accordingly. By adding bran to the madder bath the colour is said to be rendered much lighter, and of a more agreeable tint.

RED GUM. A slight eruptive disease of infancy, occasioned by teething, and, less frequently, by irritation from rough flannel worn next to the skin. See Strophulus.

RED LAV′ENDER. See Tincture of Lavender (Compound).

RED LIQ′UOR. The crude solution of acetate or sulpho-acetate of alumina employed in calico printing. It is generally prepared by mixing crude sulphate of alumina with about an equal weight of crude pyrolignite of lime, both being in the state of solution.

RED PIG′MENTS. The preparation of the principal red pigments are described under their respective names. The following list includes most of the reds in use:—

Arme′nian Bole. Syn. Bole Armenian; Bolus Armeniæ, L. Formerly imported from Armenia, Portugal, Tuscany, &c.; now generally made by grinding together a mixture of whiting, red oxide of iron, and red ochre, in nearly equal proportions.

Red, Brown. A factitious mixture of red oxide of iron and red ochre, in variable proportions.

Car′mine.

Carmina′ted Lake.

Red Chrome. Syn. Dichromate of lead, Red chromate of l.; Plumbi dichromas, P. chromus rubrum, L. Prep. 1. Boil pure carbonate of lead with chromate of potassa, in excess, until it assumes a proper colour; then wash it well with pure water, and dry it in the shade.

2. Boil neutral chromate of lead with a little water of ammonia or lime water.

3. (Liebig and Wöhler.) Fuse saltpetre at a low red heat in a Hessian crucible, and throw in chromate of lead (pure chrome yellow), by small portions at a time, as long as a strong ebullition follows upon each addition of the pigment, observing to stir the mixture frequently with a glass rod; after repose for a minute or two, pour off the fluid part, and, as soon as the solid residuum is cold, wash it with water, and dry it by a gentle heat.

Obs. Great care must be taken, in conducting the last process, not to employ too much heat, nor to allow the saline matter to stand long over the newly formed chrome-red, as the colour is thus apt to change to a brown or orange. When well managed the product has a crystalline texture, and so beautiful a red colour that it vies with native cinnabar. The liquid poured from the crucible is reserved for manufacturing chrome yellow.

Red, In′dian. Syn. Purple ochre; Ochra purpurea Persica, Terra Persica, L. This is a native production, brought from Ormus. A factitious article is prepared by calcining a mixture of colcothar and red ochre.

Lakes (Various).

Red, Light. From yellow ochre, by careful calcination. It works well with both oil and water, and produces an admirable flesh-colour by admixture with pure white. All the ochres, both red and yellow, are darkened by heat.

Red Or′ange. Syn. Sandix. Obtained from white lead by calcination. Very bright.

Real′gar. Bisulphide of arsenic.

Red Bole. See Armenian and Venetian bole. (Ochres.)

Red Chalk. A clay iron ore, much used for pencils and crayons, and, when ground, also for paints.

Red Lead. Syn. Minium. The finest red lead is prepared by exposing ground and elutriated massicott, or dross of lend, in shallow iron trays (about 12 inches square, and about 4 or 5 inches deep), piled up on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace, to a heat of about 600 to 650° Fahr., with occasional stirring, until it acquires the proper colour. The furnace employed for the preparation of massicot during the day usually possesses sufficient residuary heat during the night for this process, by which fuel is saved. Lead for the above purpose should be quite free from copper and iron.

Red O′chre. A natural product abounding on the Mendip hills.

Red Or′piment. Syn. Red arsenic. Tersulphide of arsenic.

Red Vene′tian. Syn. Bolus Veneta, L. A species of ochre, brought from Italy.

Rose Pink. This is whiting coloured with a decoction of Brazil wood to which a little pearlash has been added. A very pretty colour, but it does not stand. It is always kept in a damp state. The colour may be varied by substituting alum for pearlash, or by the addition of a little spirits of tin.

Vermil′ion. (See under that word.)

REDUC′TION. Syn. Revivification. A term in its fullest sense applied to any operation by which a substance is restored to its neutral state; but now generally restricted, in chemistry, to the abstraction of oxygen, and hence frequently termed deoxidation or deoxidisement. This change is operated by either heating the substance in contact with carbon or hydrogen, or in exposing it to the action of some other body having a powerful affinity for oxygen. See Potassium, &c.

REFI′′NING. A term employed in commercial chemistry and metallurgy synonymously with purification. The separation of the precious metals from those of less value, as in the operation of parting, constitutes the business of the ‘refiner.’ See Gold, Silver, &c.

REFRAC′TION (of Light). The deviation of a ray of light from its original path on entering a medium of a different density or power. For the practical application of this property, see Gems.

REFRI′′GERANTS. Medicines or agents which tend to lessen the animal temperature without causing any marked diminution of sensibility or nervous energy. Among internal refrigerants cold water, weak acidulous drinks, and saline aperients, are those which are probably the best known and the most useful. Among external refrigerants are cold water, evaporating lotions, weak solutions of subacetate of lead, &c.

REFRIGERA′TION. The abatement of heat; the act or operation of cooling.

Among the purposes to which refrigeratory processes are applied in the arts, the principal are—the condensation of vapours—the cooling of liquids—the congelation of water, and—the production of extreme degrees of cold in chemical operations. The first of these is referred to under the heads Distillation, Still, &c., and the second under Wort. It is, therefore, only necessary to notice here the third and fourth applications of cold, artificially produced, above referred to.

The refrigeratory processes at present employed depend upon the greater capacity for heat which the same body possesses as its density lessens, or its attenuation increases; as exhibited in the sudden liquefaction of solids, the rapid evaporation of liquids, and the almost instantaneous return of atmospheric air, or other gaseous body, from a highly condensed state to its normal condition. The loss of sensible heat in the first example is the basis of the various processes of producing cold by what are commonly called ‘FREEZING-’ or ‘FRIGORIFIC-MIXTURES,’ all of which act upon the principle of liquefying solid substances without supplying heat. The caloric of liquidity being in these cases derived from that previously existing in the solid itself in a sensible state, the temperature must necessarily fall. The degree of cold produced depends upon the quantity of heat which is thus diffused through a larger mass, or which, as it were, disappears; and this is dependent on the quantity of solid matter liquefied, and the rapidity of the liquefaction. Saline compounds are the substances most frequently employed for this purpose, and those which have the greatest affinity for water, and thus liquefy the most rapidly, produce the greatest degree of cold. Similar changes occur during the evaporation of liquids. When heat passes from the sensible to the insensible state, as in the formation of vapour, cold is generated. This may be shown by pouring a few drops of ether or rectified spirit on the palm of the hand, when a strong sensation of cold is experienced. A still more familiar illustration of this fact is exhibited in the rapidity with which the animal body loses heat when enveloped in damp or wet clothing. The evaporation of water produces a degree of cold which is greater than that of other liquids, in exact proportion as the insensible or latent heat of its vapour exceeds theirs. In the attenuation or rarefaction of gases similar phenomena occur.

It has been found that evaporation proceeds much more rapidly from the surface of fluids in a vacuum than in the atmosphere. Water may be easily frozen by introducing a surface of sulphuric acid under the receiver of an air-pump, over which is placed a capsule filled with water, so that the vapour arising from the latter may be immediately absorbed by the former. After a few strokes of the piston the water is converted into a solid cake of ice. The acid operates by absorbing the aqueous vapours as soon as generated, and thus maintaining the integrity of the vacuum. Professor Leslie found that, when air is thus rarified 250 times, the surface of evaporation was cooled down 120° in winter; and when only 50 times, a depression of 80° or even 100° took place. “Sulphuric acid is capable of congealing more than 20 times its weight of water before it has imbibed nearly its own bulk of that liquid, or has lost about ⁄8th of its refrigerating power.” (Ure.) Sulphuric acid, which has become diluted in this way, may be reconcentrated by heat. Any substance having a great tendency to absorb moisture may be substituted for the sulphuric acid. Fused chloride of calcium, quicklime, nitrate of magnesium, chloride of zinc, and oatmeal (dried nearly to brownness before a common fire), have been used for this purpose. Again, instead of employing an air-pump, a vacuum may be produced by the agency of steam, afterwards condensed by the affusion of cold water.

A pleasing philosophical toy, illustrative of the evaporative power of a vacuum, is the ‘CRYOPHORUS,’ or ‘FROST-BEARER,’ of Dr Wollaston. This instrument consists of two small glass globes, united by a tube, one of which is partly filled with water. The whole apparatus is perfectly free from air, and is, consequently, filled with attenuated aqueous vapours. No sooner is the pressure removed as by plunging the empty ball into a freezing mixture (which condenses the vapour), than rapid evaporation commences, and the water in the other ball is frozen in two or three minutes.

Even in hot climates ice may be produced under favorable circumstances by evaporation. On the open plains, near Calcutta, this is effected by exposing a thin stratum of water to the atmosphere, during the fine clear nights of December, January, and February. The pans are made of porous earthenware, and water is poured in to the depth of about 1⁄2 inch. A large number of these vessels are arranged in an excavation in the ground, 30 or 40 feet square and 2 feet deep, the bottom of which is covered, to the depth of 10 or 12 inches, with sugar canes or the stalks of Indian corn. At sunrise the pans are visited, the ice separated from the water, and packed as tight as possible in a deep cavity or pit, well screened from the heat.

Several machines have recently been invented by which water is frozen in large quantities by exposure to condensed air in the act of its subsequent expansion. They are worked by either hand or steam power. The refrigerating apparatus invented by Mr Kirk, of the Bathgate Paraffin Works, acts on this principle; and it does its work so efficiently that it produces a cooling effect equivalent to two tons of ice every twenty-four hours, at a very small expenditure of fuel. A small model worked by hand will readily freeze mercury. Kirk’s apparatus is used at Bathgate to cause the crystallisation of solid paraffin from the heavy paraffin oils. Formerly, a machine, acting by the evaporation of ether, was employed for the same purpose.

For the production of an extremely low temperature, such as is required for the liquefaction of some gases, Faraday employed solid carbonic acid mixed with a little ether.

In the production of ice or an extreme degree of cold, by saline mixtures, the salts should be in the crystallised state, and as rich as possible in water, but without being in the least damp. They should also be coarsely pulverised at the time of using them, and should not be mixed until immediately before throwing them into the liquid ingredients. The mixture should be made in a thick vessel, well clothed, to prevent the accession of external heat; and the substance to be acted on should be contained in a very thin vessel, so as to expose it more fully to the action of the mixture. On the large scale, a vessel called a ‘FREEZING POT’ or ‘SABOTIÈRE’ is commonly employed. The following table, though founded on experiments made more than 50 years ago by Mr Walker, gives full and accurate information on the subject of freezing mixtures:—

Table exhibiting a few of the most useful Frigorific Mixtures. Drawn up from actual experiments performed by Mr Walker.

Ingredients. Thermometer sinks. Deg. of cold produced.

Snow or pounded ice 2 parts From any temperature
to -5° —

Chloride of sodium 1 ”

Snow or pounded ice 5 ” From any temperature
to -12° —

Chloride of sodium 2 ”

Sal ammoniac 1 ”

Snow or pounded ice 12 ” From any temperature
to -25° —

Chloride of sodium 5 ”

Nitrate of ammonia 5 ”

Snow 8 ” From +32° to -27° 59°

Hydrochloric acid (concentrated) 5 ”

Snow 2 ” From +32° to -50° 82°

Crystallised chloride of calcium 3 ”

Sal ammoniac 5 ” From +50° to +10° 40°

Nitrate of potassa 5 ”

Water 16 ”

Nitrate of ammonia 1 ” From +50° to +4° 46°

Water 1 ”

Nitrate of ammonia 1 ” From +50° to +7° 57°

Carbonate of soda 1 ”

Water 1 ”

Phosphate of soda 9 ” From +50° to -21° 71°

Nitrate of ammonia 6 ”

Diluted nitrous acid 4 ”

Sulphate of soda 8 ” From +50° to 0° 50°

Hydrochloric acid 5 ”

Snow 3 ” From 0° to -46° 46°

Diluted nitrous acid 2 ”

Snow 2 ” From -20° to -60° 40°

Sulphuric acid 1 ”

Water 1 ”

Snow 1 ” From 0° to -66° 66°

Crystallised chloride of calcium 2 ”

Snow 1 ” From -40° to -73° 33°

Crystallised chloride of calcium 3 ”

Snow 8 ” From -68° to -91° 23°

Sulphuric acid 5 ”

Water 5 ”

Obs. The materials in the first column are to be cooled, previously to mixing, to the temperature required in the second, by the use of other mixtures.

REG′ULUS. A term applied by the alchemists to various metallic matters obtained by fusion; as REGULUS OF ANTIMONY, ARSENIC, &c. It is now obsolete.

REL′ISHES. See Sauces.

REMEDIES, FERRUGINOUS. Rob. Freygang:—

Steel brandy is an ordinary clear brownish brandy, containing a very little bitter matter, like the stomachic bitters of the apothecaries, and mixed with about 1 per cent. of sugar. 10,000 parts contain about 1⁄2 part oxide of iron.

Steel stomachic bitters. This is more aromatic, but otherwise similar to the steel brandy; 10,000 parts contain ⁄3 part iron oxide.

Steel liqueur is a clear, agreeably-tasting liqueur, of the colour and containing much of the juice of raspberries. 10,000 parts contain nearly 1,200 of sugar and only 1 of iron oxide.

Steel Syrup—Syrop ferrugineux de Quinquina. A clear slightly violet-coloured, thin, sweet fluid, containing spirit and sugar, of which cinchona bark may be an ingredient, though it is appreciable by neither taste nor tests. It contains 1⁄4 part iron in 10,000 parts.

Steel bonbons contain a trace of iron oxide.

The iron present in the above preparations is in the form of citrate. (Hager.)

REMIT′TENT. A term applied to fevers, and other diseases, which exhibit a decided remission in violence during the twenty-four hours, but without entirely leaving the patient, in which they differ from intermittents or agues.

REN′NET. Syn. Runnet, Prepared calf’s maw. The fourth or true digesting stomach of the calf, freed from the outer skin, fat, and useless membrane, washed, treated with either brine or dry salt for a few hours, and then hung up to dry. When well prepared, the dried ‘vells’ somewhat resemble parchment in appearance.

Uses, &c. Rennet is employed to curdle milk. A piece of the requisite size is cut off, and soaked for some hours in whey or water, after which the whole is added to the milk for curdling, slightly warmed, and the mixture is slowly heated, if necessary, to about 122° Fahr. In a short time after this temperature has been attained the milk separates into a solid white coagulum (curd), and into a yellowish, translucent liquid (whey). Two square inches from the bottom of a good ‘vell’ are sufficient for a cheese of 60 lbs. It is the gastric juice of the stomach that operates these changes. The stomachs of all sucking quadrupeds possess the same properties. See Cheese.

Rennet, Liquid. Syn. Essence of rennet. Prep. From fresh rennet (cut small), 12 oz.; common salt, 3 oz.; knead them together, and leave the mixture at rest, in a cool place, for 5 or 6 weeks; then add of water 18 oz.; good rum or proof spirit, 2 oz.; lastly, digest for 24 hours, filter, and colour the liquid with a little burnt sugar.

Rennet, Liquid. Syn. Essence of rennet. Fresh rennet, 12 oz.; salt, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 2 oz.; white wine, a quart; digest for 24 hours and strain. A quart of milk requires 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls. Wislin directs 10 parts of a calf’s stomach; salt, 3 parts. The membrane of the stomach is to be cut with scissors and kneaded with the salt, and with the rennet found in the interior of that organ; the whole left in a cool place in an earthen pot till the cheesy odour is replaced by the proper odour of rennet, which will be in one or two months. Then add 16 parts of water and 1 of spirit. Filter and colour with burnt sugar.

The German Pharmacopœia gives the following formula for liquid rennet:—3 parts of the mucous membrane of fresh calf’s rennet, macerated for three days in 26 parts of white wine, 1 part of table salt being added.

Obs. 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls will curdle a quart of milk. Some persons use white wine instead of water, with simple digestion for a day or two.

RES′IN. Syn. RESINA, L. This name is applied to many vegetable principles composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The resins (RESINÆ) cannot be very accurately defined, but we may in a general way describe them as substances which are solid at ordinary temperatures, more or less transparent, inflammable, readily fusible, do not volatilise unchanged, become negatively electrified by rubbing; are insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol; mostly inodorous, and readily incorporated with fatty bodies by fusion. Their sp. gr. varies from ·9 to 1·2. According to Liebig, they are oxidised essential oils. Common resin, rosin, or colophony, and the shellac of which sealing-wax is made, are familiar examples of these substances. (See below.)

Resin, Black. Syn. Rosin‡, Black r.‡, Colophony; Resina nigra, Colophonia, L. What remains of turpentine after the oil has been distilled. When this substance, whilst still fluid, is agitated with about 1-8th part of water, it forms the yellow resin of pharmacy. Used for violin bows, dark-coloured ointments, varnishes, &c.

Resin, Yel′low. Syn. Yellow rosin‡, White r.‡; Resina flava, Resina (Ph. L.), La. Detergent. Used in ointments, plasters, &c. (See above.)

RES′INOIDS. Syn. Resinous extracts, Concentrated e.; Extracta resina, L. Under this head, the so-called ‘Eclectics,’ who form a numerous class among American physicians, place their most important ‘concentrated remedies.’ “Viewed as pharmaceutical preparations eligible for use in medicine, though not purified so as to rank as distinctive proximate principles, these are very appropriately named ‘resinous extracts,’ or ‘resins.’ The term ‘resinoid,’ so commonly used, is less appropriate to the class, implying, as it does, a resemblance to resins, while all of these are either resins, oleo-resins, or more or less mixed proximate principles possessing no real resemblance to the class of resins.” (Parrish.) Most of them are prepared from plants indigenous to North America, by precipitating a strong alcoholic tincture with water. They are all brought to the condition of powder, those which are naturally soft and oily being mixed with a sufficient quantity of sugar of milk, or other dry material. One of these eclectic remedies has been introduced into regular practice. See Podophyllin.

RESIN, or ROSIN OIL. This is a product of the dry distillation of resin. The apparatus used consists of an iron pot, a head piece, a condensing arrangement, and a receiver.

In distilling the resin, a bright oil first comes over with water. As soon as a cessation in the flow of the distillate occurs the receiver is changed, and the heat is further raised, when a red-coloured and heavy rosin oil comes over. The black residue remaining in the pot is used as pitch. The light oil, called ‘pinoline,’ is rectified, and the acetic acid water passing over with it is saturated with calcium hydrate, filtered and evaporated to dryness; and the calcium acetate obtained is employed in the manufacture of acetic acid. The rosin oil, obtained after the light oil has passed over, has a dark violet-blue colour, and is called ‘blue rosin oil.’ The red oil is boiled for a day with water, the evaporated water being returned to the vessel; next day the water is drawn off, and the remaining rosin oil is saponified with caustic soda lye of 36° Baumé, and the resulting solid mass is distilled so long as oil passes over.

The product obtained is ‘rectified rosin oil,’ which is allowed to stand in iron vessels, protected by a thin layer of gypsum, whereby after a few weeks a perfectly clear oil is obtained free from water. The oil of first quality is obtained by a repetition of the foregoing operation upon the once rectified oil. The residues of both operations are melted up with the pitch.

Rosin oil is employed in the manufacture of axle grease, the oil being previously converted into a soap by heating with slaked lime.

RESOLV′ENTS. Syn. Discutients; Resolventia, L. Substances or agents which discuss or resolve inflammatory and other tumours. See Digestives.

RESPIRA′TION. The peculiar function by which the blood is submitted to the action of the air, for the purpose of removing carbonic acid, and restoring its vitality by the absorption of atmospheric oxygen.

The air expired from the lungs is found to have undergone a most remarkable change. It is now loaded with aqueous vapour, whilst a considerable portion of its oxygen has disappeared, and its place is supplied by about a like volume of carbonic acid. It is no longer capable of supporting animal life, and even a lighted taper plunged into it is immediately extinguished. In the mean time the ‘venous blood’ which entered the lungs from the right chambers of the heart has lost its dingy hue, and has acquired the rich florid colour which is characteristic of ‘arterial blood.’ In this state it is returned to the left chambers of the heart, and is propelled by that organ to every part of the body, from which it passes by the capillaries to the veins, and by these again to the heart and lungs, to undergo the same changes and circulation as before. The carbon and hydrogen of the blood, ultimately derived from the food, are, in this course, gradually converted into carbonic acid and water by a species of slow combustion; but how these changes are effected is not definitely ascertained.

The lungs, as is well known, receive the atmospheric air through the trachea or windpipe. At the root of the neck this divides into two branches, called bronchi, and each bronchus, upon entering its respective lung, divides into an infinity of small tubes. The latter terminate in small pouches, called the air-cells, and a number of these little air-cells communicate together at the extremity of each small tube. The number of air-cells in the two lungs has been estimated at 1,744,000,000, and the extent of the membrane which lines the cells and tubes together at 1500 square feet. (Dr Addison.) Under ordinary circumstances, from 22 to 43 cubic inches of air are thrown out at each expiration; but, by a forced effort, 50 or 60 inches are ordinarily expelled. The number of respirations per minute in health, when the individual is tranquil and undisturbed, is about 15. Exercise increases this number. See Food, Nutrition, &c.

Respiration, Artificial. Various means have been adopted for this purpose, among which blowing air into the lungs is, perhaps, that generally adopted. A better, and, in general, a much more efficient method, is as follows:—Powerful but not violent pressure is made upon the sides of the chest and upon the abdomen at the same time, by which the cavity of the thorax is diminished, and the air contained in the lungs is expelled; the compression is then suddenly withdrawn, when the elasticity of the ribs causes them to resume their old expanded positions; the chest is again enlarged, a partial vacuum is formed, and air rushes into the lungs, to be again expelled by pressure upon the ribs and abdomen as before. By this means artificial respiration may be kept up for a great length of time, without the use of bellows, or any other apparatus. The chief principle of Dr Marshall Hall’s so-called ‘ready method’ is the postural performance of artificial respiration. The patient is first placed gently on the face, and then turned on the side; then on the face again, alternately; these measures being repeated deliberately, efficiently, and perseveringly, fifteen times in the minute. When the prone position is resumed, equable, but efficient, pressure is applied along the spine; this pressure is removed immediately before rotation on the side.

The ‘Silvester method,’ invented by Dr Henry Silvester, is now acknowledged to be far more effective than Dr Hall’s method, and is adopted by the Royal Humane Society for the restoration of the apparently drowned. It consists in laying the patient on the back, slightly raising the head and shoulders, drawing the tongue forwards, and keeping it so by passing an elastic band over it and under the chin. The arms are then grasped just above the elbows, and drawn gently upwards until they meet above the head (this is for the purpose of drawing air into the lungs), keeping the arms in that position for two seconds. The patient’s arms are then turned down, and pressed gently and firmly for two seconds against the sides of the chest (this is for the purpose of pressing the air out of the lungs). Artificial breathing is thus carried on. These efforts are repeated fifteen times in a minute, until a spontaneous effort to respire is perceived. During the employment of these means the nostrils are excited with snuff or smelling salts, or the throat is tickled with a feather. After natural breathing has been restored, warmth and circulation are induced by wrapping the body in hot blankets, applying bottles or bladders of hot water, heated bricks, &c., to the pit of the stomach, the armpits, between the thighs, and to the soles of the feet, and by rubbing the limbs upwards firmly and energetically.

In the ‘Landw. Versuchs Stat.’ (xviii, 81-169) Rudolph Pott has recorded a series of interesting experiments instituted with the object of determining the comparative quantities of carbonic acid excreted by respiration and perspiration in different species of animals in equal intervals of time; together with some experiments on the excretion of carbonic acid by the same animals under different physiological conditions.

The author states that in his researches he used an air tight box, with glass sides, in which the animal is placed, and through which the air can be drawn at any rate required by means of an aspirator.

The air before entering the glass chamber passes over caustic potash and through baryta water; after leaving the chamber it passes through three flasks containing known quantities of baryta water.

In the first part of this paper the author estimates the amount of carbonic acid excreted by different animals during the space of six hours, and under otherwise similar circumstances. The following are the most important conclusions he arrives at:—

1. The greatest quantity of carbonic acid in proportion to their weight is given off by birds. Mammals are the next in order. Insects exhale less than either of these.

2. Worms, amphibia, fishes, and snails form another group which excrete much less carbonic acid. Of these worms exhale the most and snails the least.

3. Those animals of the second group, which live in water, give off the greatest part of their carbonic acid to the air, and only a much smaller portion to the surrounding water.

4. Young animals excrete more carbonic acid than old ones; this is most marked in amphibia. For example 100 grams of an old frog (Rana temporaria) exhaled in six hours ·213 grm., whereas 100 grams of a young frog gave off in the same time ·765 grm.

5. The larvæ of insects exhale less carbonic acid than the insects themselves.

6. Different individuals of the same species exhale in the same time nearly the same quantity of carbonic acid in proportion to their body-weight.

In the second part of this paper the author describes experiments in the influence of coloured light on the excretion of carbonic acid; in the same animal (mouse) and for the same time.

He concludes that—

1. The excretion of carbonic acid is less in ordinary daylight than in coloured light.

2. The violet and red rays exercise the least influence on the excretion of carbonic acid, the green and yellow are the most active; and the milk-white and blue rays occupy an intermediate position. The relation of these different actions may be expressed by the following figures:—

Violet.
86·89 Red.
93·38 Milk-white.
100

Blue.
122·63 Green.
128·52 Yellow.
174·79

Finally, the author experimented with a mouse during the night, and found then the excretion of carbonic acid at that time is considerably less than during the day.

REVALEN′TA ARABICA. A mixture of the red Arabian or Egyptian lentil with barley flour, and a little sugar or salt. (‘Lancet.’) See Lentil and Revalenta.

REVERB′ERATORY FURNACE. See Furnace.

REVI′′VER. Prep. 1. (Black reviver, Paris’s anticardium.)—a. Blue galls (bruised), 4 oz.; logwood and sumach, of each 1 oz.; vinegar, 1 quart; macerate in a closed vessel, at a gentle heat, for 24 hours, then strain off the clear, add iron filings and green copperas, of each 1 oz., shake it occasionally for a week, and preserve it in a corked bottle.

b. Galls, 1 lb.; logwood, 2 lb.; boil for 2 hours in water, 5 quarts, until reduced to a gallon, then strain, and add of green copperas ⁄2 lb. Used to restore the colour of faded black cloth.

2. (Blue reviver.) From soluble Prussian blue, 1 oz.; dissolved in distilled water, 1 quart. Used for either black or blue cloth.

RHAM′NIN. Prep. Express the juice from buckthorn berries scarcely ripe, which is to be rejected; boil the cake or residue with water, strain with pressure, and filter the liquid whilst hot; crude rhamnin will be deposited as the liquid cools, which, by solution in boiling alcohol and filtration, may be procured in crystals.

Obs. Buckthorn juice (succus rhamni), “the juice of the fruit of Rhamnus catharticus (Linn.),” is officinal in the Ph. L.

RHAT′ANY. Syn. Rhatany root; Krameriæ radix (B. P.); Krameria (Ph. L. E. & D.), Rhataniæ radix, L. “The root of Krameria triandria.” (Ph. L.) It is stomachic, and powerfully astringent and styptic.—Dose, 20 to 60 gr., either in powder or made into a decoction or infusion. It is much employed in tooth powders, to fix the teeth when they become loosened by the recession of the gums, and also for improving the natural red colour of the lips and gums. A saturated tincture or fluid extract, made with brandy, forms the ‘wine-colouring’ used by the Portuguese to give roughness, colour, and tone to their port wine. Hard extract of rhatany is also much employed for the same purpose.

RHE′IN. Syn. Chrysophanic acid. The yellow colouring principle of rhubarb.

RHEUMATIC and GOUT PILLS. (W. Gross Cardiff). Pills weighing 2 grammes rolled in lycopodium, the essential ingredients of which are quinine sulphate, gamboge, jalap, resin, and a little rhubarb. (Hager.)

RHEU′MATISM. Syn. Rheumatismus, L. An affection of the joints, and of the external muscular, tendinous, and fibrous textures of the body, attended with swelling, stiffness, and great pain. Acute rheumatism or rheumatic fever,—arthritis, inflammation of the synovial membrane, or rheumatic gout,—sciatica, or rheumatism of the cellular envelope of the great sciatic nerve, affecting the hip,—and lumbago, or rheumatism of the loins, are varieties of this disease.

The treatment of rheumatism consists in the administration of purgatives and diaphoretics or sudorifics, accompanied by tonics, as bark, quinine, &c. Calomel with opium, and iodide of potassium, have also been frequently and successfully employed in this complaint. Of late years the administration of the bicarbonate, citrate, or nitrate of potassa, in rather large doses, has been strongly recommended, and in numerous cases adopted with success. Lemon juice, liberally taken, has also proved useful in suddenly cutting short severe attacks of certain forms of rheumatism. The compound powder of ipecacuanha, taken at night, will generally promote the ease and sleep of the patient, and, by its sudorific action, tend considerably to hasten a cure. Where possible, a dry atmosphere and a regular temperature should be sought, since a damp atmosphere, and, indeed, exposure to damp under any form, are the principal causes of rheumatism. Stimulating embrocations, blisters, frictions, and, above all, the hot or vapour bath, are also frequently serviceable in rheumatism, especially in lumbago and casual attacks arising from cold. The daily use of oranges, or of lemon juice diluted with water, has been found, in the majority of cases, to lessen the susceptibility of those who employ them to attacks of rheumatism and rheumatic gout arising from a damp situation or exposure to the weather. See Lemon juice.

RHO′DIUM. A whitish metal discovered by Wollaston, in 1803, associated with palladium in the ore of platinum.

It is chiefly employed for tipping the nibs of metallic pens (‘rhodium’ or ‘everlasting pens’). A very small quantity added to steel is said to improve its closeness, hardness, and toughness, and to render it less easily corrodible by damp.

RHU′BARB. Syn. Rhei radix (B. P.); Rheum (Ph. E. & D.), Rheum—Sinense (Ph. L.), Rhabarbarum†, Rhœm†, L. “The root of uncertain species of Rheum.” (Ph. L.) According to Dr F. Farre, the term ‘sinense’ (Chinese), employed by the London College, “was placed after ‘rheum,’ to include the so-called Russian and East Indian rhubarbs, which are considered to be the produce of China and Chinese Tartary, and to exclude European, Himalayan, &c.”

