Abridgment

Of the

Ten Books

OF

Architecture

Written by Vitruvius.

Part I.

Of Architecture that is common to us with the Ancients.

Chap. 1.

Of Architecture in General.

Article I.

Of the Original of Architecture.

IT’s related by Historians, That Men, who in former times inhabited Woods and Caverns like wild Beasts, first assembled themselves to make Houses and Cities, which was occasioned by a Forest that was set on fire, which drew all the Inhabitants together by its novelty and surprizing effects; so that many Men meeting together in the same place, they found out means, by helping one another, to harbour themselves more conveniently, than in Caves and under Trees; so that it is pretended, that Architecture was the Beginning and Original of all other Arts. For Men seeing that they had success in Building, which necessity made them invent, they had the Thoughts and Courage of seeking out other Arts, and applying themselves to them.

Now even as they took Trees, Rocks and other Things that Nature her self furnished Beasts to harbour themselves under, which were made use of as Models for the first Houses, which at first were only made of green Turf and broken Branches of Trees, they made use of them afterwards, in the same manner, to arrive at something more perfect. For passing from the Imitation of the Natural to that of Artificial, they invented all the Ornaments of Edifices that were most curiously wrought, in giving them the Form and Shape of those things that are simply necessary to the most natural Buildings: And the Pieces of Timber of which the Roofs and Floors of Houses are made, were the Original of Pillars, Architraves, Frises, Triglyphs, Mutils, Brackets, Corniches, Frontons or Piediments, which are made of Stone or Marble.

The Pillars which are to be smaller at top than at bottom, were made in Imitation of the Boles or Trunks of Trees, and their use was taken from the Carpenters' Posts that are made to support the Building. The Architraves which are laid across many Pillars, represent Summers that join many Posts together. The Frises imitate the Muring that is raised upon the Summers betwixt the ends of the Beams that are laid directly upon the Pillars. The Triglyphs represent the Ceiling or Joyner’s work which was made upon the ends of the Beams to conserve them. The Corniches are as it were the extream parts of the Joists. The Modillions represent the ends of the Sheers, and the Dentels represent the ends of the principal Rafter. The Frontons are made in imitation of the Firms or Girders, upon which is laid the Roof of the House.

There is likewise another Original of Architecture, which is taken from the Inventers of the several Orders, and those that added the Ornaments to embellish them. For it’s the common Opinion, that the first Fabrick that was made, according to any of the Orders, was the Temple that King Dorus built in Honour of Juno in the City Argos. And it obtained the name of the Dorick Order, when Ion the Conducter of a Colony, which he established in Asia, made many Temples be built according to the Model of the Temple built by Dorus in Greece.

But the Ionians having changed some of the Proportions and Ornaments of the Dorick Order, were the Authors of another Order, which was called the Ionick, according to which, they built a Temple in Honour of Diana. The reason of this change was, that this Temple being dedicated to a Divinity, which they represented under the Shape of a Young Lady, they thought it was proper to make their Pillars more tapering, the better to represent the airy Stature of this Goddess, and for this reason they adorned it more delicately, adding Bases which represent the Buskin'd Ornaments of the Legs and Feet, according to the Mode of that time; and Made the Channellings deeper to represent the Foldings and Plaits of a fine light Garment. They put likewise Volutes or Scrowls upon the Capital, pretending that they imitated the Head-Dress of a Young Lady, whose Hair Beautifully descending from the top of her Head, was folded up under each Ear.

Afterwards Calimachus an Athenian, embellished the Capitals of the Pillars, adding to them more Beautiful Volutes or Scrowls, and more in number, enriching them with the Leaves of Brank Ursine and Roses. It’s said, That this Capital, which, according to Vitruvius, makes all the Distinction betwixt the Corinthian and Ionick Order, was invented by this ingenious Artisan upon this occasion. Having seen the Leaves of the above-mentioned Plant grow round about a Basket which was set upon the Tomb of a Young Corinthian Lady, and which, as it happened, was set upon the middle of the Plant. He represented the Basket by the Tambour or Vase of the Capital, to which he made an Abacus to imitate the Tile with which the Basket was covered, and that he represented the Stalks of the Herb by the Volutes or Scrowls, which were ever after placed upon the Corinthian Capital. See Table the IXth.

This great Artist likewise invented other Ornaments, as those we call Eggs, because of the Ovals in the Relief which are in the Mouldings of the Corniches and are like Eggs. The Ancients called this Ornament Echinus, which signifies the sharp prickly shell of Chestnuts, because they found these Ovals represented a Chestnut half open, as it is when it’s ripe.

He likewise makes mention of another Famous Author, who found out the proportion of all the Parts of a Fabrick, which was Hermogenes; to whom he attributes the Invention of the Eustyle, Pseudodiptere, and of all that is beautiful and excellent in Architecture.

Art. II.

What Architecture is.

IRchitecture is a Science which ought to be accompanied with the Knowledge of a great many other Arts and Sciences, by which means it forms a correct Judgment of all the Works of other Arts that appertain to it. This Science is acquired by Theory and Practice. The Theory of Architecture is that Knowledge of this Art which is acquired by study, travelling and discourse. The Practick is that knowledge that is acquired by the Actual Building of great Fabricks. These Two Parts are so necessary, that never any came to any great Perfection without them both. The one being lame and imperfect without the other, so they must walk hand in hand.

Besides, the Knowledge of things that particularly belong to Architecture, there are infinite other things that are necessary to be known by an Architect.

For, First, it’s necessary that he be able to couch in writing his intended Building, and to design the Plan, and make an excellent Model of it.

Geometry likewise is very necessary for him in many occasions.

He must also know Arithmetick to make a true Calculation.

He must be knowing in History, and be able to give a reason for the greatest part of the Ornaments of Architecture which are founded upon History. For Example, if instead of Pillars he support the Floors of the House with the figures of Women, which are called Cariatides, he ought to know that the Greeks invented these Figures to let Posterity know the Victories they obtained over the Cariens, whose Wives they made Captives, and put their Images in their Buildings.

It’s necessary likewise, that he be instructed in the Precepts of Moral Philosophy; for he ought to have a great Soul, and be bold without Arrogance, just, faithful, and totally exempt from Avarice.

The Architect also ought to have a great Docility which may hinder him from neglecting the advice that is given him, not only by the meanest Artist, but also by those that understand nothing of Architecture; for not only Architects, but all the World must judge of his Works.

Natural Philosophy is likewise necessary for him for to discover what are the Causes of many things which he must put a remedy to.

He ought also to know something of Physick, to know the qualities of the Air, which makes Places Healthful and Habitable, or the quite contrary.

He should not be ignorant of the Laws and the Customs of Places for the Building of Partition Walls, for prospect and for the conveying of Waters and Sewers.

He ought to know Astronomy, that he may be able to make all sorts of Dials.

It was necessary among the Ancients, that an Architect should have skill in Musick to make and order Catapults and other Machines of War, which were strung with strings made of Guts, whose sound they were to observe, that they might judge of the strength and stiffness of the Beams which were bended with those Strings. Musick was also necessary in those days for the placing musically Vessels of Brass in the Theatres, as we have said before.

Art. III.

What are the Parts of Architecture.

THere are Three Things which ought to meet in every Fabrick, viz. Solidity, Convenience and Beauty, which Architecture gives them; by the due ordering and disposition of all the Parts that compose the Edifice, and which she rules by a just Proportion, having regard to a true Decorum, and well regulated Oeconomy; from whence it follows, that Architecture has Eight Parts, viz. Solidity, Convenience, Beauty, Order, Disposition, Decorum, Oeconomy.

Solidity depends upon the goodness of the Foundation, choice of Materials, and the right use of them; which ought to be with a due order, disposition and convenient Proportion of all Parts together, and of one in respect of another.

Convenience likewise consists in the ordering and disposition, which is so good that nothing hinders the use of any part of the Edifice.

Beauty consists in the excellent and agreeable form, and the just proportion of all its parts.

Order is that which makes, that all the parts of an Edifice have a convenient bigness, whether we consider them apart or with Relation to the whole.

Disposition is the orderly Ranging and agreeable Union of all the parts that compose the Work; so that as Order respects the Greatness, Disposition respects Form and Situation, which are Two Things compriz'd under the word Quality, which Vitruvius attributes to Disposition, and opposes to Quantity, which appertains to Order. There are three ways by which the Architect may take a view beforehand of the Fabrick he is to build, viz. First, Ichnography, which is the Geometrical Plan; Orthography, which is the Geometrical Elevation, and Scenography, which is Perspective Elevation.

