A Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts, Processes, and Collateral Information (part 13)

3. (Brewer’s E. of Hops.) Several noxious preparations under the name of extract of hops are sold by the brewer’s druggist. They are mostly semi-fluid extracts of quassia, gentian, and like powerful bitters. Of three of these articles which we have examined, one (for PALE ALE) consisted of the mixed extracts of quassia and chamomile; another was a preparation of picric acid; whilst a third (‘strongly recommended for PORTER’) consisted of about equal parts of the extracts of bitter aloes, cocculus indicus, and wormwood. A few years ago one of these vile compounds was publicly advertised, and ‘warranted’ as being equal to 100 times its weight in hops (1 oz. to 5⁄2 lbs.).

Essence of Jargonelle’ Pear. Syn. Pear essence, Esprit de Jargonelle, &c. Prep. From pear oil (acetate of oxide of amyl), as ESSENCE OF ALMONDS. This is now largely employed to flavour confectionery and liqueurs. See Amyl and Oil (Volatile).

Essence of Jas′mine. See Spirit and Oil (Volatile).

Essence of Jes′samine. See Spirit and Oil.

Essence of Jon′quil. See Spirit and Oil.

Essence of Lav′ender. Syn. Essentia lavandulæ (odorata), L. Prep. 1. Oil of lavender (Mitcham), 2 oz.; rectified spirit (strongest), 1 pint.

2. As the strongest Eau de lavende. See Spirit.

Essence of Lavender (Red). See Spirit and Tincture.

Essence of Lem′on. Syn. Essentia limonis, L. Prep. 1. See Oil (Volatile).

2. (W. Procter.) Fresh oil of lemons, 1 fl. oz.; deodorised alcohol (strongest flavourless rectified), 8 fl. oz.; exterior yellow rind of lemons (fresh), ⁄2 oz.; digest 48 hours, and filter. Used for flavouring mixtures, pastry, &c.

3. From oil of lemons, as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE. Used as the last.

Essence of Lemon Peel. Syn. Essence of lemon rind, Quintescence of l. p.; Essentia corticis limonis, L. Prep. 1. Yellow peel of fresh lemons, ⁄2 lb.; spirit of wine, 1 pint; digest for a week, press, and filter. Very fragrant.

2. Yellow peel of fresh lemons, 1 lb.; boiling water, ⁄2 gall.; infuse 1 hour, express the liquor, boil down to ⁄2 pint, cool, and add oil of lemon, ⁄4 oz., dissolved in spirit of wine, 1⁄2 pint; mix, and filter. Used as the preceding.

Essence of Lov′age. Syn. Essentia levistici, L. Prep. (Ph. Wurt.) Lovage root (levisticum officinale), 2 oz.; lovage seeds, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 10 oz.; digest a week, and filter. Aromatic, stomachic, and diaphoretic.—Dose, ⁄2 dr. to 1 dr.; in dyspepsia, dropsies, &c.

Essence, Madden’s. Concentrated infusion of roses.

Essence of Malt. See Colouring.

Essence of Mint. Syn. Essence of spearmint; Essentia menthæ, E. m. spicatæ, E. m. viridis, L. Prep. As ESSENCE OF PEPPERMINT.

Essence of Moss-Rose (from the ‘Chemist and Druggist’). Otto of rose, 1⁄2 dr.; essence of ambergris, 2⁄2 oz.; essence of musk, 1 oz.; alcohol, 15 oz.; concentrated rose water, 10 oz. Mix, and shake frequently for a week.

Essence of Musk. Syn. Essentia moschi, Tinctura m. concentrata, L. Prep. 1. Grain musk, 2 oz., and boiling water, 1 pint, are digested together in a close vessel until cold, when rectified spirit of wine, 7 pints, is added; the vessel (preferably a tin bottle) being corked close, and tied over with bladder, the whole is digested, with frequent agitation, for 2 months, in the sunshine (in summer), or in an equally warm situation in winter. At the end of the time the essence is decanted and filtered.

2. Grain musk, ⁄4 oz.; rectified spirit of wine, 2 pints; essence of ambergris, 1 fl. oz.; digest as before.

3. Musk (from the bladder, rubbed very small), 5 oz.; civet, 1 oz.; essence of ambergris, 1 pint; spirit of ambrette, 1 gall.; as before.

Obs. All the preceding formulæ yield superior essences, but the product of the last is of the very finest quality, and such as is seldom sold, except by the most celebrated houses, when it fetches a very high price. It is powerfully and deliciously odorous, and has received the approval of royalty itself, both in these kingdoms and on the Continent. The second formula also produces a very fine article, but less choice than just referred to. The digestion should be long continued, and on no account less than 3 weeks, as otherwise much fragrant matter is left undissolved. The addition of 1 fl. dr. of either liquor of ammonia or liquor of potassia (the first is best) to each pint of the essence, vastly increases its fragrance. The essence of musk of the wholesale London druggists is generally made by merely digesting the freshly emptied musk pods in rectified spirit. Sometimes a little (a very little) grain musk is added. See Essence Royale and Essence of Ambergris.

4. (Guibourt.) Musk, 1 part; proof spirit, 12 parts; digest a fortnight, or longer. Used in dispensing, &c.

Essence of Musk Seed. See Essence d’Ambrette.

Essence of Mus′tard. Syn. Essentia sinapis, L. Prep. (Whitehead’s.) Black mustard seed (bruised), and camphor, of each 2 oz.; oil of rosemary, 3 dr.; balsam of tolu, 1 dr.; annatto, ⁄2 dr.; digest a week, and filter.

Essence of Myr′tle. Syn. Essence of myrtle blossoms; Essence de myrte, Esprit de m., Fr. Prep. Myrtle tops (in blossom), 2⁄2 lbs.; proof spirit, 9 pints; digest 3 days, then distil 1 gall. A pleasant perfume. See Oil (Volatile).

Essence of Nero′li. Syn. Essence de fleurs d’oranges, Esprit de f. d’o., Fr. Prep. 1. Neroli, 3 dr.; rectified spirit of wine, 1 pint; mix. A delicious perfume.

2. Oil of orange, 2 dr.; orris root (bruised), ⁄2 oz.; ambergris, 10 gr.; neroli, 35 drops; spirits of wine, 1 pint; digest 14 days, and filter. Very fragrant, but less ‘chaste’ than the last.

Essence of Nut′meg. Syn. Essentia myristicæ, E. m. moschatæ, E. nucis m., L. Prep. From essential oil of nutmeg, as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE. Used as a flavouring or zest by cooks, liqueuristes, and confectioners.

Essence, Odontal′gic. See Essence, Toothache.

Essence d’Œillets. [Fr.] Prep. From cinnamon, 3 oz.; cloves, 1⁄4 oz. (both well bruised); rectified spirit, 1 quart; digest for a week. Oil of cloves and spirit of cloves also bear this name in some places.

Essence of O′pium. See Essence Anodyne, No. 1. Black drop and Rousseau’s laudanum have also been sometimes so called.

Essence of O′range. Syn. Essentia aurantii, L. Prep. As ESSENCE OF LEMON.

Essence of Orange Peel. Syn. Essentia corticis aurantii, L. Prep. 1. (Golden.) Fresh yellow rind of orange, 4 oz.; rectified spirit and water, of each ⁄2 pint; digest for a week, press, filter, and add of sherry wine, 1 quart. A pleasant liqueur.

2. (Saccharated.) See Oleo-saccharum.

Essence d’Orient. [Fr.] A pearly-looking substance, found at the base of the scales of the blay or bleak, a small fish of the genus cyprinus.

Prep. The scales are scraped from the fish into a tub containing water, and after agitation and repose the fluid is poured off, and its place supplied with fresh water, and this in its turn, after agitation and repose, is also poured off. This part of the operation is repeated till the ‘essence’ and scales are perfectly freed from impurities, when the whole is thrown on a sieve, which retains the latter, but allows the former to flow through. After repose for a short time, the essence is obtained as a deposit at the bottom of the vessel.

Obs. Essence d’Orient has a bluish-white and pearly aspect, and is employed to cover the interior of glass bubbles and beads, in imitation of pearls and mother-of-pearl. Its tendency to putrefaction, while in the moist state, may be obviated by the addition of a little liquor of ammonia.

Essence of Patch′ouli. Syn. Essence de patchoulie, Esprit de pouchâ pât [Fr.]. Prep. 1. Indian patchouli (leaves or foliaceous tops), 2⁄2 lb.; rectified spirit, 9 pints; digest for a week; add of water, 1 gall.; oil of lavender (Mitcham), 3 dr.; common salt, 2 lbs.; agitate well together, distil over (rapidly) 1 gallon, and add of essence of musk, 3⁄2 fl. dr. A very fashionable perfume. Essence of patchouli, thus prepared, has been largely used, both at court and by the nobility generally.

2. Patchouli, 3 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest a week, press, and filter. A still commoner kind is made with proof spirit.

Essence of Pear. Syn. Essence of jargonelle.

Essence of Pen′nyroyal. See Essentia pulegii, E. menthæ p., L. Prep. From pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium), as Essence of peppermint. Stimulant, carminative, and emmenagogue. Used in dispensing, especially to make extemporaneous pennyroyal water.

Essence of Pep′permint. Syn. Essentia menthæ piperitæ (B. P.) L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Oil of peppermint, 1 part; rectified spirit, 4 parts. Mix.—Dose, 10 to 20 minims.

2. To the last add of herb peppermint, parsley leaves, or spinach leaves (preferably one of the first two), ⁄2 oz., and digest for a week, or until sufficiently coloured. Sap green (10 or 12 gr., rubbed up with a teaspoonful of hot water) is also used for the same purpose. A delicate light green.

3. (Ph. U. S.) Oil of peppermint, 2 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz.

Obs. Essence of peppermint is not conceived to be good by the ignorant unless it has a pale-greenish tint, which they take as a proof of its being genuine. The most harmless way of tinging it is that indicated above. A little green mint or parsley will, indeed, be found to improve the flavour. These additions are quite harmless. The practice of using cupreous salts, adopted by some lazy and unprincipled makers, is unpardonable, and admits of no excuse, even a lame one, as not the least advantage, either of convenience, cost, or appearance, results from such a practice, while the colouring matter, though small in quantity, is nevertheless sufficient to impart a noxious quality to the liquid. This fraud may be detected by the addition of liquor of ammonia in excess, which will strike a bluish or greenish-blue colour when copper is present.

Essence of peppermint (like that of most of the other aromatic oils) is cordial, stimulant, and stomachic. A few drops (10 to 30) on sugar, or mixed with a little water or wine, is an excellent remedy in flatulence, colic, nausea, sickness, &c. It is also extensively used as a flavouring ingredient by cooks, confectioners, and druggists. A few drops, well agitated with half a pint of cold water, form an excellent extemporaneous peppermint water.

The formulæ 1 and 2, generally the latter, are those employed by the respectable portion of the London trade. The various published receipts for this and similar essences, ordering the essential oil in a larger proportion than that directed above, are never adopted in practice, and their products (often impossible combinations) exist only in the imaginations of the writers.

Essence of Pimen′to. See Essence of Allspice.

Essence of Pine-apple. From pine-apple oil (butyric ether, butyrate of ethyl), as ESSENCE OF ALMONDS. It forms a delicious flavouring for liqueurs, confectionery, rum, &c. See Ether and Oil (Volatile).

Essence of Quas′sia. Syn. Essentia quassiæ, L. Prep. 1. From quassia (sliced), 1⁄2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; digest 10 days, and filter; ⁄2 fl. dr. added to 7⁄2 fl. dr. of water, forms the infusion of quassia, of the Ph. L.—Dose, ⁄2 dr. in water or wine, an hour before a meal, as a stomachic tonic, in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, &c., particularly when complicated with gout; 1 to 2 dr., three or four times daily, as a febrifuge, and antiseptic, in intermittents, putrid fevers, &c.

2. (Brewer’s).—a. From powdered quassia (sprinkled with a little rum) and “foots” (coarse moist sugar or sugar bottoms), equal parts, reduced to the consistence of a semi-fluid extract by the addition of a few spoonfuls of water. For ale.

b. From powdered quassia, 1 part; burnt sugar colouring, 2 parts; well stirred together. For porter and stout. Both are used by fraudulent brewers as substitutes for hops.

Essence of Quin′ine. Syn. Essentia quinæ, L. Prep. From disulphate of quinine, 1⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, ⁄2 pint; digest with warmth, gradually dropping in a little dilute sulphuric acid (avoiding excess), and employing constant agitation until the whole is dissolved. 1 fl. dr., added to 7 dr. of proof spirit, forms the ‘TINCTURE OF QUININE’ (Ph. L.). Every fl. dr. contains 8 gr. of disulphate of quinine, or about 10 gr. of the neutral sulphate. If more sulphuric acid is added than is sufficient to dissolve the salt (i. e. convert it into a neutral sulphate), the solution is apt to deposit part of it on keeping, owing to the gradual formation of ether, by the action of the excess of acid on the alcohol.

Essence of Rat′afia. The same as Essence of Almonds. So called from being used to flavour ratafias, noyeau, and other liqueurs.

Essence of Rhu′barb. Syn. Essentia rhei, L. Prep. From rhubarb (in powder) and siliceous sand, of each 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; by the method of displacement. Every fl. oz. represents the active virtues of 2 dr. of rhubarb.

Essence of Rondele′tia. Prep. 1. Essence (oil) of bergamotte, essence (oil) of lemon, and oil of cloves, of each 1 dr.; otto of roses, 10 drops; rectified spirit, 1 pint.

2. To the last add, of oil of lavender, 1 dr.; neroli, 15 drops. A very fashionable and agreeable perfume.

Essence of Rose′mary. Syn. Essentia rosemarini, L. Prep. From oil of rosemary, as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE. Used as a perfume; also to make extemporaneous rosemary water.

Essence of Ro′ses. Syn. Essentia rosæ (odorata), L. Prep. 1. Attar of roses (genuine), 2 dr.; alcohol, 1 pint; agitate frequently until they unite.

2. Attar of roses, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; mix in a close vessel, and assist the solution by placing it in a bath of hot water. (See Essence of Musk.) As soon as the spirit gets warm, take it from the water and shake it till quite cold; the next day filter.—Obs. Unless the spirit of wine is of more than the common strength, it will not retain the whole of the otto in solution in very cold weather.

3. To each pint of either of the preceding, add, of oil of bergamotte, 30 drops; neroli and essence of musk, of each 20 drops.

4. Petals of roses, 3 lbs., digest in spirit of wine, 5 quarts, for 24 hours; distil to dryness in a water bath; digest the distilled spirit on 2 lbs. of fresh rose petals, as before, and repeat the whole process of maceration and distillation, a third, fourth, fifth, and sixth time, or oftener, the last time only drawing over 1 gall., which is the essence. Each of the above is very superior. The last has a peculiar delicacy of flavour, when the spirit used to make it is pure.

Essence of Roses (Red). Syn. Essentia rosæ (rubra), Tinctura e. concentrata, L. Prep. From rose leaves, 1 lb.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; digest for 14 days, press, strain, add concentrated acetic acid, 2⁄2 fl. dr.; mix well, and the next day filter. Used to make extemporaneous SYRUP and HONEY OF ROSES, &c. Smells, colours, and tastes strongly of the flower. Concentrated infusion of roses is sold under the same name.

Essence Royale. [Fr.] Prep. 1. (Soubeiran.) Ambergris, 40 gr.; musk, 20 gr.; civet and carbonate of potassa, of each 10 gr.; oil of cinnamon, 6 drops; oil of rhodium and otto of roses, of each 4 drops; rectified spirit of wine, 4 fl. oz. (say ⁄4 pint); macerate for 10 days or longer. Antispasmodic and aphrodisiac. A few drops on sugar, or in syrup of capillaire.

2. See Essence of Ambergris.

Essence of Sarsaparil′la. Syn. Concentrated essence of sarsaparilla; Essentia sarsæ; E. sarsaparillæ; L. Prep. 1. Sarsaparilla root (best red Jamaica), 2⁄4 lbs., is carefully decorticated, the bark reduced to coarse powder, and digested for a week or 10 days in sherry, ⁄4 pint, and rectified spirit, ⁄4 pint, with frequent agitation; after which the essence is expressed, and in a week the clear portion is decanted from the sediment. A very elegant preparation. ⁄2 fl. dr. added to 7 fl. dr. of water forms 1 fl. oz. of a solution of equal strength to decoction of sarsaparilla of the Ph. L. Every fl. oz. represents the active principles of 2 oz. (= 2 oz. 85 gr. avoir.) of sarsaparilla root. In other words, it is twice as strong as the root, and 16 times as strong as the decoction.

2. Alcoholic extract of sarsaparilla, 7 oz.; sherry, ⁄4 pint; rectified spirit, ⁄4 pint; dissolve and filter. Strength as the last.

3. (Beral.) Alcohol extract, 4 oz.; sherry wine, 1 pint; dissolve and filter. About 3 fl. dr., added to water, 1 pint, form an extemporaneous decoction.

4. (Guibourt.) Alcoholic extract, 4 oz.; white wine, 1 lb. Strength the same as Nos. 1 and 2 (nearly).

5. (Hening.) Sarsaparilla (bruised), 10 oz.; distilled water, 6 pints; macerate at a temperature of 120° Fahr. for six hours and strain; repeat with the same quantity of fresh water; mix the liquors, and evaporate in china vessels at 160° Fahr. If reduced to 10 fl. oz. (or to 9 fl. oz., with 1 fl. oz. of rectified spirit added), 1 fl. dr., mixed with 7 fl. dr. of water, will be equal to the decoction of the usual strength. If reduced to 5 fl. oz. 1 fl. dr. will be equal to 2 fl. oz. of the decoction.

6. The bark separated from sarsaparilla root, 2⁄4 lbs., is exhausted with water as last; the liquid is evaporated as quickly as possible, in a water bath, to 16 fl. oz., and when cold, mixed with rectified spirit, 4 fl. oz. Strength same as No. 1.

7. The infusion in No. 6 is evaporated to 10⁄2 fl. oz., and when cold mixed with sherry, ⁄2 pint; in a week the clear portion is decanted from the sediment. Strength same as No. 1.

Obs. The formulæ Nos. 1, 2, 6, and 7 have each in turn been extensively employed by us in the laboratory with the most satisfactory results. See Liquor of Sarsaparilla.

Essence of Sarsaparilla (Compound). Syn. Essentia sarsaparillæ composita, E. sarsæ c., L. Prep. 1. One pint of No. 1, 2, 6, or 7 (above), is triturated with the extract prepared from mezereon bark, 3⁄4 oz., and extract of liquorice, 4 oz.; when mixed it is returned to the bottle, and essence of guaiacum, 1⁄2 fl. dr., and oil of sassafras, 20 drops, are added, the whole is then well agitated for at least 15 minutes, and after a week’s repose the clear portion is decanted as before. ⁄2 fl. dr., with 7⁄2 fl. dr. of water, forms extemporaneous compound decoction of sarsaparilla.

2. (Cadet.) Sarsaparilla (bruised), 8 oz.; hot water, q. s.; exhaust the root by successive macerations; unite the liquors, and evaporate to 10 fl. oz.; strain, and add, when cold, of alcohol (·842) and tinctures of guaiacum and mezereon, of each 4 fl. dr.; white wine, 1 fl. oz.; oil of sassafras, 12 drops; extract of liquorice, 2 dr.; agitate, and after repose decant as before. This is nearly 8 times as strong as ‘DEC. SARSÆ CO.’—Ph. L. The first is the best formula. See Liquor of Sarsaparilla (Compound).

Essence of Sa′′vory Spices. Prep. 1. Black pepper, 4 oz.; powdered turmeric, 3 dr.; coriander seeds, 1⁄2 dr. (all ground and genuine); oil of pimento, 1⁄2 fl. dr.; oils of nutmeg, cloves, cassia and caraway, of each ⁄2 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest, with agitation, for a fortnight. Very fine.

2. Black pepper, 3 oz.; allspice, 1⁄4 oz.; nutmegs and burnt sugar, of each ⁄2 oz.; cloves, cassia, coriander, and caraway seeds, of each 1 dr. (all bruised or ground); rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest with agitation, as before, for 14 days, press, and filter. Used as a flavouring. When made with proof spirit or brandy, and only ⁄2 the above weight of spice, it is called ‘TINCTURE OF SAVORY SPICES,’

Essence of Sen′na. See Liquor and Infusion (Concentrated).

Essence of Smoke. See Essence, Westphalian.

Essence of Soap. Syn. Spirit of soap, Shaving fluid; Esprit de savon, Essence de savon, Essence royale pour faire la barbe, Fr.; Essentia saponis, Tinctura saponis concentrata, L. Prep. 1. Castile soap (in shavings), 4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; dissolve, and add a little perfume.

2. Venetian soap, ⁄4 lb.; salt of tartar, 1 oz.; benzoin, ⁄2 oz.; spirit of wine, 1 gall.

3. Best soft soap, ⁄4 lb.; boiling water, 1 pint; dissolve, cool, and add, oils of cinnamon (cassia), verbena, and neroli, of each 6 drops; dissolved in rectified spirit, 1 pint; mix well, and if not perfectly transparent, add a little more strong spirit, or filter through blotting paper.

Obs. This alcoholic solution of soap is chiefly used for shaving, and is very convenient in travelling, as a good lather may be instantly produced without the trouble of employing a soap-box. Instead of the above perfumes, 15 drops of essence of musk or ambergris, or 30 drops of any of the perfumed spirits, or 3 drops of attar of roses, or 6 drops of any of the aromatic essential oils, may be added, when a corresponding name is given to the preparation, as esprit de savon, de la rose, &c.

4. (P. Cod.) White soap, 3 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 1 dr.; proof spirit, 12 oz.; dissolve. Used medicinally. They are all used as frictions, &c.

5. (Camphorated,—Guibourt.) White soap, 3 parts; camphor, 1 part; spirit of rosemary, 16 parts; dissolve. A variety of opodeldoc. Used as an embrocation in rheumatic pains, sore throat, &c.

Essence of Soup Herbs. Syn. Spirit of soup herbs, Conc. tincture of s. h., &c. Prep. (Kitchener’s.) Lemon thyme, winter savory, sweet marjoram, and sweet bazil, of each 1 oz.; lemon peel (grated), and eschalots, of each ⁄2 oz.; bruised celery seed, ⁄4 oz.; proof spirit or brandy, 1 pint; digest for 10 days or a fortnight. A superior flavouring essence for soups, gravies, &c. See Essence of Savoury Spices.

Essence of Spear′mint. See Essence of Mint.

Essence of Sprats. Syn. Essence of British anchovies. From pickled sprats (British anchovies), as Essence of anchovies, for which it is commonly sold.

Essence of Spruce. Syn. Fluid extract of spruce; Essentia abietis, Extractum a. fluidum, L. Prep. A decoction of the young tops of the black spruce-fir Abies nigra, evaporated to the consistence of a thick syrup. Used to make spruce beer, &c.

Essence, Toothache. Syn. Essentia odontalgia, L. Prep. 1. Acetate of morphia, ⁄2 dr.; tincture of pellitory of Spain (made with rectified spirit), 2 fl. oz.; acetic acid (glacial), 4 fl. dr.; dissolve, and add of oil of cloves, 6 fl. dr.

2. (Redwood.) Pellitory, ⁄2 lb.; extract of belladonna, 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest 14 days, strain, and add, of hyponitrous ether, 1 oz.; oil of wine, ⁄2 oz.; oil of cloves, 2 dr. See Drops (Odontalgic).

Essence of Tu′′berose. Prep. The flowers are stratified with sheep’s or cotton wool, impregnated with the purest oil of ben or of olives, in an earthen vessel, closely covered, and kept for 12 hours in a water bath; the flowers are then removed, and fresh ones substituted, and this is repeated until the oil (HUILE AU TUBEROSE) is sufficiently scented. The wool or cotton is then mixed with the purest spirit of wine, and distilled in a water bath; or it is first digested in a warm situation, and in a well-closed vessel, for several days, during the whole of which time frequent agitation is had recourse to. A similar plan is followed for the preparation of essences of jasmine, violets, and other like flowers. See Spirit.

Essence of Turtle. Syn. Essence of green turtle. Prep. From essence of anchovies and shallot wine, of each 3 oz.; basil wine, ⁄2 pint; mushroom ketchup, ⁄4 pint; the juice of 2 lemons; the yellow peel of 1 lemon; curry powder, ⁄4 oz.; digest for a week. Used to impart the flavour of turtle to soups and gravies.

Essence of Tyre. See Hair Dye.

Essence of Vanil′la. Syn. Essentia vanillæ, Tincture v. concentrata, L. Prep. 1. Vanilla (cut small), 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint, digest a fortnight.

2. (Wholesale.) Vanilla, 2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; proceed as for ESSENCE OF MUSK. Very superior.

3. Vanilla (best), ⁄4 lb.; spirit of ambrette, 1 quart; cloves, 30 gr.; grain musk, 7 gr.; as last. Much esteemed. It is chiefly used as a perfume and for flavouring.

Essence of Verbe′na. Syn. Essence of lemon-grass, E. of citronelle; Essentia verbenæ, L. Prep. 1. From oil of lemon-grass or verbena (Andropogon citratum), as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE.

2. To the last add, of essences of ambergris and bergamotte (oil), of each 1 fl. dr.; neroli, ⁄2 fl. dr.

3. To No. 1. add, of oils of lavender and bergamotte, of each ⁄2 dr.; essence of vanilla, 2 fl. dr. A powerful and refreshing perfume.

Essence of Vio′let. Syn. Essentia violæ, L.; Essences des violettes, Fr. See Essence of Tuberose and Spirit.

Essence of Vittie Vayr. Syn. Essence of vetiver; Essence de vittie vayr double, Fr. Prep. 1. Vittie vayr or cuscus (the root of Andropogon muricatus, cut small and bruised), 3 lbs.; proof spirit, 9 pints; digest a week, add of water, 5 pints, and the next day distil over 1 gall. of essence.

2. To the last, before distillation, add, of otto of roses, ⁄2 dr.; eau de melisse (spirit of balm), ⁄2 pint; and proceed as before. Used as a perfume. In 1831 it was much employed in Paris as a prophylactic of cholera.

Essence, Volatile (Acetic). Syn. Pungent acetic essence; Essentia volatilis acetica, L. Aromatic vinegar.

Essence, Volatile (Ammoniacal). Syn. Pungent ammoniacal essence, Aromatic ammoniacal e.; Essentia volatilis, E. v. ammoniacalis, E. v. aromatica, &c., L. Prep. 1. Oil of cinnamon, 6 drops; otto of roses, 12 drops; oil of cloves, 1 fl. dr.; essence of bergamotte, 2 fl. dr.; oil of lavender (Mitcham), 4 fl. dr.; essence of musk, 5 fl. dr.; liquor of ammonia (strongest), 1 pint; mix in a cold place, and shake the bottle until the whole is combined.

2. Essence of violets and oil of cinnamon, of each 12 drops; neroli, essence of jasmine, and otto of roses, of each ⁄2 dr.; oil of lavender, 1 dr.; essence royale and essence (oil) of bergamotte, of each 2⁄2 dr.; liquor of ammonia (strongest), 1 pint; as the last.

3. Oils of lemon and bergamotte, of each 5 fl. dr.; oil of lavender, 1⁄2 fl. dr.; otto of roses, 1 fl. dr.; oils of cassia, neroli, cloves, and cedrat, of each ⁄2 fl. dr.; oil of sandal wood, 15 drops; liquor of ammonia (strongest), 1 pint.

4. Essence of bergamotte, 6 fl. dr.; oil of lavender, 4 fl. dr.; oil of cloves, 3 fl. dr.; oil of cassia, 1⁄2 fl. dr.; oil of verbena (lemon-grass), 1 fl. dr.; otto of roses, 30 drops; liquor of ammonia, 18 fl. oz.

5. (Redwood.) Oil of bergamotte, 3 oz.; essence of lemons, 2 oz.; oil of lavender, 6 dr.; essence of jasmine, 4 dr.; oil of sassafras, 3 dr.; oil of neroli, 2 dr.; otto of roses, 1⁄2 dr.; oil of origanum and essence of ambergris, of each 1 dr.; musk, 20 gr.; macerate for a week, and decant the clear portion. It is added to the strongest liquor of ammonia in proportion of 1⁄2 oz. to the pint.

Obs. The above are used to fill smelling-bottles. They are all very fragrant and refreshing.

Essence, Ward’s. See Essence Headache.

Essence of Water-fen′nel. Syn. Essentia phellandri aquatici, E. fœniculis a., L. Prep. (Cottereau.) Water-fennel seeds (fine-leaved water-hemlock, bruised), 1 oz.; proof spirit, 4 fl. oz.; digest. Narcotic and pectoral.—Dose, 5 to 25 drops, combined with bark; in phthisis, &c.

Essence, Westphalian. Essence of smoke, E. of wood-smoke, Cambrian essence, Smoking fluid; Essentia fuliginis, &c., L. Prep. 1. Crude or empyreumatic pyroligneous acid, 1 pint; sugar colouring, 2 oz.; dissolve, and in a week decant the clear portion.

2. Tar, 3 dr.; sugar colouring, 2 oz.; hot crude pyroligneous acid, 1 pint; agitate constantly for 1 hour, and after repose decant the clear portion.

3. Acetic acid (Ph. L.), 1 pint; creasote, 5 dr.; mix. White.

4. Barbadoes tar, ⁄4 oz.; burnt sugar and common salt, of each 1 oz.; strong pickling vinegar, ⁄4 pint; port or elder wine, ⁄4 pint; digest as before. Inferior to the preceding. Used to impart a smoky flavour to meat, fish, &c., by brushing it over them, or adding a little to the brine in which they are pickled.

Essence of Worm′wood. Syn. Essentia amara, E. Absinthii, L. Prep. 1. Extract of wormwood, 4 oz.; oil of wormwood, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest a week and filter. Tonic, stomachic, and vermifuge.—Dose, 10 drops to a teaspoonful.

2. (Van Mons.) Tincture of wormwood, 1 pint; salt of wormwood, 5 dr.; extract of wormwood, 1 dr.; digest as before.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1⁄2 fl. dr.

Essences, Fla′′vouring. Syn. Culinary essences, Spice e., Essences for the table, &c. Those used by cooks, confectioners, liqueurists, &c., are all made by either dissolving 1 fl. oz. of the essential oil of the particular substance in 1 pint of rectified spirit, or by digesting 4 to 6 oz. of the bruised spice, or 5 to 10 oz. of the dried herb, in a like quantity (1 pint) of spirit. The first method is preferable, from being the least troublesome, and yielding the finest product. They are commonly labelled ‘CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF ——.’ An inferior article, vended under the names of ‘ESSENCES OF CULINARY HERBS,’ ‘CULINARY TINCTURES,’ ‘TINCTURES FOR KITCHEN USE,’ &c., are prepared from half the above quantity of oil or spice, infused in a pint of proof spirit or British brandy. The principal compounds of this class are the essences of allspice, caraway, cardamoms, cassia, cayenne, celery seed, cinnamon, cloves, coriander seed, fennel, garlic, ginger, lemon peel, mace, marjoram, nutmegs, orange peel, peppermint, spearmint, sweet basil, and the like. The whole of these are employed to flavour soups, gravies, sweetmeats, pastry, wines, mulled wines, liqueurs, &c.

Essences, Flower. Those for which separate formulæ are not given in this work may most of them be made from the essential oil of the flowers and rectified spirit, as the last; or by digesting the flowers (crushed or bruised), 3 to 5 lbs., in proof spirit, 2 galls., for a few days, and then drawing over, by distillation, 1 gall. For the essences of those flowers which are not strongly odorous, the spirit thus obtained is distilled from a like quantity of flowers, a second, and a third time, or even oftener. The essences of other organic substances, whose fragrant principles are volatile, may be prepared in the same manner. A small quantity of some other odorous essence is frequently added to the product, to enrich or modify the fragrance. See Flowers and Essences by Infusion.

Essences, Fra′grant. See Flower essences (above), Essentia Odorata, Perfumery, &c.

Essences, Fruit. See Essences of apple, Pine-apple, Jargonelle, &c.

Essences by Infu′sion. This term, among perfumers, is commonly applied to those essences, eaux, and esprits, which are prepared by digesting the ingredients in the spirit used as the vehicle for the aroma, in opposition to those obtained by ‘distillation,’ or by ‘contact,’ or ‘pressure.’ Thus, the ESSENCES OF AMBERGRIS, MUSK, and VANILLA, are of this class.

Essences, Vi′nous. Syn. Essentia vinosa, L. These are prepared in a similar way to the wines (VINA) of the pharmacopœia, by using 8 times the usual quantity of ingredients, and the very strongest sherry wine. 1 fl. dr., added to 7 fl. dr. of wine or water (properly the first only), forms an extemporaneous imitation of the officinal VINA MEDICATA. Some of the above are largely used in dispensing, and by travellers. See Liquor and WINE.