Three principal varieties of rhubarb are known in this country:—

Russian or Turkey rhubarb is the produce of six-year-old plants of the mountain declivities of Chinese Tartary; and its principal excellence depends on its more careful preparation, and subsequent garbling, both before its selection for the Russian market, and after its arrival at Kiachta, and again at St Petersburg. At Kiachta all pieces of a porous, grey, or pale colour are rejected, the whole being pared and perforated, the better to determine the quality of the interior portion. At St Petersburg the pieces are again carefully examined and garbled, and are, finally, packed in close cases or chests, which are rendered air-tight by the application of pitch on the outside.

East India or Chinese rhubarb is the produce of the locality just referred to, as well as of other parts of China. It is obtained from younger plants, and its preparation and subsequent selection or garbling is conducted with less care.

English rhubarb is principally produced at Banbury, Oxfordshire, from the Rheum rhaponticum. It is cut and dressed up after the manner of Turkey rhubarb, for which it is sold by itinerant vendors, habited as Turks.

Adult. Dr Maisch says the presence of turmeric may be detected in powdered rhubarb by the following method:—A small quantity of the suspected rhubarb is agitated for a minute or two with strong alcohol, and then filtered, chrysophanic acid being sparingly soluble in this menstruum. The brown yellow colour of the filtrate is due to the resinous principles of rhubarb mainly; if adulterated with turmeric, the tincture will be of a brighter yellow shade; a strong solution of borax produces in both tinctures a deep red-brown colour.

If now pure hydrochloric acid be added in large excess, the tincture of pure rhubarb will instantly assume a light yellow colour, while the tincture of the adulterated powder will change merely to a lighter shade of brown-red.

The test is a very delicate one, and is based on the liberation of boracic acid, which imparts to curcumine a colour similar to that produced by alkalies, while all the principles of rhubarb soluble in strong alcohol yield pale yellow solutions in acid liquids.

Qual. Russian or Turkey rhubarb occurs in irregular plano-convex or roundish lumps, perforated with a circular hole; it possesses a yellow colour outside; when recently broken, the inside presents a rich mottled appearance, and evolves a peculiar and somewhat aromatic odour. It is firm, compact, heavy, perfectly free from moisture, and easily grated. Its taste is bitter, slightly astringent, and sub-acid; and when chewed it feels gritty, and tinges the saliva of a beautiful yellow colour. It breaks with a rough, hackly fracture, is easily pulverised, and its powder is of a bright buff-yellow colour.

East India, Canton, or Chinese rhubarb is in flat pieces, seldom perforated, and its taste and odour are stronger than the other. It is also heavier, tinges the saliva of an orange-red hue, and when pulverised the powder is redder than that of Russian rhubarb.

English rhubarb possesses all the preceding qualities in a greatly less degree. It is light and spongy, does not feel gritty between the teeth, its taste is mucilaginous, and its powder has a peculiar pinkish hue not present in either of the other varieties of rhubarb. As a medicine it possesses little value, and is chiefly employed to adulterate East India and Turkey rhubarb.

Prop., &c. Rhubarb is astringent, stomachic, and purgative. In small doses its operation is principally or wholly confined to the digestive organs; in larger ones, it first acts as a mild aperient, and, afterwards, as an astringent; hence its value in diarrhœa. It has also been used externally to promote the healing of indolent sores.—Dose. As a stomachic, 1 to 5 gr.; as a purgative, 10 to 20 gr. It is most effective when chewed, or in the form of powder produced by grating it.

Rhubarb, Roast′ed. Syn. Burnt rhubarb; Rheum ustum, L. Prep. 1. Rhubarb, in coarse powder, is carefully and regularly heated in a smooth shallow iron disc, with constant stirring, until its colour has changed to a moderately dark brown, when it is allowed to cool out of contact with the air; when cold, it is reduced to powder, and at once put into a well-closed bottle.

2. (Hoblyn.) Roast powdered rhubarb, in an iron vessel, constantly stirring, until it becomes almost black; then smother it in a covered jar.—Dose, 5 to 10 gr.; as an astringent in diarrhœa, and a tonic in dyspepsia, &c. Prof. Procter, the well-known American Pharmaceutist, recommends the rhubarb to be only roasted to a ‘light brown.’

RICE. Syn. Oryza, L. The seed of Oryza sativa, a plant of the natural order Graminaceæ. Several varieties are known in commerce, distinguished by the name of the country or district which produces them. The finest is that imported from Carolina. It reaches this country in a decorticated condition. ‘Paddy’ is rice with the husk upon it. Dr Letheby estimates that it affords nourishment to not less than a hundred millions of people.

As an article of diet, rice is highly nutritious and wholesome when combined with fresh animal or other nitrogenised food; but, owing to the very small quantity of ‘flesh-formers’ which it contains, and its comparative destitution in saline matter, it is totally unfit to form the principal portion of the diet of the working classes, or the poorly fed, at least in this climate. “It does not appear so well calculated for European constitutions as the potato, for we find the poor constantly reject it when potatoes can be had.” This preference evidently depends on something more than mere whim or taste, for some years ago, when rice was substituted for potatoes in some of our union workhouses, the most serious consequences followed. In one of these, nine or ten deaths from scurvy and allied diseases occurred in a single fortnight. Large quantities of rice are annually imported into Britain, and used by distillers in the manufacture of spirits.

Letheby gives the following as the composition of rice:—

Nitrogenous matter 6·3

Carbo-hydrates 79·5

Fatty matter 0·7

Saline matter 0·5

Water 13·0

100·0

Payen gives the following as the composition of dried rice:—

Nitrogenous matter 7·55

Starch 88·65

Dextrin, &c. 1·00

Fatty matter 0·80

Cellulose 1·10

Mineral water 0·90

100·00

Ash of rice:—

Potash 18·48

Soda 10·67

Lime 1·27

Magnesia 11·69

Oxide of iron 0·45

Phosphoric acid 53·36

Chlorine 0·27

Silica 3·35

99·54

Rice, To Cook. If rice is boiled it should be subjected to a low temperature. The best way of cooking rice, however, is by thoroughly steaming it. By this method, it is said, the loss of nitrogenous matter is prevented, and the grain consequently suffers no diminution of nutritive power, as in the case of boiling.

Microscopic appearance of Rice.

Fig. 1—Transverse section of the husk of rice.

Fig. 2.—Appearance of husk as seen in a transparent medium of glycerin and gum: a, Siliceous granules arranged in longitudinal and transverse ridges, perforated by openings—stomata, some having hairs over them. b c, Transverse and longitudinal, brittle, rough-edged fibres, d, A fine membrane of transverse angular cells; these overlie a very delicate membrane of large cells, e.

RICINO′LEIC ACID. A variety of oleic acid discovered in saponified castor oil.

RICK′ETS. Syn. Rachitis, L. A disease, generally confined to childhood, characterised by a large head, prominent forehead, protruded breast bone, flattened ribs, tumid belly, emaciated limbs, and great general debility. The bones, more particularly those of the spine and legs, become distorted, and exhibit a deficiency of earthy matter; the stools are frequent and loose, a slow fever succeeds, with cough, painful and difficult respiration, and, unless the child rallies, atrophy is confirmed, and death ensues. When recovery takes place there is always more or less deformity left.

The common causes of rickets are bad nursing, exposure to damp and cold, and insufficient nutrition, arising from the use of white bread containing alum, or any of the pernicious compounds vended under the names of ‘FARINACEOUS FOOD,’ ‘INFANTS’ F.,’ ‘PATENT F.,’ &c. Rickets, like caries of the bones, is a disease which is scarcely known amongst infants whose pap is made of pure wheaten bread, and whose mothers or nurses consume the same themselves.

The treatment of rickets depends more on proper domestic management than on direct medication. Careful nursing, warm dry clothing, thorough ventilation, moderate exercise, and, above all, a light nutritious mixed diet abounding in nitrogenous matter and the phosphates, will do much to effect a cure. To these may be added the administration of the milder chalybeate tonics, bark, or quinine, with occasional doses of some mild aperient, as phosphate of soda, or, when there is diarrhœa, of rhubarb or some other tonic purge. The administration of small doses of phosphate of lime or of dilute phosphoric acid, frequently repeated, or, still better, the daily use of jelly made of pure ivory or bone shavings, will often effect wonders in those cases in which the bones are implicated from an apparent deficiency of earthy matter. See Bread, Farina, Nursing, &c.

RING′WORM. Syn. Scald-head; Porrigo, L. The common ringworm, the PORRIGO SCUTULATA of medical writers, is a disease that appears in circular patches of little pustules, which afterwards form scabs, leaving a red pimply surface, and destroying the bulbs of the hair in its progress. It spreads rapidly, and is very infectious, often running through a whole school. It chiefly affects the neck, forehead, and scalp of weakly children, and frequently arises without any apparent cause, but, in general, may be traced to uncleanness, or contact with parties suffering from the disease.

The treatment of ringworm consists in shaving the part, and keeping it clean with soap and water, at the same time that an occasional mild saline aperient is administered, and a light, nutritious diet, of which the red meat and ripe fruits should form a portion, be rigorously adhered to. When the scabbing commences, dressings of tar ointment, or of the ointment of nitrate or red oxide of mercury, or a mixture of equal parts of the first and either the second or third, should be applied, in each case diluting the mixture with sufficient lard to adapt it to the state of irritability of the part. During this treatment the head should be covered with an ordinary nightcap, or some simple bandage, and not enveloped in a bladder or oil-skin case, as is commonly the practice, since the complete exclusion of atmospheric air tends to aggravate the disease.

RI′′PENING. See Brewing, Malt liquors, Wine, &c.

ROAST′ING. Alexis Soyer recommends, “as an invariable rule,” that “all dark meats, such as beef and mutton, should be put down to a sharp fire for at least fifteen minutes, until the outside has acquired a coating of osmazome, or condensed gravy, and then removed back, and allowed to cook gently. Lamb, veal, and pork, if young and tender, should be done at a moderate fire. Veal should even be covered with paper.

“Very rich meat, if covered with paper, does not require basting. Fowls, &c., should be placed close to the fire, to set the skin, and in about ten minutes rubbed over with a small piece of butter, pressed in a spoon. Meats, whilst roasting, should be dredged with flour, just at the time when the gravy begins to appear; the flour absorbs it, and forms a coating which prevents any more coming out. Hares and small game should be treated in the same manner.”

Under ordinary circumstances as to the fire, and the distance between it and the joint, beef, mutton, and veal, take about ⁄4 hour per lb. in roasting. Lamb, poultry, and small game, require only 12 to 14 minutes per lb.; whilst veal takes fully 15 minutes, and pork takes from ⁄4 hour to 20 minutes, as they must always be well done. The flesh of old animals requires more cooking than the flesh of young ones; and inferior, tough, and bony parts than the prime joints and pieces.

Roasting is not an economical method of cooking pieces of meat abounding in bone or tendinous matter, since the nutritious portion of these is either destroyed or rendered insoluble by the heat employed. Thus, the raw bones from a joint are capable of affording a rich and excellent basin of soup, highly nutritious; whilst the bones from a corresponding joint which has been roasted are nearly worthless when so treated. The same applies with even greater force to the gristly and tendinous portions. A dry heat either destroys them or converts them into a horny substance, unfit for food; whilst by boiling they are transformed into a highly succulent and nutritious article of food, besides affording excellent soup or jelly. Hence the policy of ‘boning’ meat before roasting or baking it; or, at all events, of removing the bony portion which would be most exposed to the action of the fire. See Bone and Jelly.

ROB. Syn. Roob. A term, derived from the Arabic, formerly applied to the inspissated juice of ripe fruit, mixed with honey or sugar to the consistence of a conserve of thin extract. Rob of elder-berries (ELDER ROB; ROOB SAMBUCI), juniper berries (JUNIPER ROB; ROOB JUNIPERI), mulberries (MULBERRY ROB; ROOB DIAMORUM), and walnuts (WALNUT ROB; ROOB DYACARYON), with a few others, are still found in some of the foreign Pharmacopœias.

ROCK. The popular name of a sweetmeat formed of sugar boiled to a candy, and then poured upon an oiled slab, and allowed to cool in the lump. It is variously flavoured.

ROCK CRYS′TAL. Native crystallised silica. See Quartz.

ROCK OIL. See Petroleum.

ROCK SOAP. A native silicate of alumina; used for crayons, and for washing cloth.

ROC′KETS. (In pyrotechny.) Prep. The CASES.—These are made of stout cartridge paper, rolled on a mould and pasted, and then throttled a little below the mouth, like the neck of a phial. The diameter should be exactly equal to that of a leaden ball of the same weight, and the length should be equal to 3⁄2 times the external diameter. Above the spindle there must be one interior diameter of composition driven solid. They are filled with the following mixtures, tightly driven in, and when intended for flight (SKY-ROCKETS), they are ‘garnished,’ and affixed to willow rods to direct their course.

The COMPOSITION.—1. (Marsh.)—a. For 2-oz. rockets. From nitre, 54⁄2 parts; sulphur, 18 parts; charcoal, 27⁄4 parts; all in fine powder, and passed through lawn.

b. For 4-oz. do. From nitre, 64 parts; sulphur, 16 parts; charcoal, 20 parts; as the last.

c. For ⁄2-lb. to 1-lb. do. From nitre, 62⁄4 parts; sulphur, 15⁄4 parts; charcoal, 21⁄2 parts.

2. (Ruggieri.)—a. For rockets of ⁄4-inch diameter. From nitre, 16 parts; charcoal, 7 parts; sulphur, 4 parts.

b. For ⁄4- to 1⁄2-inch rockets, use 1 part more of nitre.

c. For 1⁄4-inch rockets, use 2 parts more of nitre.

d. By using 1 part less of charcoal and adding respectively 3, 4, and 5 parts of fine steel filings, the above are converted into ‘Brilliant fires,’

e. By the substitution of coarse cast-iron borings for filings, and a further omission of 2 parts of charcoal from each, the latter are converted into ‘Chinese fire,’

Hand-rockets and GROUND-ROCKETS are usually loaded with nothing but very fine meal gunpowder and iron or zinc filings or borings.

After SKY-ROCKETS and WATER-ROCKETS are charged, a piece of clay is driven in, through which a hole is pierced, and the ‘head’ or ‘garniture’ filled with stars, and a little corn-powder is then applied. See Fires, Stars, and Pyrotechny.

ROLLS. A variety of fancy bread, generally in the form of small semi-cylindrical cakes, prepared by the bakers, and intended to be eaten hot for breakfast. They differ from ordinary fine or French bread, as it is called, chiefly in containing more water. Some are wetted up with milk and water, and are hence called ‘milk rolls.’

ROLL (Wine). Prep. Soak a French roll or sponge-biscuit in raisin, marsala, or sherry wine, surround it by a custard or cream thickened with eggs, and add some spice and ornaments.

ROOT. Syn. Radix, L. That part of a plant which imbibes its nourishment from the soil or medium in which it grows. In popular language, bulbs, corms, tubers, &c., are improperly included under this term.

RO′′PINESS. See Malt liquors and Wines.

RHYPOPH′AGON. Prep. From yellow soap, sliced, 1 oz.; soft soap (finest), 3 oz.; melt them by the heat of hot water, then allow them to cool a little, and stir in of oil of cloves, ⁄2 dr.; essence of ambergris, 10 drops. It is kept a month before sale. Used for shaving.

ROSE. Syn. Rosa, L. The typical genus of the natural order Rosaceæ. It includes numerous species greatly prized as garden plants.

Rose, Cabbage. Syn. Hundred-leaved rose; Rosæ centilfoliæ petala (B. P.), Rosa centifolia (Ph. L. & E.), L. “The fresh petals” (Ph. L.) of this species are used in medicine. Odorous and slightly astringent and laxative. See Waters and Syrup.

Rose, Dog. The Rosa canina, or wild briar. See Hips.

Rose, French. Syn. Red rose; Rosæ gallicæ petala (B. P.), Rosa Gallica (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. “The fresh and dried unexpanded petals” (Ph. L.) of this species are officinal. The white claws of the petals are removed before drying them.

Uses, &c. The red rose is an elegant astringent and tonic, and, as such, is used as the basis of several pharmaceutical preparations. See Confection, Honeys, Infusion, and Syrup.

ROSE′MARY. Syn. Rosmarinus (Ph. L. E. & D.) The flowering tops of Rosmarinus officinalis (Linn.), or the common rosemary of our gardens, are officinal in the Ph. E. & D.; as is also the oil (oleum rosmarini) in the B. P. and Ph. L. The odour of both is refreshing, and they are reputed carminative, emmenagogue, and neurotic. The dried leaves are occasionally used by the hysterical and hypochondriacal as a substitute for China tea. The oil is an ingredient in Hungary water, and is much used in various cosmetic compounds, under the presumption of its encouraging the growth of hair and improving its quality.

ROSE PINK. See Red pigments.

RO′SIN. See Resin.

ROSY-DROP. See Acne.

ROT. Syn. Greatrot, Hydrophic r.,

Sheep r., Wet r. A disease peculiar to sheep, produced by the presence in the liver of the Distoma hepatica, a parasite commonly known under the name of “a fluke.” Rot prevails during very wet or rainy seasons. The leading symptoms are loss of flesh and vivacity; the lips and tongue look vivid, and the eyes sad and glassy; the pelt comes off on the slightest pull; the breath is fetid, and the urine highly coloured and scanty; and there is either black purging or obstinate costiveness. The treatment consists in a change to a dry warm elevated situation, and a dry diet, consisting of oats, barley meal, tail-wheat, &c., to which some turnips, carrots, or mangel wurzel may be added, with a liberal supply of common salt, and a few grains of sulphur, daily. These last two substances form the active ingredients in Flesh’s ‘Patent Restorative.’ See Meat, Disease of.

ROT (in Timber). See Dry rot.

ROTA′TION (of Crops). The rotation or succession of crops is absolutely necessary for the successful and economical cultivation of the soils. Crops have been divided by agriculturists into exhausting crops, restoring crops, and cleaning crops. The most exhausting crops are usually considered to be those of corn, but all those that are allowed to ripen their seed and which are carried off the ground are also exhausting, but in different degrees. Even clover, tares, and grass cut green are considered as exhausting, but in a less degree than those that are allowed to ripen. Restoring crops are such as are allowed to decay upon the ground, or are consumed upon it by domestic animals. Cleaning crops are such as are grown in drills, and undergo the usual operations of weeding, hoeing, &c.; the majority of these may also be regarded as exhausting crops. An exhausting crop should always be followed by a restoring or a cleaning crop; or, where possible, by both combined. Crops should also succeed each other in such a way that the soil may not be exhausted of any one particular kind of nutriment. This is best effected by so rotating the crops that plants which are nearly allied should not succeed each other on the same soil, or, at all events, not more than once. See Agriculture, Soils, &c.

ROT′TEN STONE. See Tripoli.

ROUGE. Syn. Toilet rouge; Rouge vegetal, Rouge d’Espagne, Fr. Prep. Wash safflower (any quantity) until the water comes off colourless; dry and pulverise it, and digest the powder in a weak solution of crystallised carbonate of soda; then place some fine cotton-wool at the bottom of a porcelain or glass vessel, pour the filtered tinctorial solution on this, and throw down the colouring matter, by gradually adding lemon juice or white-wine vinegar, until it ceases to produce a precipitate; next wash the prepared cotton in pure cold water, and dissolve out the colour with a fresh solution of soda; to the new solution add a quantity of finely powdered talc or French chalk, proportionate to the intended quality of rouge; mix well, and precipitate with lemon juice, as before; lastly, collect the powder, dry it with great care, with as little heat as possible, and triturate it with a very small quantity of oil of olives, to render it smooth and adhesive.

Obs. According to the best authorities, this is the only article which will brighten a lady’s complexion without injuring the skin. The relative fineness and proportion of talc employed determines the quality of the rouge. It is applied by means of a camel-hair pencil, a small ‘powder puff,’ or a hare’s foot. It is also employed under the form of ‘pommade’ and ‘crepons.’ The last of these consist of pieces of white woollen crape, upon which the colouring matter of the carthamus has been precipitated, instead of upon the talc, noticed above.

The following articles also pass under the name of rouge, and are used for the purposes named after each:—

Rouge, Brown-red. Jeweller’s rouge.

Rouge, Chinese Card. This is said to be a ‘carthamate of soda,’ it is colourless when applied, but, being decomposed by the acid secretions of the skin, acquires a most beautiful rose-like tint. (O’Shaughnessy.)

Rouge, Jeweller’s. Sesquioxide of iron prepared by calcination. Used to polish gold, &c.

Rouge, Liquid. The red liquid left from the preparation of carmine; or a solution of carmine in weak carbonate of potash water, or of pure rouge in alcohol acidulated with acetic acid.

Rouge, Indienne. The terra persica, or Indian red; imported from Ormuz.

Rouge de Prusse. Light red or burnt yellow ochre. See Red pigments.

Rouge, Spanish Lady’s. This is cotton wool which has been repeatedly wetted with an ammoniacal solution of carmine, and dried. It is applied like ‘rouge crepons.’

Rouge d’Athenes, Vert. Syn. Pure rouge. See Carthamine.

ROUGH′ENING. See Wines.

RUBEFA′′CIENTS. Syn. Rubefacientia, L. Substances or agents which, when applied for a certain time to the skin, occasion a redness and increase of heat, without blistering. They act as counter-irritants. Mustard, powdered ginger (both made into a paste with water), hartshorn and oil, and ether and spirit of wine (when their evaporation is prevented), are familiar examples of this class of remedies.

RUBE′OLA. See Measles.

RUBIA′CIN. An orange-coloured substance, obtained from madder.

RUBID′IUM. [Eng., L.] A metal belonging to the alkaline group discovered by Bunsen and Kirchhoff by means of spectrum analysis. It is found in many mineral waters associated with cæsium.

RU′BY. See Gems and Pastes.

RUE. Syn. Rutæ folia, Ruta (Ph. L. & E.), L. “The leaf Ruta graveolens.” (Ph. L.) A powerful antispasmodic, diuretic, and stimulant. It is also reputed nervine and emmenagogue. The fresh leaves are powerfully acrid, and even vesicant; but they become milder in drying.—Dose. Of the powder, 15 to 30 gr., twice or thrice daily; in hysteria, flatulent colic, &c. See Infusion and Oils (Volatile).

RUM. Syn. Spiritus Jamaciensis, Spiritus sacchari, L. An ardent spirit obtained by distillation from the fermented skimmings of the sugar-boilers (syrup scum), the drainings of the sugar-pots and hogsheads (molasses), the washings of the boilers and other vessels, together with sufficient recent cane juice or wort, prepared by mashing the crushed cane, to impart the necessary flavour. The sweet liquor before fermentation commonly contains from 12 to 16% of saccharine, and every ten gallons yield from one to two gallons of rum.

The average strength of rum, as imported into this country, is about 20 O.P. Like all other spirits, it is colourless when it issues from the still, but owing to the taste of the consumer the distiller is compelled to colour it before it leaves his premises.

Obs. Rum is imported from the West Indies. The best comes from Jamaica, and is hence distinguished by that name. Leeward Island rum is less esteemed. The duty on rum is 10s. 2d. per proof-gallon if imported direct from any of the British Colonies (Colonial rum), but 10s. 5d. if from any other part of the world (foreign rum). The consumption of rum has long been declining in England; its place being chiefly supplied by gin. Rum owes its flavour to a volatile oil and butyric acid, a fact which the wary chemist has availed himself of in the manufacture of a butyric compound (essence of rum) for the especial purpose of enabling the spirit dealer to manufacture a factitious rum from malt or molasses spirit. In Jamaica it is usual to put sliced pine apples into the puncheons containing the finer qualities of rum, which is then termed pine-apple rum. See Alcohol, Spirit, &c.

RUM, BAY, R. Rother’s Formula for. According to an American authority, true bay rum is made from Pimenta acris (Myrica acris, Schwartz; Myrtus acris, Willd.), and not from Laurus nobilis, as commonly supposed; the method of its distillation not being known outside the West Indies, it has been customary to make it extemporaneously with the oil of bay distilled from the leaves of the former plant. This preparation is inferior in fragrance, however, to the genuine article. The following formula of R. Rother is said to give very good results. Take of oil of bayberry, 1 fl. oz.; Jamaica rum, 1 pint; strong alcohol, 4 pints; water, 3 pints. Mix the rum, alcohol, and water, then add the oil; mix and filter.

RUPERT’S DROPS. These are made by letting drops of melted glass fall into cold water. By this means they assume an oval form, with a tail or neck resembling a retort. They possess this singular property that, if a small portion of the tail is broken off, the whole bursts into powder with an explosion, and a considerable shock is communicated to the hand.

RUPIA. This is an affection of the skin attended by the formation on it of vesicles, that develop into ulcers which copiously discharge a foul, unhealthy, and reddish matter. After a time this matter hardens and forms a thick incrustation over the sores.

The best treatment is to put the patient upon a generous diet, including wine, and to administer iodide of potassium with sarsaparilla or quinine. The scabs should be poulticed.

RUP′TURE. See Surgery.

RUSKS. Prep. From 4 eggs; new milk and warm water, of each ⁄2 pint; melted butter and sugar, of each ⁄4 lb.; yeast, 3 table-spoonfuls; beat well together with as much flour, added gradually, as will make a very light paste; let it rise before the fire for half an hour, then add a little more flour, form into small loaves or cakes 5 or 6 inches wide, and flatten them; bake these moderately, and, when cold, cut them into slices of the size of rusks, and put them into the oven to brown a little. A nice tea-cake when hot, or with caraways, to eat cold. Plain rusks are made by simply cutting loaves of bread into slices, and baking them in a slow oven to the proper colour.

RUS′MA. An arsenical iron pyrites, found in Galatia, which, when reduced to powder, and mixed with half its weight of quicklime, is used by the Turkish ladies to make their ‘PSILOTHRONS,’ or compounds to remove superfluous hair. See Depilatory.

RUST. Syn. Rubigo, L. The coating or film of oxide or carbonate which forms on the surface of several of the metals when exposed to a moist atmosphere; more particularly, that which forms on iron or steel (FERRI HYDRATE; HYDRATED SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON; FERRUGO, FERRI RUBIGO).

To prevent iron or steel goods rusting, it is merely necessary to preserve them from damp or moisture. In the shops, small articles in steel are, commonly, either varnished or enclosed in quick-lime finely pulverised; large articles are generally protected with a coating of plumbago, or of boiled oil, or some cheap varnish, applied to them, previously gently heated. Surgical instruments are frequently slightly smeared with a little strong mercurial ointment, with the same intention.

Spots of rust may be removed from the surface of polished iron or steel by rubbing them with a little tripoli or very fine emery made into a paste with sweet oil; or, chemically, by a mixture of polisher’s putty-powder with a little oxalic acid, applied with water. When the last is employed, the articles should be afterwards well rinsed in pure water, then wiped dry, and finished off with a warm and dry rubber, in order to remove every trace of acid.

RUTHENIC ACID. Syn. Ruthenic anhydride (RuO3). This may be procured by heating any of the preceding oxides with potassic nitrate. Ruthenic acid is insoluble in water.

Ruthenic Sesquioxide (Ru2O3); occurs in the anhydrous form when the metal is ignited in a current of air. It is the most stable of the basic oxides of the metal. Alkalies fail to dissolve it. With acids it forms soluble salts of a yellow colour; when, to a solution of these, an alkali is added, a bulky blackish-brown precipitate of the hydrated oxide, having the composition Ru2O3,8H2O, is thrown down.

There are three chlorides of ruthenium:—RuCl2; RuCl3; and RuCl4.

RUTHEN′IUM. (Ru. = 104·2.) A metal discovered by Claus, associated with iridium, in the residue from crude platinum, which is insoluble in aqua regia. It forms small angular masses, with a metallic lustre; is very brittle and infusible; resists the action of acids, but readily oxidises when heated in the air. Sp. gr. 11 to 11·4.

In Fremy’s process for separating osmium from the residues of platinum ore, ruthenium occurs in a dioxide. By heating this dioxide in a current of oxygen, the metal may be obtained in the form of a powder of dark grey colour.

With oxygen, ruthenium forms four compounds:—RuO; Ru2O3; RuO2; and RuO3.

Ruthenium Trichloride (RuCl3), which is the most important of the chlorides, may be procured by dissolving the sesquioxide in hydrochloric acid. The solution being evaporated, the trichloride occurs as a greenish-blue deliquescent mass, which is soluble in alcohol.

Tests. In solutions of the trichloride, hydrogen sulphide gives a brown precipitate of ruthenic sesquisulphide, the supernatant liquid being of a bright blue colour. This reaction is a very delicate as well as a very characteristic one.

Metallic zinc reduces the yellow trichloride to the blue dichloride, the metal being afterwards precipitated as a black powder. Plumbic acetate gives a purplish-red precipitate, mercuric cyanide a blue one, the supernatant liquid being also blue. The caustic and carbonated alkalies throw down a black precipitate of sesquioxide of ruthenium, which is insoluble in excess of the precipitant. If the salts of ruthenium are boiled with sodic formiate or oxalate the solution becomes colourless, but no precipitate of reduced metal takes place.

RYE. Syn. Secale, L. The seed of Secale cereale, a gramineous plant, the native country of which is undetermined. It is a more certain crop and requires less culture and manure than wheat, and is hence largely cultivated in Germany, Russia, and in the northern parts of Europe, where it is extensively employed for bread. When roasted it is occasionally used as a substitute for coffee. It furnishes an excellent malt for the distillation of spirit, and is much used in the making of Hollands.

Rye bread is very likely to cause diarrhœa in those unaccustomed to partake of it. By continued use, however, this inconvenience disappears. Rye bread is acid and dark in colour. It is about equal in nutritive power to wheat. It is less abundant than wheat in fibrin, but richer in casein and albumen.

The foregoing plate represents the microscopic appearance of rye.

Sommer recommends the microscopic examination of rye flour to be conducted as follows:—The flour is placed on a glass slide, and moistened with water; a single drop of oil of vitriol is added, and a small disc is laid upon it. If, now, it be viewed with a magnifying power of 200, the starch grains of wheat and rye are seen to dissolve in a uniform manner, but the grains of barley starch, after losing their external coat, break up into a number of polyhedrons before their solution is completed.

Rye, Spurred. See Ergot.

SABADIL′LA. Syn. Cebadilla, Cevadilla, Sabadilla (B. P., Ph. E.), L. The dried fruit (Asagræa officinalis). A drastic and dangerous cathartic, occasionally used in tapeworm; and, externally, to destroy pediculi, but, even for this purpose, when the scalp has been denuded or ulcerated, it has sometimes caused death. It is now used chiefly as a source of VERATRINE.

SA′BLE. The Mustella Zibellina (Linn.), a small quadruped of the martin-cat family, found in Northern Asia. Its fur is remarkable for its fine quality and rich colour, and for the hairs turning with equal ease in every direction. The skins of the rabbit, cat, &c., dressed, painted, and lustred, are sold under the name of COMMON or MOCK SABLE.

