Part Three. Analysis

Chapter I. The Structure of Sentences

448. Analysis is a Greek word which means “the act of dissolving or breaking up.” In grammar it is applied to the separation of a sentence into its constituent parts, or elements. To dissect a sentence in this way is to analyze it.

The elements which make up a sentence are: (1) the simple subject; (2) the simple predicate; (3) modifiers; (4) the complements,—direct object, predicate objective, predicate adjective, predicate nominative; and (5) the so-called independent elements,—the interjection, the vocative (or nominative of direct address), the exclamatory nominative, and various parenthetical expressions (§ 501).

449. The absolute essentials for a sentence are a substantive as subject and a verb as predicate (§ 35). By combining these two indispensable elements, in various ways, with modifiers and complements, the sentence may be extended to any length desired. Indeed, the sole limits are the constructive skill of the writer and the hearer’s ability to follow the thought without losing the thread.

In the present chapter, we shall consider how sentences are built up, or constructed. Our starting point in this study will be the simple sentence.

Simple Sentences

450. The following statement is a simple sentence, for it contains but one subject and one predicate (§ 46):—

The polar bear | lives in the Arctic regions.

The framework or skeleton of this simple sentence consists of the subject noun bear (the simple subject) and the predicate verb lives (the simple predicate). To make the complete subject, bear takes as modifiers the two adjectives the and polar; to make the complete predicate, lives takes as modifier the adverbial phrase in the Arctic regions.

By attaching another simple subject to bear we make a compound subject. Similarly, we make a compound predicate by adding another verb (§ 38).

The polar bear and the walrus | live and thrive in the Arctic regions.

The compound subject is bear and walrus; the compound predicate is live and thrive. Both verbs are modified by the adverbial phrase in the Arctic regions. The sentence itself is still a simple sentence.

In each of the following simple sentences either the subject or the predicate or both are compound:—

• Games and carols closed the busy day.—Rogers.
• The stars leap forth, and tremble, and retire before the advancing moon.—George Meredith.
• Madame Defarge knitted with nimble fingers and steady eyebrows, and saw nothing.—Dickens.
• Work or worry had left its traces upon his thin, yellow face.—Doyle.
• Crows flutter about the towers and perch on every weathercock.—Irving.
• He gained the door to the landing, pulled it open, and rushed forth.—Lytton.
• Countrymen, butchers, drovers, hawkers, boys, thieves, idlers, and vagabonds of every low grade, were mingled together in a dense mass.—Dickens.
• There stood the broad-wheeled wains and the antique plows and the harrows.—Longfellow.
• Both Augustus and Peters joined with him in his design and insisted upon its immediately being carried into effect.—Poe.
• Women and children, from garrets alike and cellars, through infinite London, look down or look up with loving eyes upon our gay ribbons and our martial laurels.—De Quincey.

Compound Sentences

451. If we attach another simple sentence to that in § 450, the result is a compound sentence.

The polar bear | lives in the Arctic regions, || but || it | sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.

This is manifestly a compound sentence, for it consists of two coördinate clauses, joined by the conjunction but (§ 46).

The framework of the second clause consists of the subject it and the simple predicate reaches. To make the complete predicate, the verb reaches takes not only a modifier (the adverb sometimes), but a complement,—the direct object latitudes, which completes the meaning of the verb. This noun is itself modified by the adjective temperate. Both clauses are simple, for each contains but one subject and one predicate.

452. Obviously, almost any number of simple sentences may be joined (with or without conjunctions) to make one compound sentence.

The quiet August noon has come;
A slumberous silence fills the sky;
The fields are still, the woods are dumb,
In glassy sleep the waters lie.—Bryant.

• States fall, arts fade, but Nature does not die.—Byron.
• The court was sitting; the case was heard; the judge had finished; and only the verdict was yet in arrear.—De Quincey.
• He softly blushed; he sighed; he hoped; he feared; he doubted; he sometimes yielded to the delightful idea.—Thackeray.
• A mob appeared before the window, a smart rap was heard at the door, the boys hallooed, and the maid announced Mr. Grenville.—Cowper.
• His health had suffered from confinement; his high spirit had been cruelly wounded; and soon after his liberation he died of a broken heart.—Macaulay.

Complex Sentences

453. The simple sentence in § 450 may be made complex by means of a subordinate clause used as a modifier (§ 47).

• The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions, sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.
• The polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward.

In the first example, the simple subject (bear), besides its two adjective modifiers (the and polar), takes a third, the adjective clause which lives in the Arctic regions (§ 47). The sentence, then, is complex: the main clause is the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes; the subordinate clause is which lives in the Arctic regions.

The second sentence is also complex. The main clause is the same as in the first (the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes). The subordinate clause is when the ice drifts southward, an adverbial modifier of the predicate verb reaches.

Compound and Complex Clauses

454. Two or more coördinate clauses may be joined to make one compound clause.

• The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions and whose physical constitution is wonderfully adapted to that frigid climate, sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.
• The polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the floes break up and when the ice drifts southward.

In the first example, the italicized words form a compound adjective clause, modifying the noun bear. It consists of two coördinate adjective clauses joined by and. These clauses are coördinate because they are of the same order or rank in the sentence (§ 46), each being (if taken singly) an adjective modifier of the noun.

In the second example, the predicate verb reaches is modified by a compound adverbial clause, similarly made up.

455. A clause is complex when it contains a modifying clause.

The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at home, sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.

Here the adjective clause which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at home is complex, for it contains the adverbial clause when it is at home, modifying the verb lives.

Compound Complex Sentences

456. Two or more independent complex clauses may be joined to make a compound complex sentence.

The brown bear, of which there are several varieties, is common in the temperate regions of the Eastern Hemisphere; || and || the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward.

This is a compound complex sentence, for it consists of two complex clauses joined by the coördinate conjunction and. Each of these two clauses is independent of the other, for each might stand by itself as a complex sentence.

The first complex clause contains an adjective clause, of which there are several varieties, modifying bear; the second contains an adverbial clause, when the ice drifts southward, modifying reaches.

457. A sentence consisting of two or more independent clauses is also classed as a compound complex sentence if any one of these is complex.

• The brown bear is common in the temperate regions of the Eastern Hemisphere; || and || the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward.
• The brown bear, of which there are several varieties, is common in the temperate regions of the Eastern Hemisphere; || and || the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.

Both of these are compound complex sentences. In one, the first clause is simple (§ 451) and the second is complex. In the other, the first clause is complex and the second is simple.

Chapter II. Analysis of Sentences

Simple Sentences

458. In analyzing a simple sentence, we first divide it into the complete subject and the complete predicate. Then we point out the simple subject with its modifiers, and the simple predicate with its modifiers and complement (if there is one). If either the subject or the predicate is compound, we mention the simple subjects or predicates that are joined.

1. The polar bear lives in the Arctic regions.

This is a simple sentence. The complete subject is the polar bear; the complete predicate is lives in the Arctic regions. The simple subject is the noun bear; the simple predicate is the verb lives. Bear is modified by the adjectives the and polar; lives is modified by the adverbial phrase in the Arctic regions. This phrase consists of the preposition in; its object, the noun regions; and the adjectives the and Arctic, modifying regions.

2. The polar bear and the walrus live and thrive in the Arctic regions.

The complete subject is the polar bear and the walrus. Two simple subjects (bear and walrus) are joined by the conjunction and to make a compound subject, and two simple predicates (live and thrive) are joined by and to make a compound predicate. Live and thrive are both modified by the adverbial phrase in the Arctic regions.

Compound Sentences

459. In analyzing a compound sentence we first divide it into its coördinate clauses, and then analyze each clause by itself. Thus,—

The polar bear lives in the Arctic regions, but it sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.

This is a compound sentence consisting of two coördinate clauses joined by the conjunction but: (1) the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions and (2) it sometimes reaches temperate latitudes. The complete subject of the first clause is the polar bear [and so on, as in § 458, above]. The subject of the second clause is it; the complete predicate is sometimes reaches temperate latitudes. The simple predicate is reaches, which is modified by the adverb sometimes and is completed by the direct object latitudes. The complement latitudes is modified by the adjective temperate.