ESSENTIA BI′NA. See Colouring.

Essentia, Odora′ta. Prep. 1. Oil of lavender, 1 dr.; oils of cloves, cassia, and bergamot, of each ⁄2 dr.; neroli, 20 drops; essence royale, 2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, ⁄2 pint; mix.

2. (Redwood.) English oil of lavender, 48 drops; oil of cloves, 32 drops; oil of orange peel, 16 drops; oil of bergamotte and sweet spirit of nitre, of each 8 drops; oil of yellow sandal-wood, neroli, and otto of roses, of each 2 drops; oil of cinnamon, 1 drop; rectified spirit, and essence of ambergris and musk, of each 1 oz.; honey water, 8 oz.; mix. Used as a perfume for the handkerchief, &c. The last form seems unnecessarily complicated and minute.

Essentia Odorif′era. Prep. 1. Grain musk and balsam of Peru, of each 10 gr.; civet, 4 gr.; oil of cloves, 5 drops; oil of rhodium, 3 drops; salt of tartar (dried by a dull-red heat and cooled), ⁄2 dr.; rectified spirit (strongest), 2⁄2 fl. oz.; macerate for 14 days, and pour off the clear.

2. Oil of rhodium and balsam of Peru, of each ⁄2 dr.; oil of cloves, 1 dr.; spirit of ammonia, 2 fl. dr.; essence of civet and vanilla, of each 2 fl. oz.; essence of musk, 5 fl. oz.; neroli, oils of lavender, verbena, and cassia, of each 6 drops. As last. Both are very pleasant, durable, and powerful perfumes for personal use.

ESSENTIAL OIL. See Oil (Volatile).

ESSENTIAL SALT OF BARK. See Bark and Extract.

ESSENTIAL SALT OF LEMONS. Syn. Salt of lemons; Sal limonum, L. The preparation sold under this name is made by mixing cream of tartar (bitartrate of potassa) with twice its weight of salt of sorrel (quadroxalate of potassa), both in fine powder. It is used to remove fruit stains, &c., from linen, by rubbing a little of it on the part moistened with warm water. It is poisonous, if swallowed in quantity.

ETCH′ING. A species of engraving, in which the design is formed on the plate by the action of an acid, or some other fluid, instead of being cut out by the graver.

Proc. In the ORDINARY PROCESS OF ETCHING the plate is covered with ‘etching ground’ (an acid-resisting varnish), and the design is scratched on the metal through the ground, by means of a pointed tool of steel called the ‘etching needle’ or ‘point.’ A border of wax is then placed round the plate, and the ‘biting’ fluid poured on, and allowed to remain till the ‘lights’ or finest portions of the design are sufficiently ‘bitten in,’ The etching fluid is then poured off, the plate washed, and the light parts ‘stopped out’ with Brunswick black or other varnish; the solvent is again poured on, and allowed to remain until the finest portion of the exposed lines are sufficiently deep, when the acid is again poured off, and the whole process is repeated till the very darkest lines or shadows are sufficiently ‘bitten in,’ The plate is then cleaned, and is ready to be printed from. Occasionally the etched design receives a few finishing touches with the ‘graver.’

There are several varieties of etching, of which the following are the principal:—Etching with a soft ground, when a coating of lard or tallow is employed, and the design is drawn on a piece of paper, laid evenly on the ground, by which means the fatty matter adheres to the paper, on the parts pressed on by the point or pencil, and the copper beneath becomes exposed, and is then acted on by the acid. The effect resembles that of chalk or pencil drawings.—Stippling, or executing the design in dots instead of lines.—Aquatinta or AQUATINT, a mode of etching on copper for producing an effect resembling a drawing in Indian ink. It is performed by sifting powdered asphaltum or lac resin on the plate, previously slightly greased, and, after shaking off the loose powder, gently heating it over a chafing dish; on cooling, the lights are covered with turpentine varnish coloured with lampblack, by means of a hair pencil, and a rim of wax being placed round the plate, a mixture of ‘aquafortis’ and water is poured on it, and allowed to remain for 5 or 6 minutes, when it is poured off, the plate dried, and recourse had to the pencil as before. The process of ‘stopping’ and ‘etching’ is repeated again and again, until the darkest shades are produced. Sometimes, instead of using asphaltum, an alcoholic solution of shell-lac or gum mastic is poured over the plate, placed in a slanting direction; this varnish forms a film, which, on drying, leaves innumerable cracks or minute fissures through which the acid acts on the plate. The fineness or coarseness of the grain depends entirely upon the condition of the powdered asphaltum, or on the quantity of matter dissolved in the spirit employed to form the ground.

The fluids employed for ‘biting in’ the designs vary considerably, almost every artist having his own receipt. Aquafortis, more or less diluted, is, however, generally employed for COPPER, and this, with the addition of pyroligneous acid, for etching on STEEL; but any fluid that rapidly dissolves the metal may be used for the purpose. The ‘etching ground’ may be formed of any substance capable of resisting the action of the etching fluid, and which is, at the same time, sufficiently soft to allow of the free use of the needle or point, and sufficiently solid to prevent an injury to the design during the ‘scratching in,’

In ETCHING ON GLASS, the ground is laid on, and the design ‘scratched in’ in the usual way, when liquid hydrofluoric acid is applied, or the glass is exposed to the action of hydrofluoric acid gas. The former renders the surface of the etching transparent, the latter opaque. A simple modification of the process is to wet the design with sulphuric acid, and then to sprinkle on some finely pulverised fluor spar (fluoride of calcium), by which means hydrofluoric acid is set free and attacks the glass. This method may be very easily applied to the graduation of glass vessels, thermometer tubes, &c.

Etching on Glass by Electricity. Planté (‘Ann. Chem. Phys.’ , xiii, 143-144). The author had previously drawn attention to the fact that when an electric current is passed through saline solutions in glass vessels, platinum wire serving as electrodes, the glass is immediately attacked, and he therefore proposes the following method for etching on glass:

The surface of the glass to be engraved is coated with a concentrated solution of potassium nitrate, and beneath the layer of liquid a platinum wire, connected with one of the poles of a battery, is stretched across the plate. With the other pole is connected another platinum wire, the whole of which, except the point, is insulated; with this the designs are drawn on the glass, which is engraved wherever the wire comes in contact with it, flashes of light being emitted at the same time.

The depth of engraving depends on the rate at which the platinum wire moves; the slower the rate the deeper the line.

A rapid method of etching on iron or steel, capable of very general application, is as follows:—“The metal is warmed until it is capable of melting a piece of beeswax, or ‘etching ground,’ which is then carefully rubbed over it, so as to form a thin and even coating; when cold, the design is ‘scratched in’ in the common way; a little powdered iodine is then sprinkled on the exposed parts, and at the same time a few drops of water are added, and the two worked into a liquid paste with a camel-hair pencil. The paste is then moved about over the intended etching, for a period varying from one to five minutes, according to the depth of the lines required to be produced. Afterwards the whole is removed, and reapplied, &c., as with the usual etching fluids. The same etching-paste, by being kept for a few days, again acquires the property of dissolving iron, and may be used again and again; but independently of this, the iodide of iron formed during the process, if rapidly evaporated to dryness in a clean iron vessel by a moderate heat, and placed in stoppered bottles, will sell for more than the original cost of the iodine. To travellers and amateurs who amuse themselves with the delightful art of etching, iodine, from its portability and convenience, will, doubtless, prove invaluable. We have adopted it with considerable success, and have found it especially useful in marking surgical instruments, razors, and other edge tools. We published this method many years ago. Several parties have since availed themselves of our suggestions and formulæ, but without the slightest acknowledgment of the source from which they obtained them.” (A. J. Cooley.)

Etching, Electro-. This mode of etching, which is in many respects superior to the ordinary mode, is based upon the destructive action of certain ‘anions’ during ‘electrolysis.’ If two plates of copper be connected with the opposite ends of a voltaic battery, and placed in a vessel containing very dilute sulphuric acid, the plate connected with the copper of the battery will be attacked by the anion oxygen which is released during the decomposition of the acid. This destructive action can be localised at pleasure by covering certain parts of the plate with a protecting stratum of varnish, ordinary ‘etching ground’ for instance. In the practice of electro-etching, the drawing is ‘scratched in’ in the usual way through an ordinary ground; a stout wire is then soldered to the plate, and this, as well as the back of the plate, is coated with sealing-wax varnish. Thus prepared, the plate is placed in a suitable ‘decomposition cell’ opposite a plate of somewhat similar size, and the two are connected respectively with the copper and zinc of a ‘Daniell’s cell,’ or the silver and zinc of a ‘Smee’s cell.’ After about ten minutes the plate is removed, washed, and dried; and when the ‘fine work’ has been stopped out with Brunswick black, it is returned for another space of ten minutes. By alternately exposing the plate to the action of the decomposing fluid, and ‘stopping out’ parts of the work, the required gradation in tints is obtained. The exact duration of the various exposures, as well as their number, must, of course, be regulated by circumstances. See Etching Fluids (below).

Etching Fluids. 1. (For COPPER.)—a. From ‘aquafortis,’ 2⁄2 fl. oz.; water, 5 fl. oz.; mix.

b. To the last add of verdigris, 1 oz.; water, 2⁄2 fl. oz.; dissolve. For light touches.

c. (Eau forte,—Callot and Piranesi.) Alum, sal-ammoniac, sea salt, and verdigris, of each 4 oz.; vinegar (pyroligneous acid), 8 fl. oz.; water, 16 fl. oz.; mix, dissolve, boil for 1 or 2 minutes in a glazed or stoneware vessel, cool, and decant the clear portion. Used as the last.

d. Water acidulated with sulphuric acid. Used in the process of electro-etching.

2. (For STEEL.)—a. From iodine, 1 oz.; iron filings or wire, ⁄2 dr.; water, 4 fl. oz. It must be kept in a stoppered bottle, until required for use.

b. From iodine, 3 dr.; iodide of potassium, 1 dr.; proof spirit, 1 fl. oz.; water, 2 fl. oz. As the last.

c. (Mr Turrel.) Pyroligneous acid, 4 fl. oz.; alcohol (rectified spirit), 1 fl. oz.; mix, and add of nitric acid or double aquafortis (sp. gr. 1·28), 1 fl. oz.

d. From hydrochloric acid, 5 parts; water, 95 parts; mix, and add the liquid to a solution of chlorate of potassa, 1 part, in water, 50 parts.

e. A solution of common salt. Used in the process of electro-etching.

Etching Ground. Syn. Etching varnish. Prep. 1. Beeswax, 5 parts; linseed oil, 1 part; melted together.

2. (Callot’s Hard varnish, Florentine v., Florence v.) From linseed oil and mastic, equal parts, melted together.

3. (Callot’s Soft varnish.) From linseed oil, 4 oz.; gum benzoin and white wax, of each ⁄2 oz.; boil to two thirds.

4. (Lawrence.) White wax, 2 oz.; black pitch and Burgundy pitch, of each ⁄2 oz.; melt, add by degrees, of powdered asphaltum, 2 oz.; and boil together, until a piece, when thoroughly cold, will break by being bent double 2 or 3 times between the fingers; next pour it into warm water, make it into small balls, and place each of them in a piece of taffety for use.

Obs. The preceding compositions are applied to the surface of the plates, previously made sufficiently warm to melt them easily, their even diffusion being promoted by dabbing them with a wad of cotton. Those that are white are then generally blackened on the surface by skilfully passing them over the smoky flame of one or more candles, by which the marks of the etching point on the bright metal are rendered the more visible.

E′THER. Syn. Oxide of ethyl. Described under Ethyl, Oxide of. Several substances are known under the name of ethers besides the true ethers or salts of ethyl, and are given below.

Ether of Canthar′ides. Syn. Æther cantharidalis, L. Prep. (Œttinger.) From powdered cantharides, 1 part; ether, 2 parts; digested together for 3 or 4 days, and the tincture expressed. Used as a vesicant, &c.

Ether, Chlo′′ric. This name was applied by Dr T. Thomson to the CHLORIDE OF OLEFIANT GAS, or ‘Dutch liquid,’ and afterwards, by Guthrie and Silliman, to CHLOROFORM, which they took for an alcoholic solution of chloride of olefiant gas. It now forms one of the synonyms of chloroform. The medicinal ‘CHLORIC ETHER’ of the shops is a solution of chloroform, 1 part, in rectified spirit 8 parts; of which the dose is 20 or 30 drops in water, as an antispasmodic and anodyne. See Chloroform.

Ether, Chlorinet′ted. Formed by the action of dry chlorine on pure ether. When the action is long continued, a heavy, oily product (BICHLORINETTED ETHER), smelling like fennel, is formed. By the still further action of chlorine, aided by sunlight, a white, crystalline substance (PENTACHLORINETTED ETHER), a compound resembling sesquichloride of carbon, is obtained.

Ether, Cu′′preous. Syn. Tinctura cupri chloridi ætherea, L. Prep. (Van Mons.) Sulphate of copper, 6 parts, and chloride of barium, 5 parts, are triturated together, and the mixture digested in ether, 3 or 4 parts, until all the chloride of copper is dissolved.—Dose, 2 to 5 drops; in epilepsy, &c.

Ether, Methy′lic. Syn. Oxide of methyl, Wood-ether, Methyl-ether; Æther methylicus, L. Prep. From wood spirit, 1 part; concentrated sulphuric acid, 4 parts; mix in a retort, apply heat, pass the evolved gas (methylic ether) through a little strong solution of potassa, and then collect it over mercury. See Methyl.

Ether, Spirits of Nitrous. See Spirits.

Ether, Washed. Syn. Æther lotus, L. Ordinary ether, agitated first with 2 or 3 times its volume of distilled water, and a few grains of carbonate of potassa, or a few drops of milk of lime; and after decantation, again agitated with a like quantity of water only. Used for inhalations. For other purposes the washed ether is afterwards digested on chloride of calcium, to deprive it of retained water.

E′THERIN. Syn. Camphor of oil of wine. A volatile, white, crystalline substance, deposited by light oil of wine when left in a cold situation for some time. It is isomeric with etherole, and received its name from the assumption of its being the base of the ethereal compounds. According to this hypothesis, ether is a hydrate of etherin. Etherin forms brilliant prisms and plates; is tasteless; soluble in alcohol and ether; fuses at 230° Fahr., and boils at 500° Fahr.; and is a little lighter than water. The crystals are purified by pressure between the folds of bibulous paper, solution in ether, and evaporation.

E′THEROLE. The yellowish, oily liquid, forming the residual portion of light oil of wine, after it has deposited its etherin. It is lighter than water; is freely soluble in both alcohol and ether; and has a rather high boiling-point. See Etherin and Oil of Wine.

ETHION′IC AC′ID. Prep. An alcoholic solution of the crystals of sulphate of carbyle is diluted with water, the whole neutralised with carbonate of baryta, the filtered liquid evaporated by a very gentle heat to a small bulk, and a large quantity of alcohol added; the precipitate (ethionate of baryta) is treated (cautiously) with dilute sulphuric acid (avoiding excess), by which the baryta is withdrawn, and ethionic acid left in solution.

Prop., &c. Ethionic acid closely resembles sulphovinic acid. It is decomposed by heat. Its salts (ethionates), however, differ completely from the sulphovinates. They are all soluble in water, and are said to be anhydrous. The ethionates of ammonia, potassa, and soda crystallise readily; those of lead, baryta, lime, and the other earths are uncrystallisable. See Isethionic Acid, and below.

ETHION′IC ANHY′DRIDE. Prep. Pure and dry olefiant gas is passed over anhydrous sulphuric acid (‘sulphuric anhydride’) contained in a U-shaped tube.

Prop., &c. When thus produced, it is in white, milky crystals, which speedily deliquesce in the air, giving rise to ethionic acid. It is similar in appearance, and probably identical with, ‘sulphate of carbyle,’ which results from the absorption of the vapour of anhydrous sulphuric acid by absolute alcohol.

E′THIOPS. Syn. Æthiops, L. A name given by the older chemists to several black powders on account of their colour, and still occasionally employed in medical works.

Ethiops, Graphi′tic. Syn. Ethiops of plumbago; Æthiops graphiticus, L. From plumbago, 2 parts; quicksilver, 1 part; triturated together until the globules disappear.—Dose, 5 to 10 gr.; in herpes, and some other obstinate skin diseases.

Ethiops, Martial. Black oxide of iron, prepared by keeping iron filings under water, and occasionally shaking them. It is washed with water, dried as quickly as possible, and preserved from the air, to prevent further oxidation. Formerly much esteemed as a tonic.

Ethiops, Min′eral. Syn. Ethiops mineral; Æthiops mineralis, Hydrargyri sulphuretum cum sulphure, L. Black sulphuret of mercury, with excess of sulphur.

(Tyson’s.) Oxide of mercury (prepared by decomposing calomel with an equivalent proportion of liquor of potassa to which a little liquor of ammonia has been added) and flowers of sulphur, equal parts, triturated together. This is recommended as an efficient substitute for the old and uncertain preparation commonly sold under the name of Ethiops mineral. It is, however, of more than double the usual strength, and should therefore be taken in proportionate doses. See Mercury (Sulphide).

Ethiops, Veg′etable. Syn. Æthiops vegetabilis, Pulvus quercûs marinæ, L. Bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus), burned in a close vessel till it becomes black and friable. Used in bronchocele, scrofula, &c. Like burnt sponge, it owes its virtues to the presence of a very minute quantity of iodine.—Dose, 20 gr. to 1 dr., or more, made into an electuary with honey or sugar.

E′THYL. C2H5. Syn. Ethyle. The hydrocarbon assumed to be the radical of the ether-compounds (ethyl-series). A body containing carbon and hydrogen in the proportions indicated by the formula of ethyl, 2(C2H5), has been obtained by exposing dry iodide of ethyl in sealed tubes for several hours to the action of finely divided zinc, at a temperature of from 320° to 338° Fahr. In this reaction the iodine of the iodide of ethyl combines with the zinc, and the hydrocarbon supposed to be ethyl is set free. On opening the sealed tubes and allowing the gas (which is a mixture of the ‘ethyl’ and certain secondary products) to pass into a freezing mixture, the temperature of which is kept below -9° Fahr., the ‘ethyl’ condenses to a colourless, mobile liquid. Hitherto no compound ether has been produced from the ‘ethyl’ thus prepared.

According to the beautiful theory of Liebig, ethyl is a ‘salt-basyle,’ forming ‘haloid salts’ with chlorine, iodine, and bromine; its oxide is ether, and the hydrate of this oxide alcohol. The compound ethers may be compared with ordinary salts in which the metal is replaced by the radical ethyl.

Ethyl, Oxide of. (C2H5)2O. Syn. Ether, Sulphuric ether, Æther (B. P.), Æther sulphuricus (Ph. E. D. & U. S.), Æ. rectificatus, Æ. vitriolicus, Æ. spiritus vitrioli dulois, L. A colourless, highly volatile, fragrant, inflammable liquid, obtained by distilling a mixture of sulphuric acid and alcohol. It was not known before the 13th century.

Prep. There are two methods employed for the preparation of ether. The one is by mixing the whole of the ingredients at once, and immediately subjecting them to distillation at a proper temperature; the other is by adding the alcohol in a slender streamlet to the acid, previously heated to the etherifying point. The former, though less economical, is the one more generally employed.

1. Rectified spirit, 3 lbs.; sulphuric acid, 2 lbs.; carbonate of potassa (previously ignited), 1 oz.; pour 2 lbs. of the spirit into a glass retort, add the acid, and place the vessel on a sand bath, so that the liquor may boil as quickly as possible, and the ether, as it forms, pass over into a well-cooled receiver; continue the distillation until a heavier fluid begins to pass over, then lower the heat, add the remainder of the spirit, and distil as before; mix the distilled liquors together, pour off the supernatant portion, add the carbonate of potassa, and agitate occasionally for one hour; finally, distil the ether from a large retort, and keep it in a well-stoppered bottle. Sp. gr. ·750.

2. The strongest oil of vitriol, 3 parts, are mixed with alcohol, q. s. (about 2 parts at ·830) to reduce its sp. gr. to 1·780; an object which may be easily obtained by distilling off some of the ether if required. The still or retort is then connected with a vessel full of alcohol, of at least 90%, by means of a small syphon tube, furnished with a stop-cock; the longer limb of which should be of glass, and so arranged that it just dips into the mixture of acid and alcohol. Heat is next applied, and the contents of the still raised to the boiling-point as rapidly as possible, and as soon as full ebullition commences the stop-cock of the syphon is cautiously turned, so as to allow the alcohol to flow down in such a manner as to keep the boiling liquid exactly at the same level; or, in other words, to supply a quantity of alcohol exactly equal to that of the liquid which distils over. By careful manipulation the whole of the alcohol which enters the retort passes over as ether and water, and this decomposition proceeds for some time, and would continue for an unlimited period did not the sulphuric acid ultimately become too weak to form ether, from the gradual absorption of the superfluous water contained in the alcohol. Were it convenient or practicable to use absolute alcohol, a given weight of sulphuric acid of the proper strength, would maintain the power of producing ether for an indefinite period. In practice, the quantity of alcohol that may thus be etherified is twice or thrice as much as by the common process, while neither sulphurous acid, sulphovinic acid, nor sweet oil of wine is generated, and the residual liquid of the distillation continues limpid, and has only a pale-brown colour. This is termed the ‘continuous,’ or ‘Boullay’s’ method. (This process is similar to that given in the B. P.)

3. Alcohol of 90%, five parts are mixed with oil of vitriol, 9 parts, in a vessel of copper or iron immersed in cold water; the mixture is next introduced into a still or retort, and raised to a state of ebullition as rapidly as possible, as before. A fresh quantity of alcohol, equal in bulk to the liquid distilled over, is then added to the liquid in the still, and distillation again had recourse to. As much concentrated alcoholic solution of potassa as will give it a perceptible alkaline reaction is next added to distilled liquor, which is then rectified by the heat of a water bath, as long as the ether which distils over has the sp. gr. ·720 to ·725 at 80° Fahr. Instead of the potassa, a little milk of lime may be used, along with its own bulk of water. By allowing the product to stand for some days over chloride of calcium or quicklime, and again rectifying it along with one of these substances, perfectly pure ether may be obtained.

Obs. The mixture of alcohol with sulphuric acid requires some caution. It is best done by introducing the alcohol into a suitable vessel, and imparting to it a rapid whirling motion, by which a considerable conical cavity is formed in the centre, and into which the acid may be gradually poured with perfect safety. The mixed fluids should be brought to a state of rapid ebullition, as quickly as possible, as without this precaution much of the alcohol distils over before the liquor acquires the proper temperature for etherification. On the small scale, a tubulated retort, connected with a Liebig’s condensing tube, and two globular receivers surrounded with a freezing mixture, or ice-cold water, may be employed as the distillatory apparatus. The second receiver should be connected with the first one by means of a bent glass tube, reaching nearly to the bottom of the former; and the whole of the joints should be securely luted, as soon as the expanded air has been allowed to escape. We have employed the following convenient little apparatus for the preparation of small quantities of ether, and it will be found very suitable for the distillation of most other highly volatile liquids, and particularly for boiling mixtures of alcohol and organic acids. By connecting the neck of a flask or digester containing volatile fluids with the lower instead of the upper end of the refrigerator, ebullition may be carried on without loss, as the vapour will be condensed, and run back into the vessel from which it has distilled.

a. Condenser tube.

b, c Glass tube.

d. Funnel by which cold water runs in from the water bottle h.

e. Pipe by which water escapes through f into the bottle g.

i. Retort.

k. Adapter, connecting the retort with the condenser.

l. Adapter, connecting the condenser with the bottles t, t.

A. Wooden tressel, with movable arms n, o, for supporting and adjusting the heights of the condenser.

B. Wooden stool for supporting the water bottle.

q. Furnace.

r. Support for the furnace.

p. Gutter for carrying off water that overflows the funnel d, and preventing its escape along the pipe c.

s. Leg of syphon connected with bottle containing alcohol.

t, t. Glass globes, placed in the basins v, v, and surrounded with pounded ice or ice-cold water.

w. Safety tube, containing a little mercury at x.

For the rectification of ether, a water bath is employed along with the above simple refrigerator, and the receivers surrounded by ice or a freezing mixture.

Chem. comp., &c. Ether is generally regarded as the oxide of ethyl, and alcohol as the hydrate of this base. This view is borne out by analysis, which proves that ether differs from alcohol by the elements of water. Recent experiments have also shown that the relation existing between the two compounds is—if alcohol be expressed by the formula C2H6O, the true formula of ether will be (C2H5)2O. We cannot describe these experiments here, but we may remark that ether cannot be made to combine with water directly, nor can alcohol be converted into ether by the abstraction of water, pure and simple, without the aid of other substances.

The compound ethers may be compared to ordinary salts in which the metal is replaced by a radical termed ethyl, having the formula C2H5. This view is, of course, in accordance with the theory which regards ether as the oxide of ethyl.

According to theory, 1 equivalent, or 46 parts of absolute alcohol, should produce 1 eq., or 37 parts, of pure ether; but in practice, the greatest product obtained by operating according to Boullay’s method, which produces more ether than any other, does not exceed 33½ parts for the preceding quantity of alcohol, or 71·5%. A mixture of 9 parts of oil of vitriol, and 5 parts of alcohol of 90%, ceases to produce ether after 31 parts of such alcohol have been added.

The most economical method of etherification is that known as the continuous ether process, or the process of Boullay. When this is adopted, the retort or flask should be fitted with a sound cork, perforated by an aperture to receive a thermometer, and the application of the heat, and the flow of alcohol, should be so managed, that a temperature of 300° Fahr. and a state of rapid and violent ebullition (points of essential importance) are maintained.

Prop., Uses, &c. Pure ether is a colourless, transparent, and very limpid fluid, having a penetrating and agreeable smell, and a burning, sweetish taste; its evaporation produces the sensation of extreme cold; when prevented, a sensation of heat is experienced. Its specific gravity varies between ·712 and ·724. If it contains water it begins to crystallise in brilliant white plates when cooled to -24° Fahr., and become a white crystalline mass at -46° or -47° Fahr.; but if absolutely pure, ether cannot be solidified by any degree of cold that can be produced, it remaining fluid when placed in contact with solid carbonic acid, at a temperature of about -148° Fahr. Boils at 96° or 97° Fahr.; is very combustible; is soluble in about 10 parts of distilled water, and mixes with alcohol in all proportions. It abstracts corrosive sublimate, terchloride of gold, sesquichloride of iron, and many of the alkaloids, from their watery solutions, and is hence invaluable in analysis and pharmacy. It readily dissolves the volatile and fixed oils, and most fatty matters, as well as sulphur and phosphorus in small quantities. By exposure to light and air it absorbs oxygen, and water and acetic acid are gradually formed. It is decomposed by exposure to a high temperature. Its evaporation occasions intense cold. The greatest degree of cold yet produced (-166° Fahr.) has resulted from the admixture of ether with solid carbonic acid. Ether is powerfully stimulant, narcotic, and antispasmodic, and externally refrigerant, if allowed to evaporate, or stimulant and counter-irritant if its evaporation is prevented, and is used in various diseases. Applied to the forehead by means of the fingers or a strip of linen, it generally relieves simple cases of nervous headache. In pharmacy it is largely employed in the preparations of tinctures alkaloids, spirits, &c.; and in chemistry is invaluable in organic analyses. Its principal commercial application is as a solvent for pyroxyline, in the manufacture of collodion. It is also employed as a solvent of resins, india rubber, &c., in the preparation of varnishes, and for several other useful purposes.—Dose, 20 drops to 2 fl. dr.; in water or wine. Excessive doses of ether produce intoxication resembling that from alcohol, and require similar antidotes. Sulphuric ether is said to be taken largely in the north of Ireland as a stimulant, particularly in Antrim. Shortly before the discovery of chloroform, it was found that when the vapour of ether was inhaled it gradually produced insensibility to pain. It was therefore employed as an anæsthetic in surgical operations. Having been found less efficient than chloroform, and more troublesome to administer, its use for this purpose has been abandoned.

Tests. Ether may be recognised by its volatility, odour, taste, sparing solubility in water, admixture with alcohol in all proportions, great inflammability (burning with a yellowish-white flame), and its power of dissolving fats and resins. Its further identification can only be effected by ultimate analysis.

Pur. The ether of the shops generally contains alcohol, water, or acetic acid, and sometimes all of them. Its usual specific gravity fluctuates between ·733 and ·765. Exposed to the air, it volatises entirely. It turns litmus paper red; sometimes very slightly, and occasionally even not at all. ⁄2 fl. oz. mixes completely with ⁄2 pint of water. Pure ether should, however, be neutral to test-paper, although seldom so. When shaken in a minim measure with half its volume of concentrated solution of chloride of calcium, its volume should not lessen. 10 fluid ounces of water should only dissolve 1 fluid ounce of ether, and remain transparent.

Preserv. Ether rapidly evaporates at common temperatures when kept in corked bottles, and even in bottles secured with ground-glass stoppers and tightly tied over with bladder and leather; it also becomes sour by age. To prevent this waste, the stoppers should fit accurately, and the bottles should be placed in as cool a situation as possible. Bottles furnished with ground-glass caps, as well as stoppers, are frequently employed. (See engr.) Dewar’s ‘ether phial’ is formed on a similar principle. We have seen bottles of ether accurately stoppered, tied over with bladder, and thickly coated with wax, which have yet become quite empty by a voyage to the tropics, though they still appeared to be as closely secured as when they were first filled.

Caution. The vapour of ether is very inflammable, and when mixed with atmospheric air, it forms a violently explosive mixture. The density of this vapour is 2·586, that of air being 1; hence it rapidly sinks, and frequently accumulates in the lower parts of buildings, especially cellars which are badly ventilated, in the same way as water does. The only remedy is thorough ventilation. Many serious accidents have arisen from this cause, for no sooner is a light carried into an apartment where such vapour is present than an explosion takes place.

Ethyl, Acetate of. C2H5C2H3O2 Syn. Acetate of oxide of ethyl, Acetic ether, Pyroligneous ether; Æther aceticus, L. A compound discovered by the Count de Lauraguais in 1759.

Prep. 1. Acetate of potassa, 3 parts (or an equiv. quant. of acetate of soda), alcohol (85%), 3 parts, oil of vitriol (strongest), 2 parts, are mixed together and distilled, by the heat of a sand bath, from a glass or earthenware retort into a well-cooled receiver; the distillate is agitated with a little water to remove undecomposed alcohol, and then digested first with a little chalk to remove acidity, and afterwards with fused chloride of calcium, to absorb water; it is, lastly, rectified by a gentle heat.

2. Rectified spirit (sp. gr. ·84), 50 parts, acetic acid (sp. gr. 1·075), 33 parts, are mixed together, and oil of vitriol (strongest), 10 parts, added; the distillation is continued until 65 parts have passed over, and the distillate, after digestion for some hours on a little dry carbonate of potassium, is rectified as before, the first 50 parts only being kept for use.

Prop., &c. Acetic ether is colourless, and bears a considerable resemblance to ordinary ether, but it has a much more agreeable and refreshing odour. It boils at 165° Fahr.; has a sp. gr. of ·89 at 60° Fahr., dissolves in about 7 parts of water; and mixes in all proportions with alcohol and ether. It is decomposed by alkalies and the strong acids.

Acetic ether is diaphoretic, stimulant, antispasmodic, and narcotic.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 fl. dr.; in similar cases to those in which sulphuric ether is employed, and especially in nervous and putrid fevers, spasmodic vomitings, and diseases of the bowels and stomach, arising from debility, and not of an inflammatory character. Its principal consumption is in the manufacture of British brandy.

Ethyl, Benzoate of. C2H5C7H5O2. Syn. Benzoic ether, Benzoate of ether, B. of oxide of ethyl; Æther benzoicus, L. Prep. Alcohol (sp. gr. ·830), 4 parts; benzoic acid (cryst.), 2 parts; concentrated hydrochloric acid, 1 part, are distilled together; as soon as the product turns milky when mixed with water, the receiver is changed, and the liquid that distills over collected; to this liquid water is added, and the supernatant ether is decanted, and boiled with water, and a little oxide of lead (to separate benzoic acid); it is, lastly, freed from water by allowing it to stand over chloride of calcium.

Prop., &c. A colourless oily liquid, slightly heavier than water, and possessing an aromatic odour and taste. It boils at 410° Fahr., and is miscible with alcohol and ether.

Ethyl, Bromide of. C2H5Br. Syn. Æther hydrobromicus, L. A volatile, ethereal liquid, discovered by Serullas.

Prep. Bromine, 8 parts; alcohol, 32 parts; dissolve, place the mixture in a retort, add of phosphorus, 1 part, and distil by a gentle heat as soon as the liquid becomes cold. The ether is separated from the distillate by the addition of water.

Prop., &c. A very volatile liquid, with a penetrating taste and smell; boiling at 105° Fahr., and heavier than water.