Proportion, which is also call'd Eurythmy, is that which makes the Union of all parts of the Work, and which renders the Prospect agreeable, when the Height answers the Breadth, and the Breadth the Length; every one having its just measure. It is defin'd, the Relation that all the Work has with its Parts, and which every one of them has separately to the Idea of the whole, according to the measure of any Part. For as in Humane Bodies there is a Relation between the Foot, Hand, Finger and other Parts; so amongst Works that are Perfect, from any particular Part, we may make a certain Judgment of the Greatness of the whole Work: For Example, the Diameter of a Pillar, or the Length of a Triglyph, creates in us a right Judgment of the Greatness of the whole Temple.

And here we must remark, that to express the Relation that many things have one to another, as to their Greatness or different Number of Parts, Vitruvius indifferently makes use of three words, which are Proportion, Eurythmy and Symmetry. But we have thought it proper only to make use of the word Proportion, because Eurythmy is a Greek word, which signifies nothing else but Proportion; and Symmetry, although a word commonly used, does not signifie in the Vulgar Languages what Vitruvius understands by Proportion; for he understands by Proportion, a Relation according to Reason; and Symmetry, in the vulgar Languages, signifies only, a Relation of Parity and Equality. For the word Simmetria signifies in Latin and Greek Relation only. As for Example, as the Relation that Windows of Eight Foot high, have with other Windows of Six Foot, when the one are Four Foot broad, and the other Three: and Symmetry, in the Vulgar Languages, signifies the Relation, for Example, That Windows have one to another, when they are all of an equal height and equal breadth; and that their Number and Distances are equal to the Right and the Left; so that if the distances be unequal of one side, the like inequality is to be found in the other.

Decorum or Decency, is that which makes the Aspect of the Fabrick so correct, that there is nothing that is not approv'd of, and founded upon some Authority. It teaches us to have regard to three things, which are, Design, Custom and Nature.

The Regard to Design makes us chuse for Example, other Dispositions and Propertions for a Palace than for a Church.

The Respect we have to Custom, is the Reason, for Example, That the Porches and Entries of Houses are adorned, when the Inner Parts are Rich and Magnificent.

The Regard we have to the Nature of Places, makes us chuse different Prospects for different Parts of the Fabrick, to make them the wholsomer and the more convenient: For Example, the Bed-Chambers and the Libraries are exposed to the Morning Sun; the Winter Apartments, to the West; the Closets or Pictures and other Curiosities, which should always have equal Light, to the North.

Oeconomy teaches the Architect to have regard to the Expences that are to be made, and to the Quality of the Materials, near the Places where he Builds, and to take his Measures rightly for the Order and Disposition; viz. to give the Fabrick a convenient Form and Magnitude.

These Eight Parts, as we have said, have a Relation to the Three first, viz. Solidity, Convenience, Beauty, which suppose, Order, Disposition, Proportion, Decorum and Oeconomy. This is the reason that we divide this first Part only into Three Chapters; the first is of the Solidity; the second of the Convenience; the third of the Beauty of the Fabrick.

Chap. II.

Of the Solidity of Buildings.

Article I.

Of the Choice of Materials.

THE Materials of which Vitruvius speaks are, Stone, Brick, Wood, Lime, and Sand.

All the Stones are not of one sort, for some are soft, some harder, and some extreamly hard.

Those that are not hard are easily cut, and are good for the Inner Parts of the Buildings, where they are cover'd from Rain and Frost which brings them to Powder, and if they be made use of in Buildings near the Sea, the Salt Particles of the Air and Heat destroys them.

Those that are indifferently hard, are fit to bear Weight; but there are some sorts of them, that easily crack with the heat of the Fire.

There is likewise another sort of Stone, which is a kind of Free-Stone; some are Red, some Black, and some White, which are as easily cut with a Saw as Wood.

The best Bricks are those which are only dry'd and not baked in the Fire; but there are many Years required to dry them well: and for this Reason, at Utica, a City of Africa, they made a Law, That none should make use of Bricks which had not been made five Years: For these sort of Bricks, so dry'd, had their Pores so close in their Superficies, that they would swim upon Water like a Pumice-Stone; and they had a particular Lightness, which made them very fit for all sorts of Buildings.

The Earth of which these Bricks were usually made was very Fat, and a sort of White Chalky Clay without Gravel or Sand, which made them Lighter and more Durable; they mixed Straw with them to make them better bound and firmer.

The Woods which were made use of in all Buildings, are Oak, Poplar, Beech, Elm, Cypress, Firr; but some of them are not so proper for Building as others.

The Firr, because it has great plenty of Air, and Fire, and but little Earth and Water, is light, and does not easily bend; but is very subject to Worms and Fire.

The Oak which is more Earthy lasts for ever under Ground; but above Ground is apt to cleave.

The Beech which has little of Earthiness, Humidity and Fire, but great plenty of Air, is not very solid and easily breaks.

The Poplar and the Linden Trees are only good for light Work, they are easily cut and so finest for Carving.

The Alder is good to make Piles of in Marshy Places.

The Elm and the Ash have this property, that they do not easily cleave, and that they are pliable.

The Yoke-Elm is likewise pliable, and yet very strong; this is the Reason that they made Yokes for their Oxen of them in Old Time.

The Pine and the Cypress have this defect, that they easily bend under any Weight, because of their great Humidity; but they have this Advantage, that their Humidity does not engender Worms, because of their Bitterness which kills them.

The Juniper and the Cedar have the same Vertue of hindering Corruption: the Juniper by its Gum, which is call'd Sandarax, and the Cedar by its Oil call'd Cedrium.

The Larch-Tree has likewise the same Vertue, but its particular property is, that it will not burn. There is a remarkable Story of this Wood, which is, That when Julius Cæsar besieg'd a Castle at the Foot of the Alpes, there was a Tower built of this Wood, which prov'd the Principal Defence of the Place. He thought to take it easily by making a great Fire at the Foot of the Tower, but for all this great Fire, the Tower did not suffer the least Damage.

The Olive-Tree is likewise very serviceable, if it be put in the Foundations, and Walls of Cities; for after it has been singed a little, and interlaced among the Stones, it lasts for ever, and is out of all danger of Corruption.

Lime is made of White Stones or Flinty Pebbles, the harder the Stones are which 'tis made of, the better it is for Building. That which is made of soft Spongy Stones, is proper for Plastring.

There are five sorts of Sand; viz. Sand that is dug out of the Ground, River Sand, Gravel, Sea-Sand, and Pozzolana, which is a Sand peculiar to some Parts of Italy.

The best Sand is that which being rubb'd between the Hands makes a little Noise, which that Sand does not, which is Earthy, because it is not rough. Another Mark of good Sand is, that when 'tis put upon any Thing that is White and shak'd off, it leaves no Mark behind.

The Sand which is dug out of the Earth has all these Qualities, and is esteem'd the best. Vitruvius makes four sorts of it; viz. White, Black, Red, and Bright like a Carbuncle.

If it happen that there be no good Place to dig Sand in, we may make use of Sea-Sand, or River-Sand, which is likewise better for Plastering than the Sand which is digged, which is excellent for Building, because it drys quickly. Gravel likewise is very good, provided the grosser Parts be taken away. Sea-Sand is worst of all, because 'tis long adrying; and for this Reason, where 'tis made use of in Building, they are forc'd to desist sometimes till it dry.

The Sand which is found near Naples call'd Pozzolana is so proper to make good Mortar, if it be mixed with Lime, that not only in the ordinary Fabricks, but even in the very bottom of the Sea it grows into a wonderful hard Body. In Old Times they made use of it for Moles or Ports of the Sea, for after having made with Piles and Boards a Partition, they fill'd up the whole Compass of the Partition with this Mortar, which dry'd of it self in the middle of the Water and became a solid Body.

Art. II.

Of the Use of the Materials.

THE first thing we should have a Care of before we begin to build, is, to have the Stones dug out of the Quarry before they be used, and to expose them in some open Place, to the end that those which are endamaged by the Air, during this Time, may be put in the Foundation, and those that prove Durable and Good may be kept for the Walls above Ground.