Complex Sentences

460. In analyzing a complex sentence, we first divide it into the main clause and the subordinate clause.

1. The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions, sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.

This is a complex sentence. The main clause is the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes; the subordinate clause is which lives in the Arctic regions. The complete subject of the sentence is the polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions; the complete predicate is sometimes reaches temperate latitudes. The simple subject is bear, which is modified by the adjectives the and polar and by the adjective clause which lives in the Arctic regions. The simple predicate is reaches, which is modified by the adverb sometimes and completed by the direct object latitudes. This complement, latitudes, is modified by the adjective temperate. The subordinate clause is introduced by the relative pronoun which. [Then analyze the subordinate clause.]

2. The polar bear reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward.

This is a complex sentence. The main clause is the polar bear reaches temperate latitudes; the subordinate clause is when the ice drifts southward. The complete subject of the sentence is the polar bear; the complete predicate is reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward. The simple subject is bear, which is modified by the adjectives the and polar. The simple predicate is reaches, which is modified by the adverbial clause when the ice drifts southward, and completed by the noun latitudes (the direct object of reaches). The complement latitudes is modified by the adjective temperate. The subordinate clause is introduced by the relative adverb when. [Then analyze the subordinate clause.]

3. The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at home, sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.

This is a complex sentence. The main clause is the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes; the subordinate clause is which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at home, which is complex, since it contains the adverbial clause when it is at home, modifying the verb lives.

4. He says that the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions.

This is a complex sentence. The main clause is he says; the subordinate clause is that the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions. The subject of the sentence is he, the complete predicate is says that the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions. The simple predicate is says, which is completed by its direct object, the noun clause that ... regions, introduced by the conjunction that. [Then analyze the subordinate clause.]

5. That the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes is a familiar fact.

This is a complex sentence. The main clause (is a familiar fact) appears as a predicate only, since the subordinate clause (that the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes) is a noun clause used as the complete subject of the sentence. The simple predicate is is, which is completed by the predicate nominative fact. This complement is modified by the adjectives a and familiar. The subordinate clause, which is used as the complete subject, is introduced by the conjunction that. [Then analyze this clause.]

Compound Complex Sentences

461. In analyzing a compound complex sentence, we first divide it into the independent clauses (simple or complex) of which it consists, and then analyze each of these as if it were a sentence by itself.

See the examples in §§ 456, .

Chapter III. Modifiers

462. The various kinds of modifiers and complements have all been studied in preceding chapters,—each in connection with the construction which it illustrates. For purposes of analysis, however, it is necessary to consider modifiers as such and complements as such.

The topics will be taken up in the following order:—(1) modifiers,—of the subject, of the predicate; (2) complements; (3) modifiers of complements; (4) modifiers of modifiers.

463. A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier (§ 19).

• {Men | Able men | Men of ability} can always find employment.
• {Walls | Battlemented walls | Walls with battlements} usually enclosed mediæval cities.
• {Cottages | English cottages | Cottages in England} are often thatched.
• The boy listened {eagerly. | with eagerness.}
• I coughed {purposely. | on purpose.}
• The bullet passed {harmlessly. | without doing harm.}

464. Modifiers may be attached not only to substantives and verbs, but also to adjectives and adverbs.

All modifiers of substantives are called adjective modifiers; all modifiers of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are called adverbial modifiers.

Note. The terms adjective modifier and adjective are not synonymous. All adjectives are adjective modifiers, but all adjective modifiers are not adjectives. Thus, in “Henry’s skates are rusty,” the possessive noun Henry’s is an adjective modifier, since it limits the noun skates as an adjective might do.

465. A group of words used as a modifier may be either a phrase or a clause (§§ 40–46).

• {Able men | Men of ability | Men who have ability} can always find employment.
• I spoke {thoughtlessly. | without thinking. | before I thought.}

A phrase or a clause used as an adjective modifier is called an adjective phrase or clause.

A phrase or a clause used as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial phrase or clause.

Adjective and adverbial clauses are always subordinate, because they are used as parts of speech (§ 46).

Modifiers of the Subject

466. Any substantive in the sentence may take an adjective modifier, but modifiers of the subject are particularly important.

The simple subject may be modified by (1) an adjective, an adjective phrase, or an adjective clause; (2) a participle; (3) an infinitive; (4) a possessive; (5) an appositive.

I. Adjectives, Adjective Phrases, Adjective Clauses

467. The simple subject may be modified by an adjective, an adjective phrase, or an adjective clause.

• {Ivory trinkets | Trinkets of ivory | Trinkets which were carved from ivory} lay scattered about.
• {Treeless spots | Spots without trees | Spots where no trees grew} were plainly visible.

In each of these groups of sentences, the subject of the first sentence is modified by an adjective, that of the second by an adjective phrase, that of the third by an adjective clause.

Most adjective phrases are prepositional (§ 42), as in the examples.

468. An adjective clause may be introduced by a relative pronoun or a relative adverb. For lists, see § 377.

I. Relative Pronouns

• The architect who designed this church was a man of genius.
• The painter whom Ruskin oftenest mentions is Turner.
• A piece of amber which is rubbed briskly will attract bits of paper.
• The day that I dreaded came at last.
• The plain through which this river flows is marvelously fertile.
• The book from which I got this information is always regarded as authoritative.
• A friend in whom one can trust is a treasure beyond price.
• The boys with whom he associates do him no good.

II. Relative Adverbs

• The spot where the Old Guard made their last stand is marked by a bronze eagle.
• The morning when I arrived in Rome is one of my pleasantest memories.
• The year after Ashton left home brought fresh disaster.
• The land whence Scyld drifted in his magic boat will never be known.

Note. A preposition and a relative pronoun may often replace a relative adverb. Thus, in the second example, on which might be substituted for when.

II. Participles

469. The subject may be modified by a participle (with or without modifier or complement).

• 1. Smiling, the child shook his head.
• 2. My aunt, reassured, took up her book again.
• 3. The prisoner sank back exhausted.
• 4. Exasperated beyond endurance, the captain cut the rope.
• 5. John, obeying a sudden impulse, took to his heels.
• 6. Having broken one oar, Robert had to scull.
• 7. The natives, fearing captivity above all things, leaped into the river.
• 8. Albert left the room, looking rather sullen.

In the fourth example the participle is modified by an adverbial phrase; in the fifth and sixth, it has an object; in the seventh, it has both an object and a modifier; in the eighth, it is followed by the predicate adjective sullen. In analysis, the whole participial phrase (consisting of the participle and accompanying words) may be treated as an adjective phrase modifying the subject; but it is simpler to regard the participle as the modifier, and then to enumerate its modifiers, etc., separately.

Thus, in the seventh example, the simple subject natives is modified by the participle fearing, which has for a complement captivity (the direct object) and is modified by the adverbial phrase above all things.

Note. A participle, though a modifier of the subject, has at the same time a peculiar relation to the predicate, because it may take the place of an adverbial clause. Thus, in the seventh example, fearing is practically equivalent to the clause because they feared, which, if substituted for the participle, would of course modify the predicate verb leaped. This dual office of the participle comes from its twofold nature as (1) an adjective and (2) a verb. In analyzing, we treat the participle as an adjective modifier of the noun to which it belongs; but its function as a substitute for an adverbial clause is an important means of securing variety in style.

III. Infinitives

470. The subject may be modified by an infinitive.

• Eagerness to learn was young Lincoln’s strongest passion.
• Desire to travel made Taylor restless.
• The wish to succeed prompted him to do his best.
• Ability to write rapidly is a valuable accomplishment.
• Howard’s unwillingness to desert a friend cost him his life.

In the fourth example, the infinitive has an adverbial modifier (rapidly); and in the fifth, it has a complement, its object (friend). In such instances, two methods of analysis are allowable, as in the case of participial phrases (§ 469).