SABOTIÈRE. [Fr.] An apparatus of peculiar construction, employed by the French confectioners for making ices. It consists of a pail to contain a freezing mixture, and an inner vessel for the creams to be iced. It may be used with a mixture of pounded ice and salt, or any other freezing mixture. The pail and cream vessels being loaded, and closely covered, an alternate rotatory motion is given to the apparatus by means of the handle, for 10 or 15 minutes, care being taken to occasionally scrape down the frozen portion of the cream from the sides, by means of a wooden spoon. See Ices and Refrigeration.

SACCHAR′IC ACID. Syn. Oxalhydric ACID†. A compound, resulting from the action of dilate nitric acid on sugar.

SAC′CHARINE. The technical name of the uncrystallisable sugar found in malt-wort.

SACCHARINE FERMENTATION. This occurs during the germination and kiln-drying of grain in the operation of malting, and in the mashing of malt in brewing. The sweetening of bread during its exposure to heat in the oven is also included under this head by many writers.

The substance which most powerfully excites the sugar fermentation was first shown by Payen and Persoz to be a peculiar principle to which they have given the name of ‘DIASTASE,’ This is always present in good malt, and possesses the singular property of converting STARCH successively into gum (dextrin) and sugar, at a temperature ranging between 149° and 168° Fahr. During the action of this substance on starch it is itself decomposed; and when the sugar fermentation ceases it is found to have entirely disappeared. It is the presence of diastase in malt which alone converts the starch of the grain into sugar during the operation of mashing with hot water; and hence the absolute necessity of employing water at the proper temperature, as on this depends the strength and sweetness of the wort, and consequently its fitness for undergoing the vinous fermentation, and for making beer. Vegetable albumen and gluten also possess the property of exciting the saccharine fermentation, but in a considerably inferior degree to diastase.

The sugar formed during the germination of seeds containing starch results from the action of diastase, and disappears as soon as the woody fibre (lignin), which has a similar constitution, is developed, forming the skeleton of the young plant. (Liebig.) See Brewing, Diastase, Dextrin, &c.

SACCHAROM′ETER. An instrument similar in principle to the common spirit hydrometer, but so weighted and graduated as to adapt it for the indication of the richness of malt-worts in sugar, or saccharine, expressed in pounds per barrel, or the excess of gravity over that of water, the last being taken at 1000. See Brewing, Syrup, Wort, &c.

SACH′ET. Syn. Sacculus, L. Sachets (SACCULI) are little bags containing dry substances, used for the external medication of parts, or for communicating agreeable perfumes to wearing apparel, drawers, furniture, &c. Those belonging to perfumery are commonly filled with mixtures of fragrant vegetable substances, reduced to coarse powder, and differ from those employed for pot pourri chiefly in being used in the dry state. Sacculi are now seldom employed in this country in legitimate medicine. See Powders (Scented), &c.

Sachet, Ammoniacal. Syn. Sacculus ammoniacalis. Prep. Equal parts of sal ammoniac and quicklime are mixed, and sprinkled between cotton wadding, which is to be quilted in muslin.

Sachet, Anodyne. (Quincy.) Syn. Sacculus anodynus. Prep. Chamomiles, 1 oz.; bay berries, 1 oz.; lavender flower, ⁄2 oz.; henbane seed, 1 dr.; opium, 1 dr. To be dipped in hot spirits.

Sachet, Anti-phthisic. Syn. Sacculus anti-phthisicus, L. Prep. Dissolve of aloes, 1 oz., in strong decoction of fresh rue, ⁄2 pint; next fold a piece of soft muslin in eight folds large enough to cover the chest and part of the stomach; steep this in the decoction, and dry it in the shade; lastly, place in a small bag, one side of which is formed of scarlet silk or wool, and the other, intended to be worn next the skin, of the finest net or gauze. A celebrated domestic remedy for consumption and asthma. It is intended to be constantly worn on the chest.

Sachet, Resolv′ent. Syn. Melting bag; Sacculus resolvens, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Breslau.) Iodide of potassium, 1 part; sal ammoniac, 8 parts; dry, and reduce each separately to fine powder; mix them, and enclose ⁄2 oz. to 1 oz. of the mixed powder in a small bag of linen or silk. Used as a resolvent to indolent tumours, especially goitres and scrofulous indurations. It should be worn on the part night and day for some time. The part next the skin should be well pricked with a needle, and the powder shaken up and readjusted every 2 or 3 days; and it should be renewed about once a fortnight.

2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Iodide of potassium, 1 part; burnt sponge, 4 parts; fine sawdust, 5 parts; as before.

Sachet, Sponge. Syn. Sacculus spongii, Collier de Morand. Prep. Muriate of ammonia, chloride of sodium, burnt sponge, of each 1 oz.; mix, sprinkle the powder on a piece of cotton wool, and quilt between muslin, in the form of a cravat. To be worn constantly in goitre or bronchocele, renewing it every month.

Sachet, Stomachic. (Fuller.) Syn. Sacculus. Prep. Mint, 4 drm.; wormwood, thyme, red roses, each 2 drm.; balastines, angelica root, caraway seed, nutmeg, mace, cloves, of each 1 drm. Coarsely powder the ingredients, and put them into a bag, to be moistened with hot red wine when applied for flatulence.

SACK. (From SEC, Fr., dry.) A wine used by our ancestors, supposed by some to have been Rhenish or Canary; but, with more probability, by others, to have been dry mountain—vin d’Espagne; vin sec—(Howell, ‘Fr. and Eng. Dict.,’ 1650). Falstaff calls it ‘sherris sack’ (sherry sack), from Xeres, a sea town of Corduba, where that kind of sack (wine) is made. (Blount.) At a later period the term came to be used as a general name for all sweet wines.

SAF′FLOWER. Syn. Bastard saffron, Dyer’s s.; Carthamus, L. The florets of Carthamus tinctorius, a plant cultivated in Spain, Egypt, and the Levant. It contains two colouring principles—the one yellow, and the other red. The first is removed by water, and is rejected. The second is easily dissolved out by weak solutions of the carbonated alkalies, and is again precipitated on the addition of an acid. This property is taken advantage of in the manufacture of rouge, and in dyeing silk and cotton.

The most lively tints of cherry, flame, flesh, orange-red, poppy, and rose colour, are imparted to silk by the following process, modified to suit the particular shade required:—The safflower (previously deprived of its yellow colouring matter by water) is exhausted with water containing either carbonate of soda or of potassa, in the proportion of about 5% of the weight of the prepared dye-stuff acted on; the resulting liquid is next treated with pure lemon juice until it acquires a distinct and rich red colour; the silk is then introduced and turned about as long as it is perceived to take up colour, a little more lemon juice being added as may appear necessary; for deep shades this is repeated with one or more fresh baths, the silk being dried and rinsed between each immersion; it is, lastly, brightened by turning it for a few minutes through a bath of warm water, to which a little lemon juice has been previously added. For flame colour the silk should receive a slight shade with annotta before putting it into the safflower bath. For the deeper shades, when expense is an object, a little archil is commonly added to the first and second bath. See Catharmin.

SAF′FRON. The prepared stigmata or stigmas of the Crocus sativus, or saffron crocus. There are two principal varieties known in commerce:—

1. (Saffron, Hay’s.; Crocus in fœno, C. Hispaniolus, Crocistigmata; Crocus—B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.) This consisted of the stigmas, with part of the styles, carefully picked from the other parts of the flowers, and then dried on paper by a very gentle heat, generally in a portable oven constructed for the purpose.

2. (Cake saffron; Crocus in placentâ.) This, professedly, merely varies from the last, it being compressed into a cake after it has become softened by the fire, and being then dried in that condition. The ‘cake saffron’ of commerce is now, however, mostly, if not entirely, composed of safflower made into a paste with some sugar and gum water, rolled out on paper into oval cakes 10 to 12 inches long, 9 or 10 broad, and about ⁄8th of an inch thick, and then dried. “I can detect neither saffron nor marigold in them.” (Dr Pereira.)

Pur. Saffron, of all the articles of commerce, except French brandy, is, perhaps, the one most largely and constantly adulterated. Abroad it is frequently mixed with safflower, and in England with ‘prepared marigolds,’ or ‘French (mock) saffron.’ These frauds may be detected by the inferiority of the colour, and by soaking the leaves in water, when the stigmas of the Crocus sativus may be readily distinguished from the florets of safflower and the petals of marigolds. Winckler and Grüner proposed to detect these substances by means of a solution of nitrate of silver or of sesquichloride of iron. The infusion of true saffron is not altered by those reagents, but that of either of the above-mentioned adulterants is rendered opaque, and is at length precipitated. “It consists of tripartite filaments, of an orange-red colour, with the small filaments towards the apex dilated.” (Ph. E.) In the wholesale drug trade prepared marigolds are not only employed to mix with genuine saffron, but are extensively sold to the country dealers for that purpose. Old and dry saffron is ‘freshened up’ by rubbing it between the hands slightly oiled, and then repicking it.

The late Mr D. Hanbury, F.R.S., found that the article known in commerce as alicante saffron was largely sophisticated with carbonate of lime, which he says had been made to adhere to the thread-like saffron without in the least altering its general appearance. To ascertain the amount of earthy matter thus fraudulently added, he subjected several specimens of saffron to incineration, each having in the first instance been dried in warm air until it caused it to lose its weight. The result indicated that while good Valentia saffron yields from 4 to 6 per cent. of ash, the alicante furnishes from 12 to 28 per cent. The method of taking a sample of saffron for earthy adulteration which Mr Hanbury recommends is this:—Place in a watch glass a small quantity (say 1 grain) of the saffron, and drop upon it 8 or 10 drops of water; lightly touch the saffron with the tip of the finger, so as to cause the water to wet it. If the drug is free from earthy matter, a clear bright-yellow solution will be immediately obtained; if adulterated, a white powder will instantly separate, causing the water to appear turbid; and if a drop of hydrochloric acid be now added, a brisk effervescence will take place.

Mr Hanbury says that saffron almost always contains a few of the pale yellow stamens, accidentally gathered; but the pollen from them which is detached when the drug is wetted, but which is minute in quantity, is easily distinguished from carbonate of lime, by not dissolving when hydrochloric acid is added. Moreover, the form of pollen grains may be easily recognised under the microscope.

Mr Hanbury furthermore states that an effectual method of examination is to scatter a very small pinch of saffron on the surface of a glass of warm water. The stigma of the saffron-crocus immediately expands, and exhibits a form so characteristic that it cannot be confounded with the flowerets of safflower, marigold, or arnica, or with the stamens of crocus itself.

Prop., &c. Saffron is anodyne, cordial, emmenagogue, and exhilarant; but is now seldom employed, except as an adjuvant, in medicine. Amongst cooks, confectioners, and liquoristes, it is largely used on account of its fine colour.

Saffron, Mead′ow. See Colchicum.

SAGAPE′NUM. This substance is described in the London Pharmacopœia as a gum resin, the production of an uncertain species of Ferula. The mass of the sagapenum sold to the retail trader is, however, a factitious article, formed by softening a mixture of assafœtida, 3 parts, and galbanum, 15 parts, over a water or steam bath, and then stirring in about ⁄17th of their weight of oil of turpentine, with a little oil of juniper. This mixture is labelled ‘Gum Sagapeni Opt.’ an inferior sort being made by adding sundry portions of yellow resin and paste of gum tragacanth to the above.

Prepared sagapenum (sagapenum præparatum—Ph. L.) is ordered to be prepared in the same manner as ‘prepared ammoniacum.’

Obs. Sagapenum is the feeblest of all the fetid gum resins.—Dose, 5 to 15 gr., made into pills; as an antispasmodic and emmenagogue.

SA′GO. Syn. Sago (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “The fæcula (starch) from the stem of Sagus lœvis, S. Rumphii, and, perhaps, of other species of palms.” (Ph. L.) It forms the principal portion of the pith of the Sago palms, the Gommuti palm, the Talipot palm, and other allied trees. Its properties and uses, for the most part, resemble those of arrow-root. It is used for making puddings, jellies, &c.

Under the microscope the starch-grains of sago present an elongated form, rounded at the larger ends, and compressed at the smaller. They differ altogether in appearance from potato starch.

The pilum of the sago starch-grains is a point, or, more frequently, a crop, slit, or star, and is seated at the smaller end, whilst in the marsanta arrow-root the pilum is situated at the larger end. Rings are more or less clearly seen.

Sa′go, To Prepare. Wash an ounce of pearl sago in cold water; then boil it very gently in a pint of fresh water, stirring it frequently till dissolved. It may be flavoured with wine, spices, and sugar. For children, and for consumptive and debilitated persons, it will be found advantageous to substitute milk for water. The common sago being in larger grains, more time is required to dissolve it, and it is usually steeped for some hours before boiling it.

Sa′go Milk. (See above.)

Sa′go Posset. (For invalids.) Macerate a table-spoonful of sago in a pint of water for two hours on the hob of a stove, then boil for 15 minutes, assiduously stirring. Add sugar, with an aromatic, such as ginger or nutmeg, and a table-spoonful or more of white wine. If white wine be not permitted flavour with lemon juice.

ST VITUS’ DANCE. See Chorea.

SAL. [L.] Salt. A word much used in compound names, handed down to us from the old chemists.

Sal Absin′thii. Carbonate of potassium.

Sal Acetosel′læ. Binoxalate and quadroxalate of potassium.

Sal Alem′broth. Ammoniated mercury (white precipitate).

Sal Ammo′′niac. Chloride of ammonium.

Sal de Duobus. Sulphate of potassium.

Sal Diure′ticus. Acetate of potassium.

Sal Enix′um. Crude bisulphate of potassium.

Sal Gem′mæ. Rock or fossil salt (chloride of sodium).

Sal Mar′tis. Sulphate of iron.

Sal Mirab′ile. Sulphate of sodium.

Sal Perla′tum. Phosphate of sodium.

Sal Polycrest′us. Sulphate of potassium.

Sal Prunel′la. Syn. Sore-throat salt, Crystal mineral; Potassæ nitras fusa, Nitrum tabulatum, Sal prunellæ, L. From nitre fused in a Hessian crucible, and poured out on a smooth surface, or into moulds, to cool. Its usual form and size is that of an ordinary musket bullet, with the tail, in which state it is known in the drug trade as ‘sal prunellæ globosum.’ When in cakes it is often called ‘sal p. in placentis,’ or ‘s. p. tabulatum.’ A small portion allowed to dissolve slowly in the mouth, the saliva being slowly swallowed, often removes incipient inflammatory sore throat.

Sal Saturn′i. Sugar of lead (neutral acetate of lead).

Sal Seignette′. Rochelle salt (tartrate of potassium and sodium).

Sal Volat′ile. Sesquicarbonate of ammonia. The name is commonly used as an abbreviation of aromatic spirit of ammonia. See Spirits (Medicinal).

SAL′ADS are generally made of esculent vegetables, either singly or mixed, chosen according to taste or time of year, and ‘dressed’ with oil, vinegar, and salt, and sometimes also with mustard and other condiments. Sliced boiled egg is a common addition.

Sydney Smith’s recipe for salad dressing:—

To make this condiment your poet begs
The powdered yellow of two hard-boiled eggs;
Two boiled potatoes passed through kitchen-sieve
Smoothness and softness to the salad give;
Let onion atoms lurk within the bowl,
And, half suspected, animate the whole;
Of mordant mustard add a single spoon
(Distrust the condiment that bites too soon);
But deem it not, thou man of taste, a fault
To add a double quantity of salt;
And, lastly, o’er the flavoured compound toss
A magic soupçon of anchovy sauce.
Oh! green and glorious! Oh! herbaceous treat!
’Twould tempt the dying anchorite to eat;
Back to the world he’d turn his fleeting soul,
And plunge his finger in the salad bowl;
Serenely full the epicure would say,
“Fate cannot harm me, I have dined today.”

Another recipe for salad dressing:—Yolk of two eggs; table salt, ⁄4 oz.; salad oil, 4 oz.; mustard, ⁄2 oz.; best vinegar, 6 oz.; isinglass, 1 dr.; soluble cayenne, 10 grams. (‘Phar. Jour.’)

Cold meat, poultry, and game, sliced small, with some cucumber or celery, and a little onion or chopped parsley, or, instead of them, some pickles, make a very relishing salad. Fish are also employed in the same manner.

Mr C. J. Robinson, writing to ‘Nature’ on our salad herbs, says:—“There is, perhaps, no country in the world so rich as England in native materials for salad making, and none in which ignorance and prejudice have more restricted their employment. At every season of the year the peasant may cull from the field and hedgerow wholesome herbs which would impart a pleasant variety to his monotonous meal, and save his store of potatoes from premature exhaustion. Besides there can be no question that in hot seasons a judicious admixture of fresh green food is as salutary as it is agreeable. Much has been said lately about the advantage which the labouring man would derive from an accurate acquaintance with the various forms of fungus; he has been gravely told that the Fistulina hepatica is an admirable substitute for beef-steak, the Agaricus gambosus for the equally unknown veal cutlet.

“But deep-seated suspicion is not easily eradicated, and there will always be a certain amount of hazard in dealing with a class of products in which the distinctions between noxious and innocuous are not very clearly marked.

“There is not this difficulty with regard to salad herbs, and we conceive that the diffusion of a little knowledge as to their properties and value would be an unmixed benefit to our rural population.

“The first place must be assigned on the score of antiquity to the sorrel plant (Rumex acetosa), which in some districts still preserves the name of ‘green sauce,’ assigned to it in early times, when it formed almost the only dinner vegetable.

“Its acid is pleasant and wholesome, more delicate in flavour than that of the wood-sorrel (Oxalis acetosella), which, however, is used for table purposes in France and Germany. Chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium) is often found in a wild state, and is an admirable addition to the salad bowl; and it is unnecessary to enlarge upon the virtues of celery (Apium graveolens) when improved by cultivation.”

John Ray, writing in 1663, says that “the Italians use several herbs for sallets, which are not yet, or have not been used lately, but in England, viz. Selleri, which is nothing else but the sweet smallage; the young shoots whereof, with a little of the head of the root, cut off, they eat raw with oil and pepper,” and to this we may add that the alisander (Smyrnium olusattrum) is no bad substitute for its better-known congener. The dandelion, which in France is blanched for the purpose, affords that amarie aliquid which the professed salad maker finds in the leaves of the endive, and the same essential ingredient may be supplied by the avens (Geum urbanum), the bladder campion (Silene inflata), and the tender shoots of the wild hop. Most people are familiar with the properties of the watercress (Nasturtium officinale), garlic hedge mustard (Erysimum aliaria), but it may not be generally known that the common shepherd’s purse (Eupsulla Bursa-pastoris) and the lady’s-smock (Cardamine pratensis) are pleasant additions, whose merits have long been recognised by our foreign neighbours. In fact, there is scarcely a herb that grows which has not some culinary virtue in a French peasant’s eyes. Out of the blanched shoots of the wild chicory (Cichorium Intybus) he forms the well-known barbe de capucius, and dignifies with the title of Salade de chamoine our own neglected corn-salad (Fedia olitaria). It would be very easy to extend the dimensions of our list of native salad herbs, for there are, perhaps, some palates to which the strong flavours of the chives (Allium schœnoprasum) and stonecrop (Sedum reflexum) may commend themselves; but enough has been said to show that nature has not dealt niggardly with us, and that only knowledge is needful to make the riches she offers available.

If the British peasant can be taught to discover hidden virtues in these plants, with whose outward forms he has had life-long familiarity, we do not despair of his acquiring the one secret of salad-making, viz. the judicious employment of oil, so as to correct the acrid juices of the plants, and yet preserve their several flavours unimpaired.

Salad, Let′tuce. Prep. Take two large lettuces, remove the faded leaves and the coarser green ones; next cut the green tops off, pull each leaf off separately, rinse it in cold water, cut it lengthways, and then into four or ten pieces; put these into a bowl, and sprinkle over them, with your fingers, 1 small teaspoonful of salt, ⁄2 do. of pepper, 3 do. of salad oil, and 2 do. of English or 1 of French vinegar; then with the spoon and fork turn the salad lightly in the bowl until thoroughly mixed; the less it is handled the better. A teaspoonful each of chopped chervil and tarragon is an immense improvement.

Obs. The above seasoning is said to be enough for ⁄4 lb. of lettuce. According to Soyer, it is “such as the Italian count used to make some years since, by which he made a fortune in dressing salads for the tables of the aristocracy.” The above may be varied by the addition of 2 eggs, boiled hard, and sliced, a little eschalot, or a few chives or young onions. Several other salad herbs, especially endive, water-cresses, and mustard-and-cress, may be ‘dressed’ in the same manner; always remembering that the excellence of a salad depends chiefly on the vegetables which compose them being recently gathered and carefully cleansed.

To improve the appearance of the above and other salads, when on the table or sideboard, before being used, the gay flower of the nasturtium or marigold, with a little sliced beet-root or radish, and sliced cucumber, may be tastefully intermixed with them.

Salad, Lobs′ter. Prep. (Soyer.) “Have the bowl half filled with any kind of salad herb you like, as endive, lettuce, &c.; then break a lobster in two, open the tail, extract the meat in one piece, break the claws, cut the meat of both in small slices, about a quarter of an inch thick, and arrange these tastefully on the salad; next take out all the soft part from the belly, mix it in a basin with 1 teaspoonful of salt, half do. of pepper, 4 do. of vinegar, and 4 do. of oil; stir these well together, and pour the mixture on the salad; lastly, cover it with 2 hard eggs, cut into slices, and a few slices of cucumber.” “To vary this, a few capers and some fillets of anchovy may be added, stirred lightly, and then served either with or without some salad sauce. If for a dinner ornament it with some flowers of the nasturtium and marigold.”

SAL′EP. Syn. Salop, Saloop. The tuberous roots of Orchis mascula, and other allied species, washed, dried, and afterwards reduced to coarse powder. That imported from Persia and Asia Minor occurs in small oval grains, of a whitish-yellow colour, often semitranslucent, with a faint, peculiar smell, and a taste somewhat resembling gum tragacanth. It consists, chiefly, of bassorin and starch, is very nutritious, and is reputed aphrodisiac. It is employed in the same way as sago. A decoction of about 1 oz. of this substance in a pint of water was formerly sold at street-stalls. A tea made of sassafras chips, flavoured with milk and coarse brown sugar or treacle, was also sold in the same way, and under the same name.

French salep is prepared from the potato. Dr Ure says that the Orchis mascula of our own country, properly treated, would afford an article of salep equal to the Turkey, and at a vastly lower price.

SAL′ICIN. C13H18O7. A white, crystalline substance discovered by Le Roux and Buchner in the bark and leaves of several species of Salix and Populus. It occurs most abundantly in the white willow (Salix alba) and the aspen (Salix helix), but is also found in all the bitter poplars and willows. From willow bark which is fresh, and rich in salicin, it may be obtained by the cautious evaporation of the cold aqueous infusion.

Prep. 1. (Merck.) Exhaust willow bark by repeated coction with water, concentrate the mixed liquors, and, while boiling, add litharge until the liquid is nearly decoloured; filter, remove the dissolved oxide of lead, first by sulphuric acid, and afterwards by sulphuret of barium; filter, and evaporate, that crystals may form; the crystals must be purified by re-solution and recrystallisation.

2. As No 1, but using a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen, to free the solution from lead.

3. (P. Codex.) To a strong filtered decoction of willow bark add milk of lime, to throw down the colour; filter, evaporate the liquor to a syrupy consistence, add alcohol (sp. gr. ·847), to separate the gummy matter, filter, distil off the spirit, evaporate the residuum, and set it aside in a cool place to crystallise; the crystals are purified by solution in boiling water, agitation with a little animal charcoal, and recrystallisation.

Prop., &c. Salicin forms white, silky needles and plates; it is intensely bitter; inodorous; neutral; non-basic; fuses at 230° Fahr., with decomposition; burns with a bright flame; is soluble in 5⁄2 parts of water at 60°, and in much less at 212°; dissolves readily in alcohol, but is insoluble in ether. It is tonic, like sulphate of quinine, but less liable to irritate the stomach. It is given in indigestion and intermittent diseases, in from 5- to 10-gr. doses.

Salicin has lately been used with considerable advantage in acute rheumatism.

Dr Maclagan states that he found when administered in doses of 10 gr. to ⁄2 dr., every 2 to 4 hours, the pain and fever ceased in the course of 48 hours. The results are stated to have been quite as favorable as those following the employment of salicylic acid. It was found to effect with certainty a great reduction in the bodily temperature.

Pur. & Tests.—1. It is entirely soluble in water and rectified spirit.—2. When strongly heated it is wholly dissipated, and, if kindled, burns with a bright flame, leaving a bulky charcoal.—3. Its solution is absolutely neutral to test-paper.—4. Concentrated sulphuric acid causes it to agglutinate into resin-like lumps, with the accession of an intense blood-red colour.—5. When its aqueous solution is mixed with some hydrochloric acid, or dilute sulphuric acid, and the mixture is boiled for a short time, the liquid suddenly becomes turbid, and deposits SALIRETIN, under the form of a granular crystalline precipitate. This is characteristic.—6. No reagent deposits salicin without decomposition. See Salicylic and Salicylous acids.

SAL′ICYL. C7H4O. A compound radical, forming the basis of the so-called SALICYL-COMPOUNDS, or SALICYL-SERIES. It is known only in combination. The volatile oil of meadow-sweet is a natural hydride of salicyl, a substance which, when artificially prepared, is better known under the name of SALICYLOUS ACID. (See below.)

SALICYL′IC ACID. H2C7H4O3. A peculiar volatile, crystallisable acid, discovered by Piria. It is obtained by fusing salicylous acid with solid hydrate of potassa in slight excess, until the mixture turns white and gas is disengaged, and treating a solution of the residuum with hydrochloric acid, in slight excess to separate the potassa; the salicylic acid separates in crystals, which are purified by solution in hot water. It may also be obtained from the oil of partridge-berry (Gaultheria procumbens), by acting on it with a strong and hot solution of potassa, and afterwards separating the acid as before. This oil is methylo-salicylic ether, or salicylate of methyl. In its general properties, salicylic acid closely resembles benzoic acid.

The greater part, if not the whole, of the salicylic acid of commerce is now obtained by a method invented by Professor Kolbe. This process, which consists in acting on sodium carbolate with carbonic acid, is thus described in the ‘Archiv der Pharm.,’ 3rd series, v, 445. In a strong crude soda liquor of known strength is dissolved a sufficiency of previously melted crystals of carbolic acid to saturate the soda.

The solution is then evaporated in an iron capsule, and by means of stirring brought to a dry powder. The sodium carbolate so obtained is gradually heated in a retort to a temperature of from 220° to 250° C., in a continuous current of dry carbonic anhydride.

The reaction is ended when at the above-mentioned temperature no more carbolic acid passes over. It might have been expected that, the reaction going forward in this manner, a molecule of carbonic anhydride would have been introduced into the molecule of sodium carbonate, and thus a molecule of sodium salicylate be formed.

This, however, is not the case, only half the sodium carbolate being converted into salicylate. The reaction proceeds according to the following equation:—

2NaC6H5O + CO2 = Na2C7H4O3 + HC6H5O.

The disodic salicylate is dissolved in water and decomposed by hydrochloric acid. Salicylic acid then separates in crystalline films and may be purified by recrystallisation out of its solution in hot water.

Props.—Salicylic acid is a white solid which forms acicular crystals; it melts at from 155°-156° C.; it dissolves in about 1800 parts of cold water, but is more soluble in boiling water as well as in alcohol and in ether. An aqueous solution of salicylic acid mixed with one of a ferric salt produces a deep violet colour.

Professor Kolbe surmised that from the constitution of salicylic acid, as revealed by his synthetical process, that it would split up with heat into carbonic anhydrate and carbolic acid, and hence that it might be employed as an antiseptic and antiputrefactive agent. He quotes the following experiments as confirmatory of his views on this point:—Mustard meal, which, in a few minutes after being mixed with warm water, gave off a strong smell of mustard oil, formed with water a scentless mixture, when a little salicylic acid had been previously added. No fermentation was set up by yeast in a fermentation of grape sugar, to which salicylic acid had been added; whilst in a sugar solution already in fermentation the action stopped after the addition of some salicylic acid. The preservation influence of this acid upon fresh meat is also recorded.

The following, among other experiments, in their results, illustrate the physiological action of salicylic acid:—

Solution of amygdalin mixed with emulsion of sweet almonds developed no smell of bitter almonds if some salicylic acid were added. Beer, to which salicylic acid, in the proportion of 1 to 1000, was added, was thereby prevented from being spoiled by fungoid growth.

Fresh pure cow’s milk, mixed with 0·04 per cent. of salicylic acid, and allowed to stand in an open vessel at a temperature of 18° C., curdled thirty-six hours later than a similar quantity of milk standing by the side of it, but containing no salicylic acid. The milk remained of a good flavour, the small quantity of salicylic acid present not being perceptible to the palate.

Some fresh urine was divided into two portions, and placed in separate vessels, after some salicylic acid had been added to one portion.

The urine containing the acid was on the third day still clear and free from ammoniacal odour, whilst the other portion was far advanced in putrefaction.

Professor Thiersch has investigated the antiseptic action of this acid, specially in relation to surgery. He has found that as a powder, either alone or mixed with starch, it destroys for a long time the fetid odour of cancerous surfaces or uncleansed wounds, without setting up any inflammatory symptoms. A solution of one part of salicylic acid, and three parts of sodium phosphate in fifty parts of water, promotes the healing of granulated surfaces.

According to Dr Rudolph Wagner, salicylic acid may be applied to the following industrial purposes:—

If a concentrated aqueous solution of salicylic acid be applied to fresh meat, and the meat be then placed in well-closed vessels, it will remain perfectly fresh for a long period. This solution is also very useful in the manufacture of sausages and such food. Butter containing a bitter salicylic acid will remain fresh for months, even in the hottest weather. The same acid prevents the moulding of preserved fruits. In the manufacture of vinegar this acid is of great utility.

The addition of a little salicylic acid renders glue more tenacious. The acid also prevents decomposition in gut and parchment during their manufacture.

Skins to be used for making leather do not undergo decomposition if steeped in a dilute solution of salicylic acid.

Weaver’s or bookbinder’s glue and other allied substances may be preserved for a long period by treating them with a solution of this acid.

Albumen may be preserved by the same means.

This acid is a very delicate test reagent for iron.

The methyl ether and amyl ether of salicylic acid are used as perfumes. The calcium salt on keeping and distilling with water yields a liquid which has a strong odour of roses.

Mr Rother, an American chemist, contends that the antiseptic powers of salicylic acid have been much overrated. He states that he had tried it for the preservation of the syrups of marshmallow, raspberry juice, and milk, and that it was a failure. Professor Salkowsky regards it as of less value as an antiseptic than benzoic acid.