We must likewise have a great care of the Wood which we make use of; That it be cut in a seasonable Time, which is in Autumn and Winter; for then it is not full of that superfluous Humidity which weakened it in dilating its Fibers, but it is firm and well closed by the Cold. This is so true, that the Wood of Trees which grow and become very great in a little Time, by reason of their great Humidity, is tender and apt to break, and very unfit for Building Which Experience shows us particularly in those Firrs call'd Supernates, which grow in Italy, on that side the Apennine, towards the Adriatick-Sea, for they are great and beautiful, but their Wood is not good for Building; whereas those on the other side of the Mountain, which are exposed to Heat and Dryness, call'd Infernates, are very good for Building.

This superfluous Humidity endamages Trees so much, that we are sometimes constrain'd to make a hole at the foot of the Tree and let it run out, which is the occasion of the Practice which is observ'd in cutting of Wood for Building, to Tap that Tree at the Foot, cutting not only the Bark, but even some part of the Wood it self, and so leave it for some time before it be Fell'd.

It is likewise easie to judge of what great Importance the draining of this superfluous Humidity is for strengthning the Timber, and hindring Corruption, from this, That those Piles which are interlaced among the Stones in the Walls and Fortifications of Towns endure for ever without Corrupting, when they have been burnt a little on the outside.

Bricks ought not to be made use of but in very thick Walls; for this reason they did not build with Brick in Rome, for to save Ground; they were not permitted to make the Walls of their Houses above a Foot and a Half thick, which Makes about 16 Inches and a half of our Foot.

They likewise never made the top of their Walls with Brick; for the Brick of the Ancients not being baked, this part of the Wall would have been easily endamaged; for this reason they built it with Tiles, a foot and a half high, comprizing the Cornish or Entablature which was made likewise of Tiles to cast off the Water and defend the rest of the Wall. They likewise chose for these Cornishes the best Tiles, viz. those that had been long on the top of the Houses, and given sufficient Proof that they were well baked and made of good Matter.

The Walling with Brick was so much esteem'd among the Ancients, that all their Fabricks, as well publick as private, and their most beautiful Palaces were built with them. But that which principally made this sort of Building be esteem'd, was its great Duration; for when expert Architects were called to make an Estimate of Buildings, they always deducted an 80th. part of what they judged the Building cost for every Year that the Wall had been standing, for they supposed that the Walls could not ordinarily endure more than Fourscore Years; but when they valued Buildings of Brick, they always valued them at what they cost at first, supposing them to be of an Eternal Duration.

To make the right use of Lime and Sand, and to make good Mortar of them, it is necessary that the Lime be first well Quench'd, and that it be kept a long time, to the end that if there be any Piece of it that is not well burnt in the Kiln, it may, being extinguished at leasure, soften as well as the rest. This is of Great Importance particularly in Plastering and Works of Stuck, which is a Composition of Marble finely beaten with Lime. For if any little Pieces remain that are not well baked, when they come to be made use of, they crack and break the Work.

The way to know whether the Lime be well Quench'd, is thus: You may thrust a Chip of Wood into it or a Knife, and if the Chip of Wood meet with any Stones, or that the Knife comes out clean without any sticking to it, it signifies the Lime was not will burnt; for when 'tis well Quench'd, it is Fat and will stick to the Knife; but the quite contrary happens to Mortar, for it is neither well prepar'd, nor well mix'd, if it stick to the Trowel.

For to make the right use of Sand, you must first consider what it is to be employ'd in; for if it be Mortar for Plastring, you must not make use of Sand that was lately dug out, for it drys the Mortar too fast, which cracks the Plastring; but quite contrary if it be to be employ'd in Masonry, it must not have been a long time expos'd to the Air, for the Sun and the Moon do so alter it, that the Rain dissolves it, and turns it almost all into Earth.

The Proportion that Sand and Lime ought to have to make good Mortar, should be three parts of Sand that is dug, or two parts of River-Sand or Sea-Sand against one of Lime, and 'twill be yet much better, if you add to the Sand of the Sea and the River a third part of Tiles well beaten.

One of the Principal Things that is to be observ'd in making Mortar, is, to mix it well. The Grecian Workmen were so careful of this, that they Tewed it a great while, putting Ten Men to every Vessel wherein they wrought it, which gave so great a hardness to the Mortar, that when any big pieces of Plaster fell off the Old Walls, they made Tables of it.

Art. III.

Of the Foundation.

THE Foundation is the most important part of the Fabrick; for the Faults committed in it cannot be so easily remedied as in other parts.

To lay the Foundation well, you must dig till you come to solid Ground, and even into the solid as much as is necessary to support the Weight of the Walls; it must be larger below than above the Superficies of the Earth.

When you have found firm Earth to make it more solid, you must beat it with a Rammer; but if you cannot arrive at solid Earth, but find it still soft and spungy, you must dig as far as you can, and drive in Piles of Alder, Olive, or Oak, a little singed, near together, and fill up the void Places between the Piles with Coal.

In short, you must make all Masonry with the most solid Stone that can be found for this use.

To make the Binding of the Stones the stronger in the Foundation of great Fabricks, you must put Piles of Olive a little singed and placed very thick from one Parement or Course to another, which serves, as it were, for Keys and Braces; for this Wood so prepar'd, is not subject to Worms, and will endure for ever, either in the Earth or in the Water, without the least Damage.

When you would make Cellars, the Foundations must be much larger; for the Wall that is to support the Earth requires a greater thickness to resist the strong Efforts that the Earth makes against it in Winter, at which time it swells and becomes more heavy by reason of the Water it has drunk up.

Art. IV.

Of the Walls.

T HE right ordering of Stones joined with Mortar, which is call'd Masonry, is sevenfold; there are three of them which are of hewed Stone; viz. that which is in Form of a Net, that which is in Binding, that which is call'd the Greek Masonry. There are likewise three sorts of Masonry of unhewed Stones; viz. that which is of an equal Course; and that which is of an unequal, and that which is fill'd up in the middle; the seventh is compounded of all the rest.

The Net-Masonry is that which is made of Stones perfectly squar'd in their Courses, and are laid so, that the Joints go obliquely, and the Diagonals are the one Perpendicular, and the other Level. This is the most pleasing Masonry to the Sight, but it is apt to crack. See the Figure A. Table I.

The Masonry call'd the Bound-Masonry, is that, as Vitruvius explains it, in which the Stones are plac'd one upon another like Tiles; that is to say, where the Joints of the Beds are Level, and the Mounters are Perpendicular; so that the Joint that mounts and separates two Stones falls directly upon the middle of the Stone which is below.

Some Authors call this sort of Masonry Incertain, but they are mistaken; for they read Incerta instead of Inserta; it is not so Beautiful as the Net-work, but it is more solid and durable. See the Figure BB. Table I.

The Masonry which Vitruvius says is particular to the Greeks, is that, where after we have laid two Stones, each of which make a Parement or Course, another is laid at the end, which makes two Parements or Courses, and all the Building through observe this Order. This may be call'd Double-Binding; for the Binding is not only of Stones of the same Course one with another, but likewise of one Course with another Course. See Figure CC. Table I.

The manner of Walling by unequal Courses call'd Isodomum by the Ancients, differs in nothing from the Masonry call'd Bound-Masonry, but only in this, that the Stones are not hewed. See Figure D. Table I.

The other manner by unequal Courses call'd Pseudisodomum is also made of unhewed Stone, and laid in Bound-Work, but they are not of the same thickness, and there is no equality observ'd, but only in the several Courses, the Courses themselves being unequal one to another. See Figure A. Table I.

The Masonry which is fill'd up in the middle, call'd by the Ancients Emplecton, is likewise made of unhewed Stone and by Courses, but the Stones are only set in order as to the Parements or Courses, but the middle is fill'd up with Stones thrown in carelesly among the Mortar. See Fig. FF, GG, H. Table I.

Among all these sorts of Masonry, that will always be best which is made of Stones of an indifferent size, rather lesser than greater; to the end that the Mortar penetrating them in more parts may bind them faster, and the strength of the Mortar does not so soon decay. For we see that the Mortar which is laid in the Joints or Seams of the greater Stones with time decays and turns to Dust, which never happens to the most Ancient Fabricks which have been built of little Stones. From thence we may conclude, that it is ill Husbandry to be sparing of Mortar.

For this reason Vitruvius proposes another sort of Masonry, which may be call'd the Compound Masonry, for it is all the former together, of Stones hewed and unhewed, and fastned together with Cramp-Irons. The Structure is as follows: The Courses being made of hew'd Stone, the middle place which was left void is fill'd up with Mortar and Pebbles thrown in together; after this they bind the Stones of one Parement or Course to those of another with Cramp-Irons fasten'd with melted Lead. This is done to the end, that the abundance of Mortar which is in the middle may furnish and communicate a sufficient Humidity to the Joints of the great Stones which make the Parements. See the Figure K. Table I.