IV. Possessives

471. The subject may be modified by a substantive in the possessive case.

Such a substantive may be called a possessive modifier.

• Napoleon’s tomb is in Paris.
• A man’s house is his castle.
• One’s taste in reading changes as one grows older.
• A moment’s thought would have saved me.
• The squirrel’s teeth grow rapidly.
• The Indians’ camp was near the river.
• His name is Alfred.
• Your carriage has arrived.

In each of these examples, a substantive in the possessive case modifies the subject by limiting its meaning precisely as an adjective would do.

Note. An adjective phrase may often be substituted for a possessive. Thus, in the first example, instead of “Napoleon’s tomb” one may say “the tomb of Napoleon” (§ 93).

V. Appositives

472. The subject may be modified by a substantive in apposition (§ 88, 5).

• Meredith the carpenter lives in that house.
• Herbert, our captain, has broken his leg.
• The idol of the Aztecs, a grotesque image, was thrown down by the Spaniards.
• Many books, both pamphlets and bound volumes, littered the table. [Here the subject (books) is modified by two appositives.]

Appositives often have modifiers of their own.

Thus carpenter is modified by the adjective the, captain by the possessive our, image by the adjectives a and grotesque.

In analyzing, the whole appositive phrase (consisting of the appositive and attached words) may be regarded as modifying the subject. It is as well, however, to treat the appositive as the modifier and then to enumerate the adjectives, etc., by which the appositive itself is modified.

473. A noun clause may be used as an appositive, and so may be an adjective modifier (§ 386).

• The question whether Antonio was a citizen was settled in the affirmative. [Here the italicized clause is used as a noun in apposition with question.]
• The statement that water freezes seems absurd to a native of the torrid zone. [The clause that water freezes is in apposition with statement.]

An adjective in the appositive position is often called an appositive adjective (§ 172). “A sword, keen and bright, flashed from the soldier’s scabbard.”

Modifiers of the Predicate

474. The simple predicate, being a verb or verb-phrase, can have only adverbial modifiers.

The simple predicate may be modified by (1) an adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause, (2) an infinitive, (3) an adverbial objective, (4) a nominative absolute, (5) an indirect object, (6) a cognate object.

I. Adverb, Adverbial Phrase, Adverbial Clause

475. The simple predicate may be modified by an adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause.

• The landlord collects his rents {monthly. | on the first of every month. | when the first of the month comes.}
• The old schoolhouse stands {there. | at the cross-roads. | where the roads meet.}
• We left the hall {early. | before the last speech. | while the last speech was being delivered.}

In each of these groups, the simple predicate of the first sentence is modified by an adverb, that of the second by an adverbial phrase, and that of the third by an adverbial clause.

Most adverbial phrases are prepositional (§ 42).

Adverb Adverbial Phrase

speedily with speed

furiously with fury

lately of late

instantly in an instant

there in that place

rapidly at a rapid rate

skillfully in a skillful manner

with skill

promptly on the instant

to-morrow on the morrow

unwillingly against my will

Peculiar adverbial phrases are:—

• to and fro,
• now and then,
• up and down,
• again and again,
• first and last,
• full speed,
• full tilt,
• hit or miss,
• more or less,
• head first,
• upside down,
• inside out,
• sink or swim,
• cash down.

476. An adverbial clause that modifies a verb may be introduced by (1) a relative adverb, or (2) a subordinate conjunction.

I. Relative Adverbs

• Our colonel was always found where the fighting was fiercest.
• When I give the signal, press the button.
• Whenever I call, you refuse to see me.
• Miller arrived after the play had begun.
• Everybody listened while the vagrant told his story.
• My uncle laughed until the tears came.
• The prisoner has not been seen since he made his escape.

II. Subordinate Conjunctions

• Archer resigned because his health failed.
• I will give the address if you will let me choose my subject.
• Brandon insisted on walking, although the roads were dangerous.
• The child ran with all her might lest she should be too late.
• I gave you a front seat in order that you might hear.
• The town lies at the base of a lofty cliff so that it is sheltered from the north wind.

II. Infinitive

477. The simple predicate may be modified by an infinitive (§ 323).

• He lay down to rest.
• I stopped to listen.
• The fire continued to burn.
• The wind began to subside.
• Jack worked hard to fell the tree.
• Will did his best to win the prize.
• Kate began to weep bitterly.
• That draughtsman seems to be remarkably skilful.

The infinitive may have a complement or a modifier, as in the last four examples.

III. Adverbial Objective

478. The simple predicate may be modified by an adverbial objective (§ 109).

• I have waited ages.
• We have walked miles.
• Arthur practised weeks.

The addition of modifiers to the adverbial objective makes an adverbial phrase.

• Walter ran the entire distance.
• He stayed a whole day.
• I will forgive you this time.
• He came at me full tilt.
• The wind blew all night.
• Come with me a little way.

In the first sentence, the adverbial phrase the entire distance modifies the verb ran as an adverb would do. This phrase consists of the noun distance with its adjective modifiers, the and entire.

IV. Nominative Absolute

479. The simple predicate may be modified by a nominative absolute (§ 345).

A substantive in the absolute construction makes with its modifiers an adverbial phrase.

• The ship having arrived, we all embarked.
• We shall sail on Tuesday, weather permitting.
• That done, repair to Pompey’s theatre.
• The bridge across the chasm being only a single tree trunk, we hesitated to attempt the passage.

In the first sentence, the adverbial absolute phrase, the ship having arrived, is equivalent to the adverbial prepositional phrase, on the arrival of the ship, and defines the time of the action expressed by the verb embarked.

V. Indirect Object

480. The simple predicate may be modified by an indirect object (§ 105).

• He gave me a watch. [= He gave a watch to me.]
• Tom told me the whole story. [= Tom told the whole story to me.]

In these sentences, the indirect object me, being equivalent to a prepositional phrase, is an adverbial modifier.

The objective of service (§ 106) is also an adverbial modifier.

VI. Cognate Object

481. The simple predicate may be modified by a cognate object or by a phrase containing such an object (§ 108).

• The officer looked daggers at me [= looked at me angrily].
• The shepherd sang a merry song [= sang merrily].
• The skipper laughed a scornful laugh [= laughed scornfully].

In the first sentence, the cognate object (daggers) modifies the predicate verb (looked) as the adverb angrily would do. It is therefore an adverbial modifier. In the second and third sentences the modifier of the predicate verb (sang, laughed) is an adverbial phrase consisting of a cognate object (song, laugh) with its adjective modifiers (a merry, a scornful).

Chapter IV. Complements

482. 1. Some verbs have a meaning that is complete in itself. Such a verb needs only a subject. When this has been supplied, we have a sentence, for the mere verb, without any additional word or words, is capable of being a predicate.

• Birds fly.
• Fishes swim.
• The sun shines.
• The moon rose.
• The man scowled.
• The girl laughed.
• The owls hooted.
• The clock ticked.

Verbs of this kind are sometimes called complete verbs, or verbs of complete predication.

2. Other verbs are not, by themselves, capable of serving as predicates. Thus,—

• The Indians killed ——.
• Mr. Harris makes ——.
• Tom is ——.
• The man seemed ——.

These are not sentences, for the predicate of each is unfinished. The verb requires the addition of a substantive or an adjective to complete its sense.

• The Indians killed deer.
• Mr. Harris makes shoes.
• Tom is captain.
• The man seemed sorry.

Verbs of this kind are often called incomplete verbs, or verbs of incomplete predication.

Note. The meaning of the verb determines to which of these classes it belongs. Accordingly, the same verb may belong to the first class in some of its senses and to the second in others (§§ 212–215).

483. A substantive or adjective added to the predicate verb to complete its meaning is called a complement.

Complements are of four kinds,—the direct object, the predicate objective, the predicate nominative, and the predicate adjective.

In the examples in § 482, deer and shoes are direct objects,—the former denoting the receiver of the action, the latter denoting the product; captain is a predicate nominative, denoting the same person as the subject Tom (§ 88, 2); sorry is a predicate adjective describing the subject man.