Ethyl, Bu′tyrate of. C2H5C4H7O2. Syn. Butyric ether, Pine-apple oil; Æther butyricus, L. Prep. By passing hydrochloric acid gas into an alcoholic solution of butyric acid, and purifying the product from free acid.

Commercially, from crude butyric acid saponified with caustic potassa or baryta, and the resulting soap distilled along with alcohol and oil of vitriol.

Uses. Crude butyric ether forms the ‘pine-apple oil’ of commerce, and when largely diluted with rectified spirit, the ‘pine-apple essence’ so much employed as a flavouring substance by confectioners, liqueuristes, &c. It imparts a delicious flavour to sweetmeats, rum, arrack, punch, &c. The Germans add it to common rum, to form the flavouring for their ‘pine-apple ale.’

Ethyl, Carbonate of. (C2H5)2CO3. Syn. Carbonic ether, Carbonate of oxide of ethyl; Æther carbonicus, L. Prep. Fragments of potassium are added to oxalic ether, gently warmed, as long as bubbles of gas are formed; the excess of metal is removed from the semi-solid mass, some water added, and the whole distilled. The carbonic ether floats on the surface of the liquid in the receiver, and is collected, dried by contact with chloride of calcium, and rectified along with some potassium or sodium, till it ceases to yield acetate of potassa when acted on by caustic potassa.

Prop., &c. Colourless, limpid, and aromatic; tastes pungent and burning; boils at 259° to 260° Fahr. It greatly resembles oxalic ether. It is decomposed by alkalies.

Ethyl, Chlo′ride of. C2H5Cl. Syn. Light Hydrochloric e., Chloride of ethyl; Æther hydrochloricus, L. A highly volatile compound, formed of ethyl and chlorine.

Prep. Rectified spirit of wine is saturated with dry hydrochloric acid gas in the cold, and the product is distilled in a retort connected with a Wolfe’s apparatus, the first bottle of which should be two thirds filled with tepid water (70° to 75° Fahr.), and the remainder surrounded with a mixture of ice and salt. To render it perfectly anhydrous, it must be digested on a few fragments of fused chloride of calcium.

A mixture of oil of vitriol, 3 parts, and alcohol, 2 parts, is poured upon common salt (dried), 4 parts; and the whole distilled as before.

Prop., &c. This ether has a sweetish taste; is soluble in about 15 parts of water, and miscible in all proportions with alcohol; boils at 54° Fahr.; burns with a flame edged with green; is neutral to test paper; and does not affect a solution of nitrate of silver. Sp. gr. ·921, at 32° Fahr.—Dose, 10 to 30 drops, as an antispasmodic and a powerful diffusible stimulant. Owing to its extreme volatility it can only be taken dissolved in spirit.

Ethyl, Cy′anide of. C2H5CN. Syn. Æther hydrocyanicus. L. Prep. Cyanide of potassium and sulphovinate of baryta, equal parts, are mixed and distilled in a glass retort by a moderate heat. The product separates into two strata; the lighter one is impure hydrocyanic ether; this is decanted and agitated with 4 or 5 times its bulk of water at 120° to 140° Fahr., and the operation is repeated with about 2 parts of water; the ether is again decanted, and placed in contact with chloride of calcium for 24 hours, and then rectified.

Prop., &c. It boils at 190° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·788. In its therapeutical effects it resembles hydrocyanic acid, but is less active. Its odour is, however, more penetrating and offensive.—Dose, 2 to 6 drops, in mucilage or emulsion; in obstinate or convulsive coughs, gastrodynia, hysterical affections, &c.

Ethyl, Cy′anate of. C2H5CNO Syn. Cyanic ether, Cyanate of oxide of ethyl. Prep. By distilling a dry mixture of cyanate of potassa and sulphovinate of potassa in nearly equivalent proportions. A mixture of cyanic and cyanuric ethers passes over into the receiver. By distilling this mixture the two are readily separated; that which passes over by the heat of a water bath being the first, and the residuum in the retort the second.

Prop., &c. An ethereal, very mobile liquid, boiling at 140° Fahr.

Ethyl, Cyan′urate of. (C2H5)3C3N3O3. Syn. Cyanurate of oxide of ethyl. Prep. See Cyanic Ether.

Prop., &c. Tasteless, inodorous, colourless, transparent, needles and prisms; fusing at 185° Fahr.

Ethyl, I′odide of. C2H5I. Syn. Æther hydriodicus, L. Prep. Phosphorous, 4 parts, alcohol (sp. gr. ·84), 70 parts, and iodine, 100 parts, are gradually and cautiously mixed together, and distilled.

Prop., &c. A colourless liquid, possessing a strong ethereal odour, and boiling at 158° Fahr.; sp. gr. 1·92. It is reddened and decomposed by exposure to air and light.

Ether, Methy′lic. Syn. Oxide of methyl, Wood-ether, Methyl-ethyl. See Methyl.

Ether, Muriatic (Heavy). Syn. Æther muriaticus ponderosus, L. Prep. Alcohol, of 80 to 85%, is saturated, in the cold, with chlorine gas, water is next added, and the oily fluid that separates collected and washed with water, as long as any of it is dissolved.

Prop., &c. Heavy muriatic ether is a volatile, oily, colourless liquid, boiling at about 245° Fahr., and heavier than water. Its precise constitution is undetermined. This ether enters into the composition of the SPIRITUS MURIATICO-ETHEREUS, a remedy occasionally used on the Continent.

Ethyl, Nitrate of. C2H5NO3. Syn. Nitric ether, Nitrate of oxide of ethyl; Æther nitricus, L.

Prep. Nitric acid (sp. gr. about 1·375), 50 parts; nitrate of urea, a little (say 2 or 3 parts); dissolve, add alcohol, 50 parts, and distil with the usual precautions, until 7-8ths of the whole (of the liquid portion) have passed over; agitate the distillate with a little water to separate the ether, and preserve the heavier portion.

Prop., &c. Nitric ether possesses an agreeable sweetish taste and odour; it is insoluble in water; the alcoholic (but not the aqueous) solution of potassa decomposes it rapidly; sp. gr. 1·112. Its vapour is very apt to explode when strongly heated, and therefore a small quantity only should be prepared at a time.

Ethyl, Nitrite. C2H5NO2. Syn. Nitric ether, Hyponitrous ether, Nitrite of ether, Nitrite of oxide of ethyl, Hyponitrite of E.; Æther nitrosus, Æ. hyponitrosus, L. This is a compound, of which ‘sweet spirit of nitre’ is an impure alcoholic solution.

Prep. 1. Starch (potato farina), 1 part; nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·30), 10 parts; mix in a capacious retort, connected with a wide tube, 2 or 3 feet long, bent at right angles, and terminating near the bottom of a two-necked bottle, containing a mixture of alcohol (of 85%), 2 parts, and water, 1 part, and surrounded with a freezing mixture, pounded ice, or very cold water; the other neck of the bottle being connected by a long glass tube with a good refrigerator or condenser. All elevation of temperature must be avoided. The heat of a water bath only must be cautiously applied to the retort. The gas liberated passes into the alcohol, causing the ether to distil in a gentle stream. The tube connecting the retort and bottle must be cooled by means of rag or moist paper, kept wetted with ice-cold water; as, if the temperature of the tube and the alcohol rises only a little, the latter becomes spontaneously hot, and boils violently, by which the product is vitiated. This process is very productive and economical, and yields pure nitrous ether.

2. A mixture of oil of vitriol, 8 parts, and alcohol, 9 parts, is poured upon crystallised nitrate of ammonia, 11 parts, contained in any suitable distillatory vessel connected with a well-cooled receiver. Nitrous ether gradually distils over on the application of a gentle heat. An admirable process, but more expensive than the preceding. Even a common fire may be employed without danger, as the liberation of the ether proceeds gradually, and not almost instantaneously, as in operating in the usual way. Sulphate of ammonia is left in the retort. The product is scarcely inferior to that of the last formula.

3. Rectified spirit, 46 fl. oz.; pure nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·500), 7 fl. oz.; put 15 fl. oz. of the spirit, with a little clean sand, into a quart matrass, fitted with a cork, and a safety tube reaching to within an inch of the spirit, and a second tube leading to a refrigeratory. Fill the safety tube with pure nitric acid, then add through it, gradually and cautiously, 3⁄2 fl. oz. of the acid. When the violent action that ensues is nearly over, gradually add the remaining portion of the acid, ⁄2 fl. oz. at a time, and at intervals. Agitate the ether that distils over, first with a little milk of lime, till it ceases to redden litmus paper, and then with half its volume of concentrated solution of chloride of calcium. The pure hyponitrous ether thus obtained should have a density of ·899.

4. (Mr John Williams.) Nitrite of ethyl is best made by passing nitrous acid gas into alcohol.

The nitrous acid gas is prepared by acting upon such bodies as starch, copper, mercury, or arsenious acid with nitric acid. The alcohol is generally recommended in the text-books to be diluted with half its bulk of water; this, however, I consider a decided mistake. The alcohol should be as concentrated as possible, even absolute alcohol is preferable. The main points to be attended to are that the current of nitrous acid gas should be slow and steady, so as to give time for the reaction to proceed properly, and that the vessel containing the alcohol should be kept as cool as possible; in this way much of the production of bye-products will be avoided, and the gas can be passed through the alcohol, as long as it continues to be absorbed.

The resulting liquid is anything but pure; it contains much nitrite of ethyl, some aldehyde, acid—it is even stated to contain malic acid. In fact it is well known that the reaction between the nitrous acid, and such products as alcohol, however pure, is not sharp, but is always accompanied by secondary products.

From the crude alcoholic solution obtained by the method I have described, the pure nitrite of ethyl can be obtained without difficulty. Nitrite of ethyl is an extremely volatile liquid; it boils at about 61° F., whereas aldehyde boils at 90° F., and alcohol at 180° F. Taking advantage of this fact, we are enabled to separate it from the crude liquid by distillation. Some precautions are, however, necessary, to ensure the purity of the product. The flask containing the crude product is placed in a water bath, and connected by bent tubes with several other flasks and bottles. The first tube should be passed into a small empty flask, this will condense most of the alcohol which may pass over during the operation. Then a second bent tube passes into a second flask containing a little water; this condenses any alcohol which may not have been stopped in the first flask, together with free acid, and nearly all the aldehyde.

From this wash bottle a third tube proceeds into a somewhat shallow flask, containing a strong solution of caustic potash; the gas, however, is not allowed to pass through this alkaline liquid, but simply over the surface. In this way the last portion of the aldehyde is absorbed, and the potash solution gradually assumes an amber colour. From this vessel, the gas (for such at the ordinary temperature of the laboratory, the nitrite of ethyl is—in very cold weather it would be necessary to gently warm the different flasks) is passed through a tube charged with anhydrous chloride of calcium to absorb moisture, and the pure and dry nitrite of ethyl thus produced, finally passes into alcohol, which readily absorbs it.

It is only necessary to note the weight of the alcohol used for absorbing the gas, and its weight at the end of the operation, to know the strength or per-centage of nitrite of ethyl which must be in solution. Thus, if 9 oz. of alcohol becomes 10 oz., it is evident we have a solution of 10 per cent.; if it becomes 12 oz., then the strength must be 25 per cent., and so on. Ordinary spirits will answer for condensing the nitrite of ethyl, but it is better to use absolute alcohol, as it is very desirable to avoid the presence of water in any form. The solutions made with weaker spirit soon turn acid; those made with absolute alcohol, on the other hand, keep a long time. It is very true the very strong solutions of 50 and 25 per cent. show traces of acidity when tested with moistened litmus paper, but the 10 per cent. solution is quite neutral.

One point I have not mentioned; it is that the distillation must be conducted at the very lowest possible temperature; in fact, the water in the water-bath should only be kept gently warm, and the process should be continued only so long as the conducting tubes feel cool to the touch; when they become warm the distillation should be discontinued. By passing the gas into a tube in a freezing mixture, instead of into alcohol, the pure nitrite of ethyl is readily obtained in a liquid form; it is, however, necessary to seal the tube, otherwise the very volatile liquid would soon be lost.

Prop., &c. Pure nitrous ether has a pale-yellow colour, an agreeable odour of apples, and boils at 62° Fahr.; sp. gr. ·947 at 60° Fahr. Commercial nitrous ether contains aldehyde, boils at 70° Fahr., has a more or less suffocating odour combined with that of the pure ether, has a sp. gr. of ·886 at 40° Fahr., and turns brown when mixed with alcoholic solution of potassa, while the latter remains unaltered. It also acidifies by age, whilst pure nitrous ether remains neutral. They are both very inflammable, and burn with a white flame. Ordinary nitrous ether dissolves in about 48 parts of water, and mixes in all proportions with alcohol and sulphuric ether.

Nitrous ether is refrigerant, diaphoretic, and diuretic, but is seldom employed alone, though, when largely diluted with alcohol (sweet spirits of nitric, spirit of nitric ether), it is a common remedy in several diseases. It is also used to flavour malt spirit, in imitation of brandy (British brandy), although for this purpose it is vastly inferior to acetic ether. See Spirits (Medicinal).

Ethyl, Œnanthate of. Syn. Œnanthic ether, Pelargonic ether, Œnanthate of oxide of ethyl. Prep. 1. The oil obtained towards the end of the distillation of fermented liquors, especially wines, consists, in a great measure, of the crude ether. It is purified by agitation with a weak solution of carbonate of potassa, freed from water by a few fragments of chloride of calcium, and then re-distilled.

Prop., &c. Œnanthic ether is colourless; lighter than water; boils at about 500° Fahr.; and has a powerful, intoxicating vinous odour, resembling that of an empty wine cask or bottle that has been exposed to the air for some time. It is very sparingly soluble in water, but freely soluble in alcohol. Its sp. gr. is ·862. As obtained by distillation, it is united with a little ŒNANTHIC ACID. 2200 imperial gallons of wine (about 35 hogsheads) only yielded 2⁄5 lbs. of the mixed oil.

Ethyl, Oxalate of. (C2H5)2C2O4. Syn. Oxalic ether, Oxalate of oxide of ethyl; Æther oxalicus, L. Prep. Alcohol and dry oxalic acid, equal parts, are digested together in a glass flask furnished with a very long glass tube of small bore, so that the spirit, volatilised by the heat, may be condensed, and flow back into the flask. After 6 or 8 hours the process is generally complete, and the liquid contains merely a trace of free acid, from which it may be separated.

Prop., &c. A colourless, oily liquid, slightly heavier than water, boiling at 363° Fahr., only slightly soluble in water, and having an aromatic smell. Alkalies decompose it. Sp. gr. 1·09.

Ethyl, Sulphate of. (C2H5)2SO4.

Prep. The vapour of pure anhydrous sulphuric acid is passed (with the usual precautions) into perfectly anhydrous ether; the resulting syrupy liquid is agitated with a mixture of 4 volumes of water, and 1 volume of ether, and after repose the upper stratum, which is an ethereal solution of the sulphate of ethyl, is decanted, and the oxide of ethyl volatilised by a very gentle heat. The colourless liquid forming the residuum is the true sulphuric ether or sulphate of ethyl just referred to. It is a very unstable compound, and cannot be distilled without suffering decomposition.

Ethyl, Valerianate of. C2H5C5H9O2. Syn. Valerianic ether, Valerate of oxide of ethyl; Æther valerianicus, L. Prep. By passing dry hydrochloric acid gas into an alcoholic solution of valeric acid. It is a fragrant, volatile liquid, lighter than water, having a high boiling-point, and a rich fruity odour, said to closely resemble that of butyric ether or pine-apple oil. It is used to flavour liqueurs, &c.

ETHYL′AMINE. NH2(C2H5). Syn. Ethyl-ammonia. One of the bases of the ethyl-series, obtained by substituting one atom of hydrogen in ammonia NH3 by ethyl C2H5.

EUCALYP′TIN. A peculiar substance existing in Botany Bay kino. A substance exuded by several species of the Eucalyptus. It has been employed medicinally in diarrhœa.

EUCALYPTOL. See Eucalyptus.

EUCALYPTUS. The Eucalypti, of which there are many species, belong to the natural order Myrtaceæ, and are natives of Australia, where they are known under the names of “gum-trees,” or as “stringy-bark trees.” The most interesting and important characteristic of these plants is the power they undoubtedly possess of correcting, if not of removing, the pestilential exhalations which are regarded as the origin of the fevers that occur in marshy localities. This discovery is due to M. Ramel, and was made by him in 1856.

M. Gimbert, amongst other cases, cites one of a farm, twenty miles from Algiers, the atmosphere surrounding which was of a very pestilential character. In the spring of 1867 13,000 eucalyptus trees were planted on the farm, and M. Gimbert states that since then not a single case of fever has taken place, the freedom from disease occurring the same year the plants were placed in the ground, and the good effects commencing whilst the trees were only two or three mètres in height.

The following is extracted from ‘Les Mondes’ (1876):—“Between Nice and Monaco there is a locality so unhealthy that the Paris, Lyons, and Mediterranean Railway Company have been obliged to change every two or three months the watchman at a crossing there.

“Plantations of the eucalyptus have been formed there, and at present the same watchman has resided there for several months with his family without experiencing the least inconvenience.”

Again:—“In the Campagna, about three miles from Rome, there stand some deserted church buildings and a monastery, the latter having been abandoned because of the mortality amongst the monks caused by the noxious exhalations. Some six years since a company of French trappists, having obtained permission from the Italian Government, planted the grounds in and around the monastery with eucalyptus trees, and the result is stated to have been so total an immunity of the building from fever, although situated in the worst part of the Campagna, that the monastery is now tenanted, the health of the occupants being, it is said, unimpaired.”

The writer in the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ who contributes this statement, adds:—“Whether this grand result has been obtained through the efficacy of the extract of the eucalyptus taken each morning with their cup of black coffee, or whether it is to be attributed to the effects of the plantations, I leave to scientific men to determine.”

It seems very probable that the effects above described are due to the eucalyptus having such extensive and far-spreading roots, which suck up and appropriate the moisture of the surrounding soil, the presence of which, aided by heat, giving rise to vegetable decomposition, is believed to be the cause of malarial poisoning.

The avidity of the plant for water is very great; it has been computed that one tree will absorb ten times its weight of moisture from the soil. It is most likely owing, at any rate in very large measure, to this cause, rather than to the supposed antiseptic and disinfecting odours exhaled by its leaves, that the salubrious effects of the eucalyptus are due. The blue gum tree, or Eucalyptus globulus (so distinguished because of the rounded form of the lid which covers its unexpanded flower bud), has been successfully introduced into Asia, Africa, and Southern Europe. If, as asserted, it can only exist in a climate where the temperature is never lower than the freezing point, its domestication (save in hot-houses) is impossible in our own country.

The Eucalyptus globulus is a very rapidly-growing tree, and attains to great proportions. “In some cases it has been known to attain the colossal dimensions of 350 feet in height and a 100 in circumference.”

This magnitude is entirely out of proportion to the size of the seed, which is very minute; so minute that it has been computed one pound weight of the seed could produce 162,000 trees. Various preparations of the leaves and bark of the eucalypti have been introduced into medicine, which will be found under the respective pharmaceutical preparations. They were asserted to be specially serviceable in intermittent fevers and bronchitis. The idea that their efficacy in the former class of disease was due to the presence in the barks of the eucalypti of an alkaloid similar to, if not the same as, quinine, has been shown to be an erroneous one, from the experiments of the Government chemist of Ootacamund (Mr Broughton), who, after a most careful chemical analysis, failed to discover either quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, cinchonidine, or the least trace of any one of the cinchona alkaloids.

When the leaves of the Eucalyptus globulus are held to the light they reveal the presence of little semi-transparent dots, which are found to be receptacles for a volatile oil, that may be obtained in large quantity by submitting the plant to aqueous distillation.

This volatile oil has been examined by Cloez, who found it to consist chiefly of a substance allied in chemical characters to camphor, which substance he named eucalyptol. Any therapeutic power possessed by the eucalyptus may be referred to this substance, since, as just stated, it cannot be due to a bark alkaloid.

Before finishing our notice of the reputed curative effects of the eucalyptus we may mention that Dr Gimbert employs the leaves instead of lint for dressing wounds and fetid ulcers, and says he has found them, when thus used, excellent deodorisers; that another method of employing the leaves of the eucalyptus consists in having them made into cigarettes, which are reported to be useful in asthma and bronchial complaints. Lastly, let us state that another species of eucalyptus exudes a very astringent substance, which, from its appearance and properties, being so analogous to kino, has been denominated Botany Bay kino. (See Eucalyptin.)

The essential oil of eucalyptus, which, according to the species of the plant from which it is obtained, varies in colour from light yellow to light blue, is now largely employed as a diluent for the more delicate volatile oils used in perfumery.

Many species of the eucalyptus yield excellent timber, possessed of great hardness and durability, and little affected by moisture. This timber has the power of resisting the attacks of insects. The wood of the eucalyptus is also very rich in potash. The maple and the elm, which are regarded as yielding a large per-centage of this substance, afford only about half as much as can be obtained from the eucalyptus, this latter tree yielding 21 per cent. of potash.

The barks of different species have also been advantageously utilised for paper making, as well as for tanning.

In this country eucalyptus seeds are reared in a greenhouse. They may be sown in a mixture of loam, peat, and ordinary soil, with a sprinkling of sand on the surface.

The following directions for the cultivation of the eucalyptus in England were communicated to the ‘Medical Times and Gazette’ of 1873 by Mr Bennett Stanford, of Pyt House, Tisbury:—“I have successfully reared from seed two dozen of these trees, and they are now growing well out of doors. I obtained the seed five years ago from South Australia, and forced it in a hothouse; in one year it was four feet high, and now, in its fifth year, it is growing rapidly in a sheltered position in the park, having attained a height of thirty feet. The first three years the tree must be taken under cover in the winter, and the fourth and fifth years should be protected for several feet up with wisps of hay or straw. When the trees are kept indoors in winter it should be in an orangery or very high greenhouse, with plenty of light and a little water.”

EUCHLO′′RINE. A bright-yellow gas, prepared by gently heating chlorate of potassa with hydrochloric acid. It is probably a mixture of chlorous acid and free chlorine. Prof. Stone, of Manchester, has found Euchlorine of a great service as an aerial disinfectant.

EUGLENÆ. These are ciliated infusorial animalcules inhabiting ponds and water-tanks. Sometimes they abound in water in quantities so enormous as to impart to that fluid a blood-red appearance. The principal species are the Euglena viridis and the Euglena pyrum. Their presence is supposed to indicate the existence in the water in which they are found, of decaying animal and vegetable matter upon which they are believed to feed.

EUPHOR′BIUM. Syn. Gum euphorbium; Euphorbium (Ph. E.), L. The concrete resinous juice of the Euphorbia canariensis, and other species of the same genus. It is a powerful acrid, purgative, rubefacient, sternutatory, and vesicant, and the violence of its action has led to its disuse.

EU′PIONE. An ethereal liquid forming the chief portion of the light oil of wood-tar, and which also exists in the tar obtained during the destructive distillation of animal substances, and in the fluid product of the distillation of rape oil. It is separated from these substances by agitating them with oil of vitriol, or a mixture of oil of vitriol and nitre, and subsequent cautious distillation. Pure eupione is tasteless, exceedingly thin, limpid, and aromatic; boils at 116° Fahr.; and is the lightest fluid known; sp. gr. ·655. It is very inflammable, burns with a very bright flame, and gives a transient greasy stain to paper. It is isomeric with hydride of amyl. Other volatile hydrocarbons of like origin are often confounded with eupione by chemical writers.

EUPYR′ION. Any contrivance for obtaining instantaneous light; as a lucifer match, &c.

EVAC′UANTS. Syn. Evacuantia, L. Medicines which augment the secretions or excretions. Cathartics, DIAPHORETICS, DIURETICS, EMETICS, ERRHINES, EXPECTORANTS, and SIALOGOGUES, belong to this class.

EVAPORA′TION. The conversion of a fluid into vapour by means of heat, diminished atmospheric pressure, or exposure to a dry atmosphere. Evaporation is had recourse to—1. For the vapour as a source of heat or power, as in the case of steam-boilers, &c.;—2. To separate volatile fluids from impurities or other bodies, which are either fixed or less volatile;—3. To recover solid bodies from their solutions, as in the preparation of extracts, chemical salts, &c.;—4. To concentrate or strengthen a solution by the expulsion of some of the fluid matter that forms the menstruum;—5. To purify liquids by the dissipation of the volatile matters which may contaminate them.

It is found that, under ordinary circumstances, evaporation is confined to the surface of the heated liquid, and is therefore slower or quicker, in proportion to the extension of that surface. Hence has arisen the adoption of wide, shallow vessels for containing fluids during their exposure to heat for this purpose. Evaporation proceeds most rapidly when a current of air (especially hot and dry air) is made to pass over the surface of the fluid; as, in this ease, the vapour is prevented from resting upon the surface, and impeding the process by its pressure. For a similar reason, liquids evaporate more rapidly in vessels partially covered than in open ones. In the former case the cool incumbent air condenses and throws back a portion of the vapour, which thereupon, besides its cooling action, offers mechanical resistance to the diffusion of the vaporous particles as they arrive at the surface of the liquid. In the latter case these obstacles are avoided, and the impetus of the vapour pouring forth from a contracted orifice (or pipe), not only readily overcomes the pressure of the atmosphere, but offers less surface for its cooling action, until it has passed much beyond the points at which it can exert any influence on the fluid from which it has escaped. In this way the chemical action of the atmosphere on the liquid operated on is also considerably lessened. On the small scale, shallow capsules of glass, wedgwood-ware, porcelain, or metal, are commonly employed as evaporating vessels, and these are exposed to heat by placing them over a lamp, or naked fire, or in a water bath, or sand bath, according to the temperature at which it is proper to conduct the process. On the large scale, high-pressure steam is usually employed as the source of heat. The term ‘spontaneous evaporation’ is applied to the dissipation of a fluid by mere exposure in open vessels, at the common temperature of the atmosphere, and without the application of artificial heat. The celerity of this species of evaporation wholly depends on the degree of humidity of the surrounding air, and differs from the former, in which the rate of evaporation is proportionate to the degree of heat at which the process is conducted, and the amount of pressure upon the surface of the liquid. Evaporation ‘in vacuo’ (as it is called) is conducted under the receiver of an air-pump, or in an attenuated atmosphere, produced by filling a vessel with steam, by which means the air is expelled, when all communication with the external atmosphere is cut off, and the vapour condensed by the application of cold. Fluids are also evaporated in air-tight receivers over sulphuric acid, by which they are continually exposed to the action of a very dry atmosphere. When such a receiver is connected with an air-pump in action, evaporation proceeds with increased rapidity, and intense cold is produced. It appears, from the experiments of Dr Ure, that “if the bottom of a pan, and the portion of the sides immersed in a hot fluid medium (solution of chloride of calcium, for example), be corrugated, so as to contain a double expanse of metallic surface, that pan will evaporate exactly double the quantity of water, in a given time, which a like pan, with smooth bottom and sides, will do, immersed equally deep in the same bath. If the corrugation contain three times the quantity of metallic surface, the evaporation will be threefold in the above circumstances. But if the pan, with the same corrugated bottom and sides, be set over a fire, or in an oblong flue, so that the current of flame may sweep along the corrugations, it will evaporate no more water from its interior than a smooth pan of like shape and dimensions placed alongside it in the same flue, or over the same fire.”

In the laboratory, steam heat is now almost exclusively employed. Copper, or tinned, glazed, or silvered coppered pans, boilers, and stills, are surrounded by a ‘jacket’ of cast iron, and high-pressure steam admitted between the two. By due management of the supply-cock, a range of temperature may be thus obtained extending from about 90° to 325° Fahr.

It is found that, under ordinary circumstances, 10 square feet of heated surface will evaporate fully 1 lb. of water per minute; and that a thin copper tube exposing 10 feet surface will condense about 3 lbs. of steam per minute, with a difference of temperature of about 90° Fahr. This is equal to 30° Fahr. per lb.; and, consequently, the heat of the steam employed to produce the evaporation should be 212° + 30° = 242° Fahr.

An attention to the facts and principles thus briefly explained above will be found of great value in the laboratory.

EXCIP′IENT. See Prescription.

EXCI′TANTS. See Stimulants.

EXCORIA′TIONS. Syn. Sprays, Chafings.

In surgery and pathology, superficial injuries or affections of the skin, consisting of the removal of the scarf-skin or cuticle, accompanied with more or less irritation and slight inflammations. When arising from rough friction or attrition, they are more commonly called abrasions. Young children are very apt to be chafed under the arms, behind the ears, between the thighs, and in the wrinkles and folds of the skin generally, unless great attention is paid to cleanliness, and wiping the skin perfectly dry after washing them. Whenever there is a tendency to excoriations of this kind, either in adults or children, a little finely powdered starch, or violet powder, applied by means of a puff, or a small bag of muslin, once or twice a day, will generally remove them, and prevent their occurrence in future. Mild unguents, as cold cream, or spermaceti cerate or ointment, may also be used with advantage. The preference should, however, be given to the remedies first named, from their not soiling the linen. See Abrasion.

EXCRETA. The excrementitious matter evacuated from the bowels varies of course in composition and quantity according to the food from which it is derived.

Berzelius found a sample analysed by himself to yield about seventy-five per cent. of water, the remainder being made up of alimentary waste, and biliary matter. A large amount of phosphates of calcium and magnesium was found in the ash remaining after the incineration of the solid matter. A specimen of fæcal matter examined by Playfair yielded 15 per cent. of nitrogen and 45 per cent. of carbon. Marcet states that he has obtained from excrement a crystallisable body possessing an alkaline reaction; to which he gives the name excretin; also a fatty substance, which he terms excretolic acid. To excretin he assigns the formula C78H156SO2; the composition of the acid has not been determined.

Hinterberger has succeeded in getting excretine (excretin), free from sulphur, and gives as its simplest formula C20H36O; which shows a close resemblance to cholesterin, C26H44O.

But cholesterin is less easily dissolved in vinegar than excretin, and the solution deposits crystals which, when viewed by the microscope, are found to be beautiful silky six-sided prisms, while the excretin solution yields round masses.

Treated with bromine, excretin gave a crystalline body having the formula C20H34Br2O; but the author did not succeed in preparing a chlorinated compound of excretin.

In the excreta of carnivorous animals no excretin has been discovered, although a substance resembling it has been found. Cholesterin has been obtained from the fæces of the crocodile, but no urates; whilst the excreta of the boa contain urates, but are destitute of cholesterin.

The fæces of animals that live on vegetables contain neither excretin, butyric acid, nor cholesterin.

The excreta of birds and serpents, which mixed with the secretion from the kidneys, are discharged from the animals by the cavities, are very similar to urine, and consist chiefly of alkaline urates and earthy phosphates.

The excrements of insects consist mainly of the remnants of the tissues, animal or vegetable which they have swallowed as food, mixed with constituents of the urine, provided the insect has no special urinary organs.

Briéger examined the fæces of healthy persons, and of convalescents, and found in addition to acetic, butyric, and isobutyric acids, small quantities of phenol and indol, and a new crystallisable body, which he terms skatol (skatos, fæces). It crystallises in irregular-dentate shining plates, resembling indol, which by frequent recrystallisation from hot water, can be obtained snow white. Skatol forms the chief constituent of the volatile aromatic components of human fæces. Fæces of dogs (whether fed on meat or bread diet) contained no skatol, but indol, and in addition a yellow oil, with a revolting and peculiarly irritating smell.

Briéger has not yet been able to analyse this yellow oil, although it forms the chief volatile constituent of dogs’ fæces. He has repeatedly obtained it from distillation from human pathological fluids. In the pancreas after putrefaction, and in the fæces of typhus patients, no skatol was found. The author considers skatol identical with the substance which Secretan obtained by the decomposition of egg albumen under water for six months.

Skatol injected under the skin of rabbits, passes out in the urine as a substance yielding colouring matter. Skatol is believed by the author to be the substance in human urine which, according to Jaffé, yields a red or violet colour on the addition of hydrochloric acid and chloride of lime.

Phenol, the author finds, is a constant component of human fæces. The above results show that specific products of decomposition are normal components of intestinal digestion.

Liebig calculated that the daily average amount of fæcal matter passed by a man is 5⁄2 oz; Lawes says that it averages in healthy male adults, 4·2 oz; Parkes estimates it (in Europe) at 4 oz. on the average; Letheby at 2·784, and Frankland at 3 oz. In India, a native on the average excretes as much as 12 oz., this increase over the above quantities being due to the large proportion of rice and farinaceous food of which the Hindoos’ diet consists.

The daily average amount of urine excreted by a human being has been given by Lawes at 46 oz.; Parkes places it at 50 oz. by measure for each male adult; Letheby at 31·851, and Frankland at nearly 40 oz. by measure. According to Parkes’ figures a population of a thousand persons, would thus void daily 156 lbs. of solids, and 260 gallons of urine; or 25 tons of fæces, and 91,250 gallons of urine per annum; whilst according to Letheby, from the same number of people, the daily discharge would be 2266 lbs. avoirdupois of urine and 177·5 lbs. of fæces.