Dr Muter gives the following method for estimating the value of commercial samples of salicylic acid, and of detecting it in milk and similar organic solutions:—A standard solution of pure salicylic acid (1 grain of acid dissolved in 1 litre of water, so that 1 c.c. represents 1 mgm. of acid) is prepared; the indicator solution consists of a solution of pure neutral ferric chloride, of such a strength that 1 c.c. added, drop by drop, to 50 c.c. of standard acid, just ceases to give any increase in intensity of colour; 1 gram of the commercial sample is then dissolved in 1 litre of water, and 50 c.c. is put into a Nessler tube; to this 1 c.c. of ferric solution is added, and the colour observed after standing for five minutes, some of the standard acid is also poured into another tube, and made up to 50 c.c. with water, and the 1 c.c. of ferric chloride added. When the colours are alike the amount of pure acid present in the sample is equal to the amount of pure acid added. All mineral acids should be absent, even acetic acid affects the reaction. To detect the presence of salicylic acid added to beer or milk, four ounces of these liquids are dialysed for twelve hours in a pint of distilled water; if after that time salicylic acid is still found to be present, the dialysis must be continued for forty-eight hours. The amount present is determined in the manner above stated.

SALICYL′OUS ACID. C7H6O2. Syn. Salicylol, Hydrosalicylic acid†, Hydride of salicyl, Artificial oil of meadow-sweet. A nearly colourless, oily, inflammable liquid, discovered by Pagenstecher in the volatile oil of Spiræa ulmaria (meadow-sweet), which, when pure, entirely consists of it; and by Piria, as a product of the decomposition of salicin.

Prep. The oil of meadow-sweet is mixed with a strong solution of caustic potassa, and the yellow crystalline mass which separates on agitation is purified by pressure between folds of bibulous paper and recrystallisation from alcohol; the resulting crystals (salicylite of potassium) are then decomposed by the addition of dilute sulphuric acid, the floating oil separated from the water, and freed from moisture by careful distillation from chloride of calcium.

Prop., &c. Salicylous acid is soluble in ether and alcohol, and slightly so in water, to which it imparts its peculiar fragrance and the characteristic property of striking a deep violet colour with the sesquisalts of iron. It is distinguished from salicylic acid, which also exhibits this reaction, by its liquid form and odour.

SALI′VA. See Mastication.

SALM′ON. Syn. Salmo, L. The Salmo Salar (Linn.), a well-known, soft-finned abdominal fish. Its normal locality is at the mouth or estuary of the larger rivers of the northern seas, which, during the breeding season, it ascends, sooner or later, in the summer months, against all obstacles, for the purpose of depositing its spawn.

The salmon is an excellent and highly esteemed fish; but it is rich, oily, and difficult of digestion, and, therefore, ill adapted to the delicate or dyspeptic. When pickled, salted, or smoked it is only fitted for persons of very strong stomachs, although in this state it is regarded as a great delicacy by epicures.

Salmon has the following composition:—

Nitrogenous matter 16·1

Fat 5·5

Saline matter 1·4

Water 77·

100·0

Salmon is preferably cooked by boiling. One weighing 10 lbs. will require to be gently simmered for about an hour, reckoning from the time the water commences boiling. For fish of other weights, from 6 to 7 minutes per lb. may be allowed. See Fish, &c.

SALOOP′. Sassafras (chips) tea, flavoured with milk and sugar. A wholesome and useful drink in cutaneous and rheumatic affections. See Salep.

SALT. Syn. Sal, L.; Sel, Fr. Salts may be regarded as acids in which one or more atoms of hydrogen, a constant constituent of all true acids, are replaced by a metal or other basic radical. This relationship between acids and salts will be better understood by reference to the subjoined list of acids and their corresponding potassium and ammonium salts:—

Acids. Salts.

HCl (Hydrochloric acid) — KCl (Chloride of potassium).

” — NH4Cl (Chloride of ammonium).

HNO3 (Nitric acid) — KNO3 (Nitrate of potassium).

” — NH4NO3 (Nitrate of ammonium).

H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid) — K{2}SO4 (Sulphate of potassium).

” — (NH4)2SO4 (Sulphate of ammonium).

Acids are, in fact, hydrogen salts. The so-called Double salts are, according to one view, combinations of two salts of the same acid, but of different basic radicles; thus, common alum is a compound of sulphate of aluminum and sulphate of potassium.

The salts are a most important class of bodies, and their applications and uses in the arts of life and civilisation are almost infinite. See Nomenclature, &c.

Salt of Bark. See Extract of Bark, dried.

Salt, Bitter Pur′ging. Epsom salt.

Salt, Cathar′tic. Of Glauber, sulphate of sodium; English or BITTER S., sulphate of magnesium (Epsom salt).

Salt, Common. Syn. Culinary salt. Chloride of sodium.

Salt, Diuret′ic. Acetate of potassium.

Salt, Ep′som. Sulphate of magnesium.

Salt, Feb′rifuge. Chloride of potassium.

Salt, Fu′′sible. Phosphate of ammonium.

Salt, Glauber’s. Sulphate of sodium.

Salt, Macqueer’s. Binarseniate of potassium.

Salt, Microcos′mic. Phosphate of sodium and ammonium.

Salt, Red. Common salt wetted with an infusion of beet-root, or cochineal, or tincture of red sanders wood, then dried, and rubbed through a sieve. Used to impart a colour to gravies, &c. Infusion of saffron also gives a beautiful colour for this purpose. It has been proposed to colour Epsom salt in this way, to distinguish it from oxalic acid.

Salt, Rochelle. Tartrate of potassium and sodium.

Salt, Sea. Chloride of sodium.

Salt, Sed′ative. Boracic acid.

Salt, Smelling. See Salts (below).

Salt, Sore-throat. Sal prunella.

Salt, Taste′less. Phosphate of sodium.

Salt, Veg′etable. Tartrate of potassium.

Salt, Vol′atile. Common carbonate of ammonium.

Salt of Lem′ons. Syn. Sal limonum, L. Citric acid. That sold in the shops for the removal of ink spots from linen is binoxalate or quadroxalate of potassium, either alone or mixed with one half its weight of cream of tartar.

Salt of Sor′rel. Binoxalate or quadroxalate of potassium.

Salt of Steel. Sulphate of iron.

Salt of Tar′tar. Carbonate of potassium.

Salt of Vit′riol. Sulphate of zinc.

Salt of Wormwood. Carbonate of potassium.

SALT′ING. Pickling. Syn. This is an easy method of preserving butcher’s meat, fish, and, indeed, most animal substances. It is performed in two ways:—

1. (Dry salting.) This, as practised in Hampshire, Yorkshire, and in various large establishments elsewhere, consists in merely well rubbing ordinary culinary salt, mixed with a little saltpetre, into the meat, until every crevice is thoroughly penetrated, and, afterwards, sprinkling some over it, and placing it on a board or in a trough, in such a manner that the brine may drain off. On the small scale, in private families, a mixture of salt, 2 lbs., with saltpetre, 1⁄2 or 2 oz., either with or without about an oz. of good moist sugar, is commonly used for the purpose, and imparts a fine flavour to the meat. In both cases the pieces are turned every day, or every other day, until sufficiently cured, a little fresh salt being added as required. Sometimes the fresh meat is packed at once in casks, with the best coarse-grained or bay salt. This method is that commonly adopted for sea stores.

2. (Wet salting, or PICKLING IN BRINE.) When the meat is allowed to lie in the liquor that runs from it (see above), or is at once plunged into strong brine, it is said to be ‘pickled,’ or ‘wet salted.’ On the small scale, this is most conveniently performed by rubbing the fresh meat with salt, &c., as above, and, after it has lain a few hours, putting it into a pickle formed by dissolving about 4 lbs. of good salt and 2 oz. of saltpetre in 1 gall. of water, either with or without the addition of ⁄2 to 1 lb. of moist sugar. This pickling liquor gets weaker by use, and should, therefore, be occasionally boiled down a little, and skimmed, at the same time adding some more of the dry ingredients. Three to ten days, depending on the size, is sufficiently long to keep meat in the brine. When it is taken out it should be hung up to dry, after which it may be packed in barrels with coarse-grained salt, or smoked, whichever may be desired. Saltpetre added to brine gives the meat a red colour, and brown sugar improves the flavour.

The sooner animal substances, more especially flesh, are salted after being killed, the better, as they then possess considerable absorbent power, which they gradually lose by age. See Putrefaction, Scurvy, Smoking, &c.

SALTPE′TRE. Nitrate of potassium.

SALTS for producing Factitious Mineral Waters. Aerated, or Carbonate Waters. These require the aid of the powerful machine employed by soda-water manufacturers, to charge the waters strongly with carbonic-acid gas. The gas is made from whiting and diluted sulphuric acid, and is forced by a pump into the watery solution. Sometimes the gas is produced by the mutual action of the ingredients introduced into the bottle of water, which must be instantly closed; but this method is found practically inconvenient, and is only adopted in the absence of proper apparatus. The quantity of gas introduced is directed, in the French and American pharmacopœias, in most cases, to be 5 times the volume of liquid. For chalybeate and sulphuretted waters the water should be previously deprived of the air it naturally contains, by boiling, and allowing it to cool in a closed vessel.

There are various manufacturers of aerated-water machines, and of syphon bottles for holding these waters when made. The names and addresses of these makers may be found in any trade directory.

Simple Aerated Water. Carbonic-acid gas water. Water charged with five or more volumes of carbonic-acid gas, as above.

Alkaline Aerated Waters. Aerated soda and potash waters should be made by dissolving a drachm of the carbonated alkali in each pint of water, and charging it strongly with carbonic-acid gas. The soda water of the shops generally contains but little (or no) soda.

Aerated Magnesia Water. This is made of various strengths.

Murray’s and Dinneford’s Fluid Magnesia may be thus made:—To a boiling solution of 16 oz. of sulphate of magnesia in 6 pints of water add a solution of 19 oz. of crystallised carbonate of soda in the same quantity of water; boil the mixture till gas ceases to escape, stirring constantly; then set it aside to settle; pour off the liquid, and wash the precipitate on a cotton or linen cloth, with warm water, till the latter passes tasteless. Mix the precipitate, without drying it, with a gallon of water, and force carbonic-acid gas into it under strong pressure, till a complete solution is effected. The Eau Magnésienne of the French codex is about a third of this strength; and we have met with some prepared in this country not much stronger.

Carbonated Lime Water. Carrara water. Lime water (prepared from lime made by calcining Carrara marble) is supersaturated by strong pressure with carbonic acid, so that the carbonate of lime at first thrown down is redissolved. It contains 8 gr. of carbonate of lime in 10 fl. oz. of water.

Aerated Lithia Water. This may be conveniently made from the fresh precipitated carbonate, dissolved in carbonated water, as directed for fluid magnesia. Its antacid and antilithic properties promise to be useful.

Saline Carbonated Waters.

The following afford approximate imitations of these waters. The earthy salts, with the salts of iron, should be dissolved together in the smallest quantity of water. The other ingredients to be dissolved in the larger portion of the water, and the solution impregnated with the gas. The first solution may be then added or be previously introduced into the bottles. The salts, unless otherwise stated, are to be crystallised.

Baden Water. Chloride of magnesium, 2 gr.; chloride of calcium, 40 gr.; perchloride of iron, ⁄4 gr. (or 3 minims of the tincture); chloride of sodium, 30 gr.; sulphate of soda, 10 gr.; carbonate of soda, 1 gr.; water, 1 pint; carbonic-acid gas, 5 volumes.

Carlsbad Water. Chloride of calcium, 8 gr.; tincture of chloride of iron, 1 drop; sulphate of soda, 50 gr.; carbonate of soda, 60 gr.; chloride of sodium, 8 gr.; carbonated water, 1 pint.

Eger. Carbonate of soda, 5 gr.; sulphate of soda, 4 scruples; chloride of sodium, 10 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3 gr.; chloride of calcium, 5 gr.; carbonated water, 1 pint. (Or it may be made without apparatus, thus:—Bicarbonate of soda, 30 gr.; chloride of sodium, 8 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3 gr.; water, a pint; dissolve, and add a scruple of dry bisulphate of soda, and close the bottle immediately.)

Ems. Carbonate of soda, 2 scruples; sulphate of potash, 1 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 5 gr.; chloride of sodium, 10 gr.; chloride of calcium, 3 gr.; carbonated water, a pint.

Marienbad. Carbonate of soda, 2 scruples; sulphate of soda, 96 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 8 gr.; chloride of sodium, 15 gr.; chloride of calcium, 10 gr.; carbonated water, a pint. (Or, bicarbonate of soda, 50 gr.; sulphate of soda, 1 dr.; chloride of sodium, 15 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 10 gr.; dissolve in a pint of water, add 25 gr. of dry bisulphate of soda, and cork immediately.)

Marienbad Purging Salts. Bicarbonate of soda, 5 oz.; dried sulphate of soda, 12 oz.; dry chloride of sodium, 1⁄2 oz.; sulphate of magnesia, dried, 2 oz.; dried bisulphate of soda, 2⁄2 oz. Mix the salts, previously dried, separately, and keep them carefully from the air.

Pullna Water. Sulphate of soda, 4 dr.; sulphate of magnesia, 4 dr.; chloride of calcium, 15 gr.; chloride of magnesium (dry), a scruple; chloride of sodium, a scruple; bicarbonate of soda, 10 gr.; water, slightly carbonated, 1 pint. One of the most active of the purgative saline waters.

Pullna Water without the Machine. Bicarbonate of soda, 50 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 4 dr.; sulphate of soda, 3 dr.; chloride of sodium, a scruple; dissolve in a pint of water; add, lastly, 2 scruples of bisulphate of soda, and close the bottle immediately.

Salts for making Pullna Water. Dry bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz.; exsiccated sulphate of soda, 2 oz.; exsiccated sulphate of magnesia, 1⁄2 oz.; dry chloride of sodium, 2 dr.; dry tartaric acid, ⁄4 oz. (or rather dry bisulphate of soda, 1 oz.).

Seidlitz Water. This is usually imitated by strongly aerating a solution of 2 dr. of sulphate of magnesia in a pint of water. It is also made with 4, 6, and 8 dr. of the salts to a pint of water.

Seidlitz Powder. The common seidlitz powders do not resemble the water. A closer imitation would be made by using effloresced sulphate of magnesia instead of the potassio-tartrate of soda. A still more exact compound will be the following:—Effloresced sulphate of magnesia, 2 oz.; bicarbonate of soda, ⁄2 oz.; dry bisulphate of soda, ⁄2 oz.; mix, and keep in a close bottle.

Seidschutz Water. Sulphate of magnesia, 3 dr.; chloride of calcium, nitrate of lime, bicarbonate of soda, of each 8 gr.; sulphate of potash, 5 gr.; aerated water, 1 pint.

Seltzer Water. Chloride of calcium and chloride of magnesium, of each 4 gr.; dissolve these in a small quantity of water, and add it to a similar solution of 8 gr. of bicarbonate of soda, 20 gr. of chloride sodium, and 2 gr. of phosphate of soda; mix, and add a solution of ⁄4 gr. of sulphate of iron; put the mixed solution into a 20-oz. bottle, and fill up with aerated water. Much of the Seltzer water sold is said to be nothing more than simple carbonated water, containing a little chloride of sodium. An imitation of Seltzer water is also made by putting into a stone Seltzer bottle, filled with water, 2 dr. bicarbonate of soda, and 2 dr. of citric acid in crystals, corking the bottle immediately. Sodaic powders are sometimes sold as Seltzer powders.

Vichy Water. Bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr.; chloride of sodium, 2 gr.; sulphate of soda, 8 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3 gr.; tincture of chloride of iron, 2 drops; aerated water, a pint. Dorvault directs 75 gr. of bicarbonate of soda, 4 gr. of chloride of sodium, ⁄5 gr. sulphate of iron, 10 gr. sulphate of soda, 3 gr. sulphate of magnesia, to a pint of water. By adding 45 gr. (or less) of citric acid, an effervescing water is obtained.

M. Soubeiran, relying on the analysis of Longchamps, imitates Vichy water by the following combination:—Bicarbonate of soda, 135 gr.; chloride of sodium, 2⁄2 gr.; cryst. chloride of calcium, 12 gr.; sulphate of soda, 11⁄2 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3⁄4 gr.; tartrate of iron and potash, ⁄8 gr.; water, 2⁄10 pints (1 litre); carbonic acid, 305 cub. inches (5 litres). Dissolve the salts of soda and iron in part of the water, and add the sulph. magnes. and then the chlor. calc. in the remaining water. Charge now with the carbonic-acid gas under pressure.

Vichy Salts. Bicarbonate of soda, 1⁄2 oz.; chloride of sodium, 15 gr.; effloresced sulphate of soda, 1 dr.; effloresced sulphate of magnesia, 1 scruple; dry tartarised potash and iron, 1 gr.; dry tartaric acid, 1 oz. (or dry bisulphate of soda); mix the powders, previously dried, and keep them in a close bottle.

Saline Waters, &c., not Carbonated.

Sea Water. Chloride of sodium, 4 oz.; sulphate of soda, 2 oz.; chloride of calcium, ⁄4 oz.; chloride of magnesium, 1 oz.; iodide of potassium, 4 gr.; bromide of potassium, 2 gr.; water, a gallon. A common substitute for sea water as a bath is made by dissolving 4 or 5 oz. of common salt in a gallon of water.

The following mixture of dry salts may be kept for the immediate production of a good imitation of sea water:—Chloride of sodium (that obtained from evaporating sea water, and not recrystallised, in preference), 85 oz.; effloresced sulphate of soda, 15 oz.; dry chloride of calcium, 4 oz.; dry chloride of magnesium, 16 oz.; iodide of potassium, 2 dr.; bromide of potassium, 1 gr. Mix, and keep dry. Put 4 or 5 oz. to a gallon of water.

Balaruc Water. Chloride of sodium, 1 oz.; chloride of calcium, 1 oz.; chloride of magnesium, ⁄2 oz.; sulphate of soda, 3 dr.; bicarbonate of soda, 2 dr.; bromide of potassium, 1 gr.; water, a gallon. Chiefly used for baths.

Sulphuretted Waters.

Simple Sulphuretted Waters. Pass sulphuretted hydrogen into cold water (previously deprived of air by boiling, and cooled in a closed vessel) till it ceases to be absorbed.

Aix-la-Chapelle Water. Bicarbonate of soda, 12 gr.; chloride of sodium, 25 gr.; chloride of calcium, 3 gr.; sulphate of soda, 8 gr.; simple sulphuretted water, 2⁄2 oz.; water, slightly carbonated, 17⁄2 oz.

Barèges Water. (Cauterets, Bagnères de Luchon, Eaux Bonnes, St Sauveur, may be made the same.) Crystallised hydrosulphate of soda, crystallised carbonate of soda, and chloride of sodium, of each 1⁄2 gr.; water (freed from air), a pint. A stronger solution for adding to baths is thus made:—Crystallised hydrosulphate of soda, crystallised carbonate of soda, and chloride of sodium, of each 2 oz.; water, 10 oz.; dissolve. To be added to a common bath at the time of using.

Naples Water. Crystallised carbonate of soda, 15 gr.; fluid magnesia, 1 oz.; simple sulphuretted water, 2 oz.; aerated water, 16 oz. Introduce the sulphuretted water into the bottle last.

Harrogate Water. Chloride of sodium, 100 gr.; chloride of calcium, 10 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 6 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 2 gr.; water, 18⁄2 oz. Dissolve, and add simple sulphuretted water, 1⁄2 oz.

Chalybeate Waters.

Simple Chalybeate Water. Water freed from air by boiling, 1 pint; sulphate of iron, ⁄2 gr.

Aerated Chalybeate Water. Sulphate of iron, 1 gr.; carbonate of soda, 4 gr.; water (deprived of air and charged with carbonic-acid gas), a pint. Dr Pereira recommends 10 gr. each of sulphate of iron and bicarbonate of soda to be taken in a bottle of ordinary soda water. This is equivalent to 4 gr. of carbonate of iron.

Brighton Chalybeate. Sulphate of iron, chloride of sodium, chloride of calcium, of each 2 gr.; carbonate of soda, 3 gr.; carbonated water, 1 pint.

Bussang, Forges, Provins, and other similar waters, may be imitated by dissolving from ⁄2 to ⁄3rds of a grain of sulphate of iron, 2 or 3 gr. of carbonate of soda, 1 gr. of sulphate of magnesia, and 1 of chloride of sodium, in a pint of aerated water.

Mont d’Or Water. Bicarbonate of soda, 70 gr.; sulphate of iron, ⁄3 gr.; chloride of sodium, 12 gr.; sulphate of soda, ⁄2 gr.; chloride of calcium, 4 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 2 gr.; aerated water, a pint.

Passy Water. Sulphate of iron, 2 gr.; chloride of sodium, 3 gr.; carbonate of soda, 4 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 2 gr.; aerated water, a pint.

Pyrmont Water. Sulphate of magnesia, 20 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 4 gr.; chloride of sodium, 2 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 16 gr.; sulphate of iron, 2 gr.; Carrara water, a pint.

Various Aerated Medicinal Waters not resembling any Natural Spring.

Mialhe’s Aerated Chalybeate Water. Water, a pint; citric acid, 1 dr.; citrate of iron, 15 gr.; dissolve, and add 75 gr. of bicarbonate of soda.

Trosseau’s Martial Aerated Water. Potassio-tartrate of iron, 10 gr.; artificial Seltzer water, a pint.

Bouchardat’s Gaseous Purgative. Phosphate of soda, 1⁄2 oz.; carbonated water, a pint.

Mialhe’s Ioduretted Gaseous Water. Iodide of potassium, 15 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 75 gr.; water, a pint; dissolve and add sulphuric acid, diluted with its weight of water, 75 gr. Cork immediately.

Dupasquier’s Gaseous Water of Iodide of Iron. Solution of iodide of iron (containing ⁄10th of dry iodide), 30 gr.; syrup of gum, 2⁄2 oz.; aerated water, 17⁄2 oz.

SALTS (Smelling). Syn. Sal volatilis oleosus, L. Sesquicarbonate of ammonia commonly passes under the name of ‘SMELLING SALTS,’ and, with the addition of a few drops of essential oil, is frequently employed to fill ‘SMELLING BOTTLES,’ but when a strong and durable pungency is desired, the carbonate should alone be used, as in one or other of the following formulæ:—

1. Carbonate (not sesquicarbonate) of ammonia, 1 lb.; oil of lavender (Mitcham), 2 oz.; essence of bergamot, 1 oz.; oil of cloves, ⁄4 oz.; rub them together, and sublime; keep the product in well-stopped bottles.

2. Carbonate of ammonia, 1 lb.; oil of lavender, 2 oz.; oils of bergamot and lemon, of each 1 oz.; as the last.

3. Carbonate of ammonia, ⁄2 lb.; essence of bergamot, 1 oz.; oil of verbena, ⁄4 oz.; otto of roses, 1 dr.; as before.

4. Carbonate of ammonia, ⁄4 lb.; essences of bergamot and lemon, of each ⁄2 oz.; essence de petit grain, ⁄4 oz.; oil of cloves, 1 dr.; as before.

5. (Extemporaneous.)—a. From sal ammoniac, 1 dr.; pure potassa, 3 dr.; grind them together, and add, of essence of lemons, 15 drops; oil of cloves, 3 or 4 drops.—b. From carbonate or sesquicarbonate of ammonia (bruised), q. s.; volatile ammoniacal essence, a few drops.

According to Dr Paris, Godfrey’s Smelling Salts are made by resubliming volatile salt with subcarbonate of potassa and a little spirits of wine (and essential oil).

SALVE. A name indiscriminately applied by the vulgar to any consistent, greasy preparation used in medicine.

Salve, Lip-. Syn. Ceratum labiale, L.

Prep. 1. (Red or Peruvian.) From spermaceti ointment, ⁄2 lb.; alkanet root, ⁄2 oz.; melt them together until sufficiently coloured, strain, and, when the strained fat has cooled a little, add of balsam of Peru, 3 dr.; stir well, and in a few minutes pour off the clear portion from the dregs; lastly, stir in of oil of cloves, 20 or 30 drops. This never gets rancid.

2. (Rose.) See Cerate.

3. (White.) From the finest spermaceti ointment or cerate, 3 oz.; finely powdered white sugar, 1 oz.; neroli or essence de petit grain, 10 or 12 drops, or q. s.

Obs. Numerous formulæ are extant for lip-salves, as for other like articles, but the preceding are those generally employed in trade. The perfumes may be varied at will and the salve named after them. A very small quantity of finely powdered borax is occasionally added. French lip-salve is said to contain alum, in fine powder; and German lip-salve is said to be made of cacao butter. See Cerate, Pommade, and Ointment.

SAND. Syn. Arena, L. River and sea sand consist chiefly of finely divided siliceous matter, mixed, occasionally, with carbonate of lime. That of Lynn and Alum Bay is nearly purely silica, and is, therefore, selected for the manufacture of glass. Sand is used by moulders in metal, and as a manure for heavy land. It is a large and necessary portion of every fertile soil.

SAND PAPER. The ‘American Builder’ gives the following process for making sand-paper of superior quality, at almost nominal cost:

“The device for making sand-paper is simple and at hand to any one who has occasion to use the paper. A quantity of ordinary window glass is taken (that having a green colour is said to be the best) and pounded fine, after which it is passed through one or more sieves of different degrees of fineness, to secure the glass for coarse or fine paper. Then any tough paper is covered evenly with glue, having about one third more water than is generally employed for wood work. The glass is sifted upon the paper, allowed a day or two in which to become fixed in the glue, when the refuse glue is shaken off, and the paper is fit for use.”

SAN′DAL WOOD. 1. (Red sanders wood, R. saunders w.; Lignum santali rubri, Lignum santalinum rubrum, Pterocarpus—Ph. L. & E.) The wood of Pterocarpus santilinus. It is used in medicine as a colouring matter. It is also employed in dyeing, and to stain varnishes. Wool may be dyed a carmine red by dipping it alternately into an infusion of this wood and an acidulous bath, (Trommsdorff.) Prepared with a mordant of alum and tartar, and then dyed in a bath of sandal wood and sumach, it takes a reddish-yellow. (Bancroft.) See Santalin.

2. (White sandal wood, White sanders; Santalum album.) The young timber, or, according to others, the outside wood of Santalum album. (Linn.)

3. (Yellow sandal wood; Santalum citrinum, S. flavum.) The old timber, or, according to others, the heart of the same tree. Both the latter are much esteemed on account of their fragrance, and yield a valuable essential oil.

SAN′DARACH. Syn. Sandrac, Gums. A resin obtained from Thuja articulata, and Juniperus communis (in warm climates). It is slightly fragrant, is freely soluble in rectified spirit, and has a sp. gr. of 1·05 to 1·09. It is used as incense, pounce, in varnishes, &c.

SAN′DERS WOOD. See Sandal Wood.

SAN′DIVER. Syn. Glass gall; Fell vitri, Sal vitri, L. The saline scum that swims on glass when first made. It is occasionally used in tooth powders.

SANGUINA′RINE. Syn. Sanguinarina, L. Obtained from the root of Sanguinaria Canadensis (Linn.), or blood-root, by digesting it in anhydrous alcohol; exhausting it with weak sulphuric acid; precipitating by liquor of ammonia; dissolving out by ether, and precipitating sulphate of sanguinarine by the addition of sulphuric acid. The sulphate may be decomposed by ammonia, which precipitates the alkaloid as a white pearly substance, of an acrid taste, very soluble in alcohol, also soluble in ether and volatile oils. With acids it forms soluble salts, remarkable for their beautiful red, crimson, and scarlet colours. These salts are used in medicine as expectorants, in doses of fractions of a grain.

The ‘sanguinarin’ of the American ‘Eclectics’ is prepared by precipitating a saturated tincture of blood-root by water. It contains an uncertain proportion of the alkaloid, and is of a deep reddish-brown colour. See Resinoids.

SANITARY AUTHORITIES AND SANITARY DISTRICTS. With the exception of the metropolis, the whole of England and Ireland is divided into urban and rural sanitary districts, which are respectively governed by urban and rural authorities.

The Public Health Act (sec. 6) thus defines an urban district, and an urban authority in England:—

Urban Districts. Urban Authority.

Borough, constituted such either before or after the passing of this Act. The mayor, aldermen, and burgesses, acting by the council.

Improvement act district, constituted such before the passing of the Public Health Act, 1872, and having no part of its area situated within a borough or local government district. The improvement commissioners.

Local government district constituted such either before or after the passing of this Act, having no part of its area situated within a borough, and not coincident in area with a borough or improvement act district. The local board.

Provided that—

1. Any borough the whole of which is included in and forms part of a local government district or improvement act district, and any improvement act district which is included in and forms part of a local government district, and any local government district which is included in and forms part of an improvement act district, shall, for the purposes of this Act, be deemed to be absorbed in the larger district in which it is included, or of which it forms part; and the Improvement commissioners, or local board, as the case may be, of such larger district, shall be the urban authority therein; and

2. Where an improvement act district is coincident in area with a local government district, the improvement commissioners, and not a local board, shall be the urban authority there; and

3. Where any part of an improvement act district is situated within a borough or local act district, or where any part of a local government district is situated within a borough, the remaining part of such improvement act district or of such local government district so partly situated within a borough, shall for the purposes of this Act continue subject to the like jurisdiction as it would have been subject to if this Act had not been passed, unless and until the Local Government Board by provisional order otherwise directs.

For the purposes of the Public Health Act, the boroughs of Oxford, Cambridge, Blandford, Calne, Wenlock, Folkestone, and Newport, Isle of Wight, are not to be deemed boroughs.

The borough of Cambridge is to be deemed an improvement act district, the borough of Oxford is to be included in the local government district of Oxford, and there is a special provision in the case of the borough of Folkestone.

An English rural sanitary district and authority are thus defined by the Public Health Act (sec. 9):—

“The area of any union which is not coincident in area with an urban district, nor wholly included in an urban district (in this section called a rural union), with the exception of those portions (if any) of the area which are included in any urban district, shall be a rural district, and the guardians of the union shall form the rural authority of such district, provided that—

“1. An ex officio guardian resident in any parish or part of a parish belonging to such union, which parish or part of a parish forms or is situated in an urban district, shall not act or vote in any case in which guardians of such union act or vote as members of the rural authority, unless he is the owner or occupier of property situated in the rural district of a value sufficient to qualify him as an elective guardian for the union.

“2. An elective guardian of any parish belonging to such union, and forming or being included within an urban district, shall not act or vote in any case in which guardians of such union act or vote as members of the rural authority.