Complements may, of course, be modified. If they are substantives, they may take adjective modifiers; if adjectives, they may take adverbial modifiers (§§ 464, ).

484. For convenience, the definitions of the four kinds of complements are here repeated, with examples.

1. The Direct Object

485. Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that which receives the action or is produced by it. These are called transitive verbs. All other verbs are called intransitive.

A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its direct object (§ 100).

The direct object is often called the object complement, or merely the object of the verb.

• Alfred has broken his arm.
• Morse invented the electric telegraph.
• Black foxes command a high price.
• You have accomplished a task of great difficulty.
• Have you lost the dog which your uncle gave you?
• He asked me the news. [Two direct objects (§ 103).]

Most of these objects are modified,—arm by the possessive his; telegraph by the and electric; price by a and high; task by the adjective phrase of great difficulty; dog by the and by the adjective clause which your uncle gave you.

486. A noun clause may be used as the direct object of a verb (§ 386).

• You promised that my coat should be ready to-day.
• The mayor ordered that the street should be closed for three hours.
• I begged that my passport might be returned to me.

For further examples, see §§ 407, , , .

2. The Predicate Objective

487. Verbs of choosing, calling, naming, making, and thinking may take two objects referring to the same person or thing.

The first of these is the direct object, and the second, which completes the sense of the predicate, is called a predicate objective (§ 104).

The predicate objective is often called the complementary object or the objective attribute.

• The people have elected Chamberlain governor.
• Peter calls Richard my shadow.
• The court has appointed you the child’s guardian.
• John thinks himself a hero.

488. An adjective may serve as a predicate objective. Thus,—

• I thought your decision hasty.
• I call that answer impertinent.
• The jury found the prisoner guilty.
• Your letter made him joyful.

Care should be taken not to confuse adverbs with adjectives in -ly serving as predicate objectives.

• You called him sickly. [Adjective.]
• You called him early. [Adverb.]

After the passive, a predicate objective becomes a predicate nominative (§ 489).

3. The Predicate Nominative

489. A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or defining the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called a predicate nominative (§ 88, 2).

A predicate nominative is often called a subject complement or an attribute.

The predicate nominative is common after is and other copulative verbs, and after certain transitive verbs in the passive voice.

• Chemistry is a useful science.
• Boston is the capital of Massachusetts.
• Jefferson became President.
• This bird is called a flamingo.
• Mr. Hale was appointed secretary.
• Albert has been chosen captain of the crew.
• You are a friend upon whom I can rely.

In most of the examples, the predicate nominative has one or more modifiers. In the first sentence, science is modified by the two adjectives a and useful; in the second, capital is modified by the adjective phrase of Massachusetts; in the last, friend is modified by the adjective clause upon whom I can rely.

For the distinction between the predicate nominative and the direct object, see § 102.

490. A noun clause may be used as a predicate nominative (§ 386).

• My plan is that the well should be dug to-morrow.
• His intention was that you should remain here.
• The result is that he is bankrupt.
• Ruth’s fear was that the door might be locked.

491. An infinitive may be used as a predicate nominative.

• To hear is to obey.
• My hope was to reach the summit before dark.
• Their plan was to undermine the tower.
• My habit is to rise early.

The infinitive may have a complement or modifiers. In the second and third examples, it takes an object; in the fourth it is modified by an adverb.

4. The Predicate Adjective

492. An adjective in the predicate belonging to a noun or pronoun in the subject is called a predicate adjective.

A predicate adjective completes the meaning of the predicate verb and is therefore a complement (§ 172, 3.)

Like the predicate nominative, the predicate adjective is common after copulative verbs and after certain transitive verbs in the passive voice (§§ 172, 3; ).

• John was angry.
• My knife is growing dull.
• The task seemed very easy.
• The report proved false in every particular.
• The boat was thought unsafe.
• The cover was made perfectly tight.

In some of these examples, the predicate adjective has a modifier. In the third, easy is modified by the adverb very; in the fourth, false is modified by the adverbial phrase in every particular; in the last, tight is modified by perfectly.

493. An adjective phrase may be used as a predicate adjective. Thus,—

• Richard was out of health. [Compare: Richard was ill.]
• Rachel seemed in a passion. [Compare: seemed angry.]
• This act is against my interests. [Compare: is harmful to me.]

The adjective phrase may consist of an infinitive with or without the preposition about (§ 319).

• I was about to speak.
• This house is to let.
• I am to sail to-morrow.

Chapter V. Modifiers of Complements and of Modifiers

Complements Modified

494. Complements, being either substantives or adjectives, may be modified in various ways, most of which have been noted in Chapter III.

1. A substantive used as a complement may have the same kinds of modifiers that are used with the subject (§ 466).

2. An adjective complement admits only adverbial modifiers.

495. The following sentences illustrate the modifiers of substantive complements:—

• Herbert lost a gold watch. [The direct object (watch) is modified by the adjectives a and gold.]
• The duke built towers of marble. [The direct object (towers) is modified by the adjective phrase of marble.]
• My father built the house in which I was born. [The direct object (house) is modified by the adjective the and the adjective clause in which I was born.]
• I saw a man running across the field. [The direct object (man) is modified by the adjective a and the participle running.]
• You have forfeited your right to vote. [The direct object (right) is modified by the possessive pronoun your and the infinitive to vote.]
• I have seen Henry’s brother. [The direct object (brother) is modified by the possessive noun Henry’s.]
• I must ask my brother, the mayor. [The direct object (brother) is modified by the possessive pronoun my and the appositive mayor.]
• The guild has elected Walter honorary president. [The predicate objective (president) is modified by the adjective honorary.]
• Her husband is an old soldier. [The predicate nominative (soldier) is modified by the adjectives an and old.]
• Her sons are veterans of the Franco-Prussian war. [The predicate nominative (veterans) is modified by the adjective phrase of the Franco-Prussian war.]
• They are rivals in business. [The predicate nominative (rivals) is modified by the adjective phrase in business.]
• The author is Will Jewell, who was formerly editor of “The Pioneer.” [The predicate nominative (Will Jewell) is modified by the adjective clause who was formerly editor, etc.]
• Baldwin is the man standing under the tree. [The predicate nominative (man) is modified by the adjective the and the participle standing.]
• Your chief fault is your inclination to procrastinate. [The predicate nominative (inclination) is modified by the possessive pronoun your and the infinitive to procrastinate.]
• This man is Gretchen’s brother. [The predicate nominative (brother) is modified by the possessive noun Gretchen’s.]
• The first to fall was the bugler, John Wilson. [The predicate nominative (bugler) is modified by the adjective the and the appositive John Wilson.]

496. Adjective clauses are very common as modifiers of substantive complements (cf. § 468).

• Have you lost the watch that your cousin gave you?
• This is the very spot where the temple of Saturn stood.
• The general issued an order that all non-combatants should be treated well.
• We have abundant proof that during his stay on the Continent, Bacon did not neglect literary and scientific pursuits.

497. An adjective used as a complement may be modified by an adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause.

• I am very sorry for you. [Sorry is modified by the adverb very and the adverbial phrase for you.]
• Charles seems {rather | very | extremely} angry.
• The road is rough {in places. | where they are repairing it.}
• The whole tribe appeared eager for war.
• He grew envious of his successful rival.
• Be zealous in every righteous cause.
• The chief’s face looked dark with passion.
• He was selfish beyond belief. [The predicate adjective (selfish) is modified by the adverbial phrase beyond belief.]
• Ellen seemed desirous that her friends should admire her.
• The secretary appeared unwilling to resign. [See § 321, note.]

Modifiers of Other Modifiers

498. Modifiers may themselves be modified.

The chief varieties of such modification are illustrated in the following sentences.