Messrs Lawes and Gilbert estimate the manurial value of the urine and fæces together at 6s. 8d. per annum for every individual, which corresponds to a yearly produce of about 10 lbs. of ammonia; but Messrs Hoffman, Witt, and Thudichum assess it at 8s. 6d. for a mixed population of both sexes and of all ages, which they say represents about 13 lbs. of ammonia.

Fæcal matter decomposes much more rapidly when mixed with urine than it would otherwise do, ammonia and fetid gases being given off in considerable quantities. Should much water be also present, and the temperature moderately high, light carburetted hydrogen, carbonic anhydride, nitrogen, and sulphuretted hydrogen are likewise evolved.

Unless human excreta be effectually as well as speedily removed from the dwellings, streets, &c., of a community, that community will assuredly pay the penalty of their neglect in the shape of health seriously endangered and deteriorated. If this be so with healthy evacuations, the peril becomes considerably intensified when the excreta are discharged by patients labouring under contagious or many other diseases. See Urine, Sewage.

EX′ERCISE is essential to the healthy performance of the functions of both body and mind. Without it, the stomach acts feebly, the bowels become inactive, and the circulation of the blood languid and imperfect; the chest contracts, the respiration becomes impeded, the brain is insufficiently supplied with pure arterial blood, the mind grows lethargic, the complexion assumes a sickly and effeminate hue, and the features generally lack the energy and expression which they possess in perfect health. With exercise, the bodily functions are performed with vigour and regularity, the constitution is thereby strengthened, and the attacks of disease repelled. By exercise the mind too is excited to healthy action, its gloomy reveries are dispelled, and the fair face of creation is presented to the mind’s eye in its proper hues. It robs undue mental exertion of half its injurious effects upon the body, whilst it stimulates and directs it in its proper course. It improves the temper, and humanises the character. The disposition is refined, the passions restrained, violent emotions checked, the habits improved, and the personal charms promoted under the stimulus of judicious exercise.

To females, bodily exercise is even more necessary than to males. The disposition and education of females are such as tend to produce habits of sloth and indolence to a greater degree than in the other sex. Hence to them exercise is doubly important—it is inseparable from health. The more retiring dispositions of females lead them almost unconsciously into habits of inactivity, which, above all, they should endeavour to shake off and avoid. By so doing—by replacing habits of indolence and inactivity by liveliness and moderate exercise, the development of the body will be promoted, additional grace and elegance imparted to its natural movements, and the enjoyments arising from both mental and bodily health increased, whilst disease and deformity will be prevented by the removal of their cause.

The necessity of exercise exists equally in every grade of society and age of life. Those who are engaged in sedentary employments or in-door occupations, should particularly seek refreshing out-door exercise during the periods of relaxation from their diurnal duties. To the studious and delicate of both sexes, this is absolutely necessary to preserve the health and vigour of the body.

In infancy, exercise of a suitable kind should be almost the constant occupation of the little beings that claim our protection and care. It should, however, be always borne in mind, that the muscular exercise of very young children must be of the gentlest class. Prejudice and ignorance frequently induce nurses and parents to teach their children to walk, as they falsely call it, and thus their feeble limbs are urged to make premature efforts to totter along, before the bones and muscles have acquired sufficient strength to support the body in an erect position. From this course the legs and joints frequently become bent and misshapened, and severe injuries are often inflicted on the head and body by blows and falls. It should never be forgotten, that crawling and rolling are their first modes of progression, and require the least exertion. Next comes the sitting posture; from this the child gradually advances to the erect one; then to walk by slight assistance; and, lastly, to walk safely alone. All this should come naturally, and never be promoted, further than by laying the infant on the carpet or floor, for the full exercise of its little strength. As soon as a healthy child is able to walk instead of crawl, its own disposition induces it to do so. The faculty of imitation, the spirit of enterprise, and the pride of doing what others do, present even in infancy, is rather apt to lead the infant to over-exertion than the contrary. The practice of constantly ‘dolling’ children in the arms is most prejudicial to the early development of their feeble powers.

It is injudicious to take an infant out during the hottest part of the day in summer; such a proceeding tends to enervate and depress, rather than to strengthen him. Whenever he goes out his head should be protected from the direct rays of the sun by means of a large brimmed hat made of cotton or straw and an umbrella. The neglect of these precautions frequently gives rise to the disordered stomach, sickness, and diarrhœa, so prevalent during very hot weather. During other periods of the day, the weather being favorable and the locality healthy, an infant cannot be too much out of doors, especially during teething.

Infants of three or four months’ old may, under certain precautions, be sent out into the open air during the winter. They must be well wrapped up; they should be carried in the nurse’s arms, and not consigned to a perambulator; they should never go out in foggy nor wet weather; if the wind be neither in the east nor the north-east there will be no objection to their being sent out on a clear frosty day. Spring is a trying period for infants and children, because of the prevalence of east winds; hence the necessity of seeing that they are well and warmly clad when sent out during this season. There is much less danger of a child taking cold during the autumn than the spring, as in autumn the winds frequently blow from the south, or warm quarter.

In childhood the exercise should be regulated according to constitution and age; avoiding inactivity, on the one hand, and excessive exercise on the other. The out-door plays and pastimes of BOYS will generally be found sufficient, and in some cases will even require to be curbed, to prevent fatigue and the overtasking of the young frame. With girls it is frequently difficult to find sufficient exercise without trespassing on the prejudices of the ignorant, or the routine of their daily education. With them walking, and some healthy amusement, as skipping, hooping, or the like, should be indulged in for some hours daily. When this is impossible or inconvenient, they may be habituated to the practice of the more simply and cleanly portion of the domestic duties. In the performance of the latter, the health will be promoted, whilst the care and attention which is always due by a female to herself and others, at all periods of her life, will become an easy acquisition, and assist the cultivation of the best feelings of her nature.

In youth exercise matures and promotes the development of the frame; and in manhood it is equally necessary, as already noticed, to keep it in healthy action. In age it will be found to assist the vital functions, and put off decay. In fact, to all—young, old, rich, and poor, physical exercise is essential to the permanent enjoyment of health.

In a medical point of view, “exercise, employed moderately, has a tonic and stimulating influence on the system, and is calculated to prove beneficial in a great variety of complaints. Used immoderately, it exhausts both the mental and bodily powers, and produces great debility.” (Pereira.) Well-directed exercise favours the preservation of the general health, by calling into direct action the majority of the organs of the body; and it also acts powerfully on the skin, by stimulating its functions, increasing its temperature, awakening its tone, and subjecting it to a current of atmosphere favorable to its respiratory offices. But to be beneficial in the highest degree, exercise must be accompanied by feelings of present interest and enjoyment. The mind must direct and go with it; to ensure its full benefits, the “soul must be present.”

“During convalescence, properly regulated exertion is highly serviceable; but it should never be carried so far as to produce exhaustion, and should be pursued for some time in doors, before it be attempted in the open air; the latter, at first, should always take place in a carriage, that can be opened or closed at will; the patient may then attempt short walks in the open air; but, in all cases, it is of importance that he is not unduly fatigued, as, otherwise, injury instead of benefit will be the result. One of the most serious errors, committed with regard to exertion, is that of permitting a convalescent to sit up too frequently, or for too long a time, under the mistaken notion of giving him strength. A patient should never be allowed to sit up longer than is agreeable to his feelings, and never so long as to produce a sense of fatigue.” (Dr R. E. Griffith.)

The physiological effects of exercise have been studied by numerous scientific observers. The carefully conducted experiments of Dr Edward Smith have satisfactorily demonstrated that during bodily exertion the circulation of the blood through the lungs is much increased in velocity, that these latter inspire air and eliminate carbonic anhydride in quantities proportionate to the exercise taken, and that these quantities show an enormous increase over the amounts of these gases inhaled and exhaled during a state of rest.

Adopting the recumbent position as unity, Dr Edward Smith has given the following table, illustrating the quantities of air inhaled during various forms of exercise:

Lying position 1·

Sitting 1·18

Standing 1·33

Singing 1·26

Walking 1 mile per hour 1·90

Walking 2 miles per hour 2·76

Walking 3 miles per hour 3·22

Walking and carrying 34 lbs. 3·50

Walking and carrying 62 lbs. 3·84

Walking and carrying 118 lbs. 4·75

Walking at 4 miles per hour 5·

Walking at 6 miles per hour 7·

Riding and trotting 4·05

Swimming 4·33

Treadmill 5·50

Since a man takes into his lungs 480 cubic inches of air per minute, in walking four miles an hour he draws in 2400 cubic inches, and if six miles 3260 cubic inches a minute.

Dr Smith estimated the amount of carbonic anhydride evolved under differing conditions, and found that—

Carbonic acid exhaled per minute in grains.

During sleep 4·99

Lying down, and almost asleep (average of three observations) 5·91

Walking at the rate of 2 miles an hour 18·10

Walking at the rate of 3 miles an hour 25·83

Working at the treadmill, ascending at the rate of 26·65 feet per minute (average of three observations) 44·97

The relative amounts of carbonic anhydride eliminated from the lungs during periods of rest and exercise have also been investigated by Pettenkofer and Voit. The following table, which gives the results of their experiments, also records the quantities of oxygen absorbed, and of water and urea excreted at the same time:—

Absorption of Oxygen in Grammes. Elimination in Grammes of—

Carbonic Acid. Water. Urea.

Rest-day. 708·9 911·5 828·0 37·2

Work-day. 954·5 1284·2 2042·1 37·0

Excess on work-day (with exception of urea) 246·6 372·7 1214·1 0·2

If the quantities in the above table be converted into ounces it will be found that nearly 8⁄4 oz. more oxygen were absorbed and 13 oz. more of carbonic anhydride eliminated by the lungs during a work-day than during a rest-day. It must be stated that during the work-day an interval of rest was taken, and that the labour was by no means excessive.

Hirn and Speck appear to have conclusively proved that the formation of the carbonic anhydride occurs in the muscles, and that it is rapidly carried off from them. In short, this latter result seems essential for the development of muscular energy. At any rate it is found that if the respiratory movements be in any way interfered with during exercise, and the elimination of carbonic anhydride in any degree checked, the muscular power rapidly diminishes.

An examination of Pettenkofer and Voit’s table shows that exercise gives rise to the escape of a large amount of water from the body, and to a slightly diminished quantity of urea.

Since the accumulation of the superfluous carbon supplied by the food gives rise to morbid and diseased states of the body, we shall now be enabled to understand why deficient exercise should be a source of physical ill-being, and why, on the contrary, the proper use of the muscles should be so essential a condition for the maintenance of health, since it is in them that the great formation of the eliminated carbon is effected. We shall also not fail to see why, since during exercise the excretion of water is so largely increased, the blood necessarily becomes less diluted and richer in quantity.

Whilst insufficiency of exercise gives rise to a weak action of the heart, and very frequently to fatty degeneration of that organ, exercise that is not excessive, although it increases the beats of the heart from ten to thirty beyond this acceleration, and imparting greater force to the pulsations, does not interfere with their regularity. Furthermore, muscular exercise, by considerably augmenting the flow of the blood through the whole body, the heart included, exercises a most beneficial function, “since it causes in all organs a more rapid outflow of plasma and absorption—in other words, a quicker renewal. In this way also it removes the products of their action, which accumulate in organs, and restores the power of action to various parts of the body.”

Palpitation, enlargement, and valvular disease of the heart result from excessive or injudicious exercise. Wherever, therefore, fatigue or embarrassment of the heart shows itself rest must be had recourse to. Persons having weak hearts suffer greatly in ascending mountain or other heights.

The effect of exercise upon the kidneys is to diminish the quantity of water, as well as the chloride of sodium and other chlorides in the urine. As we have seen, the urea is very slightly lower; but after much exertion the uric acid is increased. There is also a slight increase in the amounts of sulphates and carbonic anhydride. Parkes could find no alteration in the phosphates. The diminution of water and the chlorides is due to the excretion of these by the skin, the function of which is greatly augmented by exercise. No urea escapes by the skin, but many acids (probably fatty ones) are liberated by that organ. Speck has shown that during exercise the amount of fluid is nearly double what it is when the body is quiescent.

This escape of fluid by perspiration doubtless affords an explanation of a diminution in the quantity of the excreta from the bowels. The fæces exhibit no decrease in nitrogen.

Exercise increases the growth of the muscles, making them at the same time harder, and also causing them to obey more readily the behests of the will. Prolonged or excessive exertion, without sufficient rest, has been found to interfere with their nutrition, and to cause them to become soft.

There is a tolerably general impression that much exercise tends to cripple the development of the mental faculties, and this idea is said to have received support from the circumstance that the athletes at our universities seldom signalise themselves in contests of learning. But this fact, it has been suggested, may be explained by the athletic exercise being indulged in to such an extent as to leave no time for cultivating the mind. If an illustration were required to prove that great bodily energy is quite consonant with mental vigour it might be found in the life of the late Professor Wilson, of Edinburgh. On this point Dr Parkes says: “Considering that perfect nutrition is not possible except with bodily activity, we should infer that sufficient exercise would be necessary for the perfect performance of mental work.”

As regards the changes that take place in the muscles during exercise Dr Parkes writes: “The chief changes that take place in the muscles during action appear to be these: there is a considerable increase of temperature (Helmholtz), which, up to a certain point, is proportioned to the amount of work; it is also proportioned to the kind, being less when the muscle is allowed to shorten than if prevented from shortening (Heidenhain); the neutral or alkaline reaction of the tranquil muscle becomes acid from para-lactic acid and acid potassium phosphate; the venous blood passing from the muscles becomes much darker in colour, is much less rich in oxygen, and contains much more carbonic acid (Sczelkow); the extractive matters soluble in water lessen, those soluble in alcohol increase (Helmholtz, in frogs); the amount of water increases (in tetanus, J. Ranke), and the blood is consequently poorer in water; the amount of albumen in tetanus is less, according to Ranke, but Kühne has pointed out that the numbers do not justify the inference.”

Liebig stated that the creatin is increased (but this was an inference from old observations on the extractum carnis of hunted animals, and requires confirmation). Sarokin has stated the same fact in respect to the frog. The electro-motor currents show a decided diminution during contraction.

That great molecular changes go on in the contracting muscles is certain, but their exact nature is not clear; according to Ludimar Hermann there is a jelly-like separation and coagulation of the myosin, and then a resumption of its prior form, so that there is a continual splitting of the muscular structure into a myosin coagulum, carbonic acid, and a free acid, and this constitutes the main molecular movement. But no direct evidence has been given of this.

The increased heat, the great amount of carbonic acid, and the disappearance of oxygen, combined with the respiratory phenomena already noted, all seem to show that an active oxidation goes on; and it is very probable that this is the source of the muscular action. The oxidation may be conceived to take place in two ways—either during rest oxygen is absorbed and stored up in the muscles, and gradually acts there, producing a substance which, when the muscle contracts, splits up into lactic acid, carbonic acid, &c.; or, on the other hand, during the contraction an increased absorption of oxygen goes on in the blood, and acts on the muscles, or on the substances in the blood circulating through the muscles. The first view is strengthened by some of Pettenkofer and Voit’s experiments, which show that during rest a certain amount of storage of oxygen goes on, which no doubt in part occurs in the muscles themselves.

Indeed, it has been inferred that it is this stored-up oxygen, and not that breathed in at the time, which is used in muscular action. The increased oxidation gives us a reason why the nitrogenous food must be increased during periods of great exertion.

An increase in the supply of oxygen is a necessity for increased muscular action; but Pettenkofer and Voit’s observations have shown that the absorption of oxygen is dependent on the amount and action of the nitrogenous structures of the body, so that, as a matter of course, if more oxygen is required for increased muscular work, more nitrogenous food is necessary. But, apart from this, although experiments on the amount of nitrogenous elimination show no very great change on the whole, there is no doubt that, with constant regular exercise, a muscle enlarges, becomes thicker, heavier, contains more solid matter, and, in fact, has gained in nitrogen. This process may be slow, but it is certain; and the nitrogen must either be supplied by increased food, or be taken from other parts.

So that, although we do not know the exact changes going on in the muscles, it is regarded as certain that regular exercise produces in them an addition of nitrogenous tissue.

Whether this addition occurs, as usually believed, in the period of rest succeeding action, when in some unexplained way the destruction which it is presumed has taken place is not only repaired, but is exceeded (a process difficult to understand), or whether the addition of nitrogen is actually made during the action of the muscle, must be left undecided for the present.

The substances which are thus oxidised in the muscle or in the blood circulating through it, and from which the energy manifested as heat or muscular movement is believed to be derived, may probably be of different kinds. Under ordinary circumstances the experiments of Fick and Wislicenus and others, and the arguments of Traube, seem sufficient to show that the non-nitrogenous substances, and perhaps especially the fats, furnish the chief substances acted upon. But it is probable that the nitrogenous substances also furnish a contingent of force. The exact mode in which the energy thus liberated by oxidation is made to assume the form of mechanical motion is quite obscure.

There seems little doubt that the exhaustion of muscles is chiefly owing to two causes—first and principally to the accumulation in them of the products of their own action (especially para-lactic acid); and secondly, from the exhaustion of the supply of oxygen. Hence rest is necessary, in order that the blood may neutralise and carry away the products of action, so that the muscle may recover its neutrality and its normal electrical currents, and may again acquire oxygen in sufficient quantity for the next contraction.

In the case of all muscles these intervals of action and of exhaustion take place, in part even of the period which is called exercise; but the rest is not sufficient entirely to restore it. In the case of the heart the rest between the contractions (about two thirds of the time) is sufficient to allow the muscle to perfectly recover itself.

The foregoing remarks on the effects of muscular exercise will have prepared us for the inference which statistics abundantly support, viz. that, other conditions being favorable, the healthiest occupation is that which consists in the practice (of course within reasonable limits) of manual labour in the open air.

The Rev. Professor Haughton, in his work entitled ‘A New Theory of Manual Labour,’ has drawn up a table (which we append) of the amount of force expended during various kinds of work. It represents the number of tons lifted one foot per diem:—

Labouring Force of Man.

Kind of Work. Amount of Work. Authority.

Pile-driving 312 tons lifted 1 foot. Coulomb.

Pile-driving 352 ” Lamaude.

Turning a winch 374 ” Coulomb.

Porters carrying goods, and returning unladen 325 ” ”

Pedlars always loaded 303 ” ”

Porters carrying wood up a stair, and returning unloaded 381 ” ”

Paviours at work 352 ” Haughton.

Military prisoners at shot drill (3 hours), and oakum-picking and drill 310 ” ”

Shot drill alone (3 hours) 160·7 ” ”

Professor Haughton has devised a formula by means of which a certain amount of walking exercise may be made to represent its equivalent in manual labour. He points out that walking on a level surface is equivalent to raising one twentieth part of the weight of the body through the distance walked.

When ascending any height, the whole weight of the body is, of course, raised through the ascent. The formula is—

(W + Wl) × D
———————
20 × 2240

where W is the weight of the person; Wl the weight carried (if any); D the distance walked in feet; 20 the co-efficient of traction; and 2240 the number of pounds in a ton. The result is the number of tons raised one foot. To get the distance in feet 5280 must be multiplied by the number of miles walked.

Supposing a man to weigh 150 lbs. with his clothes, by the employment of the above formula we should arrive at the following results:—

Kind of Exercise. Work done in tons lifted 1 foot.

Walking 1 mile 17·67

Walking 2 miles 35·34

Walking 10 miles 176·7

Walking 20 miles 353·4

Walking 1 mile and carrying 60 lbs. 24·75

Walking 2 miles and carrying 60 lbs. 49·5

Walking 10 miles and carrying 60 lbs. 247·5

Walking 20 miles and carrying 60 lbs. 495

From the above data something like a rough approximation may be formed of the daily amount of exercise requisite for a healthy male adult.

Since 500 tons lifted a foot is extremely hard work, the number of miles corresponding to this extreme amount of labour would, if persevered in, be objectionable.

Dr Parkes, regarding 300 tons lifted a foot as an average day’s work for a healthy man, thinks that walking exercise equivalent to half that amount should be taken daily. This, or a 150 tons, represents a nine miles’ walk. He, however, qualifies the suggestion by adding “that, as there is much exertion taken in the ordinary business of life, this amount may be in many cases reduced;” and concludes by saying, “It is not possible to lay down rules to meet all cases, but probably every man with the above facts before him could fix the amount necessary for himself with tolerable accuracy.”

For muscular exercise to be safe and efficient, it must be taken under certain conditions and precautions. We have noticed the evil effects of immoderate bodily exertion on the heart. The lungs are no less seriously affected by an excessive indulgence in it, which shows itself in spitting of blood and in congestion of the pulmonary vessels. Congestion of the lungs brought on by overtaxed bodily strength very frequently causes the death of horses in the hunting field.

These facts, therefore, not only point to the importance of avoiding undue or extreme exertion, but also to the necessity of ensuring the full and uncramped play of the respiratory organs during exercise, and the consequent removal of any impediment in the way of tight clothing that in any manner interferes with their freedom of exercise. Laboured respiration and sighing are indications of pulmonary congestion, and counsel temporary rest and abstention from exercise.

The great augmentation in the excretion of carbon which leaves the lungs in the form of carbonic anhydride during exercise has been already referred to. As this carbon is derived from the food, it follows that in the intervals of exercise an increase of carbonaceous diet is necessary. For this purpose physiologists prefer the fatty to the amylaceous varieties of diet. It has been already stated why at the same time the nitrogenous food must be increased during periods of great exertion. There seems little doubt that water is the best drink that can be taken during moderate as well as great exercise.... It is best taken in small quantities and frequently. Spirits are decidedly prejudicial, and indispose to bodily exertion. They are hurtful because they lessen the exhalation of carbonic anhydride from the lungs. Trainers never allow them, and but very little wine or beer.

The thirst that not unfrequently accompanies exercise is due to the great escape of water from the skin which has been already alluded to. This liberation of moisture, being also accompanied, as already explained, by a large excretion of the chlorides and, perhaps, by other salts. Dr Parkes advises the use of an additional supply of chloride of sodium to the diet of those taking much exercise; he suggests that probably potassium chloride and phosphate might be added with advantage.

The evaporation from the skin has the effect of reducing the bodily temperature and rendering it equable. This temperature, however, falls very rapidly after exertion is over; and hence at this time it is always advisable to guard against the chance of a chill by covering the body over. Flannel forms the best protection. Keeping the skin clean by daily ablution greatly aids in the escape of fluid during exercise.

The large amount of carbonic anhydride given off by the lungs during bodily exercise explains the advantages of open air exercise, and why walking in the fresh air produces such excellent effects in some forms of dyspepsia. This increased exhalation of carbonic anhydride also points to the importance of thorough ventilation when indoor exercise is taken, particularly by large bodies of men or women, as in riding schools and on the treadmill. The mortality amongst miners, whose labour is performed in confined and ill-ventilated spaces is very great. According to Mr Simon, with the exception of those who work in the well-ventilated mines of Durham and Northumberland, the 300,000 miners in England break down prematurely from bronchitis and pneumonia, caused by the atmosphere in which they are compelled to work.

EXPAN′SION. All substances, solid, liquid, and gaseous, when chemical change does not take place, expand by heat, and contract by cold. In some of them this property occurs in a greater degree than in others, but is constant for the same substance under the same circumstances. The chemist avails himself of this property in the construction of his thermometer; the wheelwright, in fixing on the tire of his wheels; the engineer, in restoring to the perpendicular the leaning walls of buildings, &c.

This expansion by heat is of great importance in the manufactures, as allowance has to be made of it in every purpose where metals are employed.

The following is a list of the expansion of the chief metals, &c., when heated from 32° to 212° Fahr., or from 0° to 100° Cent.:—

Substance. Expansion.

In bulk. In length.

Glass 1 in 384 1 in 1150

Platinum 1 in 377 1 in 1311

Steel 1 in 309 1 in 926

Iron 1 in 282 1 in 846

Gold 1 in 227 1 in 682

Copper 1 in 194 1 in 582

Brass 1 in 179 1 in 536

Silver 1 in 175 1 in 524

Tin 1 in 172 1 in 516

Lead 1 in 117 1 in 351

Zinc 1 in 113 1 in 340

Of the liquids, they expand as follows, when heated from 0° to 100° Cent., or from 32° to 212° Fahr.:—

Mercury 1 in 55 in bulk.

Water 1 in 21 in bulk.

Gases practically all expand alike; that is to say, for every degree Fahrenheit a gas expands ⁄491 of its bulk at 32°, and for every degree Centigrade ⁄273 of their volume at 0°C.

An example will show the importance of this. Suppose an iron bar, connecting two sides of a building, and of a length of about 85 feet. The increase in length by heat of this bar would make it 1 inch longer in summer than in winter; and it would, if no allowance be made, pull or thrust the walls to this extent each year.

EXPEC′TORANTS. Syn. Expectorantia, L. Medicines that promote the secretion of the trachial and bronchial mucus. According to Dr Good, true expectorants are “those medicines which rather promote the separation of the viscid phlegm with which the bronchiæ are loaded, than simply inviscate and dilute it; though these are also treated as expectorants by many writers.” Ammoniacum, antimonials, assafœtida, the balsams of Peru and tolu, benzoic acid, benzoin; the fumes of vinegar, tar, and several of the volatile oils; garlic, ipecacuanha, the oleo-resins, squills, tartarised antimony, and the smoke of tobacco and stramonium, are among the principal substances commonly called expectorants. Tartarised antimony, squills, chlorine, and ammoniacal gases, have also been used (diluted) to provoke the coughing and favour the expulsion of foreign bodies from the air-passages; and also to favour the expectoration of mucus, pus, and membranous concretions, when the local irritation is not sufficiently great. (Schwilgue.) Expectorants are commonly employed in pulmonary complaints and affections of the air tubes, attended by a vitiated state of the mucus, or an imperfect performance of the natural functions of the secretory vessels. “Of all classes of the materia medica, none are more uncertain in their action than expectorants.” (Pereira.) The act of ejecting matter from the chest is called EXPECTORATION.

EXPER′IMENTS are acts or operations intended to develop some unknown fact, principle, or effect; or to establish or demonstrate it, when discovered. Similar operations, performed merely for amusement, are also often, though incorrectly, called by this name. In rational experiments these two objects are combined. To experimental research is due the present high state of advancement and usefulness of the various sciences most intimately connected with our happiness and well-being. The danger of taking things for granted has been thus pleasantly and instructively pointed out by Archbishop Whately:—“It was objected to the system of Copernicus, when first brought forward, that if the earth turned on its axis, as he represented, a stone dropped from the summit of a tower would not fall at the foot of it, but at a great distance to the west; in the same manner as a stone dropped from the masthead of a ship in full sail does not fall at the foot of the mast, but towards the stern. To this it was answered, that a stone, being a part of the earth, obeys the same laws, and moves with it; whereas it is no part of the ship, of which, consequently, its motion is independent. The solution was admitted by some, but opposed by others; and the controversy went on with spirit; nor was it till one hundred years after the death of Copernicus that, the experiment being tried, it was ascertained that the stone, thus dropped from the head of the mast, does fall at the foot of it.”

EXPORTATION. (Exportation on Drawback.) By law, a certain allowance, or drawback of duty, is payable on certain articles, when exported from any part of the United Kingdom, either as merchandise or ship stores. Thus:—

Sugar, refined in the United Kingdom, from 4s. to 6s. per cwt., according to quality.

Tobacco, manufactured in the United Kingdom, 3s. 3d. per lb. The full drawback is only allowed on normal tobacco, which contains 13 per cent. of moisture. If the moisture exceeds 13 per cent., a proportionate reduction is made in the drawback; if it is found less than 13 per cent., a proportionate increase is granted.

Snuff is entitled to drawback at 3s. 3d. per lb., subject, however, to an increase if the moisture is less than 13 per cent., and the inorganic matter not over 18 per cent., and to a decrease if the moisture in organic matter exceeds these per-centages.

Beer. The amount of this drawback is proportional to the quantity of malt or sugar used in the brewing of the beer, and is nearly equivalent to the duty originally paid on such malt or sugar. It is computed according to the following scale:—For every barrel, or 36 gallons of beer, the original gravity of which was not less than 1040°, a drawback of 4s. 3d., and for every additional 5 degrees, from 1040° to 1125° inclusive, a further sum of 6d. per barrel.

Solidified Worts, made by a licensed brewer, from malt or sugar, or malt and sugar, a drawback of 2s. 10⁄100d. per 28 lbs.

Malt. Under certain restrictions, a drawback of the duty charged, after deducting 7⁄2 per cent. of the measured quantity.

Spirits, from 10s. to 10s. 3d. per proof gallon.

In all cases samples are taken by the Custom House officer, and forwarded to the Inland Revenue laboratory, where they are examined previous to the payment of the drawback.

EXPRES′SION. In the useful arts, the mechanical operation by which a fluid contained in the pores or cells of a solid is pressed out or expelled. Many of the fluid substances employed in pharmacy and chemistry are obtained by expression. Thus, the unctuous vegetable oils, as those of almonds, linseed, &c., are procured by submitting these substances to powerful pressure between iron plates, which are either made warm, or the bruised seeds are previously exposed in bags to the steam of boiling water. The juices of fresh vegetables are also obtained by expression. The substances are first bruised in a marble mortar, or, on the large scale, in a mill, and immediately submitted to the press, to prevent them passing into a state of fermentation, which would injure the quality of the product. Fruits which contain highly flavoured or fragrant seeds, or which have rinds containing essential oil, are generally deprived of them before being sent to the press. The subacid fruits are also allowed to lay together for some days before pressing them, as the quantity and quality of the product is thereby increased. The fluid matter absorbed by the ingredients employed in the preparation of tinctures, infusions, decoctions, extracts, &c., is generally obtained by powerful pressure. Expression is also frequently had recourse to for the purpose of obtaining solids in a state of purity, as in the expulsion of olein from stearin, water from bicarbonate of soda, &c. On the small scale, the common screw-press, or one of like construction, is usually employed; but the power thus obtained is insufficient to expel the whole of a fluid diffused through the pores of a solid. Hence has arisen the use of the hydraulic press, which is now almost alone employed on the large scale. In all these cases the substances are placed in bags made of haircloth, or coarse canvas, previously to their being submitted to pressure. For tinctures and like pharmaceuticals, a small screw-press (TINCTURE PRESS) made of ‘galvanised’ or tinned iron, and varying in capacity from 1 quart to several gallons, is employed.

EXSICCA′TION. See Desiccation.

EX′TRACT. Syn. Extractum, L. Among chemists this term is understood to apply to the residuum of the evaporation of aqueous decoctions or infusions of vegetable matter. In medicine and pharmacy, it has a less definite signification, being applied to various preparations obtained by evaporating the expressed juices, or the decoctions, infusions, or tinctures of vegetable substances, until a mass, of a solid or semi-solid consistence is formed. Extracts vary in their nature and composition with the substances from which they are prepared, and the fluids employed as solvents. When water is employed as the menstruum, the products (AQUEOUS EXTRACTS, WATERY E.; EXTRACTA AQUOSA, E. SIMPLICIORA, L.) usually consist of gum, starch, sugar, albumen, extractive and saline and other matter, along with the peculiar principles on which the medicinal virtue of the vegetable depends. When spirit is employed as the solvent, the products (ALCOHOLIC EXTRACTS; EXTRACTA ALCOHOLICA, L.) contain most of the substances above enumerated, except the gum and starch, together with several other substances which are soluble in spirit, but which are either wholly or nearly insoluble in water; as resins, essential oils, and the proximate principles of vegetables. These preparations, with scarcely an exception, are considerably more powerful than the aqueous extracts of the same vegetables. In some cases proof spirit or under-proof spirit is employed, when the extracts (SPIRITUOUS EXTRACTS; EXTRACTA SPIRITUOSA, L.) generally possess properties between those of the above. In other cases, dilute acetic acid or acidulated water is employed as the menstruum, when the products (ACETIC EXTRACTS; EXTRACTA ACETICA, L.) possess much greater activity than when prepared with water; and would in many cases prove fatal, if exhibited in doses as large as those of the aqueous extracts. Still more active extracts are obtained by a combination of the last two menstrua. According to Ferrari, plants treated with rectified spirit of wine, mixed with ⁄36th part of acetic acid, yields extracts of remarkable activity. On the Continent ether is sometimes used as the menstruum for the active principles of certain substances, as cantharides, cubebs, worm-seed, &c. (ETHEREAL EXTRACTS; EXTRACTA ETHEREA, L.) The term ‘simple extract’ is applied to an extract prepared from a single plant or vegetable substance, and the term ‘compound extract’ to one prepared from two or more of such substances. The FLUID EXTRACTS (EXTRACTA FLUIDA, L.) of modern pharmacy are those which are only evaporated to the consistence of a thin syrup, and then mixed with 1-10th to 1-8th of their volume of rectified spirit.