“3. Where part of a parish belonging to a rural union forms or is situated in an urban district, the Local Government Board may by order divide such parish into separate wards, and determine the number of guardians to be elected by such wards respectively, in such manner as to provide for the due representation of the part of the parish situated within the rural district; but until such order has been made, the guardian or guardians of such parish may act and vote as members of the rural authority in the same manner as if no part of such parish formed part of, or was situated in, the urban district.”

Where the number of elective guardians, who are not by this section disqualified from acting and voting as members of the rural authority, is less than five, the Local Government Board may from time to time by order nominate such number of persons as may be necessary to make up that number, from owners or occupiers of property situated in the rural district of a value sufficient to qualify them as elective guardians for the union; and the persons so nominated shall be entitled to act and vote as members of the rural authority, but not further or otherwise.

Subject to the provisions of this Act, all statutes, orders, and legal provisions applicable to any board of guardians shall apply to them in their capacity of rural authority under this Act for the purposes of this Act; and it is hereby declared that the rural authority are the same body as the guardians of the union or parish for or within which such authority act.

Sanitary districts in Ireland are:—The City of Dublin, other corporate towns above 6000, and towns or townships having commissioners under local Acts.

And urban authorities are:—

In the City of Dublin, the Right Hon. the Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses acting by the town council.

In towns corporate, the town council.

In towns exceeding 6000, having commissioners under the Lighting, Cleaning, and Watching Act of George IV; or having municipal commissioners under 3 and 4 Vict., c. 108; or town commissioners under the Towns Improvement (Ireland) Act (17 and 18 Vict., c. 103), the said commissioners, municipal, or town councillors respectively.

In towns or townships having commissioners under local Acts, the town or township commissioners (37 and 38 Vict. c. 98, s. 3).

The Irish rural sanitary districts and authorities are exactly analogous to the English.

In Scotland, sanitary powers are exercised by town councils, police commissioners, and parochial boards, controlled and supervised by a board of supervision; but the names of urban and rural sanitary authorities have not yet been applied to them.

Under the English Public Health Act, there may also be formed united districts; for example:

Where, on the application of any local authority of any district, it appears to the Local Government Board that it would be for the advantage of the districts, or any of them, or any parts thereof, or of any contributory places, in any rural district or districts, to be formed into a united district for all or any of the purposes following:—

1. The procuring a common supply of water; or

2. The making a main sewer, or carrying into effect a system of sewerage for the use of all such districts, or contributory places; or

3. For any other purposes of this Act, the Local Government Board may, by provisional order, form such districts or contributory places into a united district.

All costs, charges, and expenses of and incidental to the formation of a united district are, in the event of the united district being formed, to be a first charge on the rates leviable in the united district in pursuance section 279 of the Public Health Act.

Notice of the provisional order must be made public in the locality; and should the union be carried out, the incidental expenses thereto are a first charge on the sanitary rates of the united district. A united district is governed by a joint board consisting of such ex officio, and of such number of elective members as the provisional order determines.

The business arrangements of the joint board differ little from those of a sanitary authority.

The joint board is a body corporate having a name—determined by the provisional order—a perpetual succession, and a common seal, and having power to acquire and hold lands without any licence in mortmain. The joint board has only business and power in matters for which it has been formed. With the exception of these special objects, the component districts continue as before to exercise independent powers.

Nevertheless, the joint board may delegate to the sanitary authority of any component district the exercise of any of its powers, or the performance of any of its duties (Public Health Act, sec. 281).

Sanitary authorities and districts may be also combined for the execution and maintenance of works, for the prevention of epidemic diseases, as well as for the purpose of appointing a medical officer of health. Districts when once formed are not fixed and unvariable, the Local Government Board having the most extensive powers over the alterations of areas.

1. The Local Government Board, by provisional order, may dissolve any local government district, and may merge any such district in some other district, or may declare the whole or any portion of a local government or a rural district immediately adjoining a local government district to be included in such last mentioned district, or may declare any portion of a local government district immediately adjoining a rural district to be included in such last-mentioned district; and thereupon the included area shall, for the purposes of the Public Health Act, be deemed to form part of the district in which it is included in such order; and the remaining part (if any) of such local government district or rural district affected by such order, shall continue subject to the like jurisdiction as it would have been subject to if such order had not been made, unless and until the Local Government Board by provisional order otherwise directs.

2. In the case of a borough comprising within its area the whole of an improvement act district, or having an area coextensive with such district, the Local Government Board, by provisional order, may dissolve such district, and transfer to the council of the borough, all or any of the jurisdiction and powers of the improvement commissioners of such district, remaining vested in them at the time of the passing of the Public Health Act.

3. The Local Government Board may, by order, dissolve any special drainage district constituted either before or after the passing of the Public Health Act in which a loan for the execution of works has not been raised, and merge it into the parish or parishes in which it is situated; but in the cases where a loan has been raised the Local Government Board can only do this by provisional order (Public Health Act, sec. 271).

Disputes with regard to the boundaries of districts are to be settled by the Local Government Board after local inquiry (Public Health Act, sec. 278).

Where districts also are constituted for the purposes of main sewerage only, in pursuance of the Public Health Act of 1848, or where a district has been formed subject to the jurisdiction of a joint sewerage board, in pursuance of the Sewage Utilisation Act of 1867, such districts or district may be dissolved by provisional order, and the Local Government Board may constitute it a united district, subject to the jurisdiction of a joint board (Public Health Act, sec. 323).

The Local Government Board may also declare by provisional order any rural district to be a local government district.

The Local Government Board has also the important power of investing a rural authority with urban powers as follows:

“The Local Government Board may, on the application of the authority of any rural district, or of persons rated to the relief of the poor, the assessment of whose hereditaments amounts at the least to one tenth of the net rateable value of such district, or of any contributory place therein, by order to be published in the ‘London Gazette,’ or in such other manner as the Local Government Board may direct, declare any provisions of this Act in force in urban districts to be in force in such rural district or contributory place, and may invest such authority with all or any of the powers, rights, duties, capacities, liabilities, and obligations of an urban authority under this Act, and such investment may be made either unconditionally or subject to any conditions to be specified by the board as to the time, portion of its district, or manner during, at, and in which such powers, rights, duties, liabilities, capacities, and obligations are to be exercised and attach, provided that an order of the Local Government Board made on the application of one tenth of the persons rated to the relief of the poor in any contributory place shall not invest the rural authority with any new powers beyond the limits of such contributory places” (Public Health Act, sec. 276).

Powers and Duties of Sanitary Authorities. In England urban sanitary authorities have very extensive powers and duties under the Public Health Act of 1875, and in addition they have to carry out the Bakehouse Regulation Act, and the Artisans’ and Labourers’ Dwellings Act. They also have power to adopt the Baths and Wash-houses Acts, and the Labouring Classes’ Lodging Houses Acts; but where adopted or in force, the powers, rights, duties, &c., of these Acts belong to the urban authority. The powers of any local act for sanitary purposes (except a River Conservancy Act) are transferred to the urban authority.

The powers of an English rural authority are exercised principally under the Public Health Act, but they have also to carry out the Bakehouse Regulation Act.

The powers given by the Irish Public Health Act to Irish Sanitary Authorities are similar.

The Local Government Act is not in force there, and equal powers are given without distinction to urban and rural sanitary authorities.

The duties of sanitary authorities are to carry out the Acts which apply to them, and appoint certain officers, such as medical officers of health, inspectors of nuisances, clerk, treasurer, &c.

Speaking generally, it may be affirmed that all sanitary authorities are invested with ample powers for enforcing sanitary measures. Their duty consists in perfecting drainage, sewerage, and water supply. In towns they have the control of streets and houses, both private and public, and in all localities they possess ample powers to cause every species of nuisance to be abated, which is in the least inimical to health.

The Public Health Act contains a proviso for dealing with an authority which fails in its duty. Under these circumstances, the Local Government Board is invested with compulsory powers, and may compel the due performance of whatever it may deem necessary.

SANITARY HERBAL BITTERS—Gesundheitskräuter-Bitter. An indispensable household remedy for every family, for colic, stomach-ache, cramp in the bladder, flatulence, loss of appetite, nausea, chronic liver diseases, constipation, and diarrhœa; also as a soothing agent for infants (Gottschlich). The fluid contains in 100 grammes the soluble portion of about ·8 gramme opium. (Hager.)

SANITARY LIQUEUR—Gesundheits Liqueur. Swedish elixir of life, with rhubarb in place of the aloes, made into a liqueur with sugar and spirit. (Hager.)

SANITARY, POPULAR, ERRORS. It is a popular sanitary error to think that the more a man eats the fatter and stronger he will become. To believe that the more hours children study the faster they learn. To conclude that, if exercise is good, the more violent the more good is done. To imagine that every hour taken from sleep is an hour gained. To act on the presumption that the smallest room in the house is large enough to sleep in. To imagine that whatever remedy causes one to feel immediately better is good for the system, without regard to the ulterior effects. To eat without an appetite; or to continue after it has been satisfied, merely to gratify the taste. To eat a hearty supper at the expense of a whole night of disturbed sleep and weary waking in the morning (‘Sanitary Record’).

SANITARY RATAFIA—Gesundheits Ratafia. For removing all stomach, chest, and bowel complaints, indigestion, colic, diarrhœa, vomiting, flatulence, dysuria, and affections caused by chills. A clear brown schnapps containing, in 250 grammes by weight, 75 grammes sugar, 105 grammes water, 100 grammes strong spirit, 40 grammes each of tincture of orange peel and tincture of orange berries, 2·5 grammes each tincture of cloves and tincture of wormwood, 1 drop oil of peppermint, 5 drops acetic ether, and some drops of caramel. (Dr Horn.)

SANITARY SOUL, Flowers of.—Gesundheitsblumengeist. A mixture of spirit, 500 parts; tinct. aromatica, 5 parts; oils of bergamot, lavender, and rosemary, of each 2 parts; oil of thyme, 3 parts; oil of spearmint, 1 part. (Hager.)

SANITATION, DOMESTIC. Not one of the least creditable or important benefits conferred of late years, by the efforts of philanthropic and enlightened enterprise upon the poorer classes of this country, has been the erection—in cities and large towns more particularly—of healthy houses for them to dwell in. In the construction of these habitations the architects and designers have for the most part been guided by sound sanitary principles, the carrying out of which has been effected by means of legislative supervision, and if needful, of legislative action.

The result of these measures has, in most cases, been to provide residences for our poorer brethren, wherein, amongst other advantages, they enjoy the two primary ones of pure air and water. That the richer, upper, and middle classes, whilst devising and achieving so much in the way of comfort and health for those beneath them, should themselves in so many cases live in houses notoriously unhealthy, and should fail to recognise the advantages of the compulsory enforcement of necessary hygienic arrangements, are anomalies so amazing as to be, at first sight, scarcely credible. Yet a little piece of statistics may serve to discomfit those who are incredulous on this point. The average mortality in London is 24 persons in a 1000. In the improved dwellings of the poor it is only 14 in the 1000.

This subject was ventilated in a very earnest and valuable paper read before the Social Science Congress at Brighton in 1875 by Mr H. H. Collins. In this paper Mr Collins refers only to the houses of the metropolis and its suburbs, and maintains that, as far as regards the enforcement of sanitary precautions in house building, London and its suburbs are infinitely worse provided for than many second-rate provincial towns, most of which, he says, have the construction of their buildings and streets regulated by bye-laws issued under the powers of the Public Health Act, and sanctioned by the Home Secretary, whereas in London the various Acts of Parliament for this purpose have been inoperative. Mr Collins describes the insanitary condition of some of the high-rented houses he examined and says the descriptions which follow equally apply to many others situated in the most aristocratic quarters of London.

Imagine one of our legislators who, perhaps, had been voting for the passing of the “Nuisance Removals Act,” returning from his parliamentary duties to such a mansion as is portrayed by Mr Collins in the following extract:—“I have recently purchased on behalf of a client the lease of a mansion in Portland Place from a well-known nobleman, who had spent, as I was informed, a fortune in providing new drainage; indeed, I found the principal water-closet built out of the house altogether; the soil-pipe of it, however, was carried through the basement, where it was supposed to be connected with the drain. Upon removing the floor-boards to examine it, I found the ground surrounding the connection literally one mass of black sewage, the soil oozing through the point even at the time of the examination, and the connection with the main-drain laid in it at right angles. The 9-inch drain-pipes ran through the centre of the house, having a very slight gradient, and had evidently not been laid in many years, yet they were nearly full of consolidated sewage, and but little space was left for the passage of the fluid. With but a slightly increased pressure the joints would have given way, and the sewage would have flowed under the boards instead of into the sewer. The sinks, water-closets, and cisterns were all badly situated, and all more or less defective in sanitary arrangement. In the butler’s pantry the sink was placed next to the turn-up bedstead of the butler, who must have inhaled draughts of impure atmosphere at every inspiration. The soil-pipes of the closets had indeed been ventilated with a zinc rectangular tube, but, as this had been so placed as to let the sewer-gas through an adjacent skylight into the house, and the odour being extremely disagreeable, it had been by his lordship’s directions (as I am told) closed. Here was evidence that it had at all events been doing some service, and probably had only poisoned a few of the domestics. I found the bends of soil-pipes likewise riddled with holes, as described by Dr Leargus. There happened to be a housemaids’ sink situated close to a bedroom, the waste from which had been carefully connected with the soil-pipe, so that probably had the closets been satisfactorily ventilated, this arrangement would have defeated the object in view. I should also mention that the best water-closet was situated on the bedroom floor under the stairs, and was lighted and ventilated through a small shaft formed of wood boarding and carried to the roof; it also opened by a window to the main or principal staircase. The gutter of the roof ran through the bedrooms and under the floors; at the time of examination it was full of black slimy filth. This is a fair specimen of the sanitary arrangements of a nobleman’s town house, situated in one of the best streets of this great metropolis in the year of grace 1875.”

Let us take another example:—“A few years ago a client of mine, who resided in a large house in a wealthy suburb, informed me that his wife and two daughters had suffered in health ever since they had occupied their house, that he had consulted several medical men without beneficial result, and that he wished me to make a survey of the premises. He paid a rental of about £200 per annum. I found that the drainage was in every way defective, although he told me that he had spent a large sum of money in making it ‘perfect,’ the gradients were bad, the pipes choked, and the joints unsound. The servants’ water-closet was adjacent to the scullery, which was in communication with the kitchen, the sink being directly opposite the kitchen range. The water-closet was supplied direct from the cistern, the waste from which entered the drain, although it was said to be trapped. The waste of the sink was simply connected with the drains and trapped with an ordinary bell-trap, the cover or trap of which I found broken. Under the kitchen range hot-water tap I found a trapped opening, also leading into the drain. The domestics complained of frequent headaches and general depression, and I need not add that it excited no surprise, seeing that the kitchen fire was continuously drawing in from the sewers and house drains a steady supply of sewer-gas to the house and drinking-water cistern. In addition I found the basement walls damp, owing to the absence of a damp-proof course and the want of dry areas. The upper water-closets, house-closets, and cisterns were situated over each other, off the first-floor landing, and directly opposite the bedroom doors. The bath and lavatory were fixed in the dressing-room, communicating with the best bedroom, the wastes from which were carried into the soil-pipe of closets. This latter was unventilated, but was trapped with an S pipe at bottom. The water-closets were pan closets, and were trapped by D traps. The upper closet periodically untrapped the lower closet, and both traps leaving the impure air free access to the house and cistern, which latter was also in communication by means of its waste-pipe with the house-drains. The overflows from safes of the water-closets were practically untrapped. The peculiar nauseating odour of sewer-gas was distinctly perceptible, and I had but little doubt but that atonic disease was rapidly making its inroads on the occupants. The landlord refused to recognise the truth of my report. My client, acting on my advice, relinquished his lease, took another house, the sanitation of which was carefully attended to, and his wife and children have had no recurrence of illness.”

Mr Collins mentions a very alarming and unsuspected source of aerial poisoning in many town-houses to be the existence of old disused cesspools in the centre of the buildings. These receptacles, which are frequently nearly filled with decaying fæcal substances, are very often found to be insecurely covered over with tiles, stones, or boarding. To ensure the construction of a healthy dwelling-house, Mr Collins regards attention to the following conditions as essential:—“All subsoil should be properly drained, proper thickness of the concrete should be applied to the foundations, damp-proof courses should be inserted over footings, earth should be kept back from walls by dry areas properly drained and ventilated, external walls should be built of good hard well-burnt stock brickwork, of graduated thicknesses, and never less than 14 inches thick; internal divisions should be of brick in cement. The mortar and cement should be of good quality. All basement floors should have a concrete or cement bottom, with air flowing under the same, and the boarding thereof should be tongued so as to prevent draught and exhalation penetrating through the joints of the same. Ample areas back and front should be insisted on, the divisional or party fence walls of which should never be allowed to exceed 7 feet in height, to allow free circulation and to prevent the areas becoming wells or shafts for stagnant air. The main drains should be carried through the back yards, and, to prevent inconvenience to adjoining owners from any obstruction, they should be laid in subways, so that the sewer inspector could gain ready access thereto without entering any of the premises or causing any annoyance to the tenants. No basement should on any account be allowed to be constructed at such a level as will not permit of the pipes having good steep gradients to the sewer.

All sinks should be placed next external walls, having windows over the same, and removed from the influence of the fire-grates. All wastes should discharge exteriorly over and not into trapped cess-pits, all of which should be provided with splashing stones fixed round the same. The basement cisternage should be placed in convenient and accessible positions, protected from dirt and guarded from the effects of alternations of temperature. They should be of slate and galvanised iron, and never of lead or zinc. They should be fitted with overflows discharging over the sink, or over trapped cesses as just mentioned. They should be supplied with stout lead encased, block-tin pipe, the services therefrom for all drinking purposes should be of the same description, and should be attached to an ascending filter, so that water may be delivered free from lead or organic impurities. Lead poisoning is more frequent than is generally believed. Cupboards under stairs, under sinks, under dressers, or out-of-the-way places should be avoided, and when fitted up should always be well ventilated. All passages should be well lighted and ventilated. Borrowed lights are better than none at all. Every room should be furnished with a fireplace, and Comyn and Chingo ventilators over doors and windows should be freely disposed. It would conduce to the health of the house, without adding one shilling to its cost, to build next the kitchen flue a separate ventilating flue, and to conduct the products of combustion from gas and other impure or soiled air, &c., into the same, from ventilators placed in the centre of or close to the ceilings, as may be found most convenient. By carefully proportioning the inlet and outlet ventilation, the air will be kept moving without draught, and preserved in a pure and sweet condition for respiration. The windows and doors will then serve only their legitimate objects of admitting light, and of affording ingress and egress to the various apartments. The staircase should be made the main ventilator of the house, and it is essentially necessary to preserve the air surrounding the same, uncontaminated, pure, and undefiled. It will be better to light and ventilate it from the top; and to prevent the Ethiopians or blacks of London finding their way into the house, an invisible gauze net may be placed under it, which can periodically be easily removed and cleansed, or it may be furnished with a movable inner, ornamental flat light.

Under no circumstances must lavatories or sinks be brought in connection with the drains. Most people desire the bath-room to be in proximity to the bedrooms; whether so placed or not, all connection with main drainage must be studiously avoided. The hot and cold pipes, known as the flow and return pipes, should be of galvanised iron, with junctions carefully made with running joints in red lead; on no account should these be in contact with any other pipes. The wastes from the bath safe (and lavatories if any) should be carried through the front wall of the house, and should turn over and into rain-water head, covered with domical wire grating to prevent birds building their nests therein, and carried down to the basement area, where they must discharge over a trapped cess-pit, as before described, surrounded with a splash-stone or curve to obviate the nuisance of the soap-suds flowing over the pavement. A brush passed up and down these waters now and then will effectually remove any soapy sediment which may cling to their surfaces. The waste from bath, &c., into heads should be furnished with a ground valve flap and collar to prevent draught, and the bath should be fitted with india-rubber seatings between the metal and wood framing. Mansarde or sloping roofs should be avoided; they are injurious to the health of the domestics, whose sleeping chambers they are generally appropriated to; they are unhealthy, hot in summer, and prejudicially cold in winter, laying the basis for future disease for those least able to bear it. Gutters taken through roofs, known as ‘trough,’ should never be permitted; they congregate putrescent filth, which remains in them for years to taint and poison the atmosphere.” Consult also, as supplementing this subject, the articles Drains, Dustbins, Cesspools, Tanks, Traps, Water-closets.

SAN′TALIN. The colouring principle of red sanders wood.

SAN′TONIN. C15H18O3. Syn. Santonic acid; Santoninum, L. The crystalline and characteristic principle of the seed of several varieties of Artemisia.

Prep. (Ph. Baden, 1841.) Take of worm-seed, 4 parts; hydrate of lime, 1⁄2 part; mix, and exhaust them with alcohol of 90%; distil, off 3-4ths of the spirit, and evaporate the remainder to one half, which, at the boiling temperature, is to be mixed with acetic acid in excess, and afterwards with water; on repose, impure santonin subsides; wash this with a little weak spirit, then dissolve it in rectified spirit, 10 parts, decolour by ebullition for a few minutes with animal charcoal, and filter; the filtrate deposits colourless crystals of santonin as it cools; these are to be dried, and kept in opaque bottles.

Mr W. G. Smith, M.B., states that two singular effects are known to result from the administration of santonin in moderate doses, viz. visual derangements and a peculiar alteration in the colour of the urine. He adds that three hours after taking 5 gr. of pure white santonin, he became conscious, while reading, of a yellowish tint on the paper, and a yellow haze in the air. His own hands, and the complexions of others, appeared of a sallow unhealthy colour; and the evening sky, which was really of a pale lavender colour, seemed to be light green. Vision was not perfectly distinct for some hours, and was accompanied by a certain vagueness of definition. Mr Smith endorses the observations of previous observers who had noticed that the urine of persons under the influence of santonin is tinged of a saffron yellow or greenish colour. The coloured urine resembles that of a person slightly jaundiced, and like this permanently stains linen of a light yellow colour.

The best test for santonin in the urine is an alkali, upon the addition of which the urine immediately assumes a fine cherry-red colour, varying in depth according to the amount of santonin present. Potash was found to be the preferable alkali.

Prop., &c. Prismatic or tubular crystals; inodorous; tasteless, or only slightly bitter; fusible; volatilisable; soluble in 4500 parts of cold and about 250 parts of boiling water; soluble in cold alcohol and ether; freely soluble in hot alcohol. It is much esteemed as a tasteless worm medicine, and is especially adapted to remove lumbricales (large round worms).—Dose, 6 to 18 or 20 gr., repeated night and morning, followed by a brisk purge.

(Ph. B.) Boil 1 lb. of santonico, bruised, with 1 gall. of distilled water, and 5 oz. of slaked lime, in a copper or tinned iron vessel for an hour, strain through a stout cloth and express strongly. Mix the residue with ⁄2 gall. of distilled water and 2 oz. of lime, boil for half an hour, strain and express as before. Mix the strained liquors, let them settle, decant the fluid from the deposit, evaporate to the bulk of 2⁄2 pints. To the liquor while hot add, with diligent stirring, hydrochloric acid, until the fluid has become slightly and permanently acid, and set it aside for five days that the precipitate may subside. Remove, by skimming, any oily matter which floats on the surface, and carefully decant the greater part of the fluid from the precipitate. Collect this on a paper filter, wash it first with cold distilled water, till the washings pass colourless and nearly free from acid reaction, then with ⁄2 fl. oz. of solution of ammonia, previously diluted with 5 oz. of distilled water, and, lastly, with cold distilled water, till the washings pass colourless. Press the filter containing the precipitate between folds of filtering paper, and dry it with a gentle heat. Scrape the dry precipitate from the filter, and mix it with 60 gr. of purified animal charcoal. Pour on them 9 fl. oz. of rectified spirit, digest for half an hour, and boil for ten minutes. Filter while hot, wash the charcoal with 1 fl. oz. of boiling spirit, and set the filtrate aside for two days in a cool dark place to crystallise. Separate the mother liquor from the crystals, and concentrate to obtain a further product. Collect the crystals, let them drain, redissolve them in 4 fl. oz. of boiling spirit, and let the solution crystallise as before. Lastly, dry the crystals on filtering paper in the dark and preserve them in a bottle protected from the light.

SAP GREEN. See Green pigments.

SAPONIFICA′TION. See Soap.

SAP′ONIN. Syn. Saponinum, L. A white, non-crystallisable substance, obtained by the action of hot diluted alcohol on the root of Saponaria officinalis (Linn.), or soapwort.

Prop., &c. Saponin is soluble in hot water, and the solution froths strongly on agitation. The smallest quantity of the powder causes violent sneezing.

SARCOCOL′LA. A gum-resin supposed to be derived from one or more plants of the natural order Renæaceæ, growing in Arabia and Persia. It somewhat resembles gum Arabic, except in being soluble in both water and alcohol, and in having a bitter-sweet taste. It was formerly used in surgery.

SAR′COSINE. C3H7O2N. A feebly basic substance, obtained by boiling kreatine for some time with a solution of pure baryta. It forms colourless, transparent plates, freely soluble in water, sparingly so in alcohol, and insoluble in ether; it may be fused and volatilised.

SARSAPARIL′LA. Syn. Sarsæ radix (B. P.), Radix sarzæ, Radix sarsaparillæ, Sarza (Ph. L. & E.), Sarsaparilla (Ph. D. & U. S.), L. “Jamaica sarza. The root of Smilax officinalis, Kunth” (Ph. L.); “and probably of other species.” (Ph. E.)

The sarsaparillas of commerce are divided by Dr Pereira into two classes:—‘Mealy sarsaparilla’ and ‘non-mealy sarsaparillas.’ In the first are placed Brazilian or Lisbon, Caraccas or gouty Vera Cruz, and Honduras; the second includes Jamaica, Lima, and true Vera Cruz.

The mealy sarsaparillas are distinguished by “the mealy character of the inner cortical layers, which are white or pale-coloured. The meal or starch is sometimes so abundant, that a shower of it, in the form of white dust, falls when we fracture the roots.” The medulla or pith is also frequently very amylaceous.

The non-mealy sarsaparillas “are characterised by a deeply coloured (red or brown), usually non-mealy, cortex. The cortex is red, and much thinner than in the mealy sorts.” “If a drop of oil of vitriol be applied to a transverse section of the root of the non-mealy sarsaparillas, both cortex and wood acquire a dark-red or purplish tint;” whilst in the preceding varieties, the mealy coat, and, sometimes, the pith, is but little altered in colour. “The decoction of non-mealy sarsaparilla, when cold, is somewhat darkened, but does not yield a blue colour when a solution of iodine is added to it.” The aqueous extract, when rubbed down with a little cold distilled water in a mortar, does not yield a turbid liquid, nor become blue on the addition of iodine. The reverse is the case with the decoction and extract of the mealy varieties.

The Jamaica, Red Jamaica, or Red-bearded sarsaparilla (Sarza Jamaicensis—Ph. D.), is the variety which should alone be used in medicine. This kind yields from 33 to 44% of its weight of extract (Battley, Hennell, Pope), and contains less starchy matter than the other varieties. It is distinguished by exhibiting the above peculiarities in a marked degree, by the dirty reddish colour of its bark, which “is not mealy,” and by being “beset very plentifully with rootlets” (fibres).—Ph. L. Its powder has also a pale reddish-brown colour. The other varieties of sarsaparilla, viz. the Lisbon, Lima, Vera Cruz, and Honduras, are frequently substituted for the Jamaica by the druggists in the preparations of the decoctions and extracts of this drug; but the products are vastly inferior in quantity, colour, taste, and medicinal virtue, to those prepared from the officinal sarsaparilla. Decoction of sarsaparilla, when made with the Honduras root, is very liable to ferment, even by a few hours’ exposure, in hot weather. We have seen hogsheads of the strong decoction, after exposure for a single night, in as active a state of fermentation as a gyle of beer, with a frothy head, and evolving a most disagreeable odour, that was not wholly removed by several hours’ boiling. When this occurs the decoction suffers in density, and the product in extract is, consequently, considerably lessened. Yet this is frequently allowed to occur in the wholesale laboratory, where the rule should be—always begin a ‘bath of sarza’ (as it is called), and, indeed, of other perishable articles, early in the morning, and finish it, completely and entirely, the same day.

Sarsaparilla has been recommended as a mild but efficacious alterative, diaphoretic and tonic. It has long been a popular remedy in chronic rheumatism, rheumatic and gouty pains, scurvy, scrofula, syphilis, secondary syphilis, lepra, psoriasis, and several other skin diseases; and, especially, in cachexia, or a general bad habit of body, and to remove the symptoms arising from the injudicious use of mercurials, often falsely called ‘secondary syphilis.’ During its use the skin should be kept warm, and diluents should be freely taken. Its efficacy has been greatly exaggerated. It is, however, much more effective in warm than in northern climates.—Dose. In substance, ⁄2 to 1 dr., three or four times daily; but, preferably, made into a decoction or infusion.

The articles so much puffed under the names of American or United States sarsaparilla and extract of sarsaparilla are “nothing more than the decoction of a common herb, a sort of ‘aralia,’ inhabiting the swamps and marshes of the United States. When cut up it has the appearance of chaff, but not the slightest resemblance in character, colour, or taste, to even the most inferior species of smilax (or sarza). The decoction is sweetened with a little sugar, flavoured with benzoin and sassafras, and, finally, preserved from decomposition by means of the bichloride of mercury.” “I have heard of several cases of deadly sickness, and other dangerous symptoms, following its use.” “We do not believe that a particle of real sarsaparilla ever entered into the composition of either of the articles referred to.” (‘Med. Circ.,’ ii, 227.) See Decoction and Extract.

SARSAPARIL′LIN. Syn. Pariglin, Parillic acid, Salsaparin, Smilacin. A white, crystallisable, odourless, and nearly tasteless substance, discovered by Pallotta and Folchi, in sarsaparilla.

Prep. The bark of Jamaica sarsaparilla is treated with hot rectified spirit, and the resulting tincture reduced to about one third by distilling off the spirit; the residual liquid is then filtered, whilst boiling, slightly concentrated by evaporation, and set aside to crystallise; the crystalline deposit is redissolved in either hot rectified spirit or boiling water, and decoloured by agitation with a little animal charcoal; the filtrate deposits crystals of nearly pure smilacin as it cools. It may also be extracted by boiling water.

Prop., &c. A non-nitrogenised neutral body. Water holding a very small quantity of it in solution froths considerably on agitation. This is especially the case with infusion of Jamaica sarsaparilla, and this property has consequently been proposed as a test of the quality of sarsaparilla root. Its medicinal properties are similar to those of sarsaparilla. According to Pallotta, it is a powerful sedative, and diminishes the vital energies in proportion to the quantity taken.—Dose, 2 to 10 gr.; in the usual cases in which the root is given.