I. Adjectives or adjective phrases may be modified by adverbs or by words or groups of words used adverbially.

• A very old man came to the door.
• An exceedingly dangerous curve lay beyond the bridge.
• This rather odd proposal interested us.
• The quay is miles long. [Adverbial objective (§ 109).]
• At least five different amendments have been offered. [Five is modified by the adverbial phrase at least.]
• The general, wholly in the dark as to the enemy’s intentions, ordered an advance. [The adjective phrase in the dark is modified by wholly.]
• Quite at his ease, John began to speak. [At his ease is modified by quite.]
• Her smile, pathetic in its weariness, quickly faded. [The adverbial phrase modifies pathetic]
• This sleeve is a good two inches short. [The phrase modifies short.]

II. Possessive nouns may be modified by adjectives or by possessives.

• The poor man’s days are numbered.
• Honest Tom’s face shone with delight.
• The faithful animal’s head drooped.
• My uncle’s barn is on fire.
• John’s brother’s name is Reginald.

III. Appositives may be modified by adjectives or by groups of words used as adjectives.

• Joe, the old butler, met me at the station.
• Sam, the cunning rascal, had stolen the oars.
• Her mother, a woman of fashion, sadly neglected her.
• The other, the man at the table, laughed rudely.
• Ferdinand Oliver, the engineer who had charge of the construction, proved incompetent.
• Two Englishmen, friends whom I visited last summer, are coming to New York in December.

IV. Adverbs or adverbial phrases may be modified by adverbs or by words or groups of words used adverbially.

• Jane plays very well.
• Robert spoke almost hopefully.
• She answered quite at random.
• I write to him at least once a year.

499. An adjective may be modified by an infinitive (§ 321).

• Unable to move, I suffered torments of anxiety.
• The sailors, eager to reach the island, plunged into the sea.
• Reluctant to act, but unwilling to stand idle, Burwell was in a pitiful state of indecision.

500. Adjective and adverbial clauses are very common as modifiers of modifiers (cf. § 496).

• Geronimo, an old chief who bore the scars of many battles, led the attack. [The adjective clause modifies the appositive chief.]
• The servant, angry because he had been rebuked, slammed the door as he went out.
• The hunter, confident that the deer had not heard him, took deliberate aim.
• The fugitive, in a panic lest he should be overtaken, made frantic efforts to scale the cliff. [The adverbial clause modifies the adjective phrase in a panic.]

Chapter VI. Independent Elements

501. A word or group of words that has no grammatical connection with the sentence in which it stands is called an independent element.

Independent elements are of four kinds,—interjections, vocatives (or nominatives by direct address), exclamatory nominatives, and parenthetical expressions.

• Ah! why did I undertake this task?
• Help arrived, alas! too late.
• You are a strange man, Arthur.
• Mary, come here!
• Poor Charles! I am sorry for him.
• Clothes! clothes! you are always wanting clothes.
• Lucky she! we are all envious of her prospects.

The first two sentences contain interjections (§ 372); the second two, vocatives (or nominatives by direct address) (§ 88, 3); the last three, exclamatory nominatives (§ 88, 4).

When the independent word has a modifier (as in the fifth and seventh examples), the whole phrase may be treated as an independent element.

502. A word or group of words attached to or inserted in a sentence as a mere comment, without belonging either to the subject or the predicate, is said to be parenthetical.

• The market, indeed, was already closed.
• Peter, to be sure, was not very trustworthy.
• The house, at all events, is safe.
• The road is, I admit, very hilly.
• Luttrell’s method, it must be confessed, was a little disappointing.
• Richard was not a bad fellow, after all.

503. In analysis, an independent element is mentioned by itself, and not as a part of the complete subject or the complete predicate.

Chapter VII. Combinations of Clauses

504. The use of subordinate clauses as complements and modifiers, and as modifiers of complements and of modifiers, may produce sentences of great length and complicated structure.

Such sentences, if skilfully composed, are not hard to follow. Their analysis requires merely the intelligent application of a few simple principles, which have already been explained and illustrated.

505. These principles may be summed up as follows:—

I. All clauses are either independent or subordinate. A clause is subordinate if it is used as a part of speech (noun, adjective, or adverb); otherwise, it is independent (§ 46).

II. Coördinate means “of the same rank” in the sentence (§ 46).

1. Two or more independent clauses in the same sentence are manifestly coördinate.

• The fire blazed and the wood crackled. [Two declarative clauses.]
• What is your name, and where were you born? [Interrogative clauses.]
• Sit down and tell me your story. [Imperative clauses.]

2. Two or more subordinate clauses are coördinate with each other when they are used together in the same construction,—as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.

Such a group may be regarded as forming one compound subordinate clause.

• The truth is, that I have no money and that my friends have forsaken me. [Noun clauses.]
• The Indians, who were armed with long lances, and who showed great skill in using them, made a furious attack on the cavalry. [Adjective clauses.]
• When he had spoken, but before a vote had been taken, a strange tumult was heard in the outer room. [Adverbial clauses.]

In the first example, we have a compound noun clause; in the second, a compound adjective clause; in the third, a compound adverbial clause.

3. Coördinate clauses are either joined by coördinate conjunctions (and, or, but, etc.), or such conjunctions may be supplied without changing the sense (§ 362).

The good-natured old gentleman, who was friendly to both parties, [AND] who did not lack courage, AND who hated a quarrel, spoke his mind with complete frankness.

III. A subordinate clause may depend on another subordinate clause.

• The horse shied when he saw the locomotive. [The subordinate clause depends upon the independent (main) clause.]
• The horse shied when he saw the locomotive, which was puffing violently. [The second subordinate clause depends upon the first, being an adjective modifier of locomotive.]

In such cases, the whole group of subordinate clauses may be taken together as forming one complex subordinate clause.

Thus, in the second example, when he saw the locomotive, which was puffing violently may be regarded as a complex adverbial clause modifying shied, and containing an adjective clause (which was puffing violently).

506. From the principles summarized in § 505, it appears that—

Clauses (like sentences) may be simple, compound, or complex.

1. A simple clause contains but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound (§ 451).

2. A compound clause consists of two or more coördinate clauses (§ 454).

3. A complex clause consists of at least two clauses, one of which is subordinate to the other.

507. The unit in all combinations of clauses is clearly the simple sentence, which, when used as a part of a more complicated sentence, becomes a simple clause.

The processes used in such combinations, as we have seen, are really but two in number,—coördination and subordination.

Coördination of clauses produces compound sentences or compound clauses; subordination of one clause to another produces complex sentences or complex clauses.

508. Every sentence, however long and complicated, belongs (in structure) to one of the three classes,—simple, compound, and complex.

Simple Sentences

509. A simple sentence may have a compound subject or predicate (or both), and may also include a number of modifiers and complements.

Obviously, then, a simple sentence need not be short. It remains simple in structure so long as it contains but one simple or compound subject and one simple or compound predicate. Thus,—

1. You leave Glasgow in a steamboat, go down the Clyde fourteen miles, and then come to Dumbarton Castle, a huge rock five or six hundred feet high, not connected with any other high land, and with a fortress at the top.—Webster.

The length of this sentence is due partly to its compound predicate, partly to the modifier (and modifiers of the modifier) attached to the noun Dumbarton Castle.

2. He was little disposed to exchange his lordly repose for the insecure and agitated life of a conspirator, to be in the power of accomplices, to live in constant dread of warrants and king’s messengers, nay, perhaps, to end his days on a scaffold, or to live on alms in some back street of the Hague.—Macaulay.

This sentence is lengthened by means of a series of infinitives used as adverbial modifiers of the complement disposed (a participle used as an adjective). Each of these infinitives takes a complement or a modifier (or both).

3. The arbitrary measures of Charles I, the bold schemes of Strafford, and the intolerant bigotry of Laud, precipitated a collision between the opposite principles of government, and divided the whole country into Cavaliers and Roundheads.—May.

Both the subject and the predicate are compound. Each of the three nouns in the compound subject has modifiers. The two verbs in the compound predicate have each a complement, and the second has an adverbial modifier (a phrase).

4. Twenty of the savages now got on board and proceeded to ramble over every part of the deck and scramble about among the rigging, making themselves much at home and examining every article with great inquisitiveness.—Poe.