Prep. The preparation of medicinal extracts may be conveniently considered under two divisions, viz.—1. The production of a solution of the soluble portion of the substances operated on; and, 2. The reduction of this solution by evaporation to the consistence of an extract.

1. Preparation of Solutions:—The preliminary operations in the manufacture of extracts are similar to those employed in the preparation of DECOCTIONS, INFUSIONS, and TINCTURES. The proper quantity of the ingredients being taken, the whole is well bruised or reduced to coarse powder, or otherwise divided by slicing with a knife, that every portion may be fully exposed to the solvent action of the fluid. In some few cases (as with gentian, &c.) the ‘slicing,’ or reduction to fragments, is often conveniently deferred until the action of the menstruum shall have so far softened the ingredients as to render them of easy division by the knife. Those substances (as sarsaparilla, chamomiles, &c.) whose medicinal principles reside in the cortical portion, of which are of easy solubility, are commonly subjected to the action of the menstruum without being subjected to any particular preparation.

In the preparation of AQUEOUS EXTRACTS, the ingredients are treated with water until all the soluble matter that it is desirable to obtain is dissolved out. There are several methods of effecting this object, depending upon the nature of the substances acted on. In some cases maceration in cold water is resorted to; in others percolation with that fluid in a ‘displacement apparatus.’ More generally, however, boiling water is poured on the substance, and is digested on it for some time, as in the preparation of infusions; or the substance is exhausted by boiling in water, as in the preparation of decoctions. After the ebullition or infusion has continued a sufficient time, the heat is removed, and the liquid portion drawn off. The ingredients are then pressed to extract the remaining liquid; or they are washed or ‘sparged’ with hot water, which expels it by displacement. According to the usual practice in the majority of cases, a second quantity of water is poured on after the first has been thoroughly drained off, and the effusion or decoction is repeated a second and even a third time, or until the ingredients are perfectly exhausted of their soluble portion. The liquor or liquors thus obtained being allowed to repose for 15 or 20 minutes, for the purpose of depositing the sand or other gritty and heavy matter that is mechanically mixed with them, are carefully decanted from the sediment, and, after being run through a fine hair-sieve, or flannel bag, are ready for concentration. In some instances, however, this method proves insufficient to render the liquid clear. In such cases, the solution may generally be rendered transparent by clarification with a little white of egg, removing the scum as it rises, straining the liquid through flannel, as before; or the liquid may be filtered through a bag made of fine ‘Welsh flannel,’ or of ‘tweeled cotton cloth’ (Canton flannel), both of which should be soaked in clean water for at least an hour before use. In the small way, filters of linen or paper are sometimes employed; but as all media sufficiently fine to render vegetable solutions transparent soon choke up, this filtration is objectionable, from the length of time it occupies. In some houses the aqueous infusion or decoction is allowed to repose for 24 hours, and then decanted and evaporated; but such a plan is objectionable, as, however smooth and glossy extracts so prepared may appear, their medicinal virtues are lessened by the lengthened exposure to the atmosphere.

When about one half of an aqueous solution has evaporated, it is often advantageous to repass it through a flannel or horsehair strainer, to remove the flocculi that generally form by the action of the heat and air. This is especially necessary with vegetable solutions prepared without boiling, and should be adopted whenever a smooth and slightly extract is desired.

II. Reduction of Solutions:—The reduction of the solution to the proper consistence is effected by evaporation. The mode in which this is performed varies for different extracts. The London College directs that, “unless otherwise ordered, the evaporation should be conducted as quickly as possible, in a broad, shallow pan, placed in a water bath, until a proper consistence is acquired for forming pills; stirring assiduously with a spatula towards the end of the operation.” The Dublin College orders that “all simple (aqueous) extracts (EXTRACTA SIMPLICIORA), unless otherwise ordered, are to be prepared by boiling the vegetable matter in 8 times its weight of water, till the liquid is reduced to one half; the liquor is then to be expressed, and, after a short time allowed for defecation, to be decanted, filtered, and evaporated in a steam or water bath, until it begins to thicken, and then finally inspissated by a reduced heat, with continual stirring, until a consistence for forming pills be attained.” The instructions of the Edinburgh College are similar, with the one important exception, however, of ordering the evaporation to be conducted in a water bath saturated with chloride of sodium.

Though the water bath has the sanction of the London College, it is ill adapted for the purpose to which it is here ordered to be applied, as from its low evaporative power the advantages which are derived from its equable temperature are vastly overbalanced by the lengthened exposure of the solution in a heated state to the action of the atmosphere. It has been shown that a vegetable extract so prepared is inferior in quality to a similar one formed by rapid evaporation in a shallow pan over a naked fire, or placed in a sand bath, provided proper care is taken, and assiduous stirring is adopted during the whole time of the exposure to heat. In practice, however, the use of a naked fire is perfectly inadmissible, as the least neglect on the part of the operator would probably lead to the incineration of the whole. These objections are obviated by the addition of the ⁄5th part of salt to the water of the bath, which raises its boiling-point to 218⁄4° Fahr., when the temperature of the contained extract is fully 212°; the remaining 6° being lost by the interposition of the substance of the evaporating vessel.

On the large scale, the evaporation of infusions or decoctions for extracts is usually conducted in very wide, shallow, copper or tinned-copper pans, having steam-tight jackets of cast iron, and heated by steam ‘playing’ between the two.

The rapid deterioration which vegetable juices and solutions undergo by exposure to the air, especially at high temperatures, has led to the introduction of apparatus, by which they may be concentrated without contact with the atmosphere, and at a less degree of heat than is required for that purpose in open vessels. Such is the method, commonly called ‘Barry’s process,’ in which the air is removed from certain air-tight refrigerators by the introduction of steam, which is then condensed by the application of cold, by which means a partial vacuum is obtained. Another process for attenuating the atmosphere over the surface of fluids during evaporation is by the action of an air-pump. This plan was introduced by Howard, and is commonly applied to the concentration of syrups in the sugar refineries. Extracts obtained by either of these methods are said to be prepared ‘in vacuo,’ and are found in practice to be immensely superior to the common extracts of the shops, and consequently require to be exhibited in proportionably small doses.

‘The American Journal of Pharmacy’ for September, 1877, contains a new process for the preparation of extracts without heat, by Professor Herrara. We extract the following from the Professor’s paper:—

“The results of my observations have satisfied me that, when the water partially congeals, the dissolved principles remain in solution in the mother liquors, and that two or three congelations are generally sufficient for obtaining the solutions concentrated enough to finish the extract by exposure upon plates to the heat of the sun, or of a drying closet, heated to about 30° cent. (86° Fahr.). The extracts prepared by this method accurately represent the properties of the plants, and the principles which are changed by the influence of heat remain unaltered; even the volatile constituents are not dissipated, though most of the water be removed by freezing. Owing to the small cost of the necessary apparatus, it appears to me that my process for preparing extracts should be preferable even in those countries where ice is less readily obtainable than combustibles.

“Extract of conium prepared with unpurified juice by the process mentioned, has preserved the characteristic odour of conia, and by dissolving it in water. I have obtained a solution exactly representing the juice of the plant in appearance and properties, and giving when heated an abundant coagulation, proving that even albumen had remained unaltered. 1750 grams of cow’s milk at 9° R., left, after three congelations, 750 grams of a liquid having a density of 148, and by evaporation in the sun this left a dry extract of milk, which again formed that liquid on being dissolved in water. A number of other liquids similarly treated, gave corresponding results, and it seems to me, therefore, that medicinal extracts are best prepared by congelation. It may be objected that the medical juices should be previously purified, but it should be remembered that coagulated albumen always encloses a considerable portion of the active principles, and that the heat necessary to effect the coagulation and the evaporation by means of a water-bath is sufficient to change many principles; also that the extracts thus prepared are sometimes inert or less active. The careful experiments made by Orfila and the clinical experience of others demonstrate that extracts prepared with unpurified juice are stronger.

“The apparatus employed by me is the so-called sorbetière; for larger quantities the apparatus of Gougaud is preferable. The frigoric mixture is composed of ice and sodium chloride, or preferably of crystallised calcium chloride. After a large portion of the solution has congealed, the mass is enclosed in a cloth and subjected to pressure, the press-cake of ice is broken and again pressed, to separate the mother liquor as completely as possible, and the congelation is repeated two or three times, with the precaution that it is not carried far enough to cause the precipitation of the sparingly soluble principles. The mother liquor is then put into shallow dishes and exposed to the heat of the sun or of a drying room, the temperature of which does not exceed 30° C. (86° F.) until the extract has attained the desired consistence.”

Obs. When water, acidulated with acetic acid, is employed in the preparation of extracts, the vegetable substances are usually macerated in it, in the cold, or the dilute acid is sprinkled over the bruised plant in the fresh or recent state, and the whole is then submitted to strong pressure, to expel the juice, which is strained and evaporated in the usual way, but preferably in a well-tinned or plated-copper pan.

Alcoholic and SPIRITUOUS EXTRACTS are prepared by evaporating a filtered concentrated tincture of the ingredients in any suitable vessel, by which the volatilized spirit may be saved. In general, rectified spirit is used as the menstruum; but in some cases proof spirit is employed; and, in others, the substances are first digested in proof spirit, and afterwards in water, and the mixed tincture and infusion evaporated in the usual manner.

Ethereal extracts are obtained in a similar manner to alcoholic ones; but being merely prepared in small quantities at a time, the process may be conveniently performed in glass vessels. When it is required to boil either of the above fluids (alcoholic or ethereal), or any other volatile liquid on the ingredients, a vessel fitted with a long tube, or a Liebig’s condenser reversed, as noticed under ether, may be used to prevent any loss of the menstruum.

The INSPISSATED VEGETABLE JUICES (JUICES, E.; SUCCI, L.) of the British Pharmacopœia are obtained by expressing the juices from the fresh plants, and preserving them by the addition of spirit. “By thus preserving the juice of the plant its properties are not impaired by the action of the air during the time necessary to dry the leaf for tincture, nor by the action of both air and heat during the time necessary to evaporate the juice to the consistence of an extract.”—Squire. The directions of the Edinburgh College for preparing their inspissated juices (SUCCI SPISSATI, L.) are—“Beat the fresh substance, and press it strongly through a canvas bag, in order to obtain the juice; which, being put into a wide, shallow vessel, and heated by means of boiling water saturated with sea-salt, is to be reduced to the consistence of honey. The mass, when cold, is to be put into glazed earthen vessels, and moistened with strong alcohol.” By operating in this way a considerable portion of the activity of narcotic vegetables is lost. Some of their juices, as that of aconite, are impaired in so short a time as scarcely to compensate for the trouble of preparing them. This deterioration does not, however, take place in any remarkable degree, if the expressed juice from the recent vegetable be evaporated by exposing it in a thin stratum to a current of very dry air, as adopted by Mr Squire. This may be managed by putting the juice into small, flat trays or dishes, placed on shelves in a suitably arranged apparatus, alternated with similar vessels of concentrated sulphuric acid; or by causing a current of very dry air, at the common temperature of the atmosphere, to pass over them. It has been shown that 10 gr. of extract, thus prepared, were more than equal to 20 gr. prepared in vacuo; and to more than 60 gr., and in some cases, 90 gr., of those prepared by the common process of boiling down the juice to an extract.

The concluding portion of the process of extract-making, technically termed ‘finishing-off,’ requires the most scrupulous attention. As the evaporation advances, the heat should be lessened, and as soon as the extract acquires the consistence of thick treacle it should be removed altogether, and the remainder of fluid matter evaporated by the heat retained by the copper pan, the escape of vapour being promoted by assiduous and laborious stirring with a suitably shaped wooden spatula. This part of the process should be continued until a proper consistence is attained and the extract is nearly cold. When high-pressure steam or a chloride of calcium bath is employed, care must be taken to withdraw the heat before stirring the semi-liquid mass; as, if an extract having a temperature of about the boiling-point of water, or even a few degrees below it, is agitated, it becomes full of bubbles, and appears rough and puffy, and this appearance cannot be removed by subsequent stirring, or by any method but redissolving it in water and re-evaporation. This is especially the case with the extracts of sarsaparilla (simple and compound), gentian, liquorice, and most others of a similar class. A good laboratory man knows from experience the proper time for the removal of the heat, but unpractised persons often fail in this particular. In such cases should the heat retained by the evaporating pan, and by the extract, prove insufficient to complete the process, a little more may be cautiously applied. Without assiduous and laborious stirring in the way described, a very smooth and glossy extract cannot be produced. To promote this artificial appearance, some persons add 3% or 4% each of olive oil and gum arabic, dissolved in water, with about 1% or 2% of spirit of wine.

The consistence of the ordinary extracts of the shops is the same as that of electuaries and confections, and is described in the Ph. E. as equal to that of “thick honey.” The instructions of the Ph. L. and D., to evaporate the mass “until it acquires a consistence proper for making pills,” except in 2 or 3 cases (as Ext. Colocynth. Comp., &c.), is not adopted, and, indeed, would be found inconvenient in practice. Extracts evaporated to such a consistence are commonly termed ‘pilular extracts,’ and when evaporated so that they are quite dry, and brittle when cold, they are called ‘hard extracts’ (EXTRACTA DURA, L.).

Pres. Extracts should be put into pots as soon as taken from the pan, and, after being carefully and securely tied over with bladder, should be ‘stored’ in a dry situation. The London College orders “a small quantity of rectified spirit to be sprinkled upon all the softer extracts, to prevent them becoming mouldy.” A better way is to employ a little spirit, holding in solution a few drops of oil of cloves, or a still less quantity of creasote. This should be added to them the last thing before removing them from the evaporating pan, and when they are nearly cold. The same object is effected by moistening the inside of the bladder (used to tie them over) with a few drops of oil of cloves or creasote. Hard extracts should be kept in bladders or gut skins, placed in stone pots, and well covered over. With care, extracts prepared from recent vegetable substances may be preserved twelve months, or from season to season; and those from dry ingredients, or such as are less inclined to spoil, for perhaps double that time; but beyond these periods their virtues cannot be relied on, and they should consequently be discarded, if remaining unused or unsold.

Pur., &c. The quality of an extract cannot be ascertained by mere inspection, nor is it readily discovered by chemical tests. A knowledge of these facts has induced the mercenary and fraudulent manufacturer to employ damaged and inferior drugs in their preparation, alike regardless of the welfare of the patient and the credit of the practitioner. A common practice with some manufacturers is, not only to pick out the least expensive variety of every drug for the preparation of their extracts, but the most inferior and often damaged and worthless portion of this already inferior article. The production of a smooth, bright, and glossy extract is all that is usually attempted by these individuals, and all that is sought after by the mass of purchasers, who mistake the simulation of the mere external signs of good quality for its actual existence. It is a fact, which we can verify from extensive experience in the laboratory, and from years of practical observation on this point, that extracts faithfully prepared from good materials do not possess the sightly and pleasing appearance of those commonly vended by the wholesale druggists. On comparing the extracts prepared by different metropolitan houses, we have found that those which have exhibited a remarkably bright and glossy appearance have been uniformly inferior, and sometimes nearly inert; whilst others, with a less prepossessing appearance, have been generally of good quality. These facts are well established by reference to the extracts of those houses and institutions that are remarkable for the superior quality of their preparations, and by comparing them with the common extracts of the shops supplied by the wholesale trade.

A good extract should be—1. Free from grit, and wholly soluble in 20 parts of the menstruum employed in its preparation, forming a nearly clear solution.—2. It should have a uniform texture and colour, and be of a proper consistence.—3. If a narcotic or active extract, it may be exhibited in proper doses, and its effects watched. Its activity may also be tested on any small animal.—4. An assay for the proximate vegetable principle (alkaloid, &c.) contained in the plant from which it has been prepared may be made. The extracts prepared from the expressed juices of plants, without straining off the coagulated albumen, are, of course, exceptions to the first test. Unfortunately, these tests are not always easily performed, and the last two are inapplicable to those extracts that exercise no very marked physiological action, unless when taken in repeated doses, long continued. This want of a ready means of accurately testing the qualities of extracts has enabled the fraudulent manufacturer to sell inferior articles with impunity, and often without the least fear or danger of detection.

In general, an extract more than six months old contains only half the activity of a similar one newly made. When more than twelve months old they should be rejected as worthless, and the stock renewed.

Uses, &c. The extracts of the shops are generally acknowledged to be the most varying, imperfect, and uncertain class of medicines belonging to modern pharmacy. They are mostly used in the same cases as the plants from which they are prepared, but in smaller doses.

Concluding Remarks. In the preparation of extracts the great desiderata to be aimed at are—to suit the menstrua and the methods of manipulating to the peculiar characteristics of the active constituents of the vegetable substances operated on. The pharmaceutist should always bear in mind that a perfect extract should be a concentrated, solid mass, representing, as near as possible, in medicinal efficacy, the materials from which it has been prepared, and capable of being redissolved, so as to form a solution closely resembling that from which it has been derived. An extract possessing equal strength to the whole mass of the ingredients from which it has been prepared is almost next to an impossibility, however desirable such a degree of perfection may be. The medicinal properties of all solutions of vegetable matter are injured by being reduced to the solid state; and this deterioration, more or less, takes place, whether the solvent be water, acetic acid, proof spirit, or alcohol. The volatile portions (the essential oils, the aroma, &c.) are nearly or wholly dissipated; and though these do not always form the principal or active ingredients of the vegetables from which extracts are prepared, yet they generally exercise a modifying and controlling influence over the other ingredients, which considerably alters their therapeutical action. The loss of aroma may often be a trifling deficiency, but in the extracts of aconite, henbane, hemlock, belladonna, and other narcotic plants, this is not the case. In these cases it is well known that the inert preparations are wholly deficient of the odour of the recent plant, and that in proportion as the odour is developed, so is their activity preserved. The powerful smell of the recently expressed juice of hemlock, with the scarcely perceptible odour of the extract (EXTRACTUM CONII, Ph. L.), offers an excellent example of this fact. The dose of the one often reaches 20 or 30 gr., whilst that of the other seldom exceeds 5 or 10 drops, or a portion equivalent in dry ingredients to considerably less than ⁄2 gr.

When extracts are ordered in prescriptions, those of the ‘Pharmacopœia’ should be alone employed by the dispenser, as the substitution of others for them would not only be violating faith with the prescriber, but might also produce consequences alike injurious to the dispenser and the patient. Many medical gentlemen prefer extracts prepared by particular processes or persons, but such intention is always indicated in their prescriptions.

Extract of Ac′onite. Syn. Extract of wolfsbane, E. of monkshood, Inspissated juice of aconite; Extractum aconiti (B. P., Ph. L. E. & U. S.), Succus spissatus aconiti (Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Take 112 lbs. of the fresh leaves and flowering tops, bruise them, press out the juice, heat it gradually to 130° F., and separate the green matter by a calico filter. Heat the strained liquor to 200° F. to coagulate albumen, and again filter. Evaporate the filtrate by a water bath to the consistence of a thin syrup; then add to it the green colouring matter previously separated, and stirring the whole together assiduously, evaporate at a temperature not exceeding 140° F. to a pill consistence.—Dose, 1 to 2 gr.

2. (Ph. L.) Take of fresh leaves of aconite, 1 lb.; bruise them in a stone mortar, express the juice, and evaporate it, unstrained, to a proper consistence. The formulæ of the Ph. D. & U. S. are similar.

3. (Ph. E.) Beat the fresh leaves of aconite to a pulp, and express the juice, then subject the residuum to percolation with rectified spirit until the latter passes through without being materially coloured; unite the expressed juice and the percolated tincture, filter, distil off the spirit, and evaporate in a vapour or a water bath to a proper consistence. Stronger than the preceding.

Obs. A variable and uncertain preparation. Numbness and tingling follow its application to the limbs or tongue when it is of good quality.—Product. 1 cwt. of fresh leaves yield between 5 lbs. and 6 lbs. of extract. Prop. Anodyne, sudorific, and narcotic; very poisonous.—Dose, ⁄2 gr. to 2 gr., made into a pill with liquorice powder; once or twice a day, in neuralgic pains, chronic rheumatism, glandular swellings, &c., gradually and cautiously increased to 5 or 6 gr.

4. (Alcoholic; E. a. alcoholicum, L.)—a. (P. Cod.) Aconite (in coarse powder), 1 lb.; proof spirit, 3⁄2 lbs. (say 2⁄2 pints); proceed by the method of displacement, and when all the spirit has penetrated the powdered mass, keep this covered with distilled water, until the liquid begins to cause a precipitate in falling into that which has previously passed through; next distil the spirit from the tincture, and evaporate the residuum to the proper consistence.

b. (Ph. U. S.) Aconite 1 lb.; spirit, sp. gr. ·935 (= 13 u. p.), 1 quart, or q. s.; as last.

c. (Ph. Baden.) From the tincture prepared with rectified spirit, and by either maceration or displacement. Stronger than the last two.

d. (Ph. Bor.) The juice is expressed from the fresh herb, which is then sprinkled with about ⁄3 of its weight of water, and again pressed; the mixed and strained liquid is evaporated in a vapour bath, at 122° to 140° Fahr., to about one half; to this, as soon as cold, an equal weight of spirit (sp. gr. ·900) is added, and after frequent agitation for 24 hours, the whole is filtered, with pressure; the marc is treated with fresh spirit (equal to about 1-4th that first used) and again pressed; the mixed liquors are next filtered, and are, lastly, evaporated, as before, to the proper consistence.

Obs. Resembles the simple extract, but is much more powerful. It has been exhibited internally in the form of pills, and used externally, combined with ointment or spread on simple plaster.—Dose, ⁄12 to ⁄6 gr. every three hours.

5. (Ammoniated; E. a. ammoniatum, L.—Dr Turnbull.) Extract of aconite, 1 dr.; liquor of ammonia (strongest), 10 or 12 drops; mix.

6. (Dried); E. a. siccum, L.—P. Cod.) The expressed juice, strained through a sieve or coarse linen, is at once, without depuration, exposed in earthen dishes, in layers of about 2 lines deep, in a stove or current of dry air, to a temperature ranging between 95° and 104° Fahr., until reduced to dryness. The dried extract is to be packed in bottles.

7. (Saccharated; E. a. saccharatum, L.) From extract of aconite (Ph. Bor.), 4 oz.; sugar of milk (in powder), 1 oz.; mix, and dry the mass in a warm place, adding sugar of milk, q. s. to make the whole equal in weight to that of the extract used (4 oz.). An excellent preparation, which keeps well. The other NARCOTIC EXTRACTS, as those of BELLADONNA, HEMLOCK, HENBANE, &c., are to be treated in a similar manner. See Aconite, and below.

Extract of Aconite Root. Syn. Extractum aconiti radicis alcoholicum, L. Prep. (Dr Fleming; Dr Turnbull.) From a tincture of the root made with rectified spirit. It is said to be 12 times as strong as the extract of the leaves.

Extract of Ag′aric. Syn. Extractum agarici, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the infusion of white agaric (Polyporus officinalis) prepared with cold water. Purgative.—Dose, 1 to 4 gr.

Extract of Alcorno′co. Syn. Extractum alcornocæ, L. Prep. From a decoction of alcornoco bark (South American). Astringent and tonic.—Dose, 5 to 20 gr. in phthisis, &c.

Extract of Al′oes. Syn. Purified aloes, Washed a.; Extractum aloës Barbadensis (B. P.), Extractum aloës (Ph. L.), E. a. aquosum (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Barbadoes aloes, in small pieces, 1 lb.; treated with 1 gall. of boiling water for 12 hours, and the clear liquid evaporated.—Dose, 1 to 3 gr. B. P. 2 to 6 gr.

2. (B. P.) Socotrine aloes, 1 lb., treated with 1 gall. of boiling water for 12 hours, and the clear liquid evaporated to dryness.

3. (Ph. D.) Aloes (hepatic), 4 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil till dissolved; when cold, decant the clear liquid, and evaporate as before.

4. (Ph. Bor. 1847.) By macerating powdered aloes in cold water for 48 hours, with frequent agitation, and then evaporating in a water bath at a temperature not exceeding 150° to 165° Fahr., until a pilular consistence is attained.

Obs. The second is the form commonly adopted in the laboratory. When made with the juice of borage, burgloss, &c., it forms the old ‘ALOES INSUCCATA,’—Dose, 5 to 15 gr. See Aloes and Extract of Barbadoes aloes.

Extract of Aloes, prepared with Sulphuric Acid. Syn. Extractum aloës acido sulfurico correctum (Germ. Ph.). Prep. Dissolve extract of aloes, 8 ounces, in distilled water 32 ounces, then gradually add sulphuric acid, 1 oz. (by weight), and evaporate to a dry extract.

Extract of Anem′one. See Extract of Pasque Flower.

Extract of Angel′ica. Syn. Extractum angelicæ, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Baden.) From a tincture of the root, prepared with spirit sp. gr. ·944 (= 21⁄2 u. p.).

2. (Ph. Bor.) Angelica root and rectified spirit, of each 2 parts; water, 9 parts; digest, strain, and evaporate. Inferior to the preceding.

3. (Dr Moir.) Angelica root, 2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; make a tincture; to the ‘marc’ add proof spirit, 1 gall., and repeat the digestion; filter the two tinctures separately, mix, distil off the spirit, and evaporate. Balsamic, stomachic, and tonic.—Dose, 10 to 20 gr. The last is the most balsamic and agreeable.

Extract of Ap′ples. Syn. Chalybeated e. of a.; Extractum ferri pomatum, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Bor.) Crab-apples (unripe), 6 lbs.; peel them and reduce them to a pulp; add iron wire (in small coils), 1 lb.; digest in a vapour bath for about a week, express, strain, decant, and evaporate in a porcelain vessel, with constant stirring, to the consistence of a soft extract; dissolve the residuum in water, 4 parts, strain and evaporate as before.—Dose, 5 to 10 gr.; as a chalybeate tonic. The formula of the Ph. Baden is nearly similar.

2. (Ph. Germ.) Reduce 5 lbs. of unripe apples to a pulp; mix them with cut straw, and press. To the strained juice after removal of the sediment add 1⁄2 oz. of reduced iron. When this has dissolved, to the cooled liquid add as much water as will make up 4⁄4 lbs. Filter, and reduce to a thick extract.

Extract of Ar′nica. Syn. Extract of arnica flowers; Extractum arnicæ florum, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From the dried flowers, as ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE—P. Cod.

2. (Ph. Græca, 1837.) From a tincture of the flowers, prepared with rectified spirit, 3 parts, and water, 5 parts.—Dose, 2 to 6 gr.; as a stimulant in various diseases accompanied with debility, deficient nervous sensibility, paralysis, dropsies, diarrhœa, amenorrhœa, dysentery, &c.

Extract of Arnica-Root. Syn. Extract of arnica; Extractum arnicæ radicis, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Baden.) As Extract of angelica—Ph. Baden.

2. (Ph. Græca.) From tincture of the root, prepared as No. 2 (above). The form of the Hamburg Codex is nearly similar.—Dose, &c. As the last.

Extract of Art′ichoke. Syn. Extractum Cynaræ, L. Prep. From the fresh leaves of the artichoke, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE—Ph. L.—Dose, 3 to 6 gr., twice or thrice daily; in rheumatism, &c.

Extract of Aspar′agus. Syn. Extractum asparagi, L. Prep. 1. (Soubeiran.) From the expressed juice of the shoots, clarified and evaporated by a gentle heat.

2. From the juice of the roots, as No. 1. Both are diuretic.—Dose, 15 gr. to ⁄2 dr., or more.

Extract of Bael. Syn. Extractum belæ liquidum, L. B. P. Bael, 1; distilled water, 15; rectified spirit, ⁄8; macerate for 12 hours in 5 of the water, pour off the liquid, repeat the operation twice for 1 hour; press, filter, and evaporate to 1, including the spirit. A fluid ounce is equal to a solid ounce.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

Extract of Balsam Apple. Syn. Extractum balsamimæ. The inspissated juice of the balsam apple.—Dose, 5 to 15 drops in dropsy.

Extract of Bark. See Extract of Cinchona.

Extract of Belladon′na. Syn. Extract of deadly nightshade, Inspissated juice of belladonna; Extractum belladonnæ (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), Succus spissatus belladonnæ, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Take 112 lbs. of fresh leaves and tender branches, bruise in a stone mortar or other suitable apparatus, and press out the juice, heat it gradually to 130° F., separate the green colouring matter by a calico filter, heat the strained liquor to 200° F. to coagulate the albumen, and again filter; evaporate the filtrate by a water bath to the consistence of a thin syrup, then add to it the green colouring matter previously separated, and, stirring the whole together assiduously, continue the evaporation at a temperature not exceeding 140°, until the extract is of a suitable consistence for forming pills.—Dose, ⁄4 to ⁄2 gr., gradually increased to 1 or 2 gr.

2. (Ph. E.) Express the juice from the bruised fresh plant, sprinkle the ‘marc’ with water, and again apply pressure; mix the expressed liquids, filter them, and evaporate the filtered liquor in a vapour bath to the consistence of an extract.

3. (Ph. D.) From the leaves, collected when the plant begins to flower. The expressed juice is allowed to stand for 24 hours, and the clear portion is decanted; the sediment is placed on a calico filter, washed with an equal bulk of cold water, and the filtrate mixed with the expressed juice. The mixed liquid is next heated in a water bath, to coagulate its albumen, and after being skimmed, and filtered through flannel whilst hot, the washed sediment is added, and the whole evaporated, as before.

4. (Ph. U. S.) The expressed juice is heated to the boiling-point, filtered and evaporated (see below).

Obs. The P. Cod. directs this extract to be made by two different formulæ. The product of the one resembles that of the Ph. L.; that of the other, that of the Ph. E. That of the Ph. L., from retaining the fecula, is the weakest preparation.—Dose, ⁄2 gr. to 1 gr., gradually increased to 3 or 4 gr.; as an anodyne in neuralgia, tic-douloureux, &c.; as an antispasmodic to relieve rigidity and spasms, in various affections of the uterus, rectum, urethra, bladder, &c., and in hooping-cough; in various maladies of the eyes; and as a resolvent and discutient in several glandular diseases. It has been highly recommended as a preservative against scarlet fever. It is most frequently employed externally, under the form of a plaster, ointment, or lotion. It is poisonous.

5. (Alcoholic; E. b. alcoholicum, L.)—a. (P. Cod.) As ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE—P. Cod.

b. (Ph. U. S.) As the last (nearly), using spirit of ·935 (=about 13 u. p.).

c. (Moir.) The expressed juice is coagulated by heat, cautiously applied, and filtered; the filtrate is reduced to the consistence of a syrup, and mixed with an equal volume of nearly anhydrous alcohol (say of 90%); the clear portion is lastly evaporated, as before.

Obs. The above is much more powerful than the common extract, and is chiefly used in external applications. See Belladonna, and below.

Extract of Belladonna Ber′ries. Syn. Extractum baccarum belladonnæ, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the expressed juice of the berries, evaporated to the consistence of thick honey.—Dose, 1 to 5 gr.

Extract of Bis′tort. Syn. Extractum bistortæ, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From the dried root of bistort or snake-weed (Polygonum Bistorta), by percolation with temperate distilled water.

2. From the infusion made with boiling water, or from the decoction. Astringent and tonic.—Dose, 10 gr. to ⁄2 dr.

Extract of Bit′ter-sweet. Syn. Extract of woody nightshade; Extractum dulcamaræ, L. Prep. 1. From the decoction of the stalks.

2. (Ph. U. S.) From the dried stalks, by percolation with temperate water. Diaphoretic, diuretic, and narcotic.—Dose, 3 to 6 gr.; in chronic asthma, rheumatism, and chest diseases; and particularly in chronic skin diseases.

Extract, Black. See Extract of Cocculus.

Extract of Black Pepper. See Extract of Pepper.

Extract of Bladder-wrack. Syn. Extractum fuci vesiculosi. From the dried plant of the bladder-wrack. Given in obesity.

Extract of Bor′age. Syn. Extractum boraginis, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From the dried herb (Borago officinalis).

2. (Ph. Lusit.) From the clarified juice of the fresh plant. Exhilarating, restorative, and pectoral.—Dose, 10 to 30 gr., or more.

Extract of Box. Syn. Extractum buxi, E. corticis b., L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the tincture of the root bark, prepared (with proof spirit) by displacement, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE—P. Cod.

Extract of Broom. Syn. Extract of broom tops; Extractum scoparii, E. spartii scoparii, L. From decoction of broom tops. Diuretic and cathartic; and, occasionally, emetic.—Dose, 20 gr. to 1 dr.; in dropsy, &c. It is now seldom used.

Extract of Bry′ony. Syn. Extractum bryoniæ, E. b. albæ, E. radicis b. a., L. Prep. From the infusion or decoction of the root of white bryony (Bryonia dioica). Purgative, diuretic, and emmenagogue.—Dose, 10 gr. to ⁄2 dr. It was once a favourite remedy in asthma, dropsy, epilepsy, &c.