There are many Precautions to be given to make the Masonry more firm and durable, and these Precautions are common to all the different sorts of Masonry.

When you would have the Walls very thick, for great and heavy Buildings, you must strengthen the inner part of the Wall with long Piles of singed Olive, which serves for Keys and Braces, for this Wood being so prepar'd never corrupts.

It is likewise of great Importance for the strength of Walls, that all be directly Perpendicular, and that the Chains, the Pillars and Pieds-droits or Piers be so situated, that solid always answer'd to the solid; for if there be any part of the Wall or any Pillar that carrys false, it is impossible the Work should continue long.

There are also two ways of strengthning the Walls, which are either to ease them of their own weight, or of that of the Earth which they are to support.

The first way of easing is in those Places where there are void spaces, as above Doors or Windows. These easements may be made two different ways; the first is to put over the Lintel which supports the Wall, which is over the void space of the Gates and Windows, two Beams, which lying or resting below directly upon Pieds-droits or Piers meet together above.

The other way is, to make directly over the void spaces Vaulted Arches with Stones cut corner-ways and tending to one Center. For the Walls be so strengthned by the means of these easements, that part of the Wall which is below will not sink at all being easied of the load of the part that is above, and if some defect should happen by tract of time, it may be mended without propping that which is above.

The second way of easing, is, for Walls that are made to support the Earth; for, besides the extraordinary thickness which they ought to have, they should have likewise Buttresses on that side next the Earth, so far distant one from another as is the breadth of the Wall; they ought likewise to have an Emparement or large Foundation which must be equal to the height of the Wall, so that they go diminishing by degrees from the bottom to the top, where they come to equal the height of the Wall.

The effect of these Buttresses is not only to support the Earth by their Resistance, but likewise to lessen its Efforts when it swells, in dividing it into many parts.

And it be judg'd that these Buttresses be not sufficient, the Wall also which supports the Earth must be strengthned with other Buttresses within.

Art. V.

Of Flooring and Ceiling.

THere are four sorts of Flooring, some are upon the Superficies of the Ground, others between two Stories, others make the Roof of the House in Plat-form, and the last is Plat-Fond.

To make those Floors that are upon the Ground, you must first make the Earth smooth and plain, if it be firm and solid, if not, it must be beaten with a Rammer with which they ram down their Piles; and after having cover'd the Earth with the first Lay or Bed, call'd Statumen by the Ancients, which was of Flinty Stones about the bigness of ones Fist, among which was mixed Mortar made of Lime and Sand. Then they laid the second Bed, which they call'd Rudus, which was made of lesser Stones, of which there were three Parts for one of Stone if they were new, for if they were taken out of old Buildings, five parts of Stones or Pibbles would be required for two of Lime.

The Greeks had a way of making their Floors in those low places where cold and humidity ordinarily reign, which freed them from these Inconveniences. They digged the Earth two Foot deep, and after having beaten it well, they laid a Bed of Mortar or Cement a little sloping from either side to the Channel, which convey'd the Water under Ground; they laid a Bed of Coal upon the first Mortar, and having beaten them well, they cover'd them with another Cement or Mortar made of Lime, Sand and Ashes, which they made smooth when it was dry with a Polishing-Stone. These Floors presently drank up the Water that fell upon them, that one might walk barefoot without being incommoded by the Cold.

For the Floors which are between two Stories, there must be a particular care taken, that if there be any Partition below it, that it may not touch the Flooring for fear lest if the Flooring came to sink a little, it might be broke upon the Partition which remains firm.

To make these Floorings, the Boards must be nailed at each end upon every Joist, to the end they may not warp; these Boards or Planks being cover'd with Straw, to hinder the Lime from wasting the Timber, the first Bed must be laid, made of a mixture of Mortar and little Stones a hand breadth, which must be beaten a long time with Iron-Levers, and so it must make a solid Crust which must be nine Inches thick; upon it shall be laid the Noyau or Ame, which must be at least six inches thick: It must be made of Cement, with which must be mix'd one part Lime for two parts of Cement. Upon the Ame or Noyau is placed the Parement made with the Rule, afterwards it must be scrap'd and all the Eminences and Inequality taken away: After that must be laid a Composition of Lime, Sand and beaten Marble, to fill equally all the Seams or Joints.

If a Flooring be to be made in the open Air, as upon Terrasses, that may endure Rain or Frost without any Damage; you must nail upon the Joists two Ranks of Boards across, one above the other; and having laid the first Bed, as is said before, it must be Paved with great Square Bricks two Foot Square, which must be hollow'd in the Ends in the Form of a half-Channel, the breadth of an Inch, which must be fill'd with Lime mixed with Oil. These Square Bricks must be higher in the middle, sloping two Inches for every six Foot; that is to say, a Forty-eighth Part. Upon these Square Bricks must be laid the Ame; upon which, after it has been well beaten, as well as the rest, must be put great Square Stones; and to hinder the Moisture from hurting the Boards, it is good to pour as much of the Lees of Oil as they will soak up.

The under part of the Flooring, and the Plat-Fonds, must be made also with great Care. To make the Plat-Fonds or Flat-roofs, in the Form of a Vault, you must nail to the Joists of the Boards, or to the Rafters of the Roof, from two Foot to two Foot pieces of crooked Timber, and Choice must be made of Timber that is not apt to rot; such as, viz. Cypress, Box, Juniper, and Olive; no Oke must be made use of, because it will warp and crack the Work. The Joists being fastened to the Suntmers, you must fix to them Spanish-Broom with Greek-Reeds well beaten. These Reeds are in stead of Laths, which at present are made use of to make the Eaves of Houses; over these Reeds must be laid a Plaster of Mortar, made of Sand, to hinder the Drops of Water which may fall from above from endamaging these Plat-Fonds. After which, the under part must be Plaster'd pretty thick, making all Places equal with Mortar made of Lime and Sand, that it may be afterwards Polished with Mortar made with Lime and Marble.

The Ancients sometimes made double Vaults, when they were afraid that the Humidity which is engender'd, might rot the Wood which is upon by the Vapours which mount up the Vaults. This Method they principally made use of in their Baths.

The Corniches which are made use of under the Plat-Fonds, ought to be little, lest their great Jetting out, or Projecture should make them heavy, and apt to fall. For this Reason they ought to be made of pure Stuck of Marble, without any Plaster, that all the Work drying at the same time, may be less apt to break.

Art. Vi.

Of Plastering.

TO make Plaster that it may continue a long time, and not crack; you must take Care to lay it on Walls that are very Dry; for if the Walls be Moist, the Plastering being expos'd to the Air, and drying faster than the Walls, will crack.

To do this Methodically, it must be laid, Bed after Bed, or Lay after Lay, having a great Care not to lay one Bed till the other be almost dry. The Ancients put six Lays, three of Mortar made of Lime and Sand, and three of Stuck. The first Lays or Beds were always thicker than the last, and they were very careful to make use of no Mortar made either of Sand or Stuck in their Plastring, that had not been a long time beaten and mix'd together; especially the Stuck, which must be beaten and mix'd till it will not stick to the Trowel.

They took likewise a great deal of Pains to run several times over and beat the Plaster, which gave it a Hardness, a Whiteness, and Polish'd it so well, that it shin'd like a Mirror.

These Plasterings so made, serve to Paint in Fresco upon; for the Colours being laid upon the Mortar before it was dry, pierced it, and Embodied with it; so that the Painting could not be defaced though it were wash'd; which would easily be wash'd off if the Mortar were dry.

They likewise laid these Plasterings upon Partitions of Wood filled with fat Earth, nailing Reeds to them, as we do Laths, and daubing it over with Clay, and then putting on another row of Reeds across upon the former, and another Bed of fat Earth or Clay, upon which they laid Beds of Mortar and Stuck, as we have said before.

For the Plastering of low and moist places, they had a great many other Precautions, especially within the House; for as what belonged to the Out-part of the House, they contented themselves to Plaster from the Bottom of the Wall to the height of three Feet, with Cement.