The predicate is compound. The sentence is extended by the use of participles (making and examining), which modify the simple subject twenty.

• 5. She was tumbled early, by accident or design, into a spacious closet of good old English reading, without much selection or prohibition, and browsed at will upon that fair and wholesome pasturage.—Lamb.
• 6. The mermaid was still seen to glide along the waters, and mingling her voice with the sighing breeze, was often heard to sing of subterranean wonders, or to chant prophecies of future events.—Scott.
• 7. With early dawn, they were under arms, and, without waiting for the movement of the Spaniards, poured into the city and attacked them in their own quarters.—Prescott.
• 8. Arming a desperate troop of slaves and gladiators, he overpowered the feeble guard of the domestic tranquillity of Rome, received the homage of the Senate, and, assuming the title of Augustus, precariously reigned during a tumult of twenty-eight days.—Gibbon.

Note. A simple sentence with compound predicate often differs very slightly from a compound sentence. Thus in examples 4–7 the insertion of a single pronoun (they, she) to serve as a subject for the second verb (proceeded, browsed, etc.) will make the sentence compound.

Compound and Complex Sentences

510. Every sentence that is not simple must be either compound or complex.

A sentence is compound if it consists of two or more independent clauses; complex, if it consists of one independent (main) clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

511. An ordinary compound sentence consists of two or more coördinate simple clauses.

Such a sentence may be of great length (as in the last example below), but its structure is usually transparent.

• A cricket chirps on the hearth, | and | we are reminded of Christmas gambols long ago.—Hazlitt.
• The moments were numbered; | the strife was finished; | the vision was closed.—De Quincey.
• The old king had retired to his couch that night in one of the strongest towers of the Alhambra, | but | his restless anxiety kept him from repose.—Irving.
• The clock has just struck two; | the expiring taper rises and sinks in the socket; | the watchman forgets his hour in slumber; | the laborious and the happy are at rest; | and | nothing wakes but meditation, guilt, revelry, and despair.—Goldsmith.
• The present, indeed, is not a contest for distant or contingent objects; | it is not a contest for acquisition of territory; | it is not a contest for power and glory; | as little is it carried on merely for any commercial advantage, or any particular form of government; | but | it is a contest for the security, the tranquillity, and the very existence of Great Britain, connected with that of every established government and every country in Europe.—Pitt.

512. A complex sentence, in its most elementary form, consists of one simple independent (main) clause and one simple subordinate clause.

• The gas exploded when I struck a match.
• Though he is idle, he is not lazy.
• The carpenter who fell from the roof has recovered from his injuries.
• Their eyes were so fatigued with the eternal dazzle and whiteness, that they lay down on their backs upon deck to relieve their sight on the blue sky.—Keats.
• The shouts of thousands, their menacing gestures, the fierce clashing of their arms, astonished and subdued the courage of Vetranio, who stood, amidst the defection of his followers, in anxious and silent suspense.—Gibbon.

513. Both compound sentences and complex sentences admit of much variety in structure, according to the nature and the relations of the clauses that compose them.

Compound Complex Sentences

514. Any or all of the coördinate clauses that make up a compound sentence may be complex. In that case, the sentence is called a compound complex sentence.

Note. Compound complex sentences form a special class or subdivision under the general head of compound sentences.

Old Uncle Venner was just coming out of his door, with a wood-horse and saw on his shoulder; and, trudging along the street, he scrupled not to keep company with Phœbe, so far as their paths lay together; nor, in spite of his patched coat and rusty beaver, and the curious fashion of his tow-cloth trousers, could she find it in her heart to outwalk him.—Hawthorne.

This sentence consists of three coördinate clauses, each independent of the others. These are joined by the coördinate conjunctions and, nor. The first and the third clause are simple, but the second clause is complex. Hence the whole forms one compound complex sentence.

The complex clause consists of two clauses, the second of which is subordinate to the first. Taken as a whole, however, this complex clause is manifestly coördinate with the two simple clauses, since the three form a series joined by coördinate conjunctions.

515. Further examples of compound complex sentences are:—

• 1. The people drove out King Athamas, because he had killed his child; and he roamed about in his misery, till he came to the Oracle in Delphi.—Kingsley.
• 2. Society is the stage on which manners are shown; novels are their literature.—Emerson.
• 3. We keep no bees, but if I lived in a hive I should scarcely have more of their music.—Cowper.
• 4. The same river ran on as it had run on before, but the cheerful faces that had once been reflected in its stream had passed away.—Froude.
• 5. There are some laws and customs in this empire very peculiar; and if they were not so directly contrary to those of my own dear country, I should be tempted to say a little in their justification.—Swift.
• 6. Here they arrived about noon, and Joseph proposed to Adams that they should rest awhile in this delightful place.—Fielding.
• 7. I never saw a busier person than she seemed to be; yet it was difficult to say what she did.—C. Brontë.
• 8. Malaga possessed a brave and numerous garrison, and the common people were active, hardy, and resolute; but the city was rich and commercial, and under the habitual control of opulent merchants, who dreaded the ruinous consequences of a siege.—Irving.
• 9. The Spaniards were not to be taken by surprise; and, before the barbarian horde had come within their lines, they opened such a deadly fire from their heavy guns, supported by the musketry and crossbows, that the assailants were compelled to fall back slowly, but fearfully mangled, to their former position.—Prescott.
• 10. Her cheeks were as pale as marble, but of a cold, unhealthy, ashen white; and my heart ached to think that they had been bleached, most probably, by bitter and continual tears.—Hood.
• 11. The hawk, having in spiral motion achieved the upper flight, fell like a thunderbolt on the raven, stunned him with the blow, clutched him in his talons, folded him in his wings, and, the hawk undermost, they tumbled down like a black ball, till within a short distance from the earth.—Trelawny.

In this sentence they were is understood after till.

Varieties of the Complex Sentence

516. A complex sentence may be expanded either by compounding the main clause, or by increasing the number of subordinate clauses. Both methods may be used in the same sentence.

517. The independent (main) clause of a complex sentence may be compound.

• When they saw the ship, they shouted for joy and some of them burst into tears.
• As they turned down from the knoll to rejoin their comrades, the sun dipped and disappeared, and the woods fell instantly into the gravity and grayness of the early night.—Stevenson.
• The eye of the young monarch kindled and his dark cheek flushed with sudden anger, as he listened to proposals so humiliating.—Prescott.
• Sharpe was so hated in Scotland during his life, and his death won him so many friends, or pitying observers, that it is not easy to write of him without prejudice or favor.—A. Lang.
• As has been the case with many another good fellow of his nation, his life was tracked and his substance wasted by crowds of hungry beggars and lazy dependents.—Thackeray.

Note that the subordinate clause depends on the compound main clause, not upon either of its members.

Thus, in the first example, the subordinate clause (when they saw the ship) depends upon the compound main clause, they shouted for joy and some of them burst into tears. It is an adverbial modifier of both shouted and burst.

518. Though a complex sentence can have but one (simple or compound) main clause, there is, in theory, no limit to the number of subordinate clauses.

519. Subordinate clauses may be attached to the main clause (1) as separate modifiers or complements; (2) in a coördinate series of clauses, all in the same construction, and forming one compound clause; (3) in a series of successively subordinate clauses, forming one complex clause.

520. Two or more subordinate clauses may be attached to the main clause separately, each as a distinct modifier or complement.

• The bridge, which had been weakened by the ice, fell with a crash while the locomotive was crossing it. [The first subordinate clause is an adjective modifier of bridge; the second is an adverbial modifier of fell.]
• The architect who drew the plans says that the house will cost ten thousand dollars. [The first subordinate clause is an adjective modifier of architect; the second is a complement, being the object of says.]
• Isabella, whom every incident was sufficient to dismay, hesitated whether she should proceed.—H. Walpole.
• As the boat drew nearer to the city, the coast which the traveller had just left sank behind him into one long, low, sad-colored line.—Ruskin.
• Those dangers which, in the vigor of youth, we had learned to despise, assume new terrors as we grow old.—Goldsmith.
• When Farmer Oak smiled, the corners of his mouth spread till they were within an unimportant distance of his ears.—Hardy.
• As Florian Deleal walked, one hot afternoon, he overtook by the wayside a poor aged man, and, as he seemed weary with the road, helped him on with the burden which he carried, a certain distance.—Pater.
• While Joe was absent on this errand, the elder Willet and his three companions continued to smoke with profound gravity and in a deep silence, each having his eyes fixed on a huge copper boiler that was suspended over the fire.—Dickens.