SAS′SAFRAS. Syn. Sassafras radix (B. P.), Sassafras radix, Sassafras (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “The root of Sassafras officinale, Nees. Laurus sassafras, Linn.”—Ph. L. It has a fragrant odour, and a sweetish aromatic taste. It has long been reputed a stimulating, alterative, diaphoretic, diuretic, and tonic; and an infusion of the chips (sassafras chips), under the name of sassafras tea, has been a popular ‘diet drink’ in various cutaneous affections, gout, chronic rheumatism, &c.

SATURA′TION. The state in which a body has taken its full dose, or chemical proportion, of any other substance with which it can combine, or which it can dissolve; as water with sugar or a salt, or an alkali with an acid, when the properties of both are neutralised.

SAUCERS (for Dyeing). Prep. 1. (Blue.) From blue carmine, made into a paste with gum water, which is then spread over the inside of the saucers, and dried.

2. (Pink.)—a. From pure rouge mixed with a little carbonate of soda, then made into a paste with thin gum water, and applied as the last.

b. Well-washed safflower, 8 oz.; carbonate of soda, 2 oz.; water, 2 gall.; infuse, strain, add of French chalk (scraped fine with Dutch rushes), 2 lbs.; mix well, and precipitate the colour by adding a solution of tartaric acid; collect the red powder, drain it, add a very small quantity of gum, and apply the paste to the saucers. Inferior. Both the above are used to tinge silk stockings, gloves, &c.

SAUCE. A liquid or semi-liquid condiment or seasoning for food. The following receipts for sauces may be useful to the reader:

Sauce, Ancho′vy. 1. (Extemporaneous.) From 3 or 4 anchovies, chopped small; butter, 3 oz.; water, a wine-glassful; vinegar, 2 tablespoonfuls; flour, 1 do.; stir the mixture over the fire till it thickens, then rub it through a coarse hair sleeve.

2. (Wholesale.) As essence of anchovies. Other fish sauces may be made in the same manner.

Sauce, Apple. From sharp apples, cored, sliced, stewed with a spoonful or two of water, and then beaten, to a perfectly smooth pulp with a little good moist sugar. Tomato, and many other like sauces, may be made in the same manner.

Sauce, Aristocratique. From green-walnut juice and anchovies, equal parts; cloves, mace, and pimento, of each, bruised, 1 dr. to every lb. of juice; boil and strain, and then add to every pint, 1 pint of vinegar, ⁄2 pint of port wine, ⁄4 pint of soy, and a few shallots; let the whole stand for a few days, and decant the clear liquor.

Bech′amel. A species of fine white broth or consommée, thickened with cream, and used as ‘white sauce.’

Sauce, Caper. Put twelve table-spoonfuls of melted butter into a stewpan, place it on the fire, and, when on the point of boiling, add 1 oz. of fresh butter and 1 table-spoonful of capers; shake the stewpan round over the fire until the butter is melted, add a little pepper and salt, and serve where directed. Also as mint sauce.

Sauce, Chut′ney. 1. From sour apples (pared and cored), tomatoes, brown sugar, and sultana raisins, of each 3 oz.; common salt, 4 oz.; red chillies and powdered ginger, of each 29 oz.; garlic and shallots, of each 1 oz.; pound the whole well, add, of strong vinegar, 3 quarts; lemon juice, 1 do.; and digest, with frequent agitation, for a month; then pour off nearly all the liquor, and bottle it. Used for fish or meat, either hot or cold, or to flavour stews, &c. The residue is the ‘Chutney,’ ‘Chetney,’ or ‘Chitni,’ which must be ground to a smooth paste with a stone and muller, and then put into pots or jars. It is used like mustard.

2. (Bengal chitni.) As the last, but using tamarinds instead of apples, and only sufficient vinegar and lemon juice to form a paste.

Cor′atch. From good mushroom ketchup, ⁄2 gal.; walnut ketchup, ⁄4 pint; India soy and chillie vinegar, of each ⁄2 pint; essence of anchovies, 5 or 6 oz.; macerate for a fortnight.

Sauce, Epicurienne. To the last add of walnut ketchup and port wine, of each 1 quart; garlic and white pepper, of each (bruised) 4 oz.; chillies (bruised), 1 oz.; mace and cloves, of each ⁄2 oz.

Sauce, Fish. From port wine 1 gall.; mountain do., 1 quart; walnut ketchup, 2 quarts; anchovies (with the liquor), 2 lbs.; 8 lemons, 48 shallots, scraped horseradish, 1⁄2 lb.; flour of mustard, 8 oz.; mace, 1 oz.; cayenne, q. s.; boil the whole up gently, strain, and bottle.

Ketchup. See under that name.

Sauce, Kitchener’s. Syn. Kitchener’s relish. From salt, 3 oz.; black pepper, 2 oz.; allspice, horseradish, and shallots, of each 1 oz.; burnt-sugar colouring, a wine-glassful; mushroom ketchup, 1 quart (all bruised or scraped); macerate for 3 weeks, strain, and bottle.

Lem′on Pickle. From lemon juice and vinegar, of each 3 gall.; bruised ginger, 1 lb.; allspice, pepper, and grated lemon peel, of each 8 oz.; salt, 3⁄2 lbs.; cayenne, 2 oz.; mace and nutmegs, of each 1 oz.; digest for 14 days.

Sauce, Lobs′ter. From lobsters, as ANCHOVY SAUCE.

Sauce, Mint. From garden mint, chopped small, and then beaten up with vinegar, some moist sugar, and a little salt and pepper.

Sauce, On′ion. From onions boiled to a pulp and then beaten up with melted butter and a little warm milk.

Sauce, Oys′ter. From about 12 oysters, and 6 or 7 oz. of melted butter, with a little cayenne pepper, and 2 or 3 spoonfuls of cream, stirred together over a slow fire, then brought to a boil, and served.

Sauce, Piquante. From soy and cayenne pepper, of each 4 oz.; port wine, ⁄2 pint; brown pickling vinegar, 1⁄2 pint; mix, and let them stand for 7 or 8 days before bottling.

Sauce, Quin’s. From walnut pickle and port wine, of each 1 pint; mushroom ketchup, 1 quart; anchovies and shallots (chopped fine), of each 2 dozen; soy, ⁄2 pint; cayenne, ⁄4 oz.; simmer gently for 10 minutes, and in a fortnight strain, and bottle.

Sauce au Roi. From brown vinegar (good), 3 quarts; soy and walnut ketchup, of each ⁄2 pint; cloves and shallots, of each 1 doz.; cayenne pepper, 1⁄2 oz.; mix, and digest for 14 days.

Sauce, Shrimp. From shrimps or prawns, as ANCHOVY SAUCE.

Soy. See that article.

Sauce, Superlative. From port wine, and mushroom ketchup, of each 1 quart; walnut pickle, 1 pint; soy, ⁄2 pint; powdered anchovies, ⁄2 lb.; fresh lemon peel, minced shallots, and scraped horseradish, of each 2 oz.; allspice and black pepper (bruised), of each 1 oz.; cayenne pepper and bruised celery seed, of each ⁄4 oz. (or currie powder, ⁄4 oz.); digest for 14 days, strain, and bottle. Very relishing.

Sauce, Toma′to. From bruised tomatoes, 1 gall.; good salt, ⁄2 lb.; mix, in 3 days press out the juice, to each quart of which add of shallots, 2 oz.; black pepper, 1 dr.; simmer very gently for 20 to 30 minutes, strain, and add to the strained liquor, mace, allspice, ginger, nutmegs, and cochineal, of each ⁄4 oz.; coriander seed, 1 dr.; simmer gently for 10 minutes, strain, cool, and in a week put it into bottles.

Sauce, Waterloo. From strong vinegar (nearly boiling), 1 quart, port wine, ⁄4 pint; mushroom ketchup, ⁄2 pint; walnut ketchup, ⁄4 pint; essence of anchovies, 4 oz.; 8 cloves of garlic; cochineal (powdered), ⁄2 oz. (or red beet, sliced, 3 oz.); let them stand together for a fortnight or longer, occasionally shaking the bottle.

Sauce, White. Syn. Butter sauce, Melted butter. From good butter, 4 oz.; cream, 2⁄2 oz.; salt (in very fine powder), ⁄2 teaspoonful; put them into a pot or basin, set this in hot water, and beat the whole with a bone, wooden, or silver spoon, until it forms a perfectly smooth, cream-like mixture, avoiding too much heat, which would make it run oily. A table-spoonful of sherry, marsala, lemon juice, or vinegar, is sometimes added; but the selection must depend on the dishes the sauce is intended for. Used either by itself, or as a basis for other sauces. Beaten up with any of the ‘bottled sauces,’ an excellent compound sauce of the added ingredient is immediately obtained.

Sauces, American. White vinegar, 15 gall.; walnut ketchup, 10 gall.; Madeira wine, 5 gall.; mushroom ketchup, 10 gall,; table salt, 25 lbs. (troy); Canton soy, 4 gall.; powdered capsicum 2 lbs. (troy); allspice, powdered, coriander powder, of each 1 lb. (troy); cloves, mace, cinnamon, of each ⁄2 lb. (troy); assafœtida, ⁄4 lb. (troy); dissolved in brandy, 1 gall.; 20 lbs. of hog’s liver is boiled for 12 hours with 10 gall. of water, renewing the water from time to time. Take out the liver, chop it, mix it with water, and work it through a sieve; mix with the sauce.

2. White vinegar, 240 gall.; Canton soy, 36 gall.; sugar-house syrup, 30 gall.; walnut ketchup, 50 gall.; mushroom ketchup, 50 gall.; table salt, 120 lbs. (troy); powdered capsicum, 15 lbs. (troy); allspice, coriander, of each 7 lbs. (troy); cloves, mace, cinnamon, of each 4 lbs. (troy); assafœtida, 2⁄2 lbs. (troy), dissolved in St Croix rum, 1 gall.

3. White vinegar, 1 gall. Canton soy, molasses, of each 1 pint; walnut ketchup, 1⁄2 pint; table salt, 4 oz.; powdered capsicum, allspice, of each 1 oz.; coriander, ⁄2 oz.; cloves, mace, of each ⁄2 oz.; cinnamon, 6 dr., assafœtida ⁄4 oz. in 4 oz. of rum.

SAUERKRAUT. [Ger.] Prep. Clean white cabbages, cut them into small pieces, and stratify them in a cask along with culinary salt and a few juniper berries and caraway seeds, observing to pack them down as hard as possible, without crushing them, and to cover them with a lid pressed down with a heavy weight. The cask should be placed in a cold situation as soon as a sour smell is perceived. Used by the Germans and other northern nations of Europe, like our ‘pickled cabbage,’ but more extensively.

SAU′SAGES. From the fat and lean of pork (PORK SAUSAGES), or of beef (BEEF SAUSAGES), chopped small, flavoured with spice, and put into gut skins, or pressed into pots or balls (SAUSAGE MEAT). Crum of bread is also added. Their quality is proportionate to that of the ingredients, and to the care and cleanliness employed in preparing them.

A pea sausage, composed of pea flour, fat pork, and a little salt, was largely consumed by the German soldiers during the Franco-German campaign. Dr Parkes found 100 parts of this sausage to consist of—16·2 parts of water, 7·19 of salts, 12·297 of albuminates, 33·65 of fat, and 30·663 of carbohydrates. It is ready cooked, but can be made into soup, although much relished for a few days. The soldiers soon became tired of it. In some cases it gave rise to flatulence and diarrhœa. See Meat.

SAV′ELOYS. Pork sausages made in such a way that they keep good for a considerable time. Prep. (Mrs Rundell.) Take of young pork, free from bone and skin, 3 lbs.; salt it with 1 oz. of saltpetre, and ⁄2 lb. of common salt, for 2 days; then chop it fine, add, 3 teaspoonfuls of pepper, 1 doz. sage leaves, chopped fine, and 1 lb. of grated bread; mix well, fill the skins, and steam them or bake them half an hour in a slack oven. They are said to be good either hot or cold.

SAV′INE. Syn. Savin; Folia sabinæ, Sabina (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “The recent and dried tops of Juniperis sabina, Linn.,” or common savine. (Ph. L.) It is a powerful stimulant, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, and anthelmintic; and, externally, rubefacient, escharotic and vesicant. In large doses it is apt to occasion abortion, and acts as a poison. Savine powder mixed with verdigris is often applied to corns and warts. It is now chiefly used in the form of ointment.—Dose, 5 to 15 gr., twice or thrice daily (with care), in amenorrhœa and worms. See Cerate.

SAVONETTES. [Fr.] Syn. Wash balls. These are made of any of the mild toilet soaps, scented at will, generally with the addition of some powdered starch or farina, and sometimes sand. The spherical or spheroidal form is given to them by pressure in moulds, or by first roughly forming them with the hands, and, when quite hard, turning them in a lathe. According to Mr Beasley, “they are formed into spherical balls by taking a mass of the prepared soap in the left hand, and a conical drinking-glass with rather thin edges in the right. By turning the glass and ball of soap in every direction, the rounded form is soon given; when dry, the surface is scraped, to render it more smooth and even.”

Prep. 1. Take of curd soap, 3 lbs.; finest yellow soap, 2 lbs. (both in shavings); soft water, ⁄4 pint; melt by a gentle heat, stir in of powdered starch (farina), 1⁄2 lb.; when the mass has considerably cooled, further add of essence of lemon or bergamot, 1 oz., and make it into balls.

2. (Camphor.) Melt spermaceti, 2 oz.; add camphor (cut small), 1 oz.; dissolve, and add the liquid mass to white curd soap, 1⁄2 lb., previously melted by the aid of a little water and a gentle heat, and allowed to cool considerably as above. These should be covered with tin-foil.

3. (Honey.) From the finest bright-coloured yellow soap, 7 lbs.; palm oil, ⁄4 lb.; melt, and add of oil of verbena, rose-geranium, or ginger-grass, 1 oz.; as No. 1. Sometimes ⁄2 oz. of oil of rosemary is also added.

4. (Mottled.)—a. Red. Cut white curd or Windsor soap (not too dry) into small square pieces, and roll these in a mixture of powder bole or rouge, either with or without the addition of some starch; then squeeze them strongly into balls, observing to mix the colour as little as possible.—b. Blue. Roll the pieces in powdered blue, and proceed as before.—c. Green. Roll the pieces in a mixture of powder blue and bright yellow ochre. By varying the colour of the powder, mottled savonettes of any colour may be produced.

5. (Sand.) From soap (at will), 2 lbs.; fine siliceous sand, 1 lb.; scent, q. s.; as No. 1. For the finer qualities, finely powdered pumice-stone is substituted for sand.

6. (Violet.) From palm-oil soap, 4 lbs.; farina, 2 lbs.; finely powdered orris root, 1 lb. Sometimes a little smalts, or indigo, is added.

SAWDUST, Preparation of Alcohol from. M. Zetterland states that he has obtained alcohol from sawdust by the following process:—Into an ordinary steam-boiler, heated by means of steam, were introduced 9 cwt. of very wet sawdust, 10·7 cwt. of hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1·18), and 30 cwt. of water; after eleven hours boiling there was formed 19·67 per cent. of grape sugar.

The acid was next saturated with chalk, so as to leave in the liquid only a small quantity (⁄2 degree by Ludersdorf’s acid areometer); when the saccharine liquid was cooled down to 30° yeast was added, and the fermentation finished in twenty-four hours. By distillation there were obtained 26·5 litres of alcohol of 50 per cent. at 15°, quite free from any smell of turpentine, and of excellent taste. It appears that the preparation of alcohol from sawdust may be successfully carried on industrially when it is precisely ascertained what degree of dilution of acid is required, and how long the liquid has to be boiled.

If all the cellulose present in sawdust could be converted into sugar, 50 kilos of the former substance would yield, after fermentation, 12 litres of alcohol at 50 per cent.

SCAB′IES. See Itch.

SCAB IN SHEEP. This disease, corresponding to mange in the dog, the horse, or in cattle, is caused by a species of acaris, a minute insect which burrows under the skin of the sheep, and sets up therein a considerable amount of irritation, which is followed by an irruption of pimples, accompanied with scurf, but frequently the wool comes off from the affected part.

The following are some of the numerous remedies employed for this disease:—

1. Quicksilver, 1 lb.; Venice turpentine, ⁄2 lb.; rub them together until the globules are no longer visible; then add ⁄2 pint of oil of turpentine, and 4 lbs. of lard. The mode of applying this ointment is as follows:—Begin at the head of the sheep, and proceeding from between the ears along the back to the end of the tail, divide the wool in a furrow till the skin can be touched; and let a finger, slightly dipped in the ointment, be drawn along the bottom of the furrow. From this furrow similar ones must be drawn along the shoulders and thighs to the legs, as far as the wool extends. And if much infected, 2 or more should also be drawn along each side, parallel with that on the back, and one down each side before the hind and fore legs. It kills the sheep-fag, and probably the tick and other vermin. It should not be used in very cold or wet weather. (Sir Joseph Banks.)

2. Tar oils. Tobacco juice. Stavesacre. (Finlay Dun.)

3. Strong mercurial ointment, 1 part; lard, 5 parts; mix. (Youatt.)

4. Quicksilver, 1 lb.; Venice turpentine, ⁄2 lb.; spirit of turpentine, 2 oz., lard, 4⁄2 lb.; to be made and used as No. 1. In summer 1 lb. of resin may be substituted for alike quantity of lard. (Clater.)

5. Strong mercurial ointment, 1 lb.; lard, 4 lbs.; oil of turpentine, 8 oz.; sulphur, 12 oz.—White.

6. Mild. Flowers of sulphur, 1 lb.; Venice turpentine, 4 oz.; rancid lard, 2 lbs.; strong mercurial ointment, 4 oz.; mix well.—Clater.

7. Lard or other fat, with an equal quantity of oil of turpentine.—Daubenton.

8. Without mercury. Lard, 1 lb.; oil of turpentine, 4 oz.; flowers of sulphur, 6 oz.—White.

9. Strong mercurial ointment, 1 lb.; lard, 4 lbs.; Venice turpentine, 8 oz.; oil of turpentine, 2 oz. If mixed by heat, care must be taken not to use more heat than is necessary, and to add the oil of turpentine when the other ingredients begin to cool and to stir till cold.—M’Ewen.

10. Corrosive sublimate, 2 oz.; white hellebore, 3 oz.; fish oil, 6 quarts; resin, ⁄2 lb.; tallow, ⁄2 lb. The sublimate and then the hellebore to be rubbed with a portion of the oil till perfectly smooth, and then mixed with the other ingredients melted together.—Stevenson.

11. The following once had considerable local celebrity, but it obviously requires to be used with caution. Dissolve 2⁄4 oz. of corrosive sublimate in the same quantity of muriatic acid, and beat up the solution with 6 lbs. of strong mercurial ointment; put in a large pan, and pour on it 19⁄2 lbs. of lard, and 1⁄2 lb. of common turpentine, melted together and still hot, and stir the whole continually until it becomes solid.

12. Castor-oil seeds well bruised and steeped for 12 hours in sour milk, after straining rub the liquid briskly into the skin. (An Indian remedy.)

SCAGLIO′LA. A species of plaster or stucco, made of pure gypsum, with variegated colours, in imitation of marble. In general, the liquid employed is a weak solution of Flanders glue; and the colours, any which are not decomposed or destroyed by admixture with sulphate of lime and exposure to the light. The composition is often applied upon hollow columns formed of wood, or even of laths nailed together, and the surface, when hard, is turned smooth in a lathe, and polished.

SCALES. A special article under the head of “Balance” has been devoted to the scales employed by the chemist and analyst.

But although these claimed from their greater complexity of structure and the extreme delicacy of movement required of them a separate notice, every pharmacist and apothecary will recognise the importance of bestowing an equal amount of attention upon his dispensing scales; and, to ensure accurate weighing by them, will take care to keep them scrupulously clean, and properly poised.

For dispensing purposes, scales fitted with glass pans (or at least with one glass pan, in which medicinal substances can be weighed) should always be employed. The beams should be of steel, and the attachments of one piece of brass only, in preference to chains, or supports of silken thread. The beams are best cleaned with sand paper, or rotten stone, and may be protected from rust by being rubbed over with a little almond oil.

SCALD-HEAD. See Ringworm.

SCALDS. See Burns and Scalds.

SCALL. Syn. Scald. The popular name of several skin diseases distinguished by scabs or scurfiness, whether dry or humid. See Eruptions, Ringworm, &c.

SCAM′MONY. Syn. Scammonium (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The “gum resin emitted from the cut root of Convolvulus Scammonia, Linn.” (Ph. L.), or Aleppo scammony plant.

There are three principal varieties or qualities of scammony known in the market; viz. VIRGIN (sp. gr. 1·21); SECONDS (sp. gr. 1·460 to 1·463); and THIRDS (sp. gr. 1·465 to 1·500). The best, and that only intended to be used in medicine, is imported from Aleppo.

Pur. Scammony is not only largely adulterated in the country of its production, but again after its arrival in England. Smyrna scammony, a very inferior variety, is also commonly dressed up, and sold as Aleppo scammony. In many cases substances are sold at the public sales in London, and elsewhere, as scammony, which contain only a mere trace of that article. This is all ground up to form the scammony powder of the shops. (Vide ‘Evid. Com. Ho. Com.,’ 1155.) Pure scammony has a peculiar cheesy smell, and a greenish-grey colour. It is “porous and brittle, and the freshly broken surface shines; hydrochloric acid being dropped on it, it emits no bubbles; nor does the powder digested in water, at heat of 170° Fahr., become blue by the simultaneous addition of iodide of potassium and dilute nitric acid. Out of 100 gr., 78 (80—Ph. E.) should be soluble in ether.” (Ph. L.) The tincture of pure scammony is not turned green by nitric acid. If the powder effervesce with dilute acids, it contains chalk.

Uses, &c. Pure scammony is a powerful drastic purgative and anthelmintic, inadmissible in inflammatory conditions of the alimentary canal, but well adapted for torpid and inactive conditions of the abdominal organs. Associated with calomel, rhubarb, or sulphate of potassa, it is useful in all cases in which an active cathartic or vermifuge may be required, especially for children.—Dose. (For an adult) 5 to 15 gr., in powder, or made into a bolus or emulsion.

SCARLATI′NA. See Scarlet fever.

SCAR′LET DYE. Proc. (Poërner.)—a. The ‘Bouillon.’ Take of cream of tartar, 1⁄4 oz.; water, q. s.; boil in a block-tin vessel, and when dissolved, add of solution of tin (made by dissolving 2 oz. of grain tin in a mixture of 1 lb. each of nitric acid and water, and 1⁄2 oz. of sal ammoniac), 1⁄4 oz.; boil for 3 minutes, then introduce the cloth, boil for 2 hours, drain it, and let it cool.—b. The ‘Rougie.’ Next take of cream of tartar, ⁄4 oz.; water, q. s.; boil, and add powdered cochineal, 1 oz.; again boil for 5 minutes, then gradually add of solution of tin, 1 oz., stirring well all the time; lastly, put in the goods and dye as quickly as possible. The quantities given are those for 1 to 1⁄4 lb. of woollen cloth. The result is a full scarlet. To make the colour turn on the ‘ponceau’ or poppy, a little turmeric is added to the bath.

Obs. Scarlet is red with a tinge of yellow; it is nearly always produced by cochineal. See Red dye.

SCARLET FE′VER. Syn. Scarlatina, Febris scarlatina, L. A highly contagious disease, so named after the peculiar eruption or efflorescence of the skin which accompanies it. The milder form of this disease (Scarlatina simplex, s. mitis) comes on with languor, chilliness alternated by fits of heat, nausea, vomiting (frequently), and other common symptoms of fever; followed, on the third or fourth day, by a scarlet efflorescence upon the skin, which after three or four days ends in the cuticle or scarf-skin peeling off in branny scales. Dropsical swelling of the whole body sometimes follows the disappearance of the eruption; but this, with the febrile symptoms, and the soreness of the throat (if any), then give way, and the patient gradually regains his former health and strength. In the malignant form of scarlet fever (SCARLATINA CYNANCHICA, S. ANGINOSA, S. MALIGNA) the febrile symptoms, from the first, are more alarming; there is bilious vomiting, great soreness and ulceration of the throat, the pulse is small and quick, and the breathing laborious. These symptoms rapidly increase on the appearance of the eruption; the body then becomes swollen, the nose and eyes inflamed, the breath fetid, the throat suppurates, putrid symptoms ensue, and the patient is either suddenly cut off or recovers very slowly.

The early symptoms of scarlet fever are distinguished from those of the MEASLES and SMALLPOX by the greater extent and want of elevation of the eruption, and by its not congregating into patches. Nor are there the cough or running from the eyes and nose which usher in the measles.

The treatment of the milder form of scarlet fever, especially that of childhood, may consist of the administration of an emetic, followed by a saline aperient, to clear the bowels; the latter being repeated as occasion may require. The patient should be kept in a cool and well-ventilated room, the diet should be light and farinaceous, and the use of diluent drinks copiously indulged in. If the febrile symptoms are severe, or the throat much affected, small doses of some mild mercurial, as calomel, mercurial pill, or quicksilver with chalk, may be administered, either separately or combined with antimonial diaphoretics or Dover’s powder. In malignant scarlet fever a smart emetic should be given early, and mercurials and diaphoretics at once freely exhibited. Acidulated gargles may be used for the throat, and, when the heat of the body is much above the natural standard, sponging the whole body with cold water, or with vinegar and water, may be had recourse to. If the malignant symptoms run high, and assume a typhoid or putrid character, the system must be supported with stimulant tonics as wine, bark, capsicum, &c.

According to Hahnemann, Koreff, and Randhahn, belladonna is a prophylactic against scarlet fever. The homœopathists also hold it to be almost a specific in the disease.

Dr Renfrew’s medicinal treatment consists in the administration of a mixture consisting of tincture of perchloride of iron and chlorate of potash. He contends that the chlorine which the mixture contains destroys the blood poison, that the hydrochloric acid supplies a desirable ingredient for the blood, that the iron improves the impaired red blood disks and assists in forming new ones, whilst the chlorate of potash is a source of oxygen whereby the disintegrated matters floating in the blood are burnt up and destroyed.

Scarlet fever is common to all ages of life, but children and young persons are the most subject to it. Unlike the smallpox, it occasionally attacks the same person more than once. It is most common in dirty, close, damp situations.

In horses, the commencing symptoms are very similar to those in man—indisposition to movement, febrile symptoms as indicated by a hot and dry skin, and sore throat, the glands about the head and neck being frequently tender and swollen. The respiration becomes quickened and the pulse thready. In about 48 hours scarlet spots about the size of a pea show themselves on the mucous membrane about the lips and nostrils, the spots after a time becoming confluent. Except the attack be a very mild one, similar spots spread all over the body, but are most plentiful about the animal’s head and neck. After about a fortnight or three weeks, the hair leaves the parts on which the spots are, and then desquamation sets in, and bare bald patches are left. The after results bear a great resemblance to those which frequently follow an attack of the same disease in the human being. The best treatment consists in placing the animal in a cool, well-ventilated loose box, applying bandages to the legs, and a linen cover to the body, with a warm rug over that.

A dose of nitre and Mindererus spirit should be given in water three times a day, combined with mild tonics, stimulants, and diuretics. See Disinfectants.

SCENE′-PAINTING. A variety of distemper painting employed in theatres, &c., governed by perspective, and having for its object the production of striking effects when viewed at a distance. Water, size, turpentine, and the ordinary pigments, are the materials used for the purpose.

SCENT BAGS. See Sachets.

SCENT BALLS. Syn. Pastilles de toilette odorantes, Fr. These are prepared from any of the materials noticed under POT POURRI, SCENTED POWDERS, and SACHETS, made into a paste with mucilage of gum tragacanth, and moulded into any desired forms, as that of balls, beads, medallions, &c. The larger ones are frequently polished.

SCENTED CAS′SOLETTES. See Pot pourri, and above.

SCENTS (Pommade). Prep. 1. (Cowslip.) From essence of bergamot, 8 oz.; essence of lemon, 4 oz.; oil of cloves, 2 oz,; essence de petit grain, 1 oz.

2. (Jonquille.) From essence of bergamot and lemon, of each 8 oz.; oils of orange peel and cloves, of each 2 oz.; oil of sassafras, 1 oz.; liquid storax, ⁄2 oz,; digest, with warmth and agitation, for a few hours, and decant the clear portion in a week.

3. (Millefleur.) From essence of ambergris (finest), 4 oz.; essence of lemon, 3 oz.; oil of cloves and English oil of lavender, of each 2 oz.; essence de petit grain, essence of bergamot, and balsam of Peru (genuine), of each 1 oz.; as the last.

Obs. The above are employed to scent pomatums, hair oils, &c. 1 oz. of any one of them, dissolved in one pint of the strongest rectified spirit, produces a delicious perfume for the handkerchief.

SCENTS (Snuff). Prep. 1. Essence of bergamot, 2 oz.; otto of roses and neroli, of each 1 dr.

2. Oil of lavender, 1 oz.; essence of lemon, 2 oz.; essence of bergamot, 4 oz.

3. To the last, add of oil of cloves, 2 oz.

4. Essence of musk and ambergris, of each 1 oz.; liquor of ammonia, ⁄2 dr. See Snuff, &c.

SCHEELE’S GREEN. See Green pigments.

SCHLIPPE’S SALT. Sulphantimoniate of sodium. See Antimony, Sulphantimoniate.

SCHWARTZ’S DROPS. See Drops, Worm.

SCIAT′ICA. See Rheumatism.

SCIENCE. “Man,” says Whewell, “is the interpreter of nature. Science the right interpretation. The senses place before us the characters of the ‘Book of Nature,’ but these convey no knowledge to us till we have discovered the alphabet by which they are to be read.”

Various classifications of the sciences have been proposed by different authors. Dr Neil Arnott conceived that the object of all the sciences, viz. a knowledge of nature, might be best attained by the study of physics, chemistry, life and mind, including under this latter the laws of society, or the modern science of sociology.

As to mathematics he regarded it as a system of “technical mensuration,” invaded by the mind in order to enable it to study the other sciences. In his ‘Cours de Philosophie Positive,’ Comte traverses the entire circle of the theoretical, abstract, or fundamental sciences, and divides them into mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and sociology. He admits no distinct science on psychology or the science of mind.

Mr Herbert Spencer proposes to classify the sciences into three groups; viz.:—1. Abstract science, which treats of the forms of phenomena detached from their embodiments. 2. Abstract concrete science, or the phenomena of nature analysed into their separate elements. 3. Concrete science or natural phenomena in their totalities.