But as to the Inward-parts of the House, when the Ground without was higher than the lowermost Flooring; they run up a little narrow Wall against the great one, leaving betwixt the two Walls only the distance of a Channel or Sewer, which they made lower than the Flooring, to receive the Water which might be gather'd against the Walls, and let it run out; and to the End they might hinder the gathering of much Water, by the Vapours which might be enclosed between these two Walls, they made towards the top of the little Wall Vents to let it out, and this little Wall was Plastered on the Out-side with Mortar and Stuck, as we have said before.

When the Place was too narrow to permit those Counter-Walls to be made within, they put hollow Tiles one upon another against the Wall, and placed and plaster'd them over with Mortar and Stuck. These Tiles which were Pitch'd over within, and were Demi-Channels, let the Water fall down into the Sewer, which sweat from the great Wall, and so let all the Vapours, which were engendred by Humidity, go out at the Vents.

Chap. III.

Of the Convenience of Fabricks.

Article I.

ONE of the Principal Things the Architect ought to consider, is the Convenience of the place where he would Build the Fabrick. This is the reason that Dinocrates was blamed by Alexander, for having propos'd him an Excellent Design for Building a City in a Barren place, and incapable of Nourishing those who were to Inhabit it.

We must then choose a place that is fertile, and hath abundance of every thing; and which hath likewise Rivers and Ports capable of furnishing it with all the Product and Commodities of the adjacent Countries.

The Third thing to be considered is, whether the Air be wholesome; and for this End, we must choose a high situated place, that it may be less Subject to Fogs and Mists; it must be likewise far from all Morasses, because the Corruption that may be caused by the infectious Breath of Venomous Beasts which commonly are ingendred there, makes the place very unwholsom, unless these Morasses be near the Sea, and situated high, that the Water may fall easily from them into the Sea, and that the Sea may likewise sometimes overflow them, and by its Saltness kill all the Venomous Beasts.

It is likewise to be remark'd, That a City situated upon the Sea, must needs have an unwholsom Air, if it be towards the South or the West; for generally the Heat weakens Bodies, and the Cold strengthens them; and so we see by Experience, that those who go out of a Cold Country into an Hot, have great difficulty to keep themselves in Health; whereas on the contrary, the Inhabitants of Hot Countries who go into Colder, have generally good Health.

The Ancients were accustomed to judge of the Quality of the Air, Water and Fruits, which might render a place wholsome by the Constitution of the Bodies of those Beasts which were nourished there, and to this End they consulted their Entrails; for if the Liver was Corrupted, they conjectured that the same thing must happen to Men that should Inhabit in that place.

Art. II.

Of the Form and Situation of the Building.

AFter having chosen a wholsome place, the Streets must be laid out according to the most Advantageous Aspect of the Heavens, and the best way will be to lay the Streets out so, that the Wind may not come directly into them, especially where the Winds are great and cold.

The Prospect of Private Mens Houses is made more or less Commodious, by the Openings which are differently made, to receive the Air and the Light according to the Quality of the Parts that are in the Fabrick.

For the Cellars, Granaries, and generally all places that we wou'd Lock up, or keep any thing in, should be exposed to the North, and receive very few Rays of the Sun.

The different Use of the Parts which Compose the Buildings, do likewise require different Situations; for the Dining-Rooms in Winter, and the Baths among the Ancients, were always turned to the West, for that Situation made them warmer, because the Sun then shone upon them, about the time they were wont to make use of those Apartments.

The Libraries ought to be turned to the rising Sun, because they are generally made use of in the Morning; besides, the Books are not so much damnified in Libraries so situated, as in those which are turned to the South and West, which are subject to Worms and a certain Humidity which engenders Moldiness, and consequently destroys the Books.

The Dining-Rooms for the Spring and Autumn, should be turned towards the East, to the end, that being covered from the great force the Sun hath when it is near Setting, they may be cooler about the time they are to be made use of.

The Summer Apartments must be turned to the North, that they may be fresher and cooler.

This Situation is likewise very proper for Closets, which are adorn'd with Pictures for the Light which is always equal, represents the Colours always alike.

There must likewise great respect be had to the difference of Climates, for the Excess of Heat and Cold, require different Situations and Structures; for the Houses in the Northern parts of the World, ought to be Vaulted, and have few Openings, and turn'd to the South; On the contrary in Hot Countries there must be great Openings and turn to the North; to the End that Art and Industry may remedy the Defects of the place.

Art. III.

Of the Disposition of Fabricks.

THE Disposition or Distribution of Fabricks contributes much to their Convenience, when each thing is so plac'd, that it is in a Proper place for the Use for which the Fabrick is Design'd; and for this reason the Town-House and the Market-Place ought to be in the Middle of the City, unless it happen that there be a Port or a River; for the Market ought not to be far distant from those places where the Merchandize is.

The Houses of Private Men, ought to be differently disposed, according to the divers Conditions of those that Dwell in them: For in the Houses of Great Men, the Apartments of the Lord, must not be at the Entry, where ought to be nothing but Portico’s, Courts, Peristyles, Halls, and Gardens to receive the great Number of those who have Business with them, and make their Court to them.

The Houses of Merchants ought to have at the Entry their Shops and Magazines, and all other places where Strangers are to come about their Business.

The Country Houses ought to have a different Order and Disposition from those of the City.

For the Kitchen ought to be near the Ox-house, so that from their Cratches they may see the Chimney and the rising Sun; for this makes the Oxen more Beautiful, and makes their Hair lie better.

The Baths ought likewise to be near the Kitchen, that the Water may be more conveniently heated.

The Press ought not to be far from the Kitchen, for that will much facilitate the Service that is necessary for the Preparation of Olives. If the Press be made of Wooden Beams, it ought to have at least for 16 Foot Breadth, 40 Foot of Length, if there be but one; or 24, if there be 2.

Not far from the Press, must the Cellar be plac'd, whose Windows must be turned to the North, because the heat spoils the Wine.

On the contrary, the Place where the Oil is kept, ought to be turned to the South; to the End, the gentle heat of the Sun may keep the Oil from freezing.

The Houses for Sheep and Goats ought to be so large, that each of them may at least have 4 Foot for his place.

The Stables must likewise be Built near the House in a warm place, but not turned towards the Chimney; for Horses that often see the Fire, are generally ill Coated.

The Barns and Granaries, as likewise the Mills, ought to be at a pretty distance from the House, because of the Danger of Fire.

In all sorts of Fabricks, a particular Care must be taken that they be well lighted; but the Light is principally necessary in the Stair-Cases, Passages, and Dining-Rooms.

Art. IV.

Of the Convenient Form of Buildings.

WHEN we are assur'd of the Convenience of the place where the City is to be Built, by the Knowledge we have of the goodness of the Air, of its Fertility, Rivers and Ports, care must be taken to make Fortifications, which do not only consist in the Solidity of the Walls and Ramparts, but principally in their Form.

The Figure or Form of a place ought neither to be Square, nor Composed of Angles too far advanc'd, but it must have a great number of Corners, to the end the Enemy may be seen from all Parts; for the Angles that are so far advanc'd, are ill to be defended, and more favourable to the Besiegers than the Besieged. The Approach to the Walls must be made as difficult as possible.

The most Convenient Form of Publick Places, is to have in their Breadth 2 Thirds of their Length; The Greeks made about their Publick places Double Portico’s, with Pillars near together, which Supported the Galleries above.

But the Romans finding this great number of Pillars to be inconvenient, placed them at a greater distance one from another, that they might have Shops well lighted.

The Stair-Cases of all Publick Buildings, ought to be large and streight, and to have many Entrances, to the End the People may come in and out conveniently; but we shall speak of this more largely in another place.

The Halls where great Assemblies are to meet, ought to have their Ceiling very high, and to give them their true Proportion, we must unite the Length and Breadth, and give the half of the whole for the height of the Ceiling. The Halls where the Ceiling is not so high, must have only their breadth, and half of their length for their height.

In vast and high places, to remedy the Inconvenience of the noisy Echo, about the middle of the height of the Wall, must be made a Cornish round about to break the course of the Voice; which without that, beating against the Walls, would beat a Second time against the Ceiling, and cause a troublesom double Echo.

Chap. IV.

Of the Beauty of Buildings.

Article I.

In what the Beauty of Building Consists.

BUildings may have two sorts of Beauty, the one Positive, and the other Arbitrary. Positive Beauty, is that which necessarily pleaseth of her self; Arbitrary, is that which doth not necessarily please of her self, but her agreeableness depends upon the Circumstances that accompany her.