521. Two or more subordinate clauses in the same construction, forming one compound clause, may be attached to the main clause as a modifier or complement.

• 1. The truth was that Leonard had overslept, that he had missed the train, and that he had failed to keep his appointment.
• 2. The guide told us that the road was impassable, that the river was in flood, and that the bridge had been swept away.
• 3. Ellis, whose pockets were empty and whose courage was at a low ebb, stared dismally at the passing crowd.
• 4. Before the battle was over and while the result was still in doubt, the general ordered a retreat.
• 5. After we had arrived at the hotel, but before we had engaged our rooms, we received an invitation to stay at the castle.
• 6. My first thought was, that all was lost, and that my only chance for executing a retreat was to sacrifice my baggage.—De Quincey.
• 7. The author fully convinced his readers that they were a race of cowards and scoundrels, that nothing could save them, that they were on the point of being enslaved by their enemies, and that they richly deserved their fate.—Macaulay.

In the first and second examples, three coördinate noun clauses are joined to make one compound clause, which is used as a complement,—as a predicate nominative in the first sentence, as the direct object of told in the second.

In the third example, a compound adjective clause modifies Ellis. In the fourth and fifth, a compound adverbial clause modifies the predicate verb (ordered, received). In the seventh, four that-clauses unite in one compound clause.

522. Two or more successively subordinate clauses, forming one complex clause, may be joined to the main clause as a modifier or complement.

In such a series, the first subordinate clause is attached directly to the main clause, the second is subordinate to the first, the third to the second, and so on in succession.

In the course of my travels, I met a good-natured old gentleman, (a) who was born in the village (b) where my parents lived (c) before they came to America.

Here gentleman (a complement in the main clause) is modified by the adjective clause who was born in the village (a). Village, in clause a, is modified by the adjective clause where my parents lived (b). Lived, the predicate verb of clause b, is modified by the adverbial clause before they came to America (c).

Thus it appears that a is subordinate to the main clause, and that b, in turn, is subordinate to a, and c to b. In other words, the three clauses (a, b, c) are united to make one complex clause,—who was born in the village where my parents lived before they came to America. This clause, taken as a whole, serves as an adjective modifier describing gentleman.

523. Further examples of the successive subordination of one clause to another may be seen in the following sentences:—

• I have passed my latter years in this city, where I am frequently seen in public places, though there are not above half-a-dozen of my select friends that know me.—Addison.
• In this manner they advanced by moonlight till they came within view of the two towering rocks that form a kind of portal to the valley, at the extremity of which rose the vast ruins of Istakar.—Beckford.
• The young fellow uttered this with an accent and a look so perfectly in tune to a feeling heart, that I instantly made a vow I would give him a four-and-twenty sous piece, when I got to Marseilles.—Sterne. [The conjunction that is omitted before I would (§ 388).]
• Three years had scarcely elapsed before the sons of Constantine seemed impatient to convince mankind that they were incapable of contenting themselves with the dominions which they were unqualified to govern.—Gibbon.
• Mr. Lewis sent me an account of Dr. Arbuthnot’s illness, which is a very sensible affliction to me, who, by living so long out of the world, have lost that hardness of heart contracted by years and general conversation.—Swift.

Note. The method of forming complex clauses by successive subordination, if overworked, produces long, straggling, shapeless sentences, as in the following example from Borrow:—“I scouted the idea that Slingsby would have stolen this blacksmith’s gear; for I had the highest opinion of his honesty, which opinion I still retain at the present day, which is upwards of twenty years from the time of which I am speaking, during the whole of which period I have neither seen the poor fellow nor received any intelligence of him.” A famous instance of the use of this structure for comic effect is “The House that Jack Built.”

Special Complications

524. The processes of coördination and subordination (§§ 514–523) may be so utilized in one and the same sentence as to produce a very complicated structure.

Examples of such sentences are given below, for reference (§§ 525–526). Their structure, however elaborate, is always either complex or compound complex.

I. In Complex Sentences

525. The following sentences are complex. They contain either compound or complex clauses, or both.

1. They preferred the silver with which they were familiar, and which they were constantly passing about from hand to hand, to the gold which they had never before seen, and with the value of which they were unacquainted.—Macaulay.

The main clause of this complex sentence is they preferred the silver to the gold. To this are separately attached (§ 520) two adjective clauses, both compound: (1) with which ... hand, modifying silver; (2) which they had ... unacquainted, modifying gold.

2. All London crowded to shout and laugh round the gibbet where hung the rotting remains of a prince who had made England the dread of the world, who had been the chief founder of her maritime greatness and of her colonial empire, who had conquered Scotland and Ireland, who had humbled Holland and Spain.—Macaulay.

The sentence is complex. The main clause is all London crowded to shout and laugh round the gibbet. The rest of the sentence (where ... Spain) forms one long complex adjective clause, modifying gibbet. In this complex clause, the first clause (where ... prince) has dependent on it a compound adjective clause (modifying prince), made up of four coördinate clauses, each beginning with who. The subordination of this compound clause to that which precedes (where ... prince) produces the long complex subordinate clause where ... Spain.

3. As we cannot at present get Mr. Joseph out of the inn, we shall leave him in it, and carry our reader on after Parson Adams, who, his mind being perfectly at ease, fell into a contemplation on a passage in Æschylus, which entertained him for three miles together, without suffering him once to reflect on his fellow-traveller.—Fielding.

In this complex sentence, two subordinate clauses are separately attached to the main clause: (1) the adverbial clause as ... inn; (2) the adjective clause who ... fellow-traveller. This latter clause is complex, since it contains the adjective clause which ... fellow-traveller, dependent on who ... Æschylus, and modifying passage.

4. As I sit by my window this summer afternoon, hawks are circling about my clearing; the tantivy of wild pigeons, flying by twos and threes athwart my view, or perching restlessly on the white pine boughs behind my house, gives a voice to the air; a fishhawk dimples the glassy surface of the pond and brings up a fish; a mink steals out of the marsh before my door and seizes a frog by the shore; the sedge is bending under the weight of the reed-birds flitting hither and hither; and for the last half hour I have heard the rattle of railroad cars, now dying away and then revving like the beat of a partridge, conveying travellers from Boston to the country.—Thoreau.

This sentence is complex. Its main clause is compound, consisting of a series of six coördinate simple clauses. The whole of this long compound main clause is modified by the adverbial clause with which the sentence begins (as ... afternoon).

5. That they had sprung from obscurity, that they had acquired great wealth, that they exhibited it insolently, that they spent it extravagantly, that they raised the price of everything in their neighborhood, from fresh eggs to rotten boroughs; that their liveries outshone those of dukes, that their coaches were finer than that of the Lord Mayor, that the examples of their large and ill-governed households corrupted half the servants in the country; that some of them, with all their magnificence, could not catch the tone of good society, but in spite of the stud and the crowd of menials, of the plate and the Dresden china, of the venison and the Burgundy, were still low men,—these were things which excited, both in the class from which they had sprung, and in that into which they attempted to force themselves, that bitter aversion which is the effect of mingled envy and contempt.—Macaulay.

This complex sentence, though very long, is perfectly easy to follow. It begins with a long compound noun clause (consisting of nine coördinate that-clauses). This would be the subject of the main predicate verb were, but for the fact that the pronoun these is inserted to act as the subject (referring back to the compound noun clause and summing it up in a single word). To the complement things is attached the adjective clause which excited ... contempt. This clause is complex, for it contains three adjective clauses, (1) from which they had sprung (modifying class), (2) into which ... themselves (modifying that), and (3) which is ... contempt (modifying aversion). All three are separately attached to the clause on which they depend, which excited that bitter aversion. Thus all that portion of the sentence which follows things forms one complex clause, modifying that noun.