Extract of Bu′chu. Syn. Extractum buchu, E. diosmæ, L. Prep. 1. From buchu leaves, as the last.

2. (Ethereo-alcoholic; E. b. æthero-alcoholicum, L.—W. Procter.) Buchu (in coarse powder), 1 lb.; ether, 4 fl. oz.; alcohol (rectified spirit), 12 fl. oz.; percolate without digestion, adding dilute alcohol until a pint of ethereo-alcoholic tincture is obtained, and suffer this to evaporate spontaneously; treat the residue in the displacer with dilute alcohol, till 2 pints are obtained; evaporate to a syrup, add the product of the first tincture, mix, and complete the evaporation.—Dose, 5 to 10 gr.; in diseases of the urinary organs, &c.

3. (Fluid; E. b. fluidum, L.—W. Procter.) Buchu leaves, 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz.; for a tincture by displacement, adding water, until 12 fl. oz. have passed through; allow this to evaporate spontaneously until reduced to one half; next digest the mass in the percolator with cold water, 1 pint, for 12 hours, express a pint, and evaporate this to 10 fl. oz.; lastly, add the 6 fl. oz. of residual tincture, agitate together, and in a few days filter, or decant the clear portion.—Dose, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls. See Diosma.

Extract of Buck′bean. Syn. Extractum menyanthis, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From the expressed juice of the fresh plant.

2. (Ph. Bor.) From the infusion made with boiling water. Bitter, tonic and astringent.—Dose, 5 to 10 gr. In large doses it is purgative, cathartic, and even emetic.

Extract of Buck′thorn. Syn. Extractum rhamni, E. baccarum r., L. Prep. From the filtered expressed juice of buckthorn berries. Some persons allow it first to run into a state of fermentation; but the quantity of the product is thereby greatly lessened. Hydragogue and purgative.—Dose, 15 gr. to 1 dr., or more.

Extract of Bur′dock. Syn. Extractum bardanæ, L. Prep. 1. From the decoction of burdock root.

2. (P. Cod.) As EXTRACT OF BISTORT—P. Cod. In gout, rheumatism, skin diseases, &c.—Dose, 10 gr. to 1 dr. Sir Robert Walpole praised burdock root as a gout medicine; and others have considered it an excellent substitute for sarsaparilla. (Lindley.)

Extract of Butter-nut. Syn. Extractum juglandis, L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) From the inner bark of the root of the butter-nut or white walnut (Juglanda alba), as EXTRACT OF BITTER SWEET—Ph. U. S. A mild, yet efficacious aperient and vermifuge.—Dose. As a laxative, 5 to 10 gr.; as a purgative, 15 to 30 gr.

Extract of Cainca Root. Syn. Extractum caincæ. (P. Pharm.) Prep. Put 10 oz. of the dried root of cainca into a percolator, pour on it proof spirit q. s. to penetrate the powder in every part, and let it remain 12 hours; then let the liquid drain, and pass successively through the powder in the percolator as much proof spirit as will amount with that previously used to 60 oz. by weight. Distil off the spirit and evaporate to a soft extract.

Extract of Calabar Bean. Syn. Extractum physostigmatis. (B. P.) Calabar bean in coarse powder, 1; rectified spirit, 5; macerate the bean for 48 hours in one fourth of the spirit in a closed vessel, agitating occasionally, then transfer to a percolator, and when the fluid ceases to pass add the remainder of the spirit, so that it may slowly penetrate through the powder; subject the residue of the bean to pressure, adding the pressed liquid to the product of the percolation; distil off the spirit, and evaporate what is left to the consistence of a soft extract by a water bath.—Dose, ⁄16 to ⁄4 gr.

Extract of Calum′ba. Syn. Extractum calumbæ, E. radicis c., L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Calumba cut small, 1; water, 5; macerate in half the water for 12 hours, strain, and press; macerate again with the remaining water, strain, and press; mix and filter the liquors, and evaporate with the heat of a water bath to pill consistency.—Dose, 2 to 10 gr.

2. (Alcoholic—Ph. Bor.) Nearly as No. 3 (below), but using stronger spirit; the evaporation is to be conducted at a heat not above 167° Fahr., until it acquires the consistence of a pill-mass, which, after being rendered quite dry by a very gentle heat, is to be reduced to fine powder. It should have a brownish-yellow colour, and give a turbid solution with water.—Dose, 4 to 12 gr. They are all tonic and stomachic.

3. (Spirituous—P. Cod.) As EXTRACT OF BOX. The Ph. Baden orders spirit of ·944 to be used.—Dose, 5 to 15 gr.

Extract of Cannabis Indicæ. See Extract of Indian Hemp.

Extract of Canthar′ides. Syn. Extract of Spanish flies; Extractum cantharides, E. lyttæ, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From the tincture, as EXTRACT OF BOX.

2. (Soubeiran.) From a tincture prepared with spirit of the sp. gr. ·923 (about 2 u. p.).

3. (Acetic; E. c. aceticum, L.) From a tincture prepared with acetic acid, sp. gr. 1·048.

4. (Ethereal; E. c. æthereum, L.) From the ethereal tincture.

Obs. The ether, acid, and spirit distilled from the above must be either thrown away or used to make fresh extract, as it is highly poisonous. They are all for external use only, and should have the consistence of soft butter.

Extract of Car′damoms. Syn. Ethereal e. of c.; Extractum cardamomi æthereum, L. Prep. (W. Procter.) By spontaneous evaporation of the ethereal tincture. It consists of the volatile and fixed oils of the seeds and is used to aromatise pills, powders, &c.

Extract of Ca′rob Beans. Syn. Extractum ceratoniæ, L. Prep. From the decoction of the pods (CAROB, or ALGAROBA BEANS) of the ‘Ceratonia siliqua,’ or ‘St. John’s bread tree.’ See Algaroba.

Extract of Caroli′na Pink. See Extract of Pink-root.

Extract of Car′rot. Syn. Extractum carotæ, E. radicis c., L. Prep. (Swediaur.) From the clarified expressed juice, evaporated to the consistence of honey. Recommended as an application to ulcerated cancers.

Extract of Cascaril′la. Syn. Extractum cascarillæ, E. corticis c., L. Prep. 1. (Guibourt.) From the alcoholic (rectified spirit) tincture.

2. (Ph. Baden.) As the last, but using spirit of the sp. gr. ·944.

3. (Ph. L. 1788.) As Extract of jalap—Ph. L.

Obs. This extract is tonic, aromatic, and stomachic.—Dose, 5 to 15 gr., or more, 2 or 3 times a day. 28 lbs. of bark yield about 5⁄4 lbs. of extract.

Extract of Cas′sia. Syn. Extractum cassiæ, L. See Cassia Pulp.

Extract of Cat′echu. Syn. Extractum catechu, L. Prep. 1. From decoction of catechu.

2. (P. Cod.) From the infusion in boiling water. Astringent and tonic.—Dose, 5 to 25 gr. See Catechu.

Extract of Cel′andine. Syn. Extractum chelidonii, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Bor.) From the herb (Chelidonium majus), as ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE—Ph. Bor.—Dose, 3 to 10 gr.

2. (Van Mons.) From the expressed juice, coagulated by heat, filtered, and evaporated, towards the end adding the coagulum.—Dose, 5 to 15 gr., or more. Used as a drastic hydragogue in dropsies; and in scrofula, &c.

Extract of Cen′taury. Syn. Extractum centaurii, L. Extracts under this name are prepared from ‘American centaury’ (Sabbatia angularis), and ‘common centaury’ (Erythræa Centaurium). Prep. 1. By evaporating the decoction, or the infusion made with hot water. The dose and properties resemble those of extract of gentian.

2. (Alcoholic; E. c. alcoholicum, L.) As EXTRACT OF BOX (see above).

Extract of Cevadil′′la. Syn. Alcoholic extract of sabadilla; Extractum sabadillæ, L. Prep. (Dr Turnbull.) From tincture of cevadilla seeds, made with rectified spirit. Employed by Dr Turnbull as a remedy in painful rheumatic and neuralgic affections, and, generally, as a substitute for VERATRIA.—Dose, ⁄10 to ⁄6 gr. It is extremely poisonous.

Extract of Cham′omile. Syn. Extractum anthemidis (Ph. E.), E. a. nobilis, L. Prep. By evaporating the decoction of the flowers to the proper consistence.

Obs. This extract contains only the bitter portion of the chamomile, the aromatic volatile oil being dissipated during the evaporation. This, however is remedied in the formulæ given by the British Pharmacopœia, which is as follows:—

Boil chamomile flowers 1 lb., in one gallon of distilled water, until the volume is reduced to one half; strain, press and filter. Evaporate by a water bath to a proper consistence, adding oil of chamomile, 15 minims at the end of the process.

It is usually prepared from old flowers that have lost their smell and colour, and are thus rendered unsaleable. The extract of chamomile that smells strongly of the flowers, frequently vended by the druggists, is prepared by adding 1 dr. of the essential oil of chamomile to every pound of extract, when nearly cold, and just before removing it from the evaporating pan. This addition, unlike many which are made in the laboratory, vastly increases the medicinal virtues of this article. The mass of extract of chamomile met with in the shops is nothing but extract of gentian scented with a little oil of chamomile. 1 cwt. of chamomiles yields about 48 lbs. of extract.

Extract of chamomile is bitter, tonic, and stomachic.—Dose, 10 to 20 gr., made into a pill, either alone or combined with a little rhubarb and ginger. See Pills, &c.

Extract of Chenopo′′dium. Syn. Extract of stinking goose-foot; Extractum chenopodii, L. Prep. 1. From the stinking orache or goose-foot (Chenopodium olidum), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE.—Ph. L.

2. (Mr Houlton.) From the expressed juice by spontaneous evaporation. A better plan is to expose it to heated air. Antihysteric, emmenagogue, and vermifuge.—Dose, 5 to 20 gr.

Extract (Fluid) of Wild Cherry. Syn. Extractum Pruni Virginianæ fluidum. (Ph. U. S.) Wild cherry in fine powder, 16 oz. (troy); glycerin, 4 oz. (old measure); water, 8 oz. (old measure). Mix the glycerin and the water, and digest the wild cherry in 8 oz. of the mixture for 4 days, then pack in a percolator and pour on the remaining 4 oz. of glycerin and water. When this has disappeared from the surface pour on rectified spirit (·817) until 12 oz. (old measure) of fluid have been obtained, and set this portion aside. Then percolate with spirit, until 20 oz. (old measure) more have been obtained; evaporate to 4 oz. (old measure), and mix with the reserved portion.

Extract of Cincho′na. Syn. Extract of bark. Three simple extracts, prepared respectively from YELLOW, PALE, and RED CINCHONA, are given in Ph. L.:—Prep. 1. (From CALISAYA or YELLOW BARK:—Extract of cinchona, E. of yellow c., E. of heart-leaved c.; Extractum cinchonæ, L.)—a. Extractum cinchonæ flavæ liquidum (B. P.). Yellow cinchona bark in coarse powder, 16; distilled water, a sufficiency; rectified spirit, 1; macerate the bark in 40 of water for twenty-four hours, then pack in a percolator, and add water until 240 have passed through, or until the bark is exhausted; evaporate the liquor to 20, at a temperature not exceeding 160°; then filter, and continue the evaporation to 3, or until the sp. gr. of the liquid is 1·200; when cold, add the spirit gradually, constantly stirring. Sp. gr. 1·100.—Dose, 10 to 30 minims.

b. (Ph. L.) Yellow cinchona (coarsely bruised), 3 lbs.; distilled water (temperate), 4 pints; macerate for 24 hours (constantly stirring), and strain through linen; what remains, again macerate in water, 1 quart, for 24 hours, and strain; evaporate the mixed liquids to a proper consistence.

Obs. The aqueous extracts of cinchona bark possess little medicinal virtue, owing to the insolubility of the alkaloids (quinine, cinchonine, &c.) in water, and also from the rapid oxidation of their extractive matter, when exposed in solution to the joint action of heat and atmospheric oxygen.—Dose, 5 gr. to ⁄2 dr., in mixtures, faintly acidulated with sulphuric acid. Cinchona bark yields from 24% to 30% of aqueous extract.

2. (From PALE BARK:—Extract of pale cinchona, E. of pale bark, E. of lance-leaved b.; Extractum cinchonæ vallidæ, L.)—a. (Ph. L.) From pale bark, as EXTRACT OF CINCHONA—Ph. L. (above).

b. (Ph. L. 1836.) From the decoction.

Obs. This forms the EXTRACT OF BARK of the shops. The red and yellow cinchona barks are scarcely ever used for making extracts. Their richness in quinine leads to their almost, exclusive employment for the manufacture of that alkaloid, by which their value is greatly enhanced. As far as our knowledge extends, no other extract of bark than this is either employed or asked for.

3. (From RED BARK:—Extract of red cinchona, E. of red bark, E. of oblong-leaved b.; Extractum cinchonæ rubræ, L.)—a. (Ph. L.) From red bark, as EXTRACT OF CINCHONA—Ph. L. (above).

b. (Ph. L. 1836.) From the decoction.

Obs. These extracts are ordered to be kept in two states, the one (SOFT EXTRACT OF CINCHONA; EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ MOLLE) for making pills, &c.; the other (HARD EXTRACT OF CINCHONA; EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ DURUM) for powdering.—The dose, &c., of all the above are the same.

4. (Dry:—Essential salt of bark; Extractum cinchonæ siccum, L.)—a. (P. Cod.) From an aqueous infusion of pale bark (prepared by displacement with water at a temperature not above 77° Fahr.), evaporated to the consistence of a thick syrup, and then spread thinly and uniformly on earthenware dishes, or sheets of glass, and dried in a stove, by a very gentle heat. It is separated from the plates with a knife, and preserved in well-closed phials. Prior to spreading it out on the plates, about 4% or 5% of thick mucilage is commonly added.

b. (Ph. Bor.) As the above (nearly).

c. (Ph. Hann. 1831.) Similar to the above; but the liquid, when it acquires the consistence of treacle, is diluted with water, and again evaporated to a like consistence; and this dilution and evaporation is repeated until, on the addition of water, it forms a clear solution.—Dose, 5 to 25 gr. The product of the last formula is nearly inert, and that of the others possesses little activity.

5. (Fluid:—Extractum cinchonæ fluidum, L.)—a. See Liquor of Cinchona.

b. (Dr Neligan.) From yellow bark, as FLUID EXTRACT OF BUCHU.

6. (Resinous:—Alcoholic extract of bark; Extractum cinchonæ alcoholicum, E. cinchonæ, L.)—a. (Ph. E.) From any variety of cinchona bark (in powder), 4 oz.; proof spirit, 24 fl. oz.; prepare a tincture by displacement, distil off most of the spirit, and evaporate the residuum to the consistence of an extract. This is the only EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ of the Edinburgh College.

b. (Ph. U. S.) Peruvian bark, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 4 pints; make 4 pints of tincture by displacement; add water to the mass in the percolator, digest, and obtain 6 pints of infusion; distil off the spirit from the tincture, and evaporate the infusion to the consistence of syrup, then mix the two, and complete the evaporation. More active than the aqueous extract.—Dose, 5 to 20 gr.

c. (Ellis.) Yellow bark, 2 lbs.; hydrochloric acid, 4 fl. dr.; water, 1 gall.; boil, strain, and repeat the decoction with fresh water and acid; mix the decoctions, filter, and agitate it with fresh-slaked lime, 2⁄2 oz.; filter or decant; dry the residuum, and exhaust it with hot alcohol, q. s.; lastly, evaporate the alcoholic tincture to a pilular consistence.—Dose, 1 to 5 gr. Some persons have proposed to call this ‘ESSENTIAL SALT OF BARK,’

7. (Vinous:—Extractum cinchonæ vinosum, L.—Ph. Hesse.) Peruvian bark (in powder), 1 part; white wine (sherry), 8 parts; digest 3 days, express, filter, and evaporate.

Extract of Coc′culus. Syn. Extract of cocculus indicus, Black extract, Extract (Brewer’s), Beer strengthener, Hard multum; Extractum cocculi, E. c. indici, L. Prep. From cocculus indicus, by decoction. It is kept in two states—one having the consistence of thick treacle; the other, that of a pilular extract. The first is ‘put up’ in bladders; the last is made into ⁄2-lb. rolls, like lead-plaster-or roll-chocolate. It is narcotic and poisonous, and is employed by fraudulent brewers and publicans to give a false strength to their liquors. See Cocculus Indicus, Beer, &c.

Extract of Col′chicum. Syn. Extract of meadow saffron, E. of the corms of colchicum; Extractum colchici (B. P.). Prep. 1. (B. P.) The expressed juice of fresh colchicum corms, cleared of deposit, boiled, strained, and evaporated to a proper consistency at a temperature of 160° Fahr.—Dose, 1 to 2 gr.

2. (Wholesale.) From the decoction of the dried corms. Prod. 50% to 55%.

Obs. This extract is given in the usual cases in which colchicum is employed.—Dose, 1 to 4 gr., every third or fourth hour. (Thomson.) “A favorite remedy of Dr Hue, of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, in the early stages of acute rheumatism. The dose is 1 gr. every four hours.” (Pereira.)

3. (Acetic; Acetic extract of meadow saffron; Extractum colchici aceticum (B. P.)—a. (B. P.) Crushed fresh corms, previously peeled, 19; acetic acid, 1; stir together, press, boil, and strain through flannel, and evaporate to a soft extract.—Dose, 1 to 2 gr. with an equal weight of liquorice powder.

b. (Wholesale.) Dried corms, 14 lbs.; acetic acid (pyroligneous), 6 pints; distilled water, 5⁄4 gall.; digest for 14 days, express, filter, and evaporate. Product, 2⁄2 to 3 lbs.

Obs. The above extracts are generally prepared from the dried corms, and hence the very uncertain and inferior quality of those commonly met with. They also possess less activity than pharmacopœial preparations. They rapidly get dry and crumbly, and, unless a little spirit and oil of cloves are added, will scarcely keep a week in warm weather without becoming mouldy.—Dose, 1 to 3 gr. two or three times a day. It is much stronger than the common extract, and contains the acetate of colchicine. Sir C. Scudamore prefers the acetic extract prepared by the formula b (above).

4. (Alcoholic; Extractum colchici alcoholicum, L.—P. Cod.). As extract of Box. More active than even the acetic extract. All the preparations of colchicum are poisonous in large doses.

Extract of Colo′cynth. Syn. Extract of bitter apple; Extractum colocynthidis (Ph. L. & E.), E. c. simplex, E. c. molle, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) From colocynth pulp (cut in pieces and the seeds removed), by simple maceration in cold water for 36 hours, frequently pressing it with the hands, and afterwards strongly pressing out the liquor, which must be strained before evaporating it.

2. (Ph. E.) From the decoction. This is the plan adopted at Apothecaries’ Hall, and in the laboratory generally. Many houses do not even remove the seeds.

Obs. This extract rapidly gets hard, crumbly, and mouldy by keeping. For the remedy, see observations on EXTRACT OF COLCHICUM, above.—Dose, 5 gr. to 20 gr.; as a cathartic. Colocynth pulp yields above 65% of extract.

3. (Alcoholic; Extractum colocynthidis alcoholicum, L.)—a. (Ph. Baden.) As EXTRACT OF ANGELICA—Ph. Bad.)

b. (P. Cod.) From a tincture prepared with proof spirit. Much more active than the simple extract.—Dose, 2 to 7 gr.

4. (Dry; Extractum colocynthidis siccum, L.)—(Ph. Bor.) As the last, but using spirit of the sp. gr. ·900 (about 16 o. p.), digesting at a tepid heat, evaporating to dryness, and powdering.—Dose, 1 to 6 gr.

Extract of Colocynth (Compound). Syn. Compound extract of bitter apple, Cathartic extract; Extractum catharticum, E. colocynthidis compositum, B. P. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Colocynth free from seeds, 6; extract of Socotrine aloes, 12; scammony, or resin of scammony in powder, 4; hard soap in powder, 3; cardamoms free from capsules in fine powder, 1; proof spirit, 160. Macerate the colocynth in the spirit for four days, press out the tincture, distil off the spirit, and add to it the extract of aloes, the soap, and the scammony; then evaporate the residue by a water bath to a pilular consistence, adding the cardamoms towards the end of the process.—Dose, 2 to 5 gr., with 2 or 3 gr. of extract of hyoscyamus to prevent griping.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Colocynth pulp (sliced, without the seeds), 6 oz., proof spirit, 1 gal.; digest with a gentle heat for 4 days, express, strain, and add, of extract of aloes (Ph. L. 1836), 12 oz., powdered scammony, 4 oz., Castile soap (cut small), 3 oz., and evaporate (distil) to a proper consistence; adding, towards the last, powdered cardamoms, 1 oz.

3. (Wholesale.) The formulæ adopted by the wholesale druggists are mere modifications of that of the Ph. L. 1809; water being used instead of spirit as the menstruum, with actual benefit, as we honestly believe, to the quality of the preparation. The following are extensively employed by those who do most in this article, and we can speak highly of the quality of the products obtained by their use.

a. Turkey colocynth, 18 lbs., is boiled in about 20 times its weight of water for five or six hours; to the strained decoction is added hepatic aloes, 40 lbs., which are boiled until dissolved, when the solution is decanted. In the mean time the colocynth is exhausted with a second quantity of water (less than the first), and the strained liquor is added to the undissolved residuum of the aloes, and boiled for a few minutes; after which it is drawn off and mixed with the first decoction of aloes; the mixed liquors are then allowed to stand until quite cold (commonly until the next day), to deposit the resinous portion. The liquor is next decanted or drawn off, and set evaporating as quickly as possible; as soon as the consistence of treacle is arrived at, the whole is allowed to cool considerably, and moist sugar (clean), 4 lbs., and Castile soap, 10 lbs. (previously melted with a little water), are added; powdered scammony, 6 lbs., is next gradually sifted in, the extract all the time being assiduously stirred by a second person. Lastly, the heat is further moderated, and the stirring continued until a rather harder consistence is acquired than is proper for the extract, when the steam is wholly ‘shut off,’ or the vessel removed from the heat, and as soon as the whole has become sufficiently cool to prevent any considerable evaporation of the spirit, essence of cardamoms, 2 lbs. (say 1 quart), is expertly stirred in; and the extract at once (whilst still warm) put into stone jars or pots, and tied or covered over for store or use. The product is usually labelled ‘Ext. Colocynth. Comp. Opt.’ It looks well, and smells very aromatic, and is really an excellent preparation.

b. Turkey colocynth, 2⁄4 lbs.; hepatic aloes, 5⁄2 lbs.; powdered scammony, 1⁄2 lb.; powdered cardamoms, 6 oz. (or essence, ⁄2 pint); Castile soap (genuine), 1 lb. 2 oz.; pale moist sugar, ⁄2 lb.; proceed as last. This produces a beautiful article, and of unquestionable quality, equally effective, and milder in its action than the College preparation. It is labelled and sent out as Ext. Colocynth. Comp. Ph. L. (1836).

4. (Ph. L. 1809.) Colocynth, 6 dr. (6 parts); aloes, 1⁄2 oz. (12 parts); scammony, ⁄2 oz. (4 parts); hard soap, 3 dr. (3 parts); cardamoms, 1 dr. (1 part); as No. 3, a (nearly).

Qual., &c. Compound extract of colocynth is often adulterated with acrid cathartics to make up for the deficiency or inferiority of its proper ingredients, and foreign matter often becomes mixed with it by the use of impure scammony. The presence of cape aloes may usually be detected by the nauseous odour; chalk (an article frequently present in bad scammony), by placing a little ball of the extract in a glass tube, and pouring over it some dilute hydrochloric or acetic acid, when an effervescence will ensue if that substance be present; jalap, scammony adulterated with fecula, and other starchy substances, by the filtered decoction of the extract turning blue on the addition of tincture of iodine; gamboge, by the decoction becoming deep red on the addition of liquor of potassa, and by a filtered alcoholic solution of the extract forming a yellow emulsion with water, which becomes transparent and assumes a deep-red colour on the addition of caustic potassa; and further, by this solution (if the alkali is not in excess) giving a yellow precipitate with acids and with acetate of lead, a brown precipitate with sulphate of copper, and a very dark brown one with the salts of iron; also by the ethereal solution of the extract dropped on water yielding an opaque yellow film, soluble in caustic potassa if it contains gamboge.

Dose, 3 gr. to 15 gr. It is a safe and mild, yet certain, purgative. It may be mixed with calomel without the latter being decomposed. 2⁄2 or 3 gr., mixed with an equal weight of blue pill and taken overnight forms an excellent aperient in dyspepsia, liver complaints, &c. See Abernethy Medicines.

Obs. There are few formulæ which have undergone so many alterations in the hands of the College as that for compound extract of colocynth. Before 1809, proof spirit was ordered to be employed as the menstruum, and, omitting the soap, the preparation resembled that of the Ph. L. 1836. In 1809, the College directed water to be used instead of spirit, and added a certain quantity of soap. In the next edition of the Pharmacopœia (1815), the soap was again omitted; but in the edition of 1824, the formula of 1809 was again adopted, substituting, however, proof spirit for the water. These directions were also continued in the edition of 1836. In the last London Pharmacopœia (1851) the formula for this extract is omitted altogether, and in its place a pill (PILULA COLOCYNTHIDIS COMPOSITA) is inserted.

The compound extract of colocynth and the simple and compound extracts of sarsaparilla are in greater demand in the wholesale trade, and are sold in larger quantities at a time, than all the other medicinal extracts put together. As a proof, if it were necessary, that honesty is the best policy, it may be mentioned that a certain metropolitan druggist, remarkable for the superiority of this preparation, has obtained no inconsiderable fortune by its sale alone; while the host of miserable vendors of the evaporated decoction of musty colocynth seed, Cape aloes, worthless scammony, and scentless cardamoms, sold under the name, attempt to ruin each other by offering their rubbish at a price that precludes the possibility of a large profit, or even of the establishment of a respectable connection.

Extract of Conia. See Extract of Hemlock.

Extract of Contrayer′va. Syn. Extractum contrayervæ, L. Prep. (Palat. Cod.) From contrayerva root, as EXTRACT OF CINCHONA—Ph. L.—Dose, 10 gr. to ⁄2 dr.; as a diaphoretic tonic in low conditions of the system.

Extract of Copai′ba. Syn. Resinous extract of copaiba; Extractum copaibæ, E. c. resinosum, L. Prep. (Mr Thorn.) From balsam of copaiba, by distilling off the oil until the residuum assumes the consistence of an extract.—Dose, 10 to 20 gr., or more. One of the many useless preparations which encumber modern pharmacy. It may be taken in 3 dr. doses without any perceptible effect beyond a fit of indigestion.

Extract of Copal′che. Syn. Extractum copalchi, E. corticis c., L. Prep. From copalchi bark (Croton pseudo-China), as EXTRACT OF CASCARILLA, which it for the most part resembles.—Dose, 1 to 3 gr.

Extract (Fluid) of Cotton Root. Syn. Extractum gossypii radicis fluidum (Ph. U. S.). Cotton root in very fine powder, 16 oz. (troy); macerate with glycerin, 3 fluid oz. (old measure); rectified spirit, 8 oz. (old measure); water, 5 oz. (old measure), in closed percolator for 4 days; then let the percolation commence, and finish it by adding dilute alcohol (eq. vols. of alcohol ·835 and water) until 24 oz. (old measure) have been obtained; reserve the first 14 oz., and evaporate the remaining 10 oz. (to which previously add 1 fluid oz., old measure) of glycerin to 2 fluid oz. (old measure), and mix with the reserved portion.

Extract of Couch Grass. Syn. Extract of dog’s grass; Extractum graminis, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From the root of couch grass, or dog’s grass (Triticum repens), as EXTRACT OF BISTORT—P. Cod.

2. From the fresh root, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE—Ph. L.

3. (Fluid; Mellago graminis, Extractum graminis fluidum, L.—Ph. Hann. 1831.) From the decoction of the fresh root of couch grass, evaporated to the consistence of new honey. Pectoral.—Dose, 15 gr. to ⁄2 dr., or more.

Extract of Cu′bebs. Syn. Extractum cubebæ, L. Prep. 1. From the alcoholic tincture evaporated by a very gentle heat.—Dose, 5 gr. to 30 gr.

2. (Mr Toller.) To the last add a little powdered Castile soap, when it begins to thicken, and evaporate to a pilular consistence.—Dose, 10 gr. to 30 gr.

3. (Fluid: Liquor cubebæ, Extractum c. fluidum, L.)—a. Cubebs (ground in a coffee-mill), 1⁄4 lb.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; prepare a tincture, either by displacement or by digestion for a week, and reduce it, by distillation at a very gentle heat, until the whole measures exactly 1 pint. Every fl. oz. represents 2 oz. of cubebs.—Dose, 20 to 40 drops.

b. (M. Puche.) From cubebs and proof spirit, equal parts, by percolation; without subsequent evaporation. Represents its own weight in cubebs.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1 fl. dr.

c. (Ph. U. S. 1851.) Cubebs, 1 lb. (nearly); ether, q. s.; make 1 quart of tincture; then distil off 1⁄2 pint of the ether by the heat of a water bath, and expose the residuum in a shallow vessel until the remainder of the ether has evaporated.

d. (Ph. U. S.) Extractum cubebæ fluidum. Cubebs in moderately fine powder, 16 oz. (troy); alcohol (·817), 16 oz. (old measure). Macerate in a closed percolator for 4 days, and then let the percolation commence, and finish it by adding more menstruum until 24 oz. (old measure) have been obtained; reserve the first 14 oz., evaporate the remaining 10 oz. to 2 oz., and mix this with the reserved portion.

4. (Oleo-resinous; Extractum cubebæ, E. cubebrum, E. c. oleo-resinosum, L.)—a. (M. Dublanc.) The essential oil resulting from the careful distillation of any given quantity of cubebs, is mixed with the resinous extract obtained by evaporating a tincture of the dried residuum made with rectified spirit; the whole being reduced to the consistence of a thick syrup. 1 lb. of cubebs yields about 6 oz. of this extract.

b. (Labelonge.) Cubebs are first exhausted with ether, and then with proof spirit, in a displacement apparatus; the alcoholic tincture is evaporated to an extract over a water bath, and when cold, the ethereal tincture is mixed with it, and the mixture abandoned to spontaneous evaporation until the ether is volatilised.

c. (W. Procter.) An ethereal tincture (by displacement) is poured into a large retort, and 5-6ths is drawn over by the heat of a water bath; the evaporation of the residuum, to the proper consistence, is carried on at a heat not exceeding 120° Fahr. The formula of the Ph. Baden is nearly similar. Said to represent 6 to 8 times its weight in cubebs. 1 lb. yields 2 oz. of this extract.

d. (Hamb. Cod. 1845.) This resembles a (above).

Obs. This extract has a darkish brown colour, and tastes and smells strongly of cubebs. It is only slightly soluble in water.—Dose, 5 gr. to 20 gr.; made into an emulsion or pills, or enclosed in a capsule. See Cubebs.

Extract of Cu′cumber. See Elaterium.

Extract of Cuspa′′ria. Extract of angostura bark; Extractum cuspariæ, E. corticis c., E. angosturæ, L. Prep. 1. From angostura bark, as EXTRACT OF CINCHONA—Ph. L.

2. (Alcoholic.) As EXTRACT OF CINCHONA—Ph. E. Stronger than the last. Both are aromatic, bitter, tonic, and stimulant.—Dose, 10 gr. to ⁄2 dr.; in dyspepsia, chronic diarrhœa, dysentery, &c.

Extract of Daff′odil. Syn. Extractum narcissi, L. Prep. 1. From the fresh flowers of daffodil or yellow narcissus (Narcissus pseudo-narcissus), as EXTRACT OF ANCONITE—Ph. L.

2. (Alcoholic.) From the dried flowers, as EXTRACT OF BOX. Both are pectoral and expectorant; and in large doses nauseant and emetic.—Dose, ⁄2 gr. to 2 gr.; in hooping-cough, &c.

Extract of Dandeli′on. See Extract of Taraxacum.

Extract of Digita′lis. See Extract of Foxglove.

Extract of Dog’s Grass. See Extract of Couch Grass.

Extract of Dog′wood. Syn. Extractum cornûs, E. corni, L. Prep. From American or tree dogwood (Cornus Florida), as EXTRACT OF CINCHONA BARK.

Obs. In its general effects, American dogwood approaches the cinchonas, and is said to be not inferior to them in the cure of intermittents. (Bigelow.) It contains a peculiar bitter principle, called cornine. Several other varieties of the genus Cornus, as round-leaved dogwood (Cornus circinata), swamp dogwood (Cornus sericea), &c., are used in America, but are less valuable.

Extracts, Dried or Powdered. Syn. Extracta sicca vel pulverata (Ph. Prus.). These are made by mixing 4 parts of the extract with 1 part of powder of sugar of milk, and setting the mixture in a warm place till dry.