Positive Beauty, consists in Three principal Things; viz. In the Equality of the Relation that the Parts have one to another, which is called Symmetry, in the Richness of the Materials, in the Properness, Neatness, and Exactness of the Performance.

As to what regards the Relation of the Parts of the Fabrick one to another, Vitruvius hath not spoke of it, but only where he prefers the Netway of Walling before all other sorts of Masonry, because of the Uniformity that is in that Figure, and the laying of the Stones; As to the Richness of the Materials, he leaves the Disposition to him that is at the Expences of the Building; and he acknowledges that the Beauty of the Performance depends wholly upon the Dexterousness and Industry of the Workmen.

The second sort of Beauty, which only pleases by the Circumstances that accompany it, is of two sorts; The one is called Wisdom, and the other Regularity. Wisdom consists in the reasonable use of Positive Beauties, which result from the use and convenient ranking of the Parts; for the Perfection of which, to a rich and precious Material, is given an Equal and Uniform Figure, with all the Property and Correctness possible.

Vitruvius gives us two Examples of this sort of Beauty; The first is, When Bosses or Relievo’s are made to hide the Joynts, putting them directly under the Bosses which hide them by their jetting or projecture, for this gives them great Beauty and an agreeable Aspect.

The second is, When we consider the Winter-Appartments, that we have a care, that upon the Ceiling there be little or no Carving, and that the Ornaments be not made of Stuck, because it hath a shining whiteness, which will not endure the least nastiness; for it is impossible to hinder the smoak of the Fire and Candles which are lighted in the Winter, from tarnishing the beautiful Colour of the Work to which the Filth will stick, and enter into the Crevises of the Carving, which cannot be wiped out.

The Regularity depends upon the Observation of the Laws which are Established for the Proportions of all the Parts of Architecture, the Observation of these Laws extreamly pleases those that understand Architecture, who love these Proportions for two Reasons.

The First is, That they are for the most part founded upon Reason; which requires, for example, that the parts that support and are under, be stronger than those above; as we see in Pedestalls, which are broader than the Pillars they support, and they are broader at the bottom than the top.

The other Motive is Prevention, which is one of the most usual Foundations of the Beauty of all things, for even as we love the Fashion of the Cloaths which the Courtiers wear, although this mode have no Positive Beauty, but only for the Positive Merit of the Persons that wear them; so we are accustomed to love the Proportions of the Members of Architecture, rather because of the great Opinion that we have of them that Invented them, than for any Positive Beauty which is found in the Works of the Ancients, where these Proportions are observ'd; for often these Proportions are against Reason; as we may see in the Thorus of the Ionick Base, in the Faces of Architraves and Chambranles, or Door-Cases, with their Mouldings, where the Strong is supported by the Weak, and many other things, which Custom only hath made supportable.

These Proportions appertain to Three principal Members, which are Pillars, Piedements, Chambranles; the Pillars taken Generically, and as opposite to Piedements, and Chambranles or Door-Cases, have Three parts, viz. The Pedestal, the Pillar, and the Ornaments. Every one of these Parts is likewise divided into Three other Parts, for the Pedestal is composed of the Basis, its Die and its Cornish; the Pillar Comprehends its Base, Shaft and Capital. The Ornaments consist in the Architrave, Frise, and Corniche.

The Piedement or Fronton, has likewise Three Parts, viz. The Tympan, the Corniches, and the Acroteres. The Chambranle or Door-Case is composed of two Pieds-droits, or Piers, and the Lintel which also supports a Frise, which has likewise its Cornich.

The Disposition, Form, and different Proportions of all the Parts make two things, to which all that is Beautiful in Building hath a Relation, which is Gender and Order.

Gender depends of the Proportion, which is between the thickness of the Pillars and the space betwixt them.

Order, doth likewise depend in part upon the Proportion which is between the thickness of the Pillars, and their height; but we must likewise joyn to this Proportion many other things that appertain to the principal Parts of the Pillars, and other Parts which accompany it, such as are the Gates, the Chambranles, or Door-Cases; and other things which are different in different Orders.

Art. II.

Of the Five sorts of Fabricks.

THERE are Five sorts of Fabricks; The First is called Pycnostyle, viz. where the Pillars are very close one to another, in such a Proportion that there is but from one Pillar to another, the space of a Diameter and half of the Pillar. See the Fig. AA. Tab. 2.

The Second is called Systile, viz. where the Pillars seem to be joyned together, are notwithstanding a little more distant one from another than in the Pycnostile; for the intercolumniation is two Diameters of the Pillars.

The Defect that is observ'd in the Systile as well as in the Pycnostile is, that the Entrance of the Fabricks which are placed in that distance are very narrow: So that Vitruvius remarks that the Ladies as they walk to the Temple hand in hand, were forced when they came thither to quit one another, because they could not go two a Breast between the Pillars. See the Figure BB. Tab. II.

The Third is called Diastyle; viz. where the Pillars are further distant, the space of the Intercolumniation being three Diameters, and the Inconvenience is, that the space is so great, that the Architraves which lie upon the two Pillars are in danger of breaking; because the Ancients made them of one Stone. See Figure CC. Tab. II.

The Fourth is called Areostyle; viz. where the Pillars are set very thin, there is no certain Proportion, but the distance of one Pillar from another, is much greater than that of Diastyle; and for this reason it can have no Architrave but of Wood. See the Figure DD. Tab. II.

The Fifth is called Eustyle; viz. where the Pillars are distant from one another by a more convenient Proportion than in any of the other kind. The distance consists of two Diameters of the Pillars, and one Fourth part of the Diameter: It has also this in particular, That the Intercolumniation in the middle is larger than the rest, having three Diameters of the Pillars; for this reason it surpasseth all others in Beauty, Solidity, and Convenience. See Tab. III.

Although the Essentials of these five Kinds, consist in the Proportion that is between the Diameter of the Pillar, and its Intercolumniation, they are also different by the Proportion which is between the Diameter of the Pillar and its height for the Genders or sorts, in which the Pillars are close one to another, ought to have the lesser Pillars; and in that kind, where the Pillars are in a greater distance one from another, they ought to be greater.

But it’s true, notwithstanding that these Proportions are not always observ'd, and that very often, to the Ionick and Corinthian Pillars, which are the smallest of all, Intercolumniations are given, which are proper to those of the Thuscan Order, where the Pillars are the greatest.

But the Ordinary Practice is, to give to the Pillars of the Areostyle kind, the Magnitude of the 8th part of their height.

As to the Diastyle and Eustyle, the height is divided into Eight parts and an half, to give one to the breadth.

In the Systyle Kind, the Height is divided into Nine parts and an half, and one is given to the thickness.

In the Picnostyle, the thickness of the Pillar is the 10th part of the height, the reason of these different Proportions is founded upon this, that these Pillars do seem to lose of their thickness according as they are in Proportion great or long; and it’s likewise for this Reason, that it is thought convenient to have the Pillars in the Corners thicker by a 50th part. See Tab. II. and Tab. III.

Art. III.

Of the Five Orders of Architecture.

THE Five Orders of Architecture are, the Thuscan, the Dorick, the Ionick, the Corinthian, and the Compound.

These Orders were Invented to satisfie the Design that might be had of making Fabricks more or less Massy, and more or less adorn'd, for the Distinction of these Orders consists in two things, that as the Thuscan and Dorick Order are more massy and less adorn'd, so the Corinthian and Compound are Slenderer and Richer, the Ionick holds the Middle, as well in its Proportions, as its Ornaments, being less massy and more adorn'd than the Thuscan and the Dorick, and more massy and less adorn'd than the Compound and the Corinthian.

Though Vitruvius hath only divided Architecture into Three Orders; viz. The Dorick, the Ionick and the Corinthian; he doth not for all that forget to give the Proportions of the Thuscan, and speak of the Compound.

Art. IV.

Of Things that are Common to several Orders.

Before we treat of the Differences of these Five Orders, it would be proper to speak of those Things that are common to several Orders; as are the Steps, Pedestals, the Diminution of Pillars, their Channelling, Piedements, Cornices, and Acroteres.

The Steps which are before the Temple, ought always to be of an the end, that having put the right Foot in mounting the first Step, it may likewise be upon the last.

They ought not to be more than 6 Inches 10 Lines high, nor less than 6 Inches.

Their breadth ought to be proportion'd to their height, and this Proportion ought to be of 3 to 4; so that if the Steps be 6 parts high, which is 3 times 2, they must be 8 broad, which is 4 times 2; following the Proportion of a Triangular Rectangle invented by Pythagoras.