“For the classification of the sciences it is convenient to prepare the way by distinguishing between theoretical sciences which are the sciences properly so called, and practical science. A theoretical science embraces a distinct department of nature, and is so arranged as to give in the most compact form the entire body of ascertained (scientific) knowledge in that department, such as mathematics, chemistry, physiology, and zoology. A practical science is the application of scientifically obtained facts and laws in one or more departments to some practical end, which end rules the selection and arrangement of the whole; as for example, navigation, engineering, mining, and medicine. Another distinction must be made before laying down the systematic order of the theoretical sciences.

“A certain number of these sciences have for their subject-matter each a separate department of natural forces or powers; thus, biology deals with the department of organised beings, psychology with mind. Others deal with the application of powers elsewhere recognised to some region of concrete facts or phenomena. Thus, geology does not discuss any natural powers not found in other sciences, but seeks to apply the laws of physics, chemistry, and biology to account for the appearance of the earth’s crust.

“The sciences that embrace peculiar natural powers are called abstract, general, or fundamental sciences; those that apply to the powers treated of under these, to regions of concrete phenomena, are called concrete, derived, or applied sciences.”

The separation of the sciences into these two sections is that now generally accepted.

The first section, that of the abstract or theoretical sciences, is subdivided by almost common consent into mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology (vegetable and animal physiology), psychology (mind), and sociology (the laws of society).

The second section, that of the concrete sciences, includes meteorology, mineralogy, botany, zoology, geology, and geography.

The order in which the abstract sciences are arranged above has also been found to best illustrate the sequence in which they may be most advantageously studied.

SCIL′LITIN. Syn. Scillitina, Scillitite. A whitish, resinous, translucent, bitter, deliquescent substance, obtained by Vögel from squills. It is soluble in water, alcohol, and acetic acid, and is purgative, acrid, and poisonous.

SCORBU′TUS. See Scurvy.

SCO′′RIA. Dross; the refuse or useless part of any substance, more especially that left from bodies which have been subjected to the action of fire. It is frequently used in the plural (SCORIÆ).

SCOTT’S DROPS. See Patent medicines.

SCOUR′ING. The common method of cleaning cloth is by heating and brushing it, unless it be very dirty, when it undergoes the operation of scouring. This is best done on the small scale, as with ARTICLES OF WEARING APPAREL, as follows:—A little curd soap is dissolved in water, and, after mixing it with a little clarified ox-gall, is applied to all the spots of grease, dirt, &c., and well rubbed into them with a stiff brush, until they appear to be removed; after which the article is well cleaned all over with a brush or sponge dipped into some warm water, to which the previous mixture and a little more ox-gall has been added. The cloth is next thoroughly rinsed in clean water, and hung up to dry. For dark-coloured cloths, some fullers earth is often added to the mixture of soap and gall. When the article is nearly dry, the nap is laid smooth, and it is carefully pressed (if with a hot iron, on the wrong side), after which a soft brush, moistened with a drop or two of olive oil, is frequently passed over it, to give it a finish and gloss.

Cloth is also cleaned in the dry way:—The spots being removed, as above, and the wetted parts having become dry, clean damp sand is strewed over it, and beaten into it with a brush, after which the article is well gone over with a hard brush, when the sand comes out, and brings the dirt with it.

Buff and DRAB CLOTH is generally cleaned by covering it with a paste made with pipe-clay and water, either with or without a little umber to temper the colour, which, when dry, is rubbed and brushed off.

When the article requires renovation as well as scouring, it is placed, whilst still damp, on a board, and the threadbare parts are rubbed with a half-worn hatter’s card filled with flocks, or with a teasel, or a prickly thistle, until a nap is raised; it is next hung up to dry, after which it is ‘finished off’ as before. When the cloth is much faded, it is usual to give it a ‘dip,’ as it is called, or to pass it through a dye bath to freshen up the colour. Black and DARK BLUE CLOTH, if rusty or faded, is commonly treated to a coat of ‘reviver,’ instead of being ‘re-dipped,’ and is then hung up until next day, before being pressed and finished off. See Spots and Stains.

SCOURING IN ANIMALS. See Diarrhœa.

SCOURING DROPS. See Drops.

SCROFULA. Syn. King’s evil, STRUMA, STRUMOUS DISEASE. By modern pathologists scrofula is regarded as a constitutional tendency to form and deposit in various tissues and organs of the body a substance called tubercle. The tendency may, however, in some cases only exist without any actual tuberculous deposit taking place. Sir James Paget thus describes scrofula as generally understood to be a “state of constitution distinguished in some measure by peculiarities of appearance even during health, but much more by peculiar liability to certain diseases, including pulmonary phthisis. The chief of these ‘scrofulous’ diseases are various swellings of the lymphatic glands, arising from causes which would be inadequate to produce them in healthy persons.

“The swellings are due sometimes to mere enlargement, as from an increase of natural structure, sometimes to chronic inflammation, sometimes to an acute inflammation or abscess, sometimes to tuberculous disease of the glands.

“But besides these it is usual to reckon as ‘scrofulous’ affections certain chronic inflammations of the joints; slowly progressive carious inflammations of bones; chronic and frequent ulcers of the cornea; ophthalmia attended with extreme intolerance of light, but with little, if any, of the ordinary consequences of inflammation; frequent chronic abscesses; pustules or other cutaneous eruptions frequently appearing upon slight affection of the health or local irritation; habitual swelling and catarrh of the mucous membrane of the nose; habitual swelling of the upper lip.”

Scrofula is a disease which almost always shows itself during childhood, and rarely after maturity has been attained.

Scrofulous children, or those of scrofulous diathesis, are frequently narrow-chested, or their chests present that projecting appearance known as ‘pigeon-breasted,’ their abdomens are also unnaturally large, and their limbs emaciated. Their circulation is languid, and they are very generally attacked with chilblains during inclement weather. They also suffer from obstinate indigestion. Bearing in mind the fact that scrofula is frequently induced, irrespective of hereditary taint, in the children of the poor by bad and damp air, insufficient food and clothing, exclusion from sunshine, and such like insanitary surroundings, the chief treatment that will suggest itself will consist in remedying these adverse conditions. Hence the patient should live on generous but digestible food, partaking of meat twice a day. Milk and eggs also form an excellent diet for the scrofulous. A scrofulous mother should refrain from suckling her offspring, and procure a wet-nurse for that purpose. Flannel should be worn both summer and winter. Various medicines have been employed in this disease, including cod-liver oil, sarsaparilla, bark, syrup of iodide of iron, the alkalies, and mineral acids. Of these cod-liver oil and syrup of iodide of iron deservedly enjoy the highest reputation.

SCUDAMORE’S LOTION. See Lotion, Gout.

SCURF. Syn. Furfura. Scurf “is a natural and healthy formation, and though it may be kept from accumulating, it cannot be prevented. It is produced on every part of the body where hair is found, although, from the more active growth of hair on the scalp, the facilities for collecting, and the contrast of colour, it strikes the eye most disagreeably in that situation. This will show how futile any attempt must be which shall have for its object to prevent the formation of the scurf. It may be removed, and should be removed, every day, with the hair-brush; but prevention is impossible, inasmuch as it is opposed to a law of nature. Occasionally, as a morbid action, an unusual quantity of scurf is produced, in which case medical means may be adopted to bring the scalp into a more healthful state.” (Eras. Wilson.) In such cases the daily use of some mild stimulating or detergent wash, with due attention to the stomach and bowels, will generally abate this annoyance.

SCURF POWDER—Grindpulver (Mahon, Paris). Three powders which, according to Chevalier and Figuier, are nothing but wood ashes. Buchner found no alkalies, but announced the following composition:—Organic calcium carbonate (oyster shells, egg shells, crab shells), with a little gypsum, charcoal powder, and more or less brick-dust, powdered, mixed, and exposed to a moderate red heat in a covered crucible, till part of the chalk is converted into quicklime, and the gypsum reduced by the charcoal powder to calcium sulphide, which in its turn is gradually converted by the air into calcium sulphite. All three powders are made of the same ingredients, but in different proportions. No. 1 has more gypsum and charcoal powder; No. 2 less charcoal and more chalk; and No. 3 more brickdust. (Wittstein.)

SCURF SALVE—Grinsalbe. In France it is generally a mixture of 2 parts slaked lime, 5 parts soda crystals, and 25 parts fat. (Hager.)

SCUR′VY. Syn. Scorbutus, L. This disease commences with indolence, sallow looks, debility, and loss of spirits; the gums become sore and spongy, the teeth loose, and the breath fetid; the legs swell, eruptions appear on different parts of the body, and, at length, the patient sinks under general emaciation, diarrhœa, and hæmorrhages.

The treatment of ordinary cases of this disease mainly consists in employing a diet of fresh animal and green vegetable food, with mild ale, beer, or lemonade, as beverages; scrupulously avoiding salted and dried meat. The fresh-squeezed juice of lemons is, perhaps, of all other substances, the most powerful remedy in this disease in its early stages, and is useful in all of them. Effervescing draughts formed with the bicarbonate of potassa (not soda) are also excellent.

In former years, before the nature of this malady had been intelligently investigated, and the proper preventive methods and remedial measures for combating it were unknown, scurvy was not only a very common but a very fatal disease in our own navy, as well as in the navies of other powers. Of 961 men who constituted Anson’s fleet sent out during our war with Spain in 1742, 626 died of scurvy in nine months; whilst Sir Gilbert Blane records that in the year 1780, out of a fleet composed of between 7000 and 8000 men, more than 1000, or one in seven, perished from the same cause. Sir Richard Hawkins, one of the naval celebrities of Elizabeth and James’ reign, affirmed that daring twenty years he had known 20,000 sailors fall victims to scurvy alone; and a Portuguese writer, quoted by Sir Charles Blane, speaking of the number of victims from scurvy, during a naval exploring expedition of his own country men, says “that if the dead who from this cause had been thrown overboard between the coast of Guinea and the Cape of Good Hope, and between that Cape and Mozambique, could have had tombstones placed for them, each on the spot where he sank, the whole way would have appeared one continued cemetery.”

The statistical report of the navy for 1871 offers a gratifying contrast to the above figures. From this document it appears that out of a total force of 4720 sailors, only four were affected with scurvy during that year. The much greater number of men attacked by the disease on board merchant ships appears to be due to the inferior or worthless character of the lime or lemon juice purchased by them.

Writing on the hygienic condition of the merchant marine in 1867, Mr Harry Leach says:—

“We are prepared to maintain, from the following table (and other statistics from which these have been taken), that the want of good lime or lemon juice was distinctly the cause of scurvy in the vessels below mentioned.

Name of Ship. No. of Hands
(all told). Cases of Scurvy. Result of
examination of Lime juice.

Hermione 17 5 Sulphuric acid.

Merrie England 29 10 Stinking.

Stirling Castle 32 6 Very weak.

Hoang-Ho 21 5 Acetic acid.

Blanche Moore 35 8 Musty and nauseous.

St Andrew’s Castle 19 7 Citric acid.

Tamerlane 21 4 Nauseous.

Marlborough 23 8 Very weak.

Galloway 29 6 Short allowance.

Tamar 17 2 Very weak.

French Empire 27 7 or 8 Citric acid.

Eaglet 14 3 Thick and nasty.

Geelong 14 9 Taken irregularly.

Thorndean 35 2 Spoiled (short supply of provisions).

Taken with ships that, with others, have arrived in the port of London during the past two years with cases of scurvy.

“Of direct causes this is undoubtedly first and foremost; but of indirect causes we have a few words to say. Dirt, bad provisions, and any form of disease to which sailors, in common with other men, are subject, will predispose to scurvy. This cannot and should not be denied, but it affords to parsimonious captains a very large peg whereon to hang sundry invectives as to the cry lately made about the continued prevalence of this disease in the mercantile marine. Such captains, with pardonable ignorance, consider scurvy a form of venereal disease, give the wretched subject thereof mercury, and bring him into port salivated as well as scorbutic.”

Mr Leach further adds:—

“In summing up statistics of scurvy for the past year (1867), we find that a total of 235 accredited cases were admitted into British hospitals, giving no account of those who convalesced in sailors’ homes or elsewhere.

“To this we may add, that seven sailors were left at St Helena, from a ship recently arrived in the Thames; that a vessel put into Falmouth on the 29th ult., with no less than sixteen severe cases of scurvy on board, and that between twenty and thirty cases have arrived in this port during the present month. It would be well (as a supplementary aid to the prevention of scurvy by inspection of lime juice) that the dues levied for the St Helena Hospital should be abolished. It was stated to us some weeks ago by a very old inhabitant of that Island, that this fact alone caused many ships to pass without calling for needful supplies of antiscorbutic material.

“I would however remark, that if the system proposed by the Seamen’s Hospital Society were put in force, no such aid to the prevention of this disease would be required, inasmuch as every ship would then be supplied with good lime juice.”

The following figures, giving the number of patients suffering from scurvy admitted into the Seamen’s Hospital, shows a decrease in the disease, since the publication of the above:—

In 1865, from British vessels, 101; foreign do. 1

” 1866 ” ” 96 ” 5

” 1867 ” ” 90 ” 4

” 1868 ” ” 64 ” 10

” 1869 ” ” 31 ” 9

” 1870 ” ” 30 ” 21

” 1871 ” ” 24 ” 16

SEAL′ING WAX. See Wax.

SEA SICKNESS. The most effectual preventive of sea sickness appears to be the horizontal position. When there is much pain, after the stomach has been well cleared, a few drops of laudanum may be taken, or an opium plaster may be applied over the region of the stomach. Persons about to proceed to sea should put their stomach and bowels in proper order, by the use of mild aperients, and even an emetic, if required, when it will generally be found that a glass of warm and weak brandy-and-water, to which 15 or 20 drops of laudanum, or, still better, 1 or 2 drops of creasote, have been added, will effectually prevent any disposition to sea sickness, provided the bowels be attended to, and excess in eating and drinking be at the same time avoided. A spoonful of crushed ice, in a wine-glassful of cold water, or weak brandy-and-water, will often afford relief when all other means fail. Smoking at sea is very apt to induce sickness. M. F. Curie, in the ‘Comptes Rendus,’ asserts that drawing in the breath as the vessel descends, and exhaling it as it ascends, on the billows, by preventing the movements of the diaphragm acting abnormally on the phrenetic nerves, prevents sea sickness. On this Mr Atkinson, at one of the meetings of the British Association, observed that—if a person, seated on board ship, holding a tumbler filled with water in his hand, makes an effort to prevent the water running over, at the same time allowing not merely his arm, but also his whole body, to participate in the movements, he will find that this has the effect of preventing the giddiness and nausea that the rolling and tossing of the vessel have a tendency to produce in inexperienced voyagers. If the person is suffering from sickness at the commencement of his experiment, as soon as he grasps the glass of liquid in his hand, and suffers his arm to take its course and go through the movements alluded to, he feels as if he were performing them of his own free will, and the nausea abates immediately, and very soon ceases entirely, and does not return so long as he suffers his arm and body to assume the postures into which they seem to be drawn. Should he, however, resist the free course of his hand, he instantly feels a thrill of pain, of a peculiarly stunning kind, shoot through his head, and experiences a sense of dizziness and returning nausea.

Dr Doring, a Viennese physician, states that an ordinary dose of chloral hydrate is an unfailing remedy for sea sickness. In various cases recorded by him it seems to have been of the greatest service, even during long sea voyages, ensuring a good night’s rest, arresting violent sickness when it has set in, and preventing its return.

SEDATIVE PILLS, Gunther’s. These are composed of the following ingredients:—Assafœtida powder, 50 parts; extract of valerian, 50; extract of belladonna, 3; oxide of zinc, 1 part; castor, 2 parts. Make into a pill-mass, to be administered in doses of 3 to 10 grains, twice daily, in chorea, &c.

SED′ATIVES. Syn. Sedativa, L. Medicines and agents which diminish the force of the circulation or the animal energy, and allay pain. Foxglove, henbane, tobacco, potassio-tartrate of antimony, and several of the neutral salts and acids, act as sedatives. Cold is, perhaps, the most powerful agent of this class.

SEED. Syn. Semen, L. The seeds of plants are conspicuous for their vast number and variety, and their extreme usefulness to man. The seeds of certain of the Graminaceæ furnish him with his daily bread; some of those of the Leguminosæ in either the immature or ripe state, supply his table with wholesome esculents, or provide a nourishing diet for his domestic animals; whilst those of numerous other plants, dispersed through every class, orders, and family, yield their treasures of oil, medicinals, or perfumes for his use.

SELEN′IC ACID. H2SeO4. Syn. Acidum selenicum, L. Prep. By fusing selenium with nitrate of potassium or of sodium, acting on the fused mass with water, precipitating the resulting solution with acetate or nitrate of lead, and decomposing the precipitate (selenate of lead), diffused in water, with sulphuretted hydrogen. The selenic acid, thus obtained, may be cautiously concentrated in a glass vessel, if necessary; but if this be pushed too far, it is resolved into selenious acid (H2SeO3) and oxygen.

Prop., &c. Hydrated selenic acid is a colourless liquid, closely resembling sulphuric acid; its salts (selenates) bear the closest analogy to the sulphates.

Selenic Acid (H2SeO4). No selenic anhydride is known. Selenic acid may be obtained in solution by deflagrating selenium or a selenite with potassic nitrate. The residue dissolved in water is mixed with a solution of plumbic nitrate, an insoluble plumbic seleniate being precipitated. The plumbic seleniate is suspended in water and decomposed by means of a current of sulphuretted hydrogen. Plumbic sulphide is precipitated, and the liberated selenic acid separated by filtration is concentrated until it acquires a sp. gr. of 2·6; if heated above 554° F. it decomposes into selenious anhydride, water, and oxygen. Selenic acid has a great resemblance to sulphuric acid. It acts upon the metals in the same manner, and even dissolves gold. The seleniates are also very similar in properties to the sulphates, and both classes of salts are isomorphous. The seleniates give the same characteristic odour before the blowpipe as the selenites. Their solutions give white precipitates with the salts of barium, strontian and lead, insoluble in nitric acid. If a soluble seleniate is boiled with hydrochloric acid, selenic acid is set free, and is reduced to selenious acid, sulphurous acid will then precipitate reduced selenium from the solution. Baric seleniate may be also decomposed in a similar manner, and this reaction distinguishes it from baric sulphate.

SELE′NIUM. Se. A rare chemical element, discovered by Berzelius in 1817 in the refuse of a sulphuric acid manufactory near Fahlun, in Sweden, it having been derived from the pyrites employed in the manufacture of the acid. Hence the pyrites of Fahlun forms the chief source of this rare body, although it exists, but less abundantly, in combination with a few other metals, termed selenides. Selenium is chiefly interesting to the chemist from its remarkable analogy in chemical properties to sulphur. Like this latter element, it is capable of assuming three allotropic forms—the amorphous, the vitreous, and the crystalline.

The latter variety of selenium, like the crystalline form of sulphur, dissolves in bisulphide of carbon, but much less readily. Selenium boils below a red heat and becomes converted into a deep yellow vapour, which, when heated, is subject to the same anomalous expansion as sulphur vapour. It is not so combustible as sulphur, which it still further resembles by burning with a blue flame when ignited in the air. During combustion it gives off a peculiar and characteristic smell, resembling that of putrid horse-radish. Heated with strong sulphuric acid, selenium forms a green solution. If this solution is poured into water, the selenium separates and is thrown down. Selenium is without taste or smell, is insoluble in water, and in its normal state is a non-conductor of heat and electricity. Selenium may be extracted from the Fahlun residue by the following process:—It should be first boiled with sulphuric acid, diluted with an equal volume of water, and nitric acid should then be added in small quantities until the oxidation of the selenium is accomplished, which may be known when red fumes cease to be cooled. The solution which contains selenious (SeO2) and selenic (SeO3) acid is then to be largely diluted with water, filtered, the filtrate mixed with about one fourth of its bulk of hydrochloric acid, and then concentrated a little by evaporation, the result of which is that the hydrochloric acid reduces the selenic to selenious acid. A current of sulphurous acid being then passed through the solution, the selenium is precipitated in red flakes, which form into a dense black mass when the liquid is gently heated. The following equation illustrates the reaction:—

H2O,SeO2 + H2O + 2SO2 = 2(H2SO3) + Se.

Like sulphur, selenium combines with oxygen and forms an anhydride corresponding to sulphurous anhydride. Selenious anhydride (SeO2) may be obtained by burning selenium in a current of oxygen; it is, however, more easily prepared by boiling selenium with nitric acid or with aqua regia, the excess of acid being expelled by heat, the selenious anhydride is left as a white mass. When this is dissolved in water it yields a crystalline hydrate of selenious acid (H2SeO3). The salts formed by selenious acid (selenites), with the exception of those of the alkali metals, are mostly insoluble in water. They are easily known by the peculiar odour of selenium which they give off when heated on charcoal in the reducing flame of the blowpipe; solutions of the selenites give a reddish-brown precipitate when treated with sulphurous acid.

Seleniuretted Hydrogen (H2Se). This may be obtained in a precisely similar manner, namely, by acting on selenide of iron or potassium with diluted sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. Seleniuretted hydrogen is soluble in water, and precipitates many metals from their salts as selenides. The solution is feebly acid, and, like its analogue solution of sulphuretted hydrogen, if exposed to the air, absorbs oxygen and deposits selenium. The selenides of the alkali metals are soluble in water. The selenides of cerium, zinc, and manganese are flesh-coloured; most of the others are black. This gas is inflammable like sulphuretted hydrogen; it has, however, a still more offensive smell than this latter gas, Berzelius lost his sense of smell for several hours by the application to his nose of a bubble of seleniuretted hydrogen not larger than a pea. There are two chlorides of selenium—a dichloride (Se2Cl2), a volatile liquid of a brown colour, and a tetra-chloride (SeCl4), which occurs as a white crystalline solid. Selenium unites with sulphur, forming a bisulphide (SeS2) and a tersulphide (SeS3). A very curious physical property of selenium when exposed to the action of light was first noticed in 1873 by Mr May, assistant chemist at the Telegraph Station at Valentia, in Ireland, who observed that a stick of crystallised selenium which had been used for some time in telegraphy, where high electrical resistance was required, offered a considerably diminished resistance to the current when exposed to the light than when kept in the dark. Mr May’s discovery, which was at first received with some amount of incredulity, has since been amply corroborated by the observations and researches of many physicists, amongst them by Professor Werner Siemens, the result of whose experiments on this interesting subject we quote from a lecture delivered at the Royal Institution by his brother, Dr William Siemens, in February, 1876. After describing the method by which his brother arranged the selenium, so that, when inserted in the galvanic current of a single Daniell’s cell, the surface action produced by the light upon it attained a maximum effect, and thereby did away with the necessity of employing a large galvanic battery, and at the same time allowed an ordinary galvanometer to be used instead of a delicate one, as hitherto employed, Dr Siemens proceeded to illustrate the action of light upon the element by experiment. “I here hold,” he said, “an element so prepared of amorphous selenium, which I place in a dark box, and insert in a galvanic circuit comprising a Daniell’s cell and a delicate galvanometer, the face of which will be thrown upon the screen through a mirror by means of the electric light.

“In closing the circuit it will be seen that no deflection of the needle ensues. We will now admit light upon the selenium disc and close the circuit, when again no deflection will be observed, showing that the selenium in its present condition is a non-conductor both in the dark and under the influence of light. I will now submit a similar disc of selenium which has been kept in boiling water for an hour and gradually cooled to the same tests as before. In closing the circuit while the plate is in the dark a certain deflection of the galvanometer will be discernible, but I will now open the lid of the box so as to admit light upon the disc, when on again closing the circuit a slight deflection of the galvanometer needle will be observed. In closing the box against the light this deflection will subside, but will again be visible the moment the light is readmitted to the box. Here we have, then, the extraordinary effect of light upon selenium clearly illustrated.

“I will now insert into the same circuit another selenium plate which has been heated up to 210° C, and, after having been kept at that temperature for several hours, has been gradually cooled; it will be observed that this plate is affected to a greater extent than the former by the action of light, and other conditions, to which I shall presently allude, prove the selenium heated to a higher temperature to be in other respects dissimilar to the other two modifications of the same. These differences will be best revealed in describing my brother’s experiment. He placed one of his amorphous preparations of selenium in an air-bath heated above the melting point of selenium (to 260° C.), while the connecting wires were inserted in a galvanic circuit consisting of only one Daniell’s element and a delicate reflecting galvanometer, and every five minutes the temperature and conductivity of the selenium were noted. Up to the temperature of 80° C. no current passed; from this point onward the conductivity of the material rapidly increased until it obtained its maximum at the temperature of 210° C., being nearly its melting point, after which an equally rapid diminution of conductivity commenced, reaching a minimum at a temperature of about 240° C., when the conductivity was only such as could be detected by a most delicate galvanometer. In continuing to increase the temperature of the fluid selenium very gradually but steadily, its conductivity increased again.

The interpretation of these experiments is as follows: Amorphous selenium retains a very large amount of specific heat, which renders it a non-conductor of electricity: when heated to 80° this amorphous solid mass begins to change its amorphous condition for the crystalline form, in which form it possesses a greatly reduced amount of specific heat, giving rise to the increase of temperature beyond that of surrounding objects when the change of condition is once set in. If care is taken to limit the rise of temperature of the selenium to 100° C., and if it is very gradually cooled after being maintained for an hour or two at that temperature, a mass is obtained which conducts electricity to some extent, and which shows increased conductivity under the influence of light. But in examining the conductivity of selenium so prepared at various temperatures below 80°, and without accession of light, it was found that its conductivity increases with rise of temperature, in which respect it resembles carbon, sulphide of metals, and generally electrolytes. This my brother terms his first modification of selenium.

But in extending the heating influence up to 210°, and in maintaining that temperature by means of a bath of paraffin for some hours before gradually reducing the same, he obtained a second modification of selenium, in which its conductivity increases with fall of temperature, and in which modification it is, therefore, analogous to the metals. This second modification of selenium is a better conductor of electricity than the first, and its sensitiveness to light is so great that its conductivity in sunlight is fifteen times greater than it is in the dark, as will be seen from the following table, in which is given the effects of different intensities of light on selenium (Modification II) obtained at Woolwich on the 14th of February, 1876:—

Selenium in Relative Conductivities. Resistance in Ohms.

Deflections. Ratio.

1. Dark 32 1·0 10,070,000

2. Diffused daylight. 110 3·4 2,930,000

3. Lamplight 180 5·6 1,790,000

4. Sunlight 470 14·7 680,000

Unfortunately, however, the second modification is not so stable as the first; when lowered in temperature parts of it change back into the first or metalloid modification by taking up specific heat, and in watching this effect a point is discovered at which ratio of increase of conductivity with fall of temperature changes sign, or where the electrolyte substance appears to predominate over the metallic selenium. If cooled down to 15° C., the whole of the metallic selenium is gradually being converted back into the first variety. The physical conclusions here arrived at may be said to be an extension of Helmholtz’s theory that the conductivity of metals varies inversely as the total heat contained in them. Helmholtz had only the sensible heat of temperature (counting from the absolute zero point) in view, but it has already been shown by Hittorf and Werner Siemens that it applies in the case of tin and some other metals, also to specific heat and to the latent heat of fusion. In selenium the specific heat is an extremely variable quantity, changing in the solid mass at certain temperatures, and, it is contended, under the influence of light. Aided by these experimental researches, my brother arrives at the conclusion that the influence of light upon selenium may be explained by a “change of its molecular condition near the surface, from the first or electrolyte into the second or metallic modification, or in other words, by a liberation of specific heat upon the illuminated surface of crystalline selenium, which liberated heat is reabsorbed when the liberating cause has ceased to act.” Professor Adams, who has likewise investigated this singular action of light upon selenium, ascribes it to a different cause. He says:—

1. That the light falling on the selenium causes an electromotive force in it in the same direction as the battery current passing through it, the effect being similar to the effect due to polarisation in an electrolyte, but in the opposite direction.

2. That the light falling on the selenium causes a change on its surface akin to the change which it produces on the surface of a phosphorescent body, and that in consequence of this change the electro-current is enabled to pass more readily over the surface of the selenium.

SEM′OLA (Bullock’s). This preparation consists of wheaten flour deprived of much of its starch by washings with water, and contains the largest amount (48 per cent.) of nitrogenous or albumenoid principles consistent with its adaptability to culinary purposes. It is specially intended as a food for infants, weakly children, and invalids.

SEMOLI′NA. Syn. Sémoule, Semoulina. The large hard grains of wheat flour retained in the bolting machine, after the fine flour has passed through its meshes. “The best sémoule is obtained from the wheat of the southern parts of Europe. With the sémoule the fine white Parisian bread called ‘gruau’ is baked.” (Ure.)

SEN′EGA. Syn. Seneka, Snakeroot, Rattlesnake r.; Senegæ radix (B. P.); Senega (Ph. L., E., & D.), Radix senegæ, L. “The root of the Polygala Senega, Linn.” (Ph. L.) A stimulating diaphoretic, and expectorant; in large doses diuretic, cathartic, and emetic. In America it is used as an antidote to the bite of the rattlesnake. Drs Chapman and Hartshorne extol it as an emmenagogue. Dr Pereira says that it is an exceedingly valuable remedy in the latter stages of bronchial or pulmonary inflammation, when this disease occurs in aged, debilitated, or torpid constitutions.—Dose, 10 to 30 gr., in powder or decoction (combined with aromatics, opium, or camphor), thrice daily.

According to Patrouillard senega is occasionally adulterated with the roots of Asclepias vincetoxicum. The branches of the latter root are cylindrical, very white, and almost devoid of taste; those of senega, on the contrary, are yellowish and twisted, and have a very acrid taste. The froth produced by shaking an infusion of senega keeps much longer than that produced by an infusion of the adulterant. In other respects there is a great resemblance between the two roots.

SEN′EGIN. Syn. Polygalin, Polygalic acid. A white odourless powder, discovered by Gehlin in the bark of seneka root (Polygala Senega).

SEN′NA. Syn. Senna, Sennæ folia, L. There are three principal varieties:—

1. Alexandrian senna (senna Alexandrina—B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), referred in the, Ph. L. to Cassia officinalis and Cassia obovata, in the Ph. D. to Cassia acutifolia (Delile), and in the Ph. E. to various species of cassia. The leaves are “unequal at the base, ovate acute, or obovate mucronate.” (Ph. L.) It is generally mixed with the leaves of Solenostemma Argel (argel leaves), the presence of which is often the occasion of much griping. The leaf of argel is fully an inch long, warty, regular in its formation, and the lateral nerves are imperfectly seen on the under side; whilst that of the true Alexandrian senna never exceeds ⁄4 inch in length, is oblique, and the nerves on the under side are very conspicuous.

2. Indian senna (senna Indica—B. P.; Ph. L., & E.) is referred to Cassia officinalis in the Ph. L., and in the Ph. E. & D. to Cassia elongata (Lemaire, Lisancourt). The leaf is “unequal at the base,” and “Lanceolate.” (Ph. L.)