Triturate the mass to powder, adding more of the sugar of milk if necessary, to make the weight the same as the extract used. The German Pharmacopœia directs them to be mixed with dextrin, and then dried at a temperature of 122° Fahr., and, while still warm, triturated into a uniform powder, with dextrin q. s. to make the weight of the powder equal to twice the weight of the extract employed.

Extract of Dulcama′′ra. See Extract of Bitter Sweet.

Extract of Elate′rium. Syn. Inspissated juice of the squirting cucumber; Succus spissatus momordicæ elaterii. For preparation and recent synonyms, see Elaterium.

Extract of El′der Berries. Syn. Elder rob; Roob sambuci, Extractum sambuci, E. s. nigræ, E. Baccarum s., Succus sambuci inspissatus, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1788.) The expressed and depurated juice of elder berries, evaporated to the consistence of honey.

2. (Ph. E. 1744.) To the above, when it begins to thicken, add 1-5th part of sugar.

3. (Ph. Bor.) As the last (nearly), but adding only 1 oz. of white sugar to each pound of the extract whilst still warm.—Dose, 1 to 4 dr.; in rheumatism, gout, and various skin affections.

Extract of El′ecampane. Syn. Extractum inulæ, E. Radicum i. campanæ, E. Helenii, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1746.) From a decoction of the dried root.

2. (P. Cod.) As EXTRACT OF BISTORT—P. Cod.

3. (Ph. Suec 1845.) From a tincture prepared with proof spirit and water, equal parts.—Dose, 10 gr. to ⁄2 dr.; as a diaphoretic, expectorant, and tonic; in asthma, hooping-cough, various skin diseases, &c.

Extract of Elm. Syn. Extractum ulmi, E. corticus u., L. Prep. 1. From the decoction of the bark of the common elm (Ulmus campestris).

2. (Soubeiran.) As EXTRACT OF BOX. Astringent and alterative.—Dose, 20 gr. to 1 dr.; in secondary syphilis, chronic skin affections, &c.

Extract of Er′got. Syn. Aqueous extract of ergot, Hæmostatic extract; Extractum ergotæ, E. e. aquosum, E. secalis cornuti, E. hæmostaticum, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Extractum Ergotæ Liquidum. Ergot in coarse powder, 16; ether, 20; distilled water, 70; rectified spirit, 8. Shake the ether in a bottle with half its bulk of the water, and, after separation, decant the ether. Place the ergot in a percolator, and free it from oil by passing the washed ether through it; remove the marc and digest it in the remainder of the water for twelve hours at 160° F. Press out the liquor, and evaporate it to 9, and when cold add the 8 of spirit; allow it to stand for an hour to coagulate, filter, and make up the quantity to 16.—Dose, 15 to 30 minims.

According to Squire, the amount of ether employed should be double the above, in two percolations, and the marc should be dried in the air before digesting with water. See Ergotine (Bonjeau’s).

2. (Alcoholic; Extractum ergotæ alcoholicum, L.) See Ergotine (Wigger’s).

Extract of Eucalyptus Globulus. Syn. Extractum eucalypti globuli. (Griffith.) Prep. Eucalyptus leaves cut at will. Distil the volatile oil with water; exhaust the residue in the still with water, prepare an extract, exhaust this with alcohol, evaporate to the consistence of an extract, and, while cooling, stir in the volatile oil.—Dose, 2 gr. to 8 gr.

Extract of Fern. Syn. Extractum filicis 1iquidum—B. P. see Extract of Male Fern.

Extract of Fleabane (Canadian). Syn. Extractum erigeronis. Prep. 1. From Canadian fleabane, by evaporating an aqueous infusion.—Dose, 5 to 10 gr.

2. (Extractum erigerontis Canadensis Fluidum—Ph. U. S.) Canadian erigeron in moderately coarse powder, 16 oz. (troy); rectified spirit, 16 oz. (old measure). Proceed as for fluid extract of cubebs (Ph. U. S.).

Extract of Flesh. See Extract of Meat, Essence of Beef, Tea (Beef), &c.

Extract of Fox′glove. Syn. Extractum Digitalis (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) From the leaves of Digitalis purpurea, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE—(Ph. L.)

2. (Ph. E.) From the filtered expressed juice, either evaporated in vacuo, with the aid of heat, or by exposure to a current of dry air.

3. (P. Cod.)—a. As EXTRACT OF BISTORT—P. Cod.

b. As EXTRACT OF BOX—P. Cod.

4. (Ph. Baden.) As ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE—Ph. Bad.

Obs. The juice of foxglove is very readily injured by exposure to air and heat. The evaporation should therefore be conducted as rapidly as possible, but at a low temperature. It is narcotic, sedative, and is powerfully poisonous.—Dose, ⁄2 gr., cautiously increased to 2 or 3 gr. It is principally given in fevers, dropsy, diseases of the heart, pulmonary consumption, epilepsy, scrofula, and asthma. This extract spoils by long keeping. The last two are stronger than the rest, and keep better. It is omitted in the present Ph. L.

Extract of Fu′mitory. Syn. Extractum Fumariæ, L. Prep. 1. From either the infusion or decoction of the dried leaves of common fumitory (Fumaria officinalis).

2. (B. Cod.) From the clarified juice of the fresh herb. Slightly aperient, diaphoretic, and alterative. It has been given in obstructions of the liver and cutaneous affections of the leprous kind.

Extract of Galls. Syn. Extractum gallæ, E. gallarum, L. Prep. 1. From the infusion by maceration or displacement with cold water.

2. From the hot infusion or decoction. The first is to be preferred. Astringent. Used chiefly in ointments and injections for piles, foul ulcers, &c., and, internally, in hæmorrhages, spitting of blood, &c.

Extract of Gen′tian. Syn. Extractum gentianæ (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Gentian root (sliced), 3 lbs.; distilled water (temperate), 4 pints; macerate for 12 hours, and gently express the liquor; repeat the maceration with water, 1 quart, for 6 hours; and evaporate the mixed liquors.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) From the ordinary infusion of the root made with 10 or 12 times its weight of boiling water, the maceration being continued for 24 hours.

3. (Ph. E.) From an infusion prepared by percolation with cold water. The formulæ of the Ph. Baden, Paris, and U. S. are similar.

4. (B. P.) Gentian, 1 lb.; water (boiling), 10; macerate for 2 hours, boil 15 minutes, strain, and evaporate to a soft pilular consistence.—Dose, 10 to 15 gr.

5. (Ph. D. 1826.) From the decoction.

Obs. On the large scale, this extract is almost universally prepared by exhausting the root by coction with water, as in the last formula. When well prepared it is one of the smoothest and brightest extracts of the Pharmacopœia. Good gentian root yields by infusion in hot water fully 50%, and by decoction about 60% of extract.—Dose, 10 gr. to 30 gr., two or three times daily, as a stomachic bitter and tonic; either alone or combined with rhubarb, ginger, or aloes. It is, however, more especially used as a vehicle for chalybeates and other metallic preparations. The principal consumption of extract of gentian is by the brewers, in lieu of hops.

6. (Hard e. of g.; E. d. durum, L.) The last dried by a gentle heat until brittle enough to powder.

Extract (Fluid) of Ginger. Syn. Extractum zingiberis fluidum. (Ph. U. S.) As fluid extract of cubebs, but using rectified spirit.

Extract (Fluid) of Golden Seal. Syn. (Ph. U. S.) Extractum hydrastis Fluidum. Prep. Hydrastis (Golden Seal) in very fine powder, 16 oz. (troy); macerate with 2 oz. (old measure) of glycerine; rectified spirit, 14 oz. (old measure), in closed percolator for 4 days; then let the percolation commence, and finish it by adding a mixture consisting of 2 parts of spirit and 1 of water, until 24 oz. (old measure) have been obtained. Remove the first 14 oz.; evaporate the remaining 10 oz. to 2 oz. (old measure), and mix with the reserved portion.

Extract, Goulard’s. See Solution of Subacetate of Lead.

Extract of Guaiac′um. Syn. Extractum guaiaci, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1746.) From lignum vitæ shavings or sawdust, exhausted by coction with water; as soon as the mass becomes thick, 1-8th of rectified spirit is to be added.

2. As the last, omitting the spirit. Diaphoretic, diuretic, and alterative; in dropsy, gout, rheumatism, skin diseases, &c.

Extract of Guarana′. Syn. Extractum guaranæ, E. paulliniæ, L. Prep. (Dr Gavrelle.) From tincture of guarana (seeds of Paullinia sorbilis), prepared by coction with proof spirit. Tonic and alterative.—Dose, 2 to 5 gr., twice or thrice daily.

Extract, Hæmostat′ic. See Extract of Ergot.

Extract of Hedge Hyssop. Syn. Extractum gratiolæ, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Bor.) From the herb (Gratiola officinalis), as ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE—Ph. Bor.

2. (Ph. Baden.) As Extract of aconite—Ph. Baden.

3. (Vinous.) As VINOUS EXTRACT OF CINCHONA. Purgative, diuretic, and vermifuge.—Dose, 2 to 5 gr., gradually increased, watching its effects; in dropsy, jaundice, gout, &c. It has been said to be the basis of the celebrated ‘Eau Médicinale d’Husson,’

Extract of Hel′lebore. The extracts prepared from three different plants may be included under this head:—

1. (Extract of black hellebore; Extractum hellebori, E. h. nigri, L.)—a. (Ph. L., 1788.) From the infusion or decoction of black hellebore (Helleborus officinalis).—Dose, 5 to 12 gr.

b. (Alcoholic—P. Cod. & Ph. U. S.) As EXTRACT OF BOX (nearly). That of the Ph. Bad. is similar.—Dose, 3 to 8 gr.

c. (Vino-alcoholic—Cottereau.) Powdered black hellebore, 2 lbs.; salt of tartar, ⁄2 lb.; dilute alcohol (sp. gr. ·935), 7 pints; digest 12 hours, and express the tincture; add to the marc, white wine, 7 pints; digest for 24 hours, express, mix the tincture, filter, and evaporate.—Dose, 2 to 6 gr.

Obs. When prepared by coction with water till exhausted of soluble matter, black hellebore root yields about 40% of extract. In small doses it is alterative, purgative, and resolvent; in larger ones, it is a drastic, hydragogue cathartic, and emmenagogue, dangerous unless combined and its effects carefully watched.

2. (Extract of green hellebore, E. of american h., E. of itch-wood; Extractum veratri viridis, L.) From the fresh root (rhizome) of the green hellebore (Veratrum viride), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE—Ph. L.—Dose, ⁄6 to ⁄2 gr. Used in America in the same cases as white hellebore.

3. (Extract of white hellebore; Extractum veratri, E. hellebori albi, L.) From the root (rhizome) of the white hellebore (Veratrum album), as EXTRACT OF BLACK HELLEBORE.—Dose, ⁄12 gr. to ⁄4 gr. Emetic, purgative, stimulant, and highly acrid. In gout, rheumatism, and nervous affections, mania, &c. See Veratrine.

Extract of Hem′lock. Syn. Inspissated juice of hemlock; Extractum conii (B. P.), Succus spissatus conii, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) The inspissated juice of the fresh plant, prepared as directed for EXTRACTUM BELLADONNÆ.—Dose, 4 to 6 gr.

2. (Ph. L.) From the fresh plant (Conium maculatum), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE.—Ph. L.

3. (Ph. E.) As EXTRACT OF FOXGLOVE—Ph. E.

4. (Ph. D.) As EXTRACT OF BELLADONNA—Ph. D.

Obs. Of all the inspissated juices (not even excepting that of aconite), this is the one most readily injured by exposure to the air and heat, and which soonest loses its qualities by age. Its active principle is CONINE. Extract of hemlock has a greenish colour, and a strong odour of the fresh-bruised plant. It is “of good quality only when a very strong odour of conia (a ‘mouse-odour’) is disengaged by degrees, on its being carefully triturated with liquor of potassa.” (Ph. E.) “The extracts of hemlock may become feeble, if not inert, in one of two ways,—either by the heat being continued after the concentration has been carried to a certain extent, or by long keeping. On the one hand, I have always observed that from the point at which the extract attains the consistence of thin syrup, ammonia begins to be given off in abundance, together with a modified odour of conine; and, on the other hand, I have found extracts which were unquestionably well prepared at first, entirely destitute of conine in a few years.” (Christison.) “The most active extract is that which is procured by moderate pressure from the leaves only.” (Brande.) “The extract of the Ph. D., being freed from the inert albumen and chlorophyll, contains most of the active principle, and is nearly soluble in water.” (Royle.) On the large scale, the whole of the green portion of the plant is pressed for juice. 1 cwt. of hemlock yields from 3 to 5 lbs. of extract.—Dose, 2 gr., gradually increased to 5 gr., or more, until some obvious effect is produced; as an anodyne, alterative, and resolvent in various obstinate disorders, as glandular and visceral enlargements, foul and painful ulcers, scrofula, cancer, neuralgia, rheumatism, troublesome coughs, &c.

5. (Alcoholic; Extractum conii alcoholicum, L.)—a. (Ph. Baden.) As ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE—Ph. Baden.

b. (P. Cod.) As the last, but using proof spirit.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 gr.

6. (Dried; Extractum conii siccum, L.)—a. As the DRIED EXTRACT OF ACONITE—P. Cod.

b. (Archer.) By drying the extract of the Dublin College with a continuous current of warm air.

7. (Extractum conii seminis alcoholicum.) (P. Cod.) Prep. Hemlock seeds in coarse powder, 1 lb; percolate with proof spirit until exhausted. Distil off most of the spirit, and evaporate residue in a water bath to pilular consistence.

Extract of Hemp. Syn. Extract of American hemp; Extractum apocyni, E. a. cannabini, L. Prep. From the root of the Apocynum cannabinum, as EXTRACT OF GENTIAN. A hydragogue cathartic.—Dose, 2 to 6 gr.; in dropsy, &c. The plant from which this extract is prepared is called ‘Indian HEMP’ in the United States of America, a practice which should be avoided, as this name is now almost exclusively appropriated to Cannabis Indica, a variety of the common hemp (Cannabis sativa, var. Indica) growing in India. See Extract of Indian Hemp.

Extract of Hen′bane. Syn. Extract of hyoscyamus; Extractum hyoscyami (B. P.), Succus spissatus hyoscyami, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) From the fresh leaves and leafstems of common henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE—Ph. L.

2. (Ph. E.) As EXTRACT OF FOXGLOVE—Ph. E.

3. (Ph. P.) From the fresh leaves and young branches, as EXTRACT OF BELLADONNA.—Dose, 3 to 6 gr.

4. (Ph. U. S.) From the expressed juice coagulated by heat and strained.

Obs. In the Paris Codex Extracts are ordered to be prepared from henbane both by the processes Nos. 1 and 4 above.—Product (by the ordinary method):—1 lb. of the fresh leaves yielded fully 8 dr. of extract (Geiger); 1 cwt. yielded 4 to 5 lb. (Brande); 1 cwt. of the recent plant yielded, by an ordinary screw press, 59⁄2 lbs. of juice, and this evaporated in a water bath gave 5 lbs. 9 oz. of extract (Squire); 1⁄4 cwt. of the green herb yielded 11 lbs. of extract (Gray).—Dose, 2 to 10 gr.; as an anodyne, hypnotic, antispasmodic, sedative, and narcotic, more especially in those cases in which the use of opium is objectionable. Externally, as a topical application to sore or inflamed parts, either made into an ointment or spread on plaster.

5. (Alcoholic; Extractum hyoscyami alcoholicum, L.) The formulæ of the Ph. Bad., Par. & U. S. are similar to those for ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE.

6. (E. of henbane seeds; Extractum seminum hyoscyami, L.—P. Cod.) An extract of the seeds made with spirit sp. gr. ·900 (=about 16 o. p.) is dissolved in 4 parts of cold water, and the solution filtered and evaporated. Stronger than the simple extract.—Dose, ⁄4 to 3 gr.

Extract of Ho′ly This′tle. Syn. Extractum cardui benedicti, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Baden.) From holy or blessed thistle (Carduus Benedictus) by displacement with cold water.

2. (Ph. Bor.) As EXTRACT OF GENTIAN—Ph. L. (nearly). Tonic, diaphoretic, febrifuge, often diuretic, and occasionally emetic.—Dose, 5 to 15 gr., as a tonic or stomachic chiefly.

Extract of Hops. Syn. Extractum lupuli (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), E. humuli (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Hop, 8; rectified spirit, 15; distilled water, 80. Macerate the hop in the spirit for 7 days, press out the tincture, filter, and distil off the spirit, leaving a soft extract; boil the residual hop with the water for one hour, then express the liquor, strain, and evaporate on a water bath to the consistence of a soft extract. Mix the two extracts, and evaporate at a temperature not exceeding 160° to a pilular consistence.—Dose, 5 to 10 gr.

2. (Ph. L.) From commercial hops (the strobiles or catkins of Humulus Lupulus), 2⁄2 lbs.; boiling distilled water, 2 galls.; macerate for 24 hours, boil to a gallon, strain whilst hot, and evaporate to a proper consistence. The form of the Ph. E. is nearly similar.

3. (Ph. D.) As EXTRACT of ALOES—Ph. D. Tonic and stomachic, and slightly anodyne and hypnotic.—Dose, 5 gr. to 30 gr.; in dyspepsia, and cases that do not permit of the use of opium. 1 cwt. of ordinary hops yield about 40 lbs. of extract. (Brande.) The druggists usually employ hops 2 or more years old, called by the dealers ‘yearlings,’ ‘olds,’ or ‘old olds,’ because these may be purchased at ⁄3 to ⁄2 the price of those of the last season’s growth. The first of the above are estimated to have only ⁄3 the strength of new hops; the second about ⁄2; and the last little or none, at least in a medical point of view.

4. (Alcoholic; Extractum lupuli alcoholicum, L.—Cottereau.) By displacement with proof spirit. Stronger than the aqueous extract.

Extract of Hore′hound. Syn. Extractum marrubii, L. Prep. 1. From the fresh herb, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE.

2. From the infusion or decoction. Antispasmodic, pectoral, tonic, and emmenagogue.—Dose, 10 gr. to 1 dr.

3. (Ph. Baden.) By displacement with cold water.

4. (Alcoholic; Extractum marrubii alcoholicum, L.)—a. From a tincture made with proof spirit. Said by M. Thoriel to possess considerable power as a febrifuge.—Dose, 5 gr. to 20 gr.

b. (Ph. Lusit.) From a tincture made with a mixture of rectified spirit, 1 part, and water, 7 parts. Inferior to the last.

Extract of Ind′ian Hemp. Syn. Cannabine, Hemp resin, Alcoholic extract of Indian hemp; Extractum cannabis Indicæ, E. c. I. alcoholicum, Resina cannabis, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Indian hemp in coarse powder, 1; rectified spirit, 5; macerate seven days, press out the tincture, distil off the spirit, and evaporate.—Dose, ⁄4 to 1 grain in pill.

2. (O’Shaughnessy.) The dried resinous tops of Indian hemp (‘GUNJAH’) are boiled in rectified spirit until all the resin is taken up, when most of the spirit is distilled off, and the evaporation completed by the heat of a water bath. 1 cwt. yields about 7 lbs.

3. (Robertson). By slowly acting on the ‘gunjah’ with the vapour of alcohol, by a species of percolation; the spirit of the resulting tincture is partly removed by distillation, and the rest by slow evaporation at a temperature not above 150° Fahr. 1 cwt. yields about 8 lbs.—Dose of the last two, 1 to 3 gr., gradually increased.

4. (Messrs Smith.) The bruised ‘gunjah’ is exhausted with tepid water, then with a solution of carbonate of soda (1 of carbonate to 2 of gunjah), and next with pure water; it is then pressed, dried, and exhausted by displacement with rectified spirit; the tincture is agitated with a milk of lime (containing 1 oz. of lime for every lb. of gunjah), and, after filtration or decantation, any retained lime is precipitated by a little sulphuric acid in slight excess; the tincture is next agitated with animal charcoal, and again filtered; most of the spirit is now removed by distillation, and 3 or 4 times its bulk of water being added, the remaining spirit is removed by a gentle heat; lastly, the remaining water is poured off, and the resin remaining washed with fresh water, and dried. Product, 6%.—Commencing dose, ⁄4 gr.

3. (Purified; Extractum cannabis Indicæ purificatum, L.—Ph. D.) From the crude extract of Indian hemp, as imported (‘CHURRUS’), 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 4 fl. oz.; dissolve, and after defecation, decant, and evaporate.

Obs. The preparations of Indian hemp are said to be anæsthetic, anodyne, hypnotic, stimulant, phrenic, and aphrodisiac, and, in overdoses, to produce catalepsy. They have been recommended in hysteria, hydrophobia, cholera, rheumatism, chorea, convulsions, and various other painful spasmodic and nervous affections of a serious character. According to the observations of Dr O’Shaughnessy, 1 gr. of the extract produced catalepsy in a rheumatic patient. The extract prepared with the plant grown in our botanic gardens has quite a different effect to that of the Indian plant; and it also appears that the inhabitants of this country are less susceptible to its action than those of India, and consequently bear the drug in larger doses. This hemp is known in India as the ‘increaser of pleasure,’ the ‘exciter of desire,’ the ‘cementer of friendship,’ the ‘causer of a reeling gait,’ the ‘laughter-mover,’ &c. See Extract of Hemp (above), Hemp, &c.

Extract of Ipecac′uanha. Syn. Extractum ipecacuanha, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From ipecacuanha, as EXTRACT OF BOX.—P. Cod.

2. (Ph. Bor.) As Extract of henbane seeds. Expectorant and emetic.—Dose, 1⁄2 to 8 gr.

Extract of I′ron. Syn. Extractum ferri, E. martis, L. Prep. 1. From tincture of tartarised iron.—Dose, 2 to 10 gr.; as a chalybeate tonic.

2. (Compound.) See Extract of Apple.

Extract of Jabor′andi (Fluid). (F. V. Greene, ‘Amer. Journ. Pharm.,’ 1877.) Prep. Jaborandi leaves in moderately fine powder, 16 troy oz.; alcohol (50 per cent.), a sufficient quantity. Moisten the powder thoroughly with the menstruum, pack in a conical glass percolator, place a layer of two inches of well-washed sand on the top of the cloth covering the material, add menstruum until the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, when the lower orifice is to be closed with a cork, and the percolator securely covered; set aside in a moderately warm place for four days. At the expiration of this time remove the cork, and add more menstruum by degrees until the material is exhausted. The first 14 ounces (old measure) of the percolate are to be reserved, and the remainder evaporated on a water bath, with constant stirring towards the close, to 2 fluid ounces (old measure), which are to be added to the reserved portion. If the percolation and evaporation have been properly performed the fluid extract will not be required to be filtered.

Extract of Jal′ap. Syn. Extractum jalapæ (B. P.), E. sive resina jalapæ (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Jalap in coarse powder, 1; rectified spirit, 5; distilled water, 10; macerate the jalap in the spirit for seven days, press out the tincture, then filter, and distil off the spirit, leaving a soft extract; again macerate the residual jalap in the water for four hours, express, strain through flannel, and evaporate by a water bath to a soft extract; mix the two extracts, and evaporate at a temperature not exceeding 140° F. to a proper consistence for forming pills.—Dose, 5 to 15 gr.

2. (Ph. L.) Jalap (powdered) 2⁄2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; digest four days, and express the tincture; boil the ‘marc’ in water, 2 galls.; until reduced to ⁄2 gall.; filter the tincture and decoction separately, and let the one distil and the other evaporate until each thickens; lastly, mix the two and complete the evaporation.—Product. About 66% = 16% of alcoholic and 50% of aqueous extract. (Brande.) 18 lbs. yield 12 lbs. of extract. (Lab. Journ.)—Dose, 6 to 15 gr.

3. (Ph. E.) From tincture of jalap prepared by displacement with rectified spirit. It consists of impure resin of jalap. It is more active than the last.—Prod. 16%.—Dose, 2 to 6 gr.

4. (Ph. Ed. 1744, Extractum jalapæ alkalinum.) As extract jalap (B. P.) adding for every pound of jalap, 1 oz., or q. s. of carbonate of potash.

Obs. Extract of jalap is an active purgative. It should be well beaten up with a little sulphate of potassa, sugar, or some aromatic powder, to prevent it griping. The substance commonly sold as extract of jalap in the shops is prepared by boiling jalap root for 3 or 4 hours in water, when it is taken out, and well bruised or sliced, and again boiled with water until exhausted of soluble matter. The mixed decoctions are then allowed 12 or 14 hours for defecation, after which the supernatant portion is decanted and evaporated.

Extract of jalap “should be kept in the soft state (EXTRACTUM JALAPÆ, E. J. MOLLE), so as to form pills; and in the hard state (HARD EXTRACT OF JALAP; EXTRACTUM JALAPÆ DURUM), that it may be rubbed to powder.” (Ph. L.)

Extract of Jasmine (Yellow). Syn. Extractum Gelsemii fluidum. (Ph. U. S.) Prep. Yellow jasmine in very fine powder, 16 oz. (troy); rectified spirit, 16 oz. (old measure). Proceed as for fluid extract of cubebs. (Ph. U. S.)

Extract of Ju′niper. Syn. Extractum juniperi, E. baccarum j., L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Macerate juniper berries in water at 77° to 86° Fahr., for 24 hours, strain, repeat the process with a fresh quantity of water, mix the liquors, filter, and evaporate.—Dose, 20 gr. to 1 dr.; as a stimulant diuretic, in dropsy, &c.; and also as a pill-basis.

Extract of Kalada′na. Syn. Extractum kaladanæ, L. Prep. (Bengal Disp.) From the tincture of the seeds of kaladana (Pharbitis Nil). Purgative said to be equal to EXTRACT OF JALAP, and of double the strength.

Extract of Lettuce. Syn. Inspissated juice of lettuce; Extractum lactucæ (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) The inspissated juice evaporated to a pillular consistence, according to the directions given for EXTRACTUM BELLADONNÆ.

2. (Ph. L.) From the fresh leaves of garden lettuce (Lactuca sativa), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE—Ph. L. Anodyne, sedative, hypnotic, and antispasmodic.—Dose, 3 to 10 gr. 1 cwt. of lettuce yields 4 lbs. to 5 lbs. of extract.

3. (Probait.) From the external parts of the stalks and the old and yellow leaves, after the plants have flowered, by maceration in water for 24 hours, and decoction for 2 hours; the expressed liquid is first evaporated by a gentle heat, and afterwards spread on shallow dishes, and dried by exposure to a current of air. Stronger than the last.—Dose, 1 to 5 gr.

4. (E. of wild lettuce, Inspissated juice of w. l.; Extractum lactucæ virosæ, Succus spissatus l. v.—Ph. E., L.)—a. (Ph. E.) From the leaves of strong-scented wild lettuce (Lactuca virosa).

b. (P. Cod.) As ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE.—P. Cod.

c. (Ph. Baden.) As EXTRACT OF FOXGLOVE—Ph. Baden. See Lactucarium.

Extract of Liq′uorice. Syn. Extractum glycyrrhizæ (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (Soft e. of l.; Extractum glycyrrhizæ molle, L.)—a. (Ph. L.) From fresh liquorice root, as EXTRACT OF HOPS—Ph. L.

b. (Ph. E.) From the fresh root, cut into slices, dried, and powdered, as EXTRACT OF GENTIAN—Ph. E. The form of the Ph. Baden is very similar.

c. (Ph. D.) As ordered for simple extracts (EXTRACTA SIMPLICIORA—Ph. D.).

d. (B. P.) Liquorice root in coarse powder, 1; cold distilled water, 5; macerate the root in half the water for twelve hours, strain, and press; again macerate the pressed marc with the remainder of the water for 6 hours, strain and press, mix the strained liquors, heat to 212° F., strain, and evaporate to a pill consistence.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1 dr.

e. (B. P. Extractum glycyrrhizæ liquidum.) Prep. Liquorice root in coarse powder, 1 lb.; distilled water, 4 pints. Macerate the liquorice with two pints of water for twelve hours, strain, and press; again macerate the pressed marc with the remainder of the water for six hours, strain, and press. Mix the strained liquors, heat to 212° Fahr., and strain through flannel; then evaporate by a water bath until it has acquired, when cold, a specific gravity of 1·160; add to this one eighth of its volume of rectified spirit; let the mixture stand for twelve hours and filter.

f. (U. S. Disp.) Crude liquorice (Spanish juice), q. s. is dissolved in water, and the solution filtered and evaporated. To produce a good article (EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZÆ PURIFICATUM) in this way, the solution should be allowed some hours for defecation, and should not be decanted and strained until quite cold.

Obs. Soft extract of liquorice is often employed as a pill-basis, and the hard extract (Spanish juice, &c.) is used as a lozenge to allay tickling cough. The principal portion of the latter is, however, consumed by the porter brewers and brewers’ druggists. The product of the last formula, evaporated until it is quite solid when cold, and made into small pipes, sticks, or rolls, forms the BEST REFINED LIQUORICE or REFINED JUICE of the shops.

2. (Hard e. of l., Spanish juice, S. liquorice, Glycyrrhizin, Black sugar; Extractum glycyrrhizæ simplex, E. g. durum, Succus g., S. g. spissatus, L.) This is seldom prepared by the English druggists, being principally imported in the dry state from Spain and Italy. That from Solazzi (Solazzi juice) is the most esteemed. A great deal of the foreign extract is mixed with fecula, or the pulp of plums, hence its inferior quality. It also frequently contains copper, derived from the boilers in which it is prepared. The extract prepared from the fresh root is usually preferred to the best foreign, as the latter has a less sweet and agreeable taste. Refined juice is prepared by dissolving the foreign juice in water, filtering and evaporating. See Liquorice, and above.

Extract of Lobe′lia. Syn. Acetic extract of Indian tobacco; Extractum lobeliæ, E. l. inflatæ, L. Prep. (W. Proctor.) Lobelia seeds (bruised), 8 oz.; dilute alcohol (sp. gr. ·935), 4 pints; acetic acid, 1 fl. oz.; by maceration for 24 hours, and subsequent displacement. Expectorant and diaphoretic, in small doses; emetic and narcotic, in larger ones. It is principally used in asthma and other chest diseases.—Dose, ⁄4 gr. to 5 gr.

Extract of Log′wood. Syn. Extractum hæmatoxyli (B. P.), E. h. Campechiani, (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Logwood in chips, 1; boiling distilled water, 10; macerate 24 hours, boil to 5, strain, and evaporate to an extract, but not in iron vessels.

2. (Ph. L.) From cut logwood (logwood chips), as EXTRACT OF HOPS—Ph. L.

3. (Ph. E.) As the last (nearly).

4. (Ph. D. 1826 and Wholesale.) From the decoction.

Obs. The Ph. U. S. 1841 orders the wood to be rasped. The Ph. Baden directs displacement with cold water. On the large scale, this extract is prepared solely by decoction. 1 cwt. of wood yields about 20 lbs. of extract (Brande); 80 lbs. yield 14 lbs. of extract (Gray.) It is kept in two states—hard (EXTRACTUM HÆMATOXYLI DURUM) and soft (E. H. MOLLE). The dose of the first is 10 to 20 gr., dissolved in wine, or any cordial water; as an astringent, after each motion in diarrhœa; the second is often employed as a lozenge in the same disease, and is an inexpensive and agreeable remedy for simple relaxation of the bowels.

Extract of Lov′age. Syn. Extractum levistici, L. Prep. (Ph. Baden.) From lovage (Levisticum officinale), as EXTRACT OF BISTORT—P. Cod. Aromatic, stomachic, and diaphoretic.—Dose, 5 to 15 gr.

Extract of Lu′puline. Syn. Extractum lupulinæ, L. Prep. 1. From lupuline (the powder separated from hops by rubbing and sifting), by infusion in cold water, or by displacement.

2. (Extractum lupulinæ coctione paratum.) From the decoction. Both similar to extract of hops, but stronger. The first is the most aromatic; the last the most bitter.

Extract of Mad′der. Syn. Extractum rubiæ. L. Prep. (Ph. Hamb.) From the tincture of dyer’s madder (Rubia tinctorum), made with rectified spirit, 1 part, and water, 3 parts.—Dose, 10 gr. to 30 gr.; as a diuretic, emmenagogue, and parturifacient; and in jaundice, &c.

Extract of Mahog′any. Syn. Extractum swieteniæ, L. From the chips and sawdust of mahogany (Swietenia Mahogoni). It is astringent, and is frequently sold for kino. It is also employed in tanning.

Extract of Male Fern. Syn. Alcoholic extract of male fern; Extractum filicis, B. P. Prep. 1. (Dr Ebers.) From the tincture of the dried root of male fern (Lastræa Filix-mas), made with rectified spirit. In tape-worm.—Dose, 20 gr. to ⁄2 dr., twice a day, made into an electuary with powdered sugar, and followed by a strong dose of castor oil.