The Landing-places ought not to be narrower than 16 Inches and an half, nor broader than 22 Inches, and all the Steps that are round about a Fabrick should be all of the same breadth.

The Pedestals which support many Pillars of the same Rank, will be much handsomer if one make them jet out before every Pillar like a Joynt-Stool; for otherwise, if the Bases were all of one size, they would resemble a Channel.

If Leaning-places, or Elbow-places are to be betwixt the Pedestals, it’s necessary that they be as high as the Pedestals, and that the Cornices of the Pedestals, and of the Leaning or Elbow-places be equal, and have a true Proportion one to another.

All the Pillars ought to go diminishing towards the top, to augment their Strength, and render them more Beautiful, imitating the Bodies of Trees, which are greater at the Bottom than at the Top. But this Diminution must be lesser in the great Pillars which have their highest part further from the Sight, and which by Consequence makes them at the top seem lesser, according to the ordinary Effect of Perspective; which always diminisheth Objects according to the measure that they are distant from the Eye.

The Rule of this different Diminution is, that a Pillar that is 15 Foot high, ought to have in the upper part 5 parts of 6 in the which the Diameter of the Base of the Pillar is divided; that which is from 15 to 20 Foot, ought to have 5 and an half of the 6 and an half of the Diameter; that which is from 20 to 30, ought to have 6 of the 7 parts of the Diameter; that which is from 30 to 40, must have 6 and an half of 7 and an half of the Diameter; that which is from 40 to 50, must have 7 of 8 of the Diameter. These Diminutions do not belong to the Thuscan Order, whose Pillars are much more diminished; as we shall show hereafter.

Besides this Diminution which is made towards the top of the Pillar, there is another below, which makes the Pillar about the middle swell like a Belly; the measure of this swelling is taken from the magnitude which makes up the Distance between the Channels.

There is another sort of Diminution of Pillars, which is made of one Pillar in respect of another; It is of 2 sorts, viz. when a second rank is placed upon the first, for then the second Pillar must be lesser a fourth part than those below, or when Portico’s are made that have Pillars in the Corners, for those in the middle must be less than those in the Corners, a 50th part.

The Channellings are so called, because they are as it were Demi-Channels, which descend from the top of the Pillar to the bottom; they represented the Plaites of the Garments of Women, which the Pillars resembled.

There are three sorts of Channellings, the two first are particular and proper to the Dorick Order; the third is common to the Ionick, Corinthian and Compound: The two first are more plain and simple, and fewer in number than the others.

The most Simple is that which is not hollowed at all, and which hath only Pans and flat Fronts or Faces.

The other is a little hollowed; to make this hollowness, a Square must be made, whose Side must be equal to the Pan, in which the Channelling is to be made, and having put one foot of the Compass in the middle of the Square, make a crooked Line from one Angle of the Channelling to the other, both these Channellings are made up to the number of Twenty.

The other Orders have 24, and sometimes 32, when it is design'd to make the Pillars seem greater than they are; for the Eye judgeth that all things are greater when they have more and different Marks, which lead as it were the Sight to more Objects at once.

These Channellings are deeper than those of the Dorick Order, and the depth ought to be just so much, that a Carpenter’s Rule being put into the Cavity, touch with its Angle the bottom, and with its sides the two Corners of the Channelling. Vitruvius hath not taught us what the Proportions of the Channelling should be, in respect of the Fillet which makes up the space between the Channellings, nor what the breadth of the Fillet should be, which he hath establish'd for the rule of the swelling Belly of the Pillar.

The Piedement is composed of a Tympan and Cornices; to have the true height of the Tympan, we must divide the breadth which is between the two ends of the Cymatium of the Larmier, or Drip which supports the Piedement, into 9 parts, and give one to the Tympan.

The thickness of the Cornice being added to this 9th part, makes up the height of the whole Piedement or Fronton.

The Tympan ought to be Perpendicular upon the Gorge of the Pillar, the things that are common to all Cornices are, that the Cornice of the Piedement must be equal to that below, excepting the last great Cymatium, which ought not to be upon the Cornice below the Piedement, but it ought to go over the Cornices which are sloping upon the Piedement or Fronton.

This great Cymatium ought to have of height an 8th part more than the Crown, or Drip, or Larmier.

In places where there are no Piedements, in the great Cymatiums of the Cornices, must be cut the Heads of Lions, at such a distance, that there must be one directly upon every Pillar, and that the other answer directly upon the great Dalles, that cover the House. These Heads of Lions are pierced through to convey the Water which falls from the Roof upon the Cornice: The Heads of the Lions which are not directly upon the Pillars, ought not to be pierced, to the end the Water may flow with the greater impetuosity through those which are directly upon the Pillars, and that it may not fall between the Pillars upon those who are to go into the Portico’s.

The Greeks in their great Buildings never put any Dentels under the Modillons, because the Rafters could not be under the Forces, or Sheers, and it is a great fault that That, which according to the true Rules of Building ought to be placed above, should be placed under in the Representation.

For this Reason, the Ancients never approved of Modillons in the Piedements, nor of Dentels, but only simple Cornices; for neither the Forces, Sheers, nor the Rafters can be represented in the Piedements, out of which they cannot jet but only directly out of the Eaves of the House upon which they lie sloping.

The Acroteres are three Pedestals, which are upon the Corners and Middle of the Piedement to support Statues; those of the Corner ought to be as high as the Middle of the Tympan; but the Acrotere in the middle ought to be higher by an 8th part than the other.

All the Members or Parts which shall be placed upon the Capitals of Pillars, viz. Architraves, Frises, Cornices, Tympans, and Acroteres, should encline forward the 12th part of their height.

There is likewise another General Rule; which is, that all the parts that jet out, should have their Projecture equal to their Height.

Art. V.

Of the Thuscan Order.

IT hath been said that all Buildings have three Parts, which may be different according to the divers Order, viz. The Pillars, the Piedements, and the Chambranles, or Door-Cases; and that the Pillars had three Parts, which are the Pedestal, the Shaft, and its Ornaments, viz. The Architrave, the Frise and the Cornice.

Neither the Proportion of the Pedestals, nor of the Gates and Chambranles of the Thuscan Order are to be found in Vitruvius.

The Proportion of the Pillar is this, that its thickness below is the 7th part of its height, it’s Diminution is the 4th part of the Diameter of the Pillar, its Base has half of the Diameter of the Pillar for its height, the Plinthus being round, makes one half of the Base; the other half is for the Thorus, and for the Conge or Apophygis, Vid. Conge explained.

The height of the Capital is half the Diameter of the Pillar, the breadth of the Abacus is equal to the whole Diameter of the Pillar at the bottom, the height of the Capital is divided into three Parts; one of them is allowed the Plinthus, which serves instead of an Abacus; the Echine hath another; and a third Part is for the Gorge of the Capital comprehending the Astragal, the Conge, or Apophygis, which are immediately under the Echine.

Upon the Pillars must be laid the Sabliers, or Wooden Architrave, joyned together by Tenons, in the form of a Swallows Tail.

These Sabliers ought to be distant one from another about an Inch; for if they should touch one another, the Timber would heat and corrupt.

Upon these Sabliers which serve for an Architrave, must be built a little Wall, which will serve instead of a Frise.

The Cornice which is laid upon this little Wall or Frise, has Mutal’s which jet out.

All the Crowning should have the 4th part of the height of the Pillar. The little Walls that are built between the ends of the Beams which rest upon the Pillars, must be garnished and covered with Boards, which must be nailed upon the ends of the Beams.

The Piedement, which may be either of Stone or Wood, and which must support the Faistag or Top, the Forces, and the Pans, has a particular Proportion; for it must be much raised to give it a sufficient sloping for the running of the Water. See Tab. V.

Art. Vi.

Of the Dorick Order.

THE Dorick Pillar has had in divers times, and in different Buildings, different Proportions; for at first it had only for its height 6 times its Diameter; this Proportion imitating that of Humane Bodies, in which the length of the Foot is the 6th part of all the Body, afterwards they allowed 7 times its Diameter.

But this Proportion that the Pillars of the Temples had at the Beginning, was afterwards changed in that of the Theaters, where they were higher by half a Diameter; for they made them 15 Modules high, for in the Dorick Order the Semi-Diameter of the Pillar at the bottom is the Module, which in other Orders is a whole Diameter.