3. Tinnevelly senna, forming the finest Indian, now introduced into the Ph. D., is therein described as composed of the leaflets of Cassia oblongata. These are pale green, thin, flexible, and from 1 to 2 inches long, and nearly ⁄2 inch broad. This variety is equal in medicinal virtue to the best Alexandrian, and is to be preferred, on account of its being imported perfectly free from adulteration.

Senna is purgative in doses of 10 to 30 gr., either in powder or made into an infusion of tea with Water, combined with ginger, caraways, or some other aromatic, to prevent griping. It acts chiefly on the small intestines, and generally effects its purpose within 4 hours after being taken.

SE′′PIA. A pigment prepared from the ‘ink’ or black fluid secreted by Sepia officinalis (Linn.), and several other varieties of cuttle-fish. The contents of the ‘ink bags’ are inspissated as soon as possible after collection, and then form the crude sepia of commerce. This is prepared for artists by boiling it for a short time in a weak lye of caustic alkali, precipitating the solution with an acid, and well washing and carefully drying the precipitate by a gentle heat. It possesses a fine brown colour, and is used like Indian ink.

SER′PENTARY. Syn. Virginian snake-root; Serpentaria radix (B. P.), Serpentariæ radix, Serpentaria (Ph. L. & E.), Aristolochia serpentaria (Ph. D.), L. An excellent stimulating diaphoretic and tonic; in typhoid and putrid fevers, dyspepsia, &c. It is admirably suited to check vomiting and to tranquilise the stomach, particularly in bilious cases. (Dr Chapman.)—Dose, 10 to 20 gr., every third or fourth hour, its use being preceded by an aperient.

SE′′RUM. Syn. Seralbumen. The clear pale fluid in which the blood-globules float, and which separates from blood during its coagulation. It is, essentially, a feebly alkaline solution of albumen. See Albumen.

SESQUI-. See Nomenclature.

SE′TON. Syn. Setaceum. An artificial ulcer, made by passing a portion of silk or thread under the skin by means of a seton needle, a part of which is drawn through daily, and thus keeps up a constant irritation. Occasionally the thread is anointed with some irritating substance for the purpose of increasing the discharge.

SEVEN SEALS, or Golden Wonder—Dr Radcliffe’s Great Remedy. According to the prospectus, this remedy is good for cholera morbus, dysentery, diarrhœa, burns, sprains, rheumatism, warts and corns, and all diseases. In a quadrangular bottle we find about 95 grammes of a brownish-orange clear fluid, which is a spirituous tincture of cayenne pepper mixed with ether, chloroform, American oil of peppermint, and a little camphor. The proportion of these ingredients is, approximately, 4 grammes ether, 6 grammes chloroform, 4 gramme camphor or camphoraceous oil, 2 grammes oil of peppermint, 35 grammes tincture of capsicum. 50 grammes spirit of wine (90 per cent.) (Hager.)

SE′VUM (Prepared). Syn. Sevum præparatum (B. P.), Sevum magneticum, L. Prep. 1. (‘Pharm. Journ.’) Mould candles, at least 2 years old, melted by a very gentle heat, and strained from the wicks.

2. As MAGNETIC ADEPS. Used to make mercurial ointment. Triturated with 8, 12, or 16 times its weight of quicksilver, the globules are completely extinguished in from 10 to 15 minutes.

SEWAGE, Removal and Disposal of. The waste and putrescible refuse discharged from dwelling-houses by house-pipes and drains into sewers may be said, in general terms, to consist, besides human fæces and urine, of the dirty water and soapsuds arising from washing our bodies, our houses, and linen, more or less foul, as well as the water which, having been used for cooking operations, necessarily contains variable quantities of mineral and vegetable matter.

The above statement will have prepared us not only for the complex nature of sewage water as shown in the following tables, but also for the variability in the amount of its constituents, this latter condition depending upon locality, and, as experiment shows, the hour of the day at which the sewage was collected.

Composition of Sewer Water (Way).

Grains per Gallon.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Organic matters (soluble) 19·40 41·03 12·30 9·20

Organic matters (suspended) 39·10 17·00 24·37

Lime 10·13 14·71 12·52 11·25

Magnesia 1·42 1·82 1·59 1·35

Soda 4·01 2·40 2·41 1·89

Potash 3·66 3·57 3·31 1·09

Chloride of Sodium 26·40 22·61 34·30 5·58

Sulphuric Acid 5·34 5·31 6·40 3·43

Phosphoric Acid 2·63 5·76 2·48 0·64

Carbonic Acid 9·01 8·92 11·76 4·77

Silicia: Oxide of Iron & Oxide of Zinc 6·20 13·55 6·46

Ammonia 7·48 8·43 7·88

134·78 145·11 125·78 39·20

London Sewer Water (Letheby).

Grains per gallon.

Day Sewage. Night Sewage. Storm Sewage.

Soluble matters 55·74 65·09 70·26

Organic matters 15·08 7·42 14·75

Nitrogen 5·44 5·19 7·26

Mineral matters 40·66 57·67 55·71

Phosphoric acid 0·85 0·69 1·03

Potash 1·21 1·15 1·61

Suspended matters 38·15 13·99 31·88

Organic 16·11 7·48 17·55

Nitrogen 0·78 0·29 0·67

Mineral 22·04 6·51 14·33

Phosphoric acid 0·89 0·64 0·98

Potash 8·08 0·04 0·16

Letheby states that the sewer water in towns with water-closets has the following average composition per gallon:

Organic matter 27·72

Nitrogen 6·21

Phosphoric acid 1·57

Potash 2·03

Sewer water placed under the microscope reveals various dead decaying matters, besides swarms of bacteria, ciliated infusoria, amœbiform bodies, and fungi, consisting of spores and mycelium. The rotifera, diatoms, and desmids are few in number. That a fluid having a composition such as sewage water has been shown to possess, when mixed with solid excreta, would, from the decomposition that so soon takes place in it, seriously endanger the health of those in whose habitations it was allowed to remain, is so self-evident to the sanitarian and pathologist that it is no wonder every civilised community should endeavour to get rid of this refuse from their habitations as speedily and effectively as possible. But the removal of the home sewage is a proceeding as illogical as it is imperfect if we afterwards neglect so to dispose of it as to render it innocuous or devoid of danger to the public health. The old method of getting rid of sewage (even when deprived of the fæcal matter) by turning it into rivers and streams, has, more particularly since the Report of the Rivers Pollution Commissioners in 1870, been gradually abandoned. That when sewer water passes into a river it undergoes a great amount of purification from oxidation, subsidence, and the agency of water-plants is undeniable.

Letheby considered that if sewage mixed with twenty times its bulk of water flowed for nine miles it would be perfectly oxidised. It appears, however, from the experiments of Frankland, that so far as sewage when mixed with twenty times its volume of water being oxidised during a flow of ten or twelve miles, scarcely two thirds of it would be so destroyed in the flow of 168 miles, at the rate of one mile per hour, or after the lapse of a week. The results of Frankland’s experiments led him to infer that there is no river in the United Kingdom of sufficient length to effect the destruction of sewage by oxidation; and he adds, “there is no process practicable on a large scale by which the noxious material (sewage matter) can be removed from water once so contaminated, and, therefore, I am of opinion that water which has been once contaminated by sewage or manure matter is thenceforth unsuitable for domestic use.”

The discharge of sewage water, whether with or without solid excreta, into our springs and rivers, was a practice so dangerous and prejudicial to health that it is no cause for wonder the Legislature should, during the session of 1876, have passed a measure the object of which was after the lapse of one year to facilitate legal proceedings being instituted against persons who permitted sewage or other deleterious refuse to flow into rivers or streams. This measure, known as the “Rivers Pollution Prevention Act,” is now in force, and permits offenders to be proceeded against; but it still leaves unsolved the important hygienic problem—How are we ultimately and with safety to the community to dispose of our sewage?

The numerous processes (the chief of which will be brought under notice) proposed for the attainment of this end have been divided by writers and authorities on sanitary science into—

1. Wet methods.

2. Dry methods.

1. Wet methods. These comprise the removal of excreta—(1) By discharging it into running water. (2) By storage in tank with overflow. (3) By carrying it into the sea. (4) By precipitation. (5) By irrigation and filtration.

(1) By discharging it into running water. Our previous remarks have already shown in what respect this proposal is fallacious, and why it has, therefore, been discontinued.

(2) By storage in tank with overflow. In this process the sewage runs into a well-cemented tank fitted with an overflow pipe, which sometimes leads into a second tank arranged in the same manner; the solids subside, and are removed from time to time, whilst the liquid is allowed to run away. Instead of permitting the liquid to escape into a ditch or stream, it has been proposed to carry it into drain pipes, which are buried from half a foot to a foot in the subsoil, where it will be readily sucked up by the roots of grasses. This plan is only suited for small villages, or for a single house or mansion.

(3) By carrying it into the sea. The precautions to be observed in the working of this system are, wherever possible, to let the outlet or discharge pipe, which conveys the sewage to the sea, be always under water even at ebb tide, and to take special care that the wind does not blow up the sewers. A tide-flap, opening outwards, which is usually fixed by a hinge on the sewer at its outlet, will obviate this last contingency. At high water the tide will fill the outfall sewers to its own level, and to that extent will check the discharge of sewage, and thus cause a deposit in the sewers filled with mixed sea water and sewage. It is most important that this should be removed.

“If the sewage cannot be got well out to sea, and if it issues in narrow channels, it may cause a nuisance, and may require to be purified before discharge.”

(4) By precipitation. The simplest of the plans proposed for this method of removal is by subsidence only, and would afterwards permit the discharge of the supernatant sewage water into running water or over the land. The removal of the solid material is effected in a manner somewhat similar to that followed in plan No. 2, but as the thin water which runs off must, when poured into rivers or streams, be almost as dangerous as the sewage itself, the process of precipitation by settlement alone has little to commend it over the old rude and objectionable practice, a circumstance that in these days will doubtless lead to its entire prohibition.

In order to ensure greater purification the sewage in the subsiding tanks is now usually mixed with certain chemical reagents, which, it is believed, have the effect not only of speedily precipitating the solid materials, but also carrying down injurious matters suspended in the sewage water, thus rendering it sufficiently pure to be discharged without risk to health into any watercourse.

Of the numerous precipitants employed for this purpose, we may mention the following:

Lime and salts of lime. Quicklime, in the proportion of 8 gr. to a gallon of water; or 1 lb. to about 600 galls. of sewage; lime, with the addition of about a fortieth of its weight of chloride of lime; calcic phosphate dissolved in sulphuric acid; Whitehead’s patent, which consists of a mixture of mono- and dicalcic phosphate; chloride of calcium.

Aluminous compounds. Bird’s process—A mixture of aluminous earths and sulphuric acid. Andersons and Lenk’s—Impure sulphate of alum; refuse of alum works, either alone or mixed with lime or charcoal. Scott’s cement process—Clay mixed with lime; natural phosphate of aluminium dissolved by sulphuric acid and mixed with lime.

The quantities of the above substances when used as precipitants vary, in some of them fifty, and in others eighty grains to a gallon of sewer water being employed.

Magnesium salts. Impure chloride of magnesium mixed with superphosphate of lime.

Carbon. As vegetable charcoal, peat, seaweed charcoal, carbonised tan, lignite, and Boghead coke.

Iron. In the form of sulphate. Ellerman’s and Dale’s—Perchloride; the sulphate is sometimes mixed with coal dust.

Manganese. Condy’s fluid.

Zinc. As sulphate and chloride.

Sillar’s process. The A. B. C. process, so called because composed of alum, blood, charcoal, and clay.

Hill’s process. Lime and tar are the precipitants. The effluent water is filtered through charcoal. The question now arises as to whether the sewer water after treatment with any of the above substances is in a fit condition to be poured into a stream or river. The Rivers Pollution Commissioners in their first and second reports give a number of analyses, from which it appears that on an average the chemical treatment removes 89·8 per cent. of the matters suspended in the sewage waters, but only 36·6 per cent. of the organic nitrogen is dissolved in them.

Of the A. B. C. process, Mr Crookes states that, when properly carried out, it removes all the phosphoric acid; and Professor Voelcker’s analysis of the effluent water from sewage treated by the acid phosphate of alumina process gives more ammonia than the original sewer water, less organic nitrogen by one half, and less phosphoric acid. Such a water is said by some authorities to be pure enough to be discharged into streams.

General Scott’s process. General Scott proposes to treat the sewer water with lime and clay, and instead of employing the precipitate obtained by this means as a manure, would, after burning it, use it as cement. He argues that the deposit contains so much combustible matter as to considerably reduce the quantity of coal usually expended in the manufacture of cement, and consequently the cement could be sold at a remunerative price.

This, like the ‘carbonisation’ process, possesses the merit of effectually destroying any noxious principles present in the deposit.

Commenting on the various precipitation processes Dr Parkes writes:—“When the sewer water is cleared by any of these plans is it fit to be discharged into streams? In the opinion of some authorities, if the precipitate is a good one it may be so, and it appears certain that in many cases it is chemically a tolerably pure water, and it will no longer silt up the bed nor cause a nuisance. But it still contains, in all cases, some organic matter, as well as ammonia, potash, and phosphoric acid. It has, therefore, fertilising powers certainly, and possibly it has also injurious powers. No proof of this has been given, but also no disproof at present, and when we consider how small the agencies of the specific diseases probably are, and how likely it is that they remain suspended, we do not seem to be in a position to expect that the water, after subsidence of the deposit, will be safe to drink.

(5) By irrigation and filtration. By this process is meant the passing of the sewer water over and through soil, with the object not only of effecting its purification to such an extent as to render it fit to be discharged into a river or stream, but also of employing it as a valuable manure. In the present article we shall treat only of the application of the process to the first of these purposes.

There is ample evidence to show that, if carried out with due attention to detail, no process for the treatment of effluent sewage water, so as to render it innocuous, is equal to that which subjects it to irrigation and filtration.

The Rivers Pollution Commissioners thus report on it:—“We are, therefore, justified in recommending irrigation as a safe as well as profitable and efficient method of cleansing town sewage.”

The conditions necessary for the successful carrying out of this system are thus stated by Mr T. J. Dyke, in explaining “the process of the downward intermittent filtration of sewage at Troedyrhiw, near Merthyr Tydvil:”—“1. The soil of the land to be used must be porous. 2. A main effluent drain, which must not be less than six feet from the surface, must be provided. 3. The surface of the soil to be so inclined as to permit the sewage stream to flow over the whole land. 4. The filtering area should be divided into four equal parts, each part to be irrigated with the sewage for six hours, and then an interval of eighteen hours to elapse before a second irrigation takes place; each of the four parts would thus be used for six hours out of the twenty-four. An acre of land so prepared would purify 100,000 gallons of sewage per day.” At Troedyrhiw the sewage has lime added to it, and the mixture is strained through cinders into tanks. From the tank it flows on to the conduit, by which it is conveyed to the filtering areas.

“These consist of about twenty acres of land, immediately adjoining the road on which the tanks are placed, and have been arranged into filtering areas or beds on a plan devised by Mr J. Bayley Denton. The land is a loamy soil, eighteen inches thick, overlying a bed of gravel. The whole of these twenty acres have been underdrained to a depth of from five to seven feet. The lateral drains are placed at regular distances from each other, and run towards the main or effluent drain. This is everywhere six feet deep. The surface of the land is formed into beds; these have been made to slope towards the main drain by a fall of 1 in 150.

“The surface is ploughed in ridges; on these vegetables are planted or seeds sown. The line of the ridged furrow is in the direction of the under drain. Along the raised margin of each bed, in each area, delivering carriers are placed, one edge being slightly depressed.

“The strained sewage passes from the conduits into the delivery carriers, and as it overflows the depressed edges runs gently into and along the farrows down to the lowest and most distant part of the plot. The sewage continues to be so delivered for six hours, then an interval of rest of eighteen hours takes place, and again the land is thoroughly charged with the fertilising stream. The water percolates through the six feet of earth, and reaches the lateral drains, which convey it to the main effluent drain.

“The result of this plan of disposing of sewage by downward intermittent filtration, may be seen in samples of the effluent water taken from the outlet of the main drain. Such water is bright, perfectly pellucid, free from smell, and tastes only of common salt. It may be safely drunk—in fact, is used by the workmen employed on the farm. During the process of irrigation no nuisance is caused, for the soil quickly absorbs all the fluids passed on to it; in fact, in two or three hours after the water has ceased to flow on the land, an observer would say that the ground had not been wetted for days. The workmen say that no unpleasant smell is noticed, nor has the health of the persons employed, in any one instance, been affected by any presumed poisonous exhalation.

“The only imperfection of the plan is that, at the end of the furrows nearest the lowest corner of a plot, a slight deposit of scum is formed. This scum is formed by the fine insoluble precipitate caused mainly by the addition of lime to the sewage stream.”

The table below, taken from the report of the Rivers Pollution Commissioners, gives the composition of the effluent water after it has passed through the soil.

If those results be compared with the condition of the supernatant sewage water, after treatment by any of the chemical precipitants already enumerated, the inferiority of these latter as methods of removal of the organic impurity of the sewage water will be evident.

The best of these precipitants give a removal of only 65·8 per cent. of organic nitrogen, whilst the A. B. C. process shows a diminution of 58·9 only. It appears from the first and second reports of the Rivers Pollution Commissioners, that on an average the precipitation processes remove 89·8 per cent. of the suspended matters, but only 36·6 per cent. of the organic nitrogen dissolved in the liquid.

The effects of a soil upon sewage water passing through it are the following:—

1. The filtering property of the soil mechanically arrests and retains the suspended particles of the sewage.

2 and 3. The porosity and physical attraction of the soil lead to the oxidation of the organic matter contained in the sewage, as instanced in the discovery of nitrates and nitrites in the effluent water, which did not exist previous to filtration.

4. A chemical reaction takes place between the constituents of the sewage and those of the soil.

If the charges brought against the system of irrigation, viz. that it is detrimental to the health and comfort of those who reside near sewage farms cannot be denied, it seems pretty certain that, in most cases, any ill effects arising from the method may be traced to its defective management. The selection of the soil which is to receive the sewage is a highly important consideration. The best for this purpose seems to be a loose marl, containing oxide of iron and alumina; but sand, as well as chalk, are both said to answer excellently.

Results of irrigation, in part per 100,000. Percentage of dissolved Organic Pollution removed. Percentage suspended Organic Pollution removed

Organic Carbon. Organic Nitrogen.

On fallow land at Chorley (adhesive loam) 62·3 70·2 100·

At Edinburgh (both sand and clay) 45·3 81·1 84·9

Barking (gravelly soil) 65·8 86·2 100·

Aldershot (light sand)—

Best result 91·8 87·3 99·7

Worst result 69·9 82·9 87·7

Average result 80·9 85·1 93·7

Carlisle (light loam) 77·9 59·8 100·

Penrith (light loam) 75·0 77·2 100·

Rugby (adhesive soil) 72·3 92·9 96·0

Banbury (principally clay)—

Best result 87·8 91·3 96·0

Worst result 64·1 80·1 90·3

Average result 76· 85·7 93·2

Warwick (stiff clay) 71·7 89·6 100·

Worthing (loam) 42·7 85·3 100·

Bedford (light gravelly soil), average result 71·6 81·3 100·

Norwood (clay), average result 65·0 75·1 100·

Croydon (gravelly soil)—

Best result 73·2 93·2 100·

Worst result 61·6 90·4 100·

Average result 67·4 91·8 100·

If the soil be of a stiff clayey nature it must be broken up and mixed with sand, lime, or ashes. The upper parts must be comminuted and rendered porous, and it must be efficiently and deeply drained. At Troedyrhiw, as we have seen, the effluent drain is six feet deep.

The sewer water should be poured over the land in as fresh a condition as possible, having been previously deprived of any solid or grosser parts by straining. At Carlisle, decomposition of the sewage during its flow is prevented by adding carbolic acid to it. Lastly, it is of the utmost consequence that the amount of land used as the filtering medium shall be large. Letheby has shown that where this precaution is neglected, not only is the purification of the sewage incomplete, but the plan becomes a public nuisance. The amount of filtering earth should not be less than one cubic yard for eight gallons of sewage in twenty-four hours, in properly prepared soils; in some soils more than a cubic yard is required.

The late Dr Parkes has given a summary of various reports that have from time to time been issued as to the effects of sewage farms upon the public health and comfort. He says:—“That sewage farms, if too near to houses, and if not carefully conducted, may give off disagreeable effluvia is certain; but it is also clear that in some farms this is very trifling, and that when the sewer water gets on the land it soon ceases. It is denied by some persons that more nuisance is excited than by any other mode of using manure. As regards health, it has been alleged that these farms may—1st, give off effluvia which may produce enteric fever or dysentery, or some allied affection; or, 2nd, and in the spread of entozoic diseases; or, 3rd, make ground swampy and marshy, and may also poison wells, and thus affect health.”

The evidence of Edinburgh, Croydon, Aldershot, Rugby, Worthing, Romford, the Sussex Lunatic Asylum, is very strong against any influence in the production of typhoid by sewage farms effluvia. On the other hand, Dr Clouston’s record of the outbreak of dysentery in the Cumberland Asylum is counter evidence of weight, and so is one of the cases noted by Letheby of typhoid fever outbreak in Copley, when a meadow was irrigated with the brook water containing the sewage of Halifax.

The negative evidence is, however, so strong as to justify the view that the effluvia from a well-managed sewage farm do not produce typhoid fever, or dysentery, or any affection of the kind. In a case at Eton in which some cases of enteric fever were attributed to the effluvia, Dr Buchanan discovered that the sewer water had been drunk; this was more likely to have been the cause.

With regard to the second point, the spread of entozoic diseases by the carriage of the sewer water to the land, has been thought probable by Cobbold, though as solid excreta from towns have been for some years largely employed as manure, it is doubtful whether the liquid plans would be more dangerous. The special entozoic diseases which, it is feared, might thus arise, are tapeworms, round worms, trichina, Bilharzia, and distoma hepaticum in sheep. Cobbold’s latest observations show that the embryos of Bilharzia die so rapidly, that even were it introduced into England there would be little danger.

The trichina disease is only known at present to be produced in men by the worms in the flesh of pigs which is eaten, and it seems doubtful whether pigs receive them from the land. There remain, then, only tapeworms and round worms for men and distoma hepaticum for sheep to be dreaded. With regard to these, the evidence at present is negative; and though much weight must be attached to any opinion of Cobbold’s, this argument against sewage irrigation must be admitted to want evidence from experience.

The third criticism appears to be true.

The land may become swampy and the adjacent wells poisoned, and disease (ague, and perhaps diarrhœa and dysentery) be thus produced. But this is owing to mismanagement, and when a sewage farm is properly arranged it is not damp, and the wells do not suffer.

The foregoing processes for the removal of excreta from dwellings necessitates the joint employment of sewers and large quantities of water. It may, however, sometimes happen that the adoption of either of these appliances may be not only difficult, but altogether impracticable; as for instance, in localities where a sufficient fall cannot be obtained for the sewers; or where the supply of water is not adequate; or when the severity of the climate at certain times is such, that for months in the year the water is frozen. Under these conditions the excreta must either be allowed to accumulate about houses, or else be removed by methods other than those we have described, at more or less short intervals. Of course their speedy removal is the best and safest; but in cases where they are permitted to accumulate, it is essential they should be mixed with deodorants, and confined in properly constructed receptacles (as far as possible from dwellings), from which category such pre-eminently unsanitary arrangements as cesspools and dead wells must be excluded.

When excreta are got rid of from houses by other means than those of sewers and water, the processes employed are termed,

2. Dry methods. These comprise—

1. Removal of the excreta without admixture.

2. Removal of the excreta after treatment with deodorising and anti-putrescent substances.

1. Removal without admixture. In some cases boxes and tanks receive the ordure and urine, and these are changed more or less frequently.

In Glasgow the excreta from a part of the city containing eighty thousand people is thus collected and removed without admixture, daily.

In Edinburgh there are also many closets supplied with movable metal pails, which are likewise removed daily. Many large dwelling-houses in this latter city are entirely without water-closet accommodation; hence the custom of placing pails full of excrement, urine, &c., outside the houses to be taken away by the scavenger. In Rochdale the excrement, &c., is collected in tubs, with tight-fitting lids, which are emptied twice or thrice a week. These tubs are manufactured out of disused paraffin casks. In Leeds, also, the excreta are collected in boxes without being subjected to admixture. In some towns in the north of England the excreta fall into receptacles constructed upon what is termed the ‘Goux’ principle. In this system the pails or receptacles are lined with some absorbent lining, which abstracts the urine; another contrivance is to have the receptacle fitted with a pipe or drain; the object in each case being to render the fæces drier and to delay their decomposition.

The pail or tub system (Fosses Mobiles) which is employed in Belgium, has for its object the collection of the fæces in a state of purity, without admixture with water, in a clean and odourless condition.

The apparatus for carrying it out consists of—

1. The seat. This consists simply of a soil-pan of stoneware or faïence, without woodwork, the soil-pan merely projecting from the top of the descent pipe. Its borders are furnished with a groove filled with water or sand, into which the raised rim of the lid fits.

2. The connecting pipe. This pipe is straight without a syphon, and joins the descent pipe at the very acute angle of 22°, and is about 4 inches in diameter inside. It is, like the next, made of stoneware, glazed inside.

3. Descent pipe. This is from 6 to 8 inches in internal diameter; it is vertical, and is composed of a series of pipes, connected with each other by dry sand joints, without cements, fixed to the wall by iron bands.

It rests at the ground-floor level on a strong flagstone. Its prolongation through and below this stone consists of a sliding pipe of wrought copper capable of being lengthened or shortened, and solidly fixed to the stone by a cast-iron connector. A sort of circular shallow dish (ecuelle), which can be hung under this last part of the descent pipe, serves at a given moment to shut its lower orifice.

4. Tub (Tonneau). The excremental matters coming down the descent pipe fall into a tub of from 2 to 3 hectolitres (44 to 66 gallons), in a hole in the top of which the lower part of the pipe fits tightly. A cover fitted with a spring serves to shut and lute the tub when it is full. Placed on a stand furnished with wheels, the tub is easily managed.

When filled it is immediately replaced by another similar contrivance. If the tub is underground, the rails (on which the stand moves) should be placed on an incline, so that the removal and replacement may be easily effected. The underground chamber must be isolated, and the entrance to it placed outside the building. The thorough tarring of the interior of the tub not only preserves the staves, but also partly neutralises the effect of the mephitic gases which the excremental matters discharge.

Ventilation pipe. To prevent the smells and gases which are given off from the mouth of the tub from spreading themselves (in the house) by means of the opening in the privy seat, at the upper extremity of the descent pipe, is fixed a ventilation pipe, which rises above the coping of the roof, and the action of which is increased by means of a vane, or any other contrivance producing the same effect.

It is said that in the working of any of the above processes, little or no nuisance ensues, if only ordinary care and intelligence are used. In many cases the excreta collected by the methods above specified is conveyed to manufactories and then converted into manure.

It does not appear that in England the health of the workmen employed in a manure manufactory or of those who live in the neighbourhood of it suffers in consequence.

Removal of the excreta after treatment with deodorising and antiputrescent substances. This is the method usually adopted when the dry process is followed; the excreta mixed with the deodorising substance when removed from the house being at once applied to the land.

a. Coal and wood ashes. It is a common practice in the north of England to throw coal ashes on the excreta, which fall into closets made with hinged flaps or seats for the purpose of admitting the ashes, as at Manchester and Salford. Wood ashes are far more effective deodorisers than coal ashes, but they are seldom procurable. “In some towns there are receptacles called ‘middens,’ intended both for excreta and ashes; sometimes these are cemented, and there may be a pipe leading into a sewer so as to dry them. The midden system is a bad one; even with every care, the vast heaps of putrefying material which accumulate in some of our towns must have a very serious influence on the health, and the sooner the middens are abolished the better.”

b. Deodorising powders. At some of the Indian stations deodorants, such as M’Dougall’s, or Calvert’s carbolic acid powders, have been successfully employed, a comparatively small quantity being mixed with the excreta.

In Germany a mixture of lime, chloride of magnesium, and tar is largely used for the same purpose, and is known as Süverns’ deodoriser.”

Another deodoriser (the Müller Schür), also used in the dry method, is composed of lime, 100 lbs.; powdered wood charcoal 20 lbs.; peat powder or sawdust, 10 lbs.; and carbolic acid (containing 60 to 70 per cent. of real acid) 1 lb. After having been mixed, the mass is placed under cover for a night to avoid any chance of spontaneous ignition, and when dry it is packed in barrels.

c. Charcoal. The powerfully deodorising properties of charcoal obviously adapt it for the removal of excreta in the dry state, after the admixture with them. But the comparatively high price of animal charcoal, although nearly six times the value of dry earth as a deodorant, prohibits its being extensively used. Peat is, however, cheaper than animal charcoal. To obviate the objection of cost, Mr Stanford, in 1872, proposed to make charcoal for this purpose from seaweed. The charcoal obtained from this source is said to be cheap and of great service as an excretal deodoriser. The mixed charcoal and sewage is sufficiently odourless to be stored for some months in a convenient receptacle outside a dwelling-house.

After the seaweed charcoal has become thoroughly impregnated with fæces and urine, the mixture is recarbonised in a retort, and the carbon can be again used; the distilled products (ammoniacal liquor, containing acetate of lime, tar, and gas) are sufficient to pay the cost, and it is said even to yield a profit.

d. Dried earth. The Rev. Mr Moule was the first to direct attention to the value of dried earth as a deodorant of excreta.

Mr Moule’s ‘earth closet’ consists of a box with a receptacle below for the excreta. By pulling a plug dried earth, which is placed in a hopper above, enters the closet and falls upon the excreta, thus disinfecting and deodorising it. The consumption of earth averages from 1⁄4 to 1⁄2 lb. a day. The slop water should not be thrown into the closet, but disposed of in some other way. In another plan, as in Taylor’s improved closet, the urine is carried off without mixing at all with the fæces.

Clay, marl, and vegetable humus form the best kind of earths. When dried the clay may be easily reduced to powder. Chalk and sand are comparatively useless. The receptacle is emptied from time to time, the contents forming a valuable manure.

The earth closet is more particularly adapted for small villages and isolated mansions. One difficulty of its application by cottagers consists in the necessity of collecting, drying, and storing the earth; the cottager’s mostly limited space in his dwelling not permitting this. One great obstacle to the effective carrying out of this system amongst extensive communities is the difficulty of procuring the large supply of earth that its adoption necessitates. With proper supervision and care the ‘earth system’ answers admirably; but if these are not bestowed on it, it as signally fails. It has been adopted with great success in many schools, barracks, and other large buildings.