2. (Ethereal.) B. P. (Extractum filicis liquidum.) Fern root, in coarse powder, 1; ether, 2⁄2, or a sufficiency. Pack closely in a percolator with 1 of the ether, add the rest at intervals, until it passes through colourless, distil off the ether, and the liquid extract remains.—Dose, 30 to 60 minims. See Oil of Male Fern.

Extract of Malt. Syn. Extractum malti, E. Bynes, L. Prep. 1. From the infusion made with water at a temperature ranging between 160° and 170° Fahr., drained off, without pressure, and evaporated to the consistence of honey. Nutritious and laxative.—Dose. A table-spoonful, or more, ad libitum.

2. Extract of malt, ferrated. (Ph. G.) Extract of malt, 47⁄2 oz., mixed with 1 oz. of pyrophosphate of iron and citrate of ammonia, dissolved in 1⁄2 oz. of water.

Extract of Ma′′rygold. Syn. Extractum calendulæ, L. Prep. 1. (Guibourt.) By maceration of the herb and flowers of the common marygold (Calendula officinalis) in tepid water for 24 hours, and subsequent coction for 15 or 20 minutes.

2. (Ph. Baden.) As EXTRACT OF ANGELICA—Ph. Baden.—Dose, 2 to 10 gr.; cordial, diaphoretic, alterative, and emmenagogue; in dyspepsia, and scirrhous and cancerous affections.

Extract of May-apple. Syn. Extractum podophylli. L. Prep. (Ph. U. S. 1841.) From the tincture of the root (rhizomes) of may-apple (Podophyllum peltatum).—Dose, 5 to 15 gr.; as a substitute for extract of jalap. See Podophyllin.

Extract of Mea′dow Saf′fron. See Extract of Colchicum.

Extract of Meat. Syn. Extract of flesh; Extractum carnis, L. Prep. (Liebig.) The lean of recently killed meat (chopped very small), 1 part; cold water, 8 parts; agitate it well together for 10 minutes; then heat it gradually to the boiling-point, let it simmer gently for a few minutes, and strain through a hair sieve whilst still hot; lastly, evaporate to a soft mass. 1 lb. of meat yields barely 1 oz. See Essence of Beef, Tea (Beef), &c.

Extract of Mezere′on. Syn. Mezereon resin; Extractum mezerei, Resina mezerei, L. Prep. 1. (Alcoholic; E. m. alcoholicum, L.)—a. (Ph. Hamb.) By distilling off ⁄6ths of the tincture made with rectified spirit, and filtering the residue, retaining what is left on the filter.

b. By the simple distillation of the tincture.

Obs. Green or brownish green; insoluble in water. ⁄2 oz. mezereon root-bark yielded 1⁄2 oz. (Hamb. Disp.) It is chiefly used in preparing blistering ointments and plasters.

2. (Ethereal; Green oil of mezereon; Extractum mezerei æthereum. B. P.)—a. B. P. Mezereon bark cut small, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 8 pints; ether, 1 pint. Macerate the mezereon in 6 pints of the spirit for 3 days, with frequent agitation, strain, and press. To the residue of the mezereon add the remainder of the spirit, and again macerate for 3 days, with constant agitation, strain, and press. Mix and filter the strained liquors, recover the greater part of the spirit by distillation, evaporate what remains to the consistence of a soft extract, put this in a stoppered bottle with the ether, and macerate for 24 hours, shaking them frequently; decant the etherial solution, recover part of the ether by distillation, and evaporate what remains to the consistence of a soft extract.

b. (Ph. Bor.) By digesting alcoholic extract of mezereon in ether for some days with agitation, reducing the tincture to 1-4th by careful distillation, and evaporating the residuum by a gentle heat to the consistence of an extract.

c. (Ph. U. S. Extractum mezerei fluidum.) Mezereon in moderately coarse powder, 16 oz. (troy); alcohol (·817), 16 oz. (old measure); proceed as for fluid extract of cubebs. (Ph. U. S.)

Obs. Both the alcoholic and ethereal extract of mezereon must be kept in stoppered bottles. The latter, like the former, is used as an external irritant.

Extract of Mil′foil. Syn. Extractum millefolii, E. Achiliæ m., L. Prep. From the herb milfoil or yarrow (Achillea millefolium), as EXTRACT OF HOPS—Ph. L. Astringent, tonic, and alterative.—Dose, 10 gr. to ⁄2 dr.

Extract of Mimo′sa Bark. Syn. Extractum corticis mimosæ, L. Prep. From the bark of several Australian species of Acacia or Mimosa (Acacia mollissima, A. decurrens, A. melanoxylon, &c.). It is chiefly imported from Van Diemen’s Land. Astringent. Said to be superior to oak bark for tanning.

Extract of Mone′sia Bark. Syn. Extractum monesiæ, E. m. purificatum, L. Prep. From the monesia or buranheim bark (bark of Chrysophyllum Buranheim); or from commercial monesia, as EXTRACT OF CATECHU. Astringent.—Dose, 4 to 8 gr.

Extract of Mug′wort. Syn. Extractum artemisiæ, L. Prep. From the tops of the common mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris), as EXTRACT OF BOX,—P. Cod. An active emmenagogue.

Extract of Myrrh. Syn. Extractum myrrhæ, L. Prep. 1. (Aqueous; Extractum myrrhæ aquosum, L.)—a. From the strained decoction.

b. (Ph. Bor.) As EXTRACT OF ALOES—Ph. Bor., afterwards reducing it to a fine powder. The formula of the Ph. Baden is similar.—Dose, 6 to 15 gr., or more.

2. (Alcoholic; Resin of myrrh; Extractum myrrhæ alcoholicum, E. m. resinosum, L.) From the tincture. Tonic and stimulant.—Dose, 5 to 10 gr., or more.

3. (Compound; Extractum myrrhæ compositum, L.—Swediaur.) Myrrh, 2 oz.; gum arabic (in powder), 2 dr.; triturate, add water, q. s. to form a thick emulsion, and add extract of couch grass, 4 oz. Much recommended in phthisis and uterine ulcerations.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr. in water, twice or thrice daily.

Extracts, Narcotic, with Sugar. Syn. Extractum narcotica cum saccharo. (Guager.) Prep. Dissolve 6 oz. of alcoholic extract of the plant in 14 dr. or 2 oz. of strong alcohol by trituration in a porcelain mortar, and mix with it 30 oz. of powdered white sugar, gradually added, with constant stirring. Set the mixture in a warm situation until dry. Add sugar q. s. to make up 36 oz. These preparations are less liable to lose their efficacy than the simple extracts. 6 gr. represent one of the extract.

Extract of Net′tles. Syn. Extractum urticæ, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the juice of nettles (Urtica dioica), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE—Ph. L. Antiscorbutic, diuretic, and narcotic.

Extract of Nose′gay. Syn. Essence of nosegay; Extrait de bouquet, Fr. Prep. Flowers of benzoin, 1 dr.; essence of ambergris, 2 fl. oz.; spirits of jasmine and extract (esprit) of violets, of each 1 pint; spirits of cassia, roses, orange flowers and gillyflowers, of each ⁄2 pint; mix. A delightful perfume.

Extract of Nux Vom′ica. Syn. Extract of koochla nuts; Extractum nucis vomicæ, B. P. Prep. 1. (Aqueous; E. n. v. Aquosum, L.—Ph. Bor.) From the powdered nut, as EXTRACT OF HOPS—Ph. L. (nearly.)—Dose, 1 to 5 gr.

2. (Alcoholic; Extractum nucis vomicæ—Ph. L. E. and D., E. n. v. alcoholicum, L.)—a. (B. P.) Soften nux vomica by steam, dry rapidly, and reduce to fine powder; boil with rectified spirit until exhausted, strain, distil off the spirit, and evaporate to the consistence of a soft extract.—Dose, ⁄2 to 2 gr.

b. (Ph. L.) Koochla or poison nuts (seed or fruit of Strychnos Nux-vomica), 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 3 pints; expose them to steam until softened, then bruise, slice, and dry them, and macerate them in 2-3rds of the spirit for 7 days; express the tincture, and repeat the maceration with the remaining 1-3rd of the spirit; again express the liquid; lastly, filter the mixed tinctures, distil off the greater part of the spirit, and complete the evaporation by a gentle heat. The formula of the P. Cod. is similar, but using spirit sp. gr. ·863 (=41 o. p.).

c. (Ph. E.) The sliced and dried nuts are to be ground in a coffee-mill, and either exhausted by percolation with rectified spirit or by boiling the powder in repeated portions of the menstruum. The formulæ of the Ph. Baden and U. S. are similar.

d. (Ph. D. 1826.) From a tincture of the rasped nut made with proof spirit, observing that the extract, whilst thickening, should be properly stirred.

Obs. This extract consists chiefly of impure igasurate of strychnia, and is exhibited in similar cases to that alkaloid. Used as a stimulant of the nervous system in paralysis.—Dose, ⁄2 gr., gradually and cautiously increased to 2 gr. It is very poisonous. On the large scale, the nuts are ground in a drug-mill.

Extract of Oak Bark. Syn. Extractum quercûs, E. corticis quercûs, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) From the decoction. Astringent.—Dose, 10 gr. to ⁄2 dr. Now seldom used.

Extract of O′pium. Prep. 1. (Aqueous extract of opium, Simple e. of o.; Extractum opii (B. P.), E. o. aquosum (Ph. D.), E. o. purificatum, L.)—a. (B. P.) Opium in thin slices, 1 lb.; distilled water, 6 pints. Macerate the opium in 2 pints of the water for 24 hours, and express the liquor. Reduce the residue of the opium to a uniform pulp, macerate again in 2 pints of the water for 24 hours, and express. Repeat the operation a third time. Mix the liquors, strain through flannel, and evaporate by a water bath to a proper consistence for forming pills.—Dose, ⁄2 to 1 gr., or more.

b. (Ph. L.) Opium (powdered), 1⁄2 lb.; distilled water (cold), 2⁄2 pints; mix gradually, and macerate for 24 hours, frequently stirring with a spatula; (press), strain, and repeat the maceration for 24 hours with a fresh quantity (2⁄2 pints) of water; lastly, evaporate the (mixed) strained liquors to a proper consistence. The formulæ of the Ph. E. D. and Baden, and P. Cod., are essentially the same.

c. (Ph. D. 1826.) As the last, but using boiling water, and exposing the mixed liquors to the air for 2 days, before filtering, and evaporating them. Inferior to the last.

d. (Purified.) The extract, prepared with cold water, is evaporated to dryness, powdered, and redissolved in cold water; after 48 hours’ exposure, and defecation, it is decanted from the dregs, filtered, and gently evaporated, as before. Superior to any other extract of opium made.

Obs. Good opium yields from 60% to 70% of its weight of extract, but much depends upon the variety used.—Dose, ⁄4 gr. to 2 gr., as an anodyne, sedative, and hypnotic. It is less stimulating than ordinary opium. That prepared by the third formula is, indeed, scarcely inferior in its action to the salts of morphine.

This extract is kept in both the hard and soft state (EXTRACTUM OPII DURUM, E. O. MOLLE). A solution of the former, in distilled water, with the addition of a little spirit to keep it, forms Battley’s ‘LIQUOR OPII SEDATIVUS,’ The Dublin formula is that adopted by the wholesale druggists.

Besides the aqueous extract, there are the following preparations:—

2. (Extractum opii liquidum, B. P.; Extract of opium.) Distilled water, 16; rectified spirit, 4. Digest the extract of opium in the water for an hour, stirring frequently; filter, and add the spirit. The product should measure 20.—Dose, 10 to 30 minims.

3. (Acetic; Extractum opii aceticum, L.—Soubeiran.) Opium, 1 oz.; distilled vinegar, 1 quart; digest 2 days (with heat), decant, filter, and evaporate.

4. (Alcoholic; Extractum opii alcoholicum, L.—Ph. Antwerp.) From the tincture.

5. (Aqueo-alcoholic; E. opii aquo-alcoholicum, L.—Taddei.) The opium, exhausted by spirit, is digested in warm water, and the infusion and tincture, separately filtered, are mixed and evaporated.

6. (De-narcotised; Extractum opii absque narcotina, L.—a. (P. Cod.) The aqueous extract is reduced with hot water to the consistence of a syrup, and when cold this is mixed with 8 times its volume of ether, and the whole is frequently shaken for a day or two; the ethereal solution is then decanted, and the process repeated with fresh ether, as long as it dissolves anything. The original form of Robiquet is similar. Said to consist entirely of impure MURIATE OF MORPHINE, GUM, and EXTRACTIVE.

b. (M. Lamousin-Lamothe.) Aqueous extract, 4 parts; resin, 1 part; beat well together; add boiling water, 16 parts; boil to one half; add cold water, 8 parts, filter, and evaporate.

7. (By fermentation; Extractum opii per fermentationem, L.)—a. Opium and sugar, of each 4 oz.; water, 1 quart; rub together, and keep the mixture, loosely covered, in a warm situation (about 70° Fahr.), for 10 days or more; then add of cold water, 1 quart, and the next day filter and evaporate.

b. (Duyeux.) From an unstrained mixture of opium, 1 part, with water, 8 parts, and a little yeast; left for a week at a temperature of 68° to 77° Fahr., and then diluted, filtered, and evaporated. Some parties have recommended quince juice as the menstruum.

8. (Roasted; Extractum opii torrefacti, L.—Guibourt.) Powdered opium is heated on a flat dish over a moderate fire, with constant stirring, as long as fumes are given off; it is then exhausted by treating it twice with 6 times its weight of water, and the mixed liquor, after filtration, is evaporated.

9. (Vinous; Extractum opii vino paratum, L.—P. Cod.) From wine of opium. The above extracts of opium (excepting the alcoholic) are regarded as less exciting than the other preparations of the drug. The dose of each is similar to that of the aqueous extract.

Extract of Or′ange Peel. Syn. Extractum corticis aurantii, L. Prep. 1. From the thin yellow peel, as EXTRACT OF MADDER.

2. See Aurantii.

Extract of Ox-gall. Syn. Inspissated ox-gall; Extractum fellis bovini, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From ox-gall, strained, and evaporated in a water bath.—Dose, 5 to 15 gr.; in pills.

2. (Hunter Lane.) As the last, but reducing the gall to dryness, and then powdering it. It must be preserved in well-corked bottles.—Dose, 3 to 12 gr.

Extract of Parei′ra. Syn. Extractum pareiræ (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Pareira root in coarse powder, 1; boiling distilled water, 10, or a sufficiency; digest the pareira with 1⁄2 of water for twenty-four hours, then pack in a percolator, and water till by slow percolation 10 has passed through; evaporate in a water bath to a pilular consistence.—Dose, 13 to 20 gr.

2. (Ph. L.) From the root of velvet leaf or pareira brava (Cissampelos Pareira), as EXTRACT OF HOPS—Ph. L.

3. (P. E.) As EXTRACT OF LIQUORICE—Ph. E. The P. Cod. formula is similar. Alterative, tonic, and diuretic.—Dose, 10 gr. to ⁄2 dr.; chiefly in affections of the bladder.

4. Extractum pareira liquidum (B. P.). Pareira in coarse powder, 16; boiling distilled water, 160, or a sufficiency; rectified spirit, 3; macerate in 20 of water for twenty-four hours; pack in a percolator, adding more of the water; allow the liquor slowly to pass until 160 has been collected, or the pareira is exhausted; evaporate to 13, and, when cold, add the spirit; filter and make up to 16.—Dose, ⁄2 dr. to 2 dr.

Extract of Par′sley. Syn. Extractum Petroselini, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the root, as EXTRACT OF BISTORT—P. Cod.

2. (M. Peraibe.) From the fresh leaves, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE. Febrifuge and tonic.—Dose, 5 to 10 gr.

Extract of Pasque Flower. Syn. Extractum anemonis, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the recent or dried flower, as either of the EXTRACTS OF ACONITE—P. Cod.—Dose, 1 to 4 gr.

Obs. Several species of Anemone have been used in medicine, especially Anemone pratensis and A. pulsatilla. According to Baron Stoerck, the former is resolvent, and is an effectual remedy in various chronic diseases, particularly in amaurosis, cataract, opacity of the cornea, nocturnal pains, suppressions, &c. ⁄2 to 1 gr., combined with sugar of milk, has been highly recommended in hooping-cough.

Extract of Pa′tience Dock. Syn. Extractum patientiæ, L. Prep. From the root of Rumex Patientia or garden patience, as EXTRACT OF HOPS. Aperient and stomachic. Used in double doses in lieu of extract of rhubarb.

Extract of Paullin′ia. See Extract of Guarana.

Extract of Peach Blos′som. Prep. From essence of lemons, 1 oz.; pure balsam of Peru, 2 dr.; essence (oil) of bitter almonds, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 3 pints; spirit of orange flowers, 1 pint; spirit of jasmin, ⁄4 pint; mix. A pleasant and powerful perfume.

Extract of Pel′litory. Syn. Extractum pyrethri, E. p. æthero-alcoholicum, L. Prep. (W. Procter.) Alcohol (rectified spirit), 1 pint; ether, ⁄2 pint; mix, and pour it gradually on root of pellitory (Anacyclus Pyrethrum), 1 lb., placed in a percolator; afterwards pour on alcohol, 1 pint; and subsequently sufficient dilute alcohol (proof spirit) to displace 2⁄2 pints of tincture (ESSENCE OF PELLITORY, TOOTHACHE ESSENCE); the latter is either suffered to evaporate spontaneously, or by a very gentle heat, until a soft extract is attained. Used to destroy the sensibility of the nerves of the teeth, previous to plugging, and for toothache.

Extract of Pep′per. Syn. Extractum piperis, E. p. nigri, L. Prep. 1. From decoction of black pepper (bruised). Stimulant; stronger tasted than the berries, but less aromatic.—Dose, 10 gr. to 1 dr.; in agues.

2. (Fluid; Extractum piperis fluidum, L.)—Ph. U. S. From black pepper, as FLUID EXTRACT OF CUBEBS—Ph. U. S., separating the PIPERINE by expression through a cloth, and keeping the fluid portion for use.

Extract of Pimpinel′la. Syn. Extractum pimpinellæ, L. Prep. From the root of burnet saxifrage (Pimpinella saxifraga), as EXTRACT OF HOPS. Astringent.—Dose, 10 to 20 gr.

Extract of Pink′root. Syn. Extract of worm grass, E. of wormseed root; Extractum spigeliæ, L. Prep. 1. From Carolina pinkroot (Spigelia Marylandica), as EXTRACT OF BOX—P. Cod.—Dose, 5 to 20 gr.

2. (Fluid; Essence of pinkroot, Liquor of p.; Extractum spigeliæ fluidum, L.) Pinkroot, 1 lb.; proof spirit, 3 pints; make a tincture, evaporate to 10 fl. oz., add sugar, ⁄4 lb., and rectified spirit, q. s. to make the whole measure exactly a pint.—Dose. For a child, beginning with ⁄2 a teaspoonful.

3. (Compound; Compound liquor of pinkroot; Extractum spigeliæ fluidum comp., L.)—a. (Estlack.) Carolina pinkroot or spigelia (bruised), 4 oz.; senna, 3 oz.; savine, 1 dr.; pour on boiling water, 1 quart; when cold, add rectified spirit, ⁄2 pint; digest 24 hours, express (or percolate), filter, evaporate to 12 fl. oz., in which dissolve, manna, 1 oz.; sugar, 8 oz. Every fl. oz. is equal to 2 dr. of pinkroot and 1⁄2 dr. of senna.—Dose. For a child, ⁄2 to 1 teaspoonful; for an adult, a tablespoonful.

b. (W. Procter.) Pinkroot, 16 oz.; senna, 8 oz. (both in coarse powder); dilute alcohol (sp. gr. ·935), 2 pints; macerate for 2 days, then proceed by displacement, adding fresh spirit, until 4 pints have passed through; filter, evaporate to 20 fl. oz., and add carbonate of potassa, 1 oz.; next add oils of caraway and aniseed, of each ⁄2 dr.; (previously triturated with) powdered sugar, 24 oz.; lastly, apply a gentle heat to dissolve the sugar.

c. (Extractum spigeliæ et sennæ fluidum—Ph. U. S.) As the last (nearly).—Dose. As above. All the above preparations of pinkroot are regarded as powerful and certain anthelmintics; particularly the last two.

Extract of Pipsis′sewa. See Extract of Winter-green.

Extract of Poi′son Oak. Syn. Extractum rhois toxicodendri, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the expressed juice of the leaves of Rhus toxicodendron. Narcotic, stimulant, and alterative.—Dose, ⁄2 gr. to 1 gr., gradually increased; in chronic rheumatism, obstinate skin diseases, &c.

Extract of Pomegran′ate. Syn. Extractum granati, L. Prep. 1. (Soubeiran, & P. Cod.) From the root-bark of pomegranate, as EXTRACT OF BOX. In tapeworm.—Dose, 10 to 20 gr.; followed by a purgative.

2. (E. g. corticis fructus, L.) From the decoction of the fruit-rind. As the last.

Extract of Pop′pies. Syn. Extractum papaveris (B. P.), E. p. albi, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Capsules coarsely powdered, 16; rectified spirit, 2; distilled water, a sufficiency; mix the poppy capsules with 40 of the water, stirring them frequently during 24 hours; then pack in a percolator, and pass water slowly through them until about 160 have passed through; evaporate the liquor by a water bath to 20; when cold, add the spirit. After 24 hours filter the liquor, and evaporate to a pilular consistence.—Dose, 2 or 5 grains.

2. (Ph. L.) Bruised poppy-heads (without the seeds), 15 oz.; boiled distilled water, 1 gall.; macerate 24 hours, boil to one half, strain, and complete the evaporation.

3. (Ph. E.) As the last, with “capsules not quite ripe.”

Obs. The medical action of extract of poppies, for the most part, resembles that of opium; but it is considerably weaker, and is generally regarded as less prone to produce headache and delirium.—Dose, 2 to 12 gr. It is usually prepared by the large manufacturers, by exhausting the capsules, by coction with water; hence the inferior quality of the extract of the shops, which contains a considerable quantity of inert matter.

The principal consumption of this extract is among the brewers, brewers’ druggists, and wine merchants. For this purpose it is evaporated until it becomes hard on cooling, when it is formed into half-pound rolls, and covered with paper, like lead plaster. One of these rolls added to a hogshead of ale, stout, or sherry, materially increases the ‘headiness’ or apparent strength of these beverages.

Extract of Pota′to. Syn. Extractum Solani tuberosi, L. Prep. (Dr J. Latham.) From the stem and leaves of the potato plant, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE—Ph. L. Narcotic.—Dose, 2 to 10 gr.

Extract of Pur′ging Flax. Syn. Extractum lini cathartici, L. Prep. (Dr B. Lane.) From the dried herb, as EXTRACT OF HOPS—Ph. L. Aperient and diuretic—Dose, 5 to 10 gr.; 14 lbs. yielded 2⁄4 lbs. of extract.

Extract of Quas′sia. Syn. Extractum quassiæ (B. P.), Ex. q. ligni, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Quassia scraped, 1 lb.; distilled water, a sufficiency; macerate the quassia in 8 oz. of water for 12 hours; pack in a percolator; add water till the quassia is exhausted; evaporate, filter before it becomes thick, and again evaporate in a water bath to a proper consistence for pills.—Dose, 2 to 5 gr.

2. From the decoction of quassia chips. Product, 5% to 6%.

3. (Ph. E.) From the rasped wood, as EXTRACT OF BISTORT—P. Cod. Bitter and stomachic.—Dose, 5 to 10 gr., or more.

Obs. This extract is almost universally prepared by coction, and is principally consumed by the brewers, who employ it as a substitute for hops, in large quantities. The bark is frequently substituted for the wood, but is considerably less bitter. The Ph. Baden has an extract prepared with spirit of ·944.

Extract of Quince Seeds. Syn. Extractum cydoniæ, E. c. seminum. Prep. From the decoction. Sucked as a lozenge, in hoarseness, &c.

Extract of Ragwort. Syn. Extractum JacobϾ. The inspissated juice of rag-wort.

Extract of Rha′tany. Syn. Extractum rhataniæ; E. krameriæ (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Rhatany in coarse powder, 1; cold distilled water, 15; macerate 24 hours in 2 of the water, then percolate the whole; evaporate by water bath to dryness.—Dose, 5 to 20 grains.

2. (Ph. E. Baden and U. S.) From dried rhatany root (Krameria triandria), as EXTRACT OF BISTORT—P. Cod.

3. (Ph. Bor.) By two successive macerations in boiling water of 24 hours each, and evaporating at a temperature not exceeding 165° Fahr.

Obs. Extract of rhatany is astringent and tonic.—Dose, 10 to 20 gr. A large quantity of this extract, of very inferior quality, is imported from Brazil, and other parts of South America. It is kept in two states, hard and soft; the former resembles KINO, and is often sold for it; the latter is chiefly consumed by the manufacturers and ‘improvers’ of port wine.

Extract of Rhu′barb. Syn. Extractum rhei (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Rhubarb (sliced or bruised), 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 5 oz.; distilled water, 50 oz.; macerate 4 days, strain, and set it aside, that the fæces may subside; next decant the clear portion, strain, mix, and evaporate to a proper consistence over a water bath at 160° F.

2. (Ph. L.) As EXTRACT OF CINCHONA—Ph. L. (nearly). “The extract is obtained of finer quality by evaporation in a vacuum with a gentle heat.” The Baden formula is similar.

Obs. This extract is usually prepared by decoction from inferior and damaged rhubarb, picked out from the chests on purpose; hence the inferior quality of the extract of the shops. When made of good Turkey, or even East India rhubarb, it is a very valuable preparation.—Dose. As a stomachic, 5 to 10 gr.; as a purgative, 10 gr. to ⁄2 dr. It is seldom exhibited alone. Product. 5%.

3. (Fluid; Liquor of rhubarb, Essence of r.; Liquor rhei, Extractum rhei fluidum, L.)—a. (W. Procter.) Rhubarb (in coarse powder), 8 oz.; mix it with an equal bulk of coarse sand, and moisten it with dilute alcohol (sp. gr. ·935, = 13 u. p.) to form a pasty mass; in a short time introduce it into a percolator, shake it until uniformly settled, and cover it with cloth or paper; then pour on the rest of the spirit (the remainder of 2 pints) until the product has little odour or taste of the root; next gently evaporate the tincture to 5⁄2 fl. oz., and add sugar, 5 oz., when the whole should measure 8 fl. oz.—Dose, 15 to 30 drops.

b. (Ph. U. S.) As the last, adding of oils of fennel and anise, of each 4 drops; (dissolved in) tincture of ginger, 4 fl. dr.

4. (Compound; Extractum rhei compositum, E. panchymagogum, L.—Ph. Bor.) Extract of rhubarb, 3 dr.; extract of aloes, 1 dr. (softened with) water, 4 dr.; mix, and add of soap of jalap, 1 dr. (dissolved in) proof spirit, 4 dr.; lastly, evaporate to an extract, dry this in a warm place, and powder. Stomachic and purgative.—Dose, 4 to 20 gr.

Extract of Rue. Syn. Extractum rutæ, E. foliorum rutæ, L. Prep. 1. From rue leaves (Rutæ graveolens), as EXTRACT OF HOPS—Ph. L.

2. (Alcoholic—P. Cod.) As ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE—P. Cod. (nearly.) The formula of the Ph. Wert. is similar.

Obs. This extract is stomachic, carminative and emmenagogue.—Dose, 10 to 20 gr., twice a day. It is usual to add a little of the essential oil to the extract, just before taking it out of the evaporating-pan, and when nearly cold. The first is the form adopted in trade in this country.

Extract of Saf′fron. Syn. Polychroite, Extractum croci, L. Prep. 1. From hay saffron, as EXTRACT OF COLOCYNTH—Ph. L.

2. (P. Cod.) From the tincture. Superior to the last.

Obs. The first is used chiefly as a colouring and flavouring substance by cooks, confectioners, wine and cordial brewers, &c.—Dose, 5 to 15 gr.; as an excitant, antispasmodic, and emmenagogue.

Extract of Sarsaparil′la. Syn. Extractum sarzæ, E. sarsaparillæ, L.; Extrait de salsepareille, Fr. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) From sarsaparilla, as EXTRACT OF HOPS—Ph. L. The Ph. D. 1826 is similar.—Dose, 10 gr. to 1 dr. Product. (From Jamaica sarsaparilla) 32% to 36%.

2. (Alcoholic; Extractum sarzæ alcoholicum, L.)—a. From a tincture of the root-bark, prepared with proof spirit, either by digestion or percolation.

b. (P. Cod. and Ph. U. S.) From sarsaparilla root (powdered), as ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE—P. Cod. Superior to the aqueous extract.—Dose, 10 to 20 gr.

3. (Fluid; Liquor of sarsaparilla, Essence of s.; Liquor sarzæ, Essentia sarsaparillæ, Extractum sarzæ liquidum—Ph. L., E. s. fluidum—Ph. E. & D., L.); Extractum sarzæ liquidum—(B. P.) a. Jamaica sarsaparilla cut transversely, 16; distilled water (temp. 160° Fahr.), 280; rectified spirit, 1. Macerate in half the water for 6 hours, and decant the liquor; digest the residue in the remainder of the water for 6 hours more, mix the liquors, express and filter; evaporate by water bath to 7, or until it has a sp. gr. of 1·130; when cold add the spirit. Sp. gr. should be about 1·025.—Dose, 1 to 4 dr.

b. (Ph. L.) Sarsaparilla, 3⁄2 lbs.; distilled water, 3 galls.; boil to 12 pints, pour off the liquor, and strain whilst hot; again boil the sarsaparilla in water, 2 galls., to one half, and strain; evaporate the mixed liquors to 18 fl. oz.; and when cold, add of rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz. Each fl. oz. represents 2⁄8 oz. of the root (nearly).

c. (Ph. E.) Sarsaparilla, 1 lb.; boiling water, 4 pints; digest 2 hours, then bruise the root, boil it for 2 hours, filter, and express the liquid; repeat the coction with water, 2 pints, as before; evaporate the mixed liquors to the consistence of a thin syrup, and, when cold enough, add of rectified spirit q. s. to make up 16 fl. oz. Each fl. oz. represents 6 dr. of the root, and 6 fl. oz. of the decoction.

d. (Ph. D.) Sarsaparilla, 1 lb. (avoir.); proceed as before, and add of rectified spirit, q. s. to make the product up to 20 fl. oz. Strength, as the last (nearly). In the Ph. D. 1826 the decoction of sarsaparilla, 1 lb. (troy), was ordered to be evaporated to 30 oz., which with the spirit (2 oz.) made the preparation only half the strength of the present one.

4. (Compound; Extractum sarzæ compositum, E. sarsaparillæ comp., L.) There is no form for this preparation in the Pharmacopœias, but it is nevertheless in immense demand, from its great convenience in dispensing. The following formulæ are employed by one of the wholesale houses that does largest in this preparation:—

a. Guaiacum shavings (from which the small has been sifted), 30 lbs., Italian juice, 24 lbs., mezereon root, 6 lbs., are boiled with water q. s., for 1 hour; the decoction is then drawn off, and the boiling repeated with fresh water a second and a third time; the mixed decoctions are allowed to deposit for 6 or 8 hours, or longer, and the clear portion decanted and strained through flannel; the liquid is now reduced to the consistence of treacle, when extract of sarsaparilla, 9 lbs., is added, and the evaporation conducted at a considerably lower temperature until near its completion, when the source of heat is removed, and the remaining evaporation conducted at the expense of that retained by the metal of the ‘pan,’ when nearly cold, and just before removing the extracts to the ‘pots’ or ‘jars,’ essential oil of sassafras, 2 dr., dissolved in rectified spirit, 1 quart, is added, and quickly but completely stirred in. The product is a very showy article, if well managed, and weighs about 45 lbs., the precise quantity depending on the quality of the juice employed. It is labelled ‘Ext. Sarzæ Comp.’

b. As the last, but only using 15 lbs. of juice, and that Solazzi. Prod. About 35 lbs. It is labelled and sent out as ‘Ext. Sarzæ Co. Opt.’

c. By any of the forms given under Compound Decoction of Sarsaparilla, either common or concentrated, by continuing the evaporation.—Dose. Same as that of the simple extract.

5. (Fluid Compound; Compound liquor of sarsaparilla.)—a. From any of the preceding formulæ by arresting the evaporation when the fluid has acquired the consistence of a thin syrup, and adding to each pint, when cold, rectified spirit, 4 fl. oz.

b. (Alcoholic—W. Hodgson.) Sarsaparilla (bruised), 16 oz.; liquorice root (bruised), guaiacum wood (rasped), and sassafras bark (sliced), of each 2 oz.; mezereon (sliced), 6 dr.; spirit, sp. gr. ·935 (= 13 u. p.) 7 pints; digest 14 days, express, filter, evaporate to 12 fl. oz.; add of sugar, 8 oz., and as soon as this is dissolved, withdraw the heat. Stronger than the last.—Dose, 1 fl. dr.