6. That I may avoid the imputation of throwing out, even privately, any loose, random imputations against the public conduct of a gentleman for whom I once entertained a very warm affection, and whose abilities I regard with the greatest admiration, I will put down, distinctly and articulately, some of the matters of objection which I feel to his late doctrines and proceedings, trusting that I shall be able to demonstrate to the friends whose good opinion I would still cultivate, that not levity, nor caprice, nor less defensible motives, but that very grave reasons, influence my judgment.—Burke.

This is a fine example of a long, but well-constructed complex sentence. The main clause is I will put down, distinctly and articulately, some of the matters of objection. Upon this simple clause, everything else in the sentence depends in one way or another.

II. In Compound Complex Sentences

526. Any complex sentence, however elaborate, may be used as one of the coördinate complex clauses that make up a compound complex sentence.

1. While the king was treated at this rude rate, Cromwell, with his army, was in Scotland, obstructing the motions that were making in his favor; but on the approach of the Scots, who were much superior in number, he was forced to retire towards Dunbar, where his ships and provisions lay.—Burnet.

In this compound complex sentence, both coördinate clauses are complex. In each, the main clause has two subordinate clauses attached to it separately (§ 520).

2. They had seen me cut the cables, and thought my design was only to let the ships run adrift, or fall foul on each other; but when they perceived the whole fleet moving in order, and saw me pulling at the end, they set up such a scream of grief and despair as it is almost impossible to describe or conceive.—Swift.

In this compound complex sentence, both of the two coördinate clauses are complex. The first contains the noun clause [that] my design ... each other, used as the object of thought. The second contains two subordinate clauses, separately attached to the main clause (they set ... despair). For the infinitive cut, see § 322. The infinitive to let is used as a predicate nominative (§ 491); it has as its object the infinitive clause the ships ... each other, containing two infinitives, run and fall (§ 325).

3. While things went on quietly, while there was no opposition, while everything was given by the favor of a small ruling junto, Fox had a decided advantage over Pitt; but when dangerous times came, when Europe was convulsed with war, when Parliament was broken up into factions, when the public mind was violently excited, the favorite of the people rose to supreme power.—Macaulay.

This compound complex sentence consists of two complex clauses, joined by the coördinate conjunction but. In each of these, the subordinate clause is compound (§ 521), consisting of several coördinate adverbial clauses introduced by relative adverbs (while in the first, when in the second).

4. The clear and agreeable language of his despatches had early attracted the notice of his employers; and before the Peace of Breda he had, at the request of Arlington, published a pamphlet on the war, of which nothing is now known, except that it had some vogue at the time, and that Charles, not a contemptible judge, pronounced it to be very well written.—Macaulay.

In this compound complex sentence, the first coördinate clause is simple, the second is complex. In the second, the adjective clause of which nothing is known has dependent on it the group of words except ... well written, consisting of the preposition except and its object (the compound noun clause, that ... time, and that ... well written). This group serves as an adjective modifier of the noun nothing. The whole passage of which ... well written forms a complex adjective clause, modifying pamphlet. It to be very well written is a complement, being an infinitive clause used as the object of pronounced (§ 325).

Chapter VIII. Elliptical Sentences

527. Good usage does not demand that all sentences shall be absolutely complete. It often allows (and sometimes requires) the omission of words that, though necessary to the construction, are so easily supplied by the mind that it would be mere waste of time to utter them.

528. The omission of a word or words necessary to the grammatical completeness of a clause or sentence is called ellipsis.

A clause or sentence that shows ellipsis is said to be elliptical.

Ellipsis is a Greek word meaning “omission.”

In the following examples the omitted words are supplied in brackets.

• [I] thank you.
• [I] pray do not [you] move.
• [You] pass me that book.
• Her hair is light, her eyes [are] dark blue.
• Some of the strangers spoke French, others [spoke] Spanish.
• Some of the patriots were armed with old flintlocks, others [were armed] with swords, still others [were armed] with pitchforks.
• When [he was] a youth, he travelled in the East.
• Though [he is] timid, he is no coward.
• They were amused, though [they were] somewhat vexed.
• While [we were] drifting downstream, we grounded on a sand bar.
• If [it is] possible, send me word to-night.
• You shall have the money this week, if [it is] necessary.
• They marched slowly as if [they were] worn out.
• Why [are] these tears?
• Why [are you] so dejected?
• He was ten years of age, his brother [was] eight [years of age].
• I have more confidence in James than [I have] in Edmund.
• Mary is younger than George [is young].
• Tom likes you better than [he likes] me.
• You like him better than I do [like him].
• I like him better than Charles does [like him].
• This racket is not so heavy as that [is heavy].
• You are not so old as I [am old].
• Peace [be] to his memory!
• This is the only pencil [that] I have.
• Is that the boy [whom] you hired yesterday?
• They say [that] you are going to Europe soon.

529. The examples in § 528 show that most cases of ellipsis fall under two heads:

1. To avoid repetition, words are often omitted in one part of the sentence when they occur in another part.

2. Pronouns, the conjunction that, and some forms of the verb is, are often omitted when they are readily supplied.

Under the second head come (1) the ellipsis of the subject (thou or you) in imperative sentences (§ 268), (2) that of relative pronouns in the objective case (§ 151), (3) that of is, are, etc. (with the subject pronoun) in subordinate clauses introduced by when, though, if, and the like (§§ 397, , ).

Note. The so-called “telegraphic style” omits I with any verb or with all verbs. It should be confined to telegrams, where space is money.

530. Adverbs indicating direction (like forward, back) are often used without a verb in imperative sentences.

• Forward, brave companions!
• Down on your knees!
• Up, guards, and at them!

Note. In older English, the omission of the verb of motion was common, even in sentences not imperative, as in the following examples from Julius Cæsar:—“We’ll along ourselves, and meet them”; “Shall we on, and not depend on you?”

531. The ellipsis of the subordinate conjunction that is very common, especially in indirect discourse (§§ 388, ).

• I know [that] you are my friend.
• Jack said [that] the boat had sunk.
• He told me [that] he was sorry.

532. Many constructions, originally elliptical, have become established idioms in which no ellipsis is felt. In such cases it is usually better to take the sentence as it stands, and not to supply the omitted words.

Thus, in “He eats as if he were famished” the italicized words are properly treated as a subordinate clause modifying eats and introduced by the compound conjunction as if. Yet in strictness this construction is an ellipsis for “He eats as [he would eat] if he were famished.”

533. Various ellipses are illustrated in the following sentences:—

• 1. Although in a friendly country, they marched always as if in a land of enemies.
• 2. The aspect of the country was as wild and dreary as the climate.
• 3. Do not serious and earnest men discuss Hamlet as they would Cromwell or Lincoln?—Lowell.
• 4. Not so with the others.
• 5. Though rather shy and distrustful of this new acquaintance, Rip complied with his usual alacrity.
• 6. Arras was famed for its rich tapestries, Brussels for its carpets, Cambrai for its fine cambric, Lisle for its thread and the fabrics woven from it.
• 7. Every day brings its task, which, if neglected, is doubled on the morrow.
• 8. It is not easy to recover an art when once lost.
• 9. I wish you would go down with me to Newstead.
• 10. The men are all soldiers, and war and the chase their sole occupation.
• 11. While in this state of irresolution, she was startled by a low knock.
• 12. The house was tall, the skylight small and dirty, the day blind with fog.
• 13. I little thought you would have deserted me.
• 14. He is the best Oriental scholar I know.
• 15. Cromwell was evidently laying, though in an irregular manner, the foundations of an admirable system.
• 16. He was a foot taller than I.
• 17. This concerns you rather than me.
• 18. My father loved Sir Rowland as his soul.