The Dorick Pillar is composed as well as the rest of a Shaft, Base and Capital, though Vitruvius makes no mention of the Base; and it’s easie to conclude, that in the Ancient Buildings this Order had none; for it is said, That when they would make the Ionick Order more Beautiful than the Dorick, they added a Base to it; and there is yet to be seen in Ancient Buildings of this Order, Pillars without a Base; but when a Base is added to it, it must be Attick Base, whose Proportion is as follows.

The whole Base ought to have a Module for its height; that is to say, half the Diameter of the Pillar; this Module being divided into three parts; one is for the Plinthus; the other two parts are divided into four, of which one is allowed for the upper Torus, the three which remain, are divided into two: The half below is for the lower Torus, the other is for the Scotiæ, comprising the two little Squares or Filets. The breadth of the Basis in General is a 4th of the Diameter of the Pillar at the bottom, added on every side; but this jetting is excessive, and without any Example, and Vitruvius himself makes it lesser in the Ionick Base.

The height of the Capital as well as the Base is one Module, the breadth is two Modules and an half, the height of the Capital being divided into three parts, one must be allowed for the Plinthus or Abacus, with its Cymatium; the other is for the Echine, with its Anulets; the third appertains to the Gorge of the Capital.

The Architrave which comprehends its Platte-Band with the Gouttes or Pendant Drops, which are under the Triglyphs, is as well as the Capital of one only Module; the Gouttes or Drops with their little Tringle, ought to have the 6th part of a Module, the breadth under the Architrave ought to be equal to that above the Pillar.

Upon the Architrave in the Friese ought to be the Triglyphs and the Metops. The Triglyphs have a Module and a half for their height, and a Module for their breadth; the Metops are as high as broad; One Triglyph must be placed directly upon every Pillar, and the Intercolumniation ought to have three; towards the Corners must be placed the Demi-Metops.

The breadth of the Triglyph being divided into six parts, five of them must be left in the middle, and the two halfs which remain on the right and the left, must be for Demi-Graveurs; The part in the middle, and the two last of the five, must be for the three Feet, and the two which are betwixt the three Feet, must be for the Graveurs or Channels, which must be hollowed, following the Corner of the Mason’s Rule. The Capital of the Triglyph ought to have the 6th. part of a Module.

Upon the Capital of the Triglyph is placed the great Cornice, its Jetting or Projecture, is half a Module and the 6th. part of a Module, its height is half a Module, comprising the Dorick Cymatium, which is under it.

On the Plat Fonds of the Cornice, must be hollowed little strait ways, which must answer perpendicularly to the sides of the Triglyphs, and the middle of the Metops.

Streight upon the Triglyphs must be cut 9 Goutes or Drops, which must be so distributed, that there may be six length-wise, and three broad-wise; in the Spaces which are betwixt the Metops, because they are greater than those between the Triglyphs: nothing must be cut unless it be Foudres. Moreover towards the border of the Crown must be Carved a Scotia.

Some advance perpendicularly above the Triglyphs, the Ends of the Forces or Principals to frame the Mutils which support the Cornices; so that as the Disposition of Beams hath caused the Invention of Triglyphs, so the jetting of the Forces hath caused the Disposition of the Mutils, which support the Cornices. See Tab. VI.

Art. VII.

Of the Ionick Order.

THe Proportion of the Pillars of the Ionick Order in the beginning had Eight Modules or Diameters for their height, but the Ancients quickly added half a Diameter, when to make this Pillar more Beautiful than the Dorick, not only for its height, but also for its Ornaments, they added a Base to it, which was not used in the Dorick Order.

The Pillars must be set upon their Bases two ways; for sometimes they were perpendicularly set, and sometimes not, viz. The outward rows of Pillars; when there were more Ranks than one; for that part of the Pillar which is towards the Wall of the Fabrick must necessarily be perpendicular, and the outward part must have all the Diminution, and must lean towards the Wall.

The Pillars that are within the porch, and are betwixt the Wall and the outward Pillar must stand perpendicularly.

The breadth of the Ionick Base is the Diameter of the Pillar, to which is added a 4th. and an 8th. part; its height is half the Diameter; its height being divided into three parts, one is allowed for the Plinthus, the rest being divided into seven parts, three are allowed to the Torus above, after equally dividing the four which remain, the two above are for the upper Scotia, with its Astragal: The two below are for the lower Scotia, which will appear greater than the upper, because it extends to the edge of the Plinthus, the Astragals must have the 8th. part of the Scotia, whose Jetting or Projecture must be the 8th. part of the whole Base joyned to the 6th. part of the Diameter of the Pillar. See Tab. VII.

As to the Capital, the Abacus must have in its Square the Diameter of the bottom of the Pillar, adding to it an 18th. part; half of the Abacus ought to be the height of the Capital, comprizing the Round of the Volute or Scroll, but there must be substracted from the corner of the Abacus a 12th. part and an half of the height of the Capital, and after the whole thickness of the Capital must be divided into nine parts and an half, and one and an half must be left for the thickness of the Abacus, that the Volutes or Scrolls may be made of the eight which remain; then having left under the Abacus four parts and an half of these eight, a Line must be drawn in the place which cuts the two a-cross and the Points of the Section shall be Eyes, which shall have eight parts for their Diameter; in half the space of the Eye shall be placed the Centers through which shall be drawn with a Compass the Spiral-Line of the Volute, beginning the height under the Abacus, and going into the four Quarters of the Division, diminishing till we come directly to the first Quarter, and giving to every Quarter a particular Center.

Then the thickness of the whole Capital must be so divided that of nine parts which it contains, the Volute has the breadth of three under the Astragal, on the top of the Pillar, which must be directly upon the Eye of the Volute, that which remains above the Astragal, must be allowed for the Abacus, Channel, and the Echine or Egge, whose jetting beyond the Square of the Abacus must be of the same bigness of the Echine or Egge.

The Channel must be hollowed the 12th. part of its breadth.

The Girdle or Cincture, or the lateral part of the Capital, ought to advance out of the Tailhoir Abacus, as much as it is from the Center of the Eye to the height of the Echine.

The thickness of the Axis of the Volutes, which is the thickness of the Volute, seen sideway, and which makes up the extreme parts of that which is called commonly Balisters, ought not to exceed the magnitude of the Eye. See Tab. VIII.

These Proportions of the Ionick Capital, are only for Pillars of 15 Foot, those that are greater require other, and generally the greater Proportions are required for the Pillars that are greater; and for this reason we have said, that the higher the Pillars are, the less Diminution they must have; so when the Pillars are above 15 Foot, we must add a 9th. part to the Diameter of the Pillar for to give the breadth to the Abacus; to which is never added more than an 18th. part to Pillars of 15 Foot.

The Architraves shall be laid upon the Pillars with Jettings equal to the Pedestals, in case they be not all of one size, but in form of Joint-Stools, to the end Symmetry may be observ'd.

The height ought to be different, according to the proportion of the height of the Pillar; for if the Pillar be from 12 to 15 Foot, we must allow the Architrave the height of half a Diameter of the bottom of the Pillar, if it be from 15 to 20, we must divide the height of the Pillar into 15 parts, to the end we may allow one to the Architrave; so if it be from 20 to 25, the height must be divided into 12 parts and an half, that the Architrave may have one; and so proportionably.

The Architrave ought to have at the bottom which lies upon the Capital, the same breadth that the top of the Pillar hath under the Capital.

The Jetting of the Cymatium of the Architrave ought to answer the bottom of the Pillar, the height of the Cymatium ought to be the 7th. part of the whole Architrave.

The rest being divided into 12 parts; three must be allowed to the first Face, four to the second, and five to that above, upon which is the Cymatium.

The Frise ought not to be so high as the Architrave by a 4th. part, unless something be carved there, for then that the Carving may be more graceful, the Frise ought to be bigger than the Architrave by a 4th. part.

Upon the Frise must be made a Cymatium of height the 7th. part of the Frise, with a Jetting equal to its height.

The Dentil which is upon the Cymatium, shall have the height of the Face of the middle of the Architrave, with a Jetting or Projecture equal to its height; the cutting of the Dentils ought to be so made, that the breadth of every Dentil may be the half of its height, and the Cavity of the cut which is between every Dentil may have two parts of three, which maketh the breadth of the Dentil.

The Cymatium which is upon the Dentil, must have the 3d. part of the height of the Dentil.

The Crown with its little Cymatium must have the same height with the Face of the middle of the Architrave.

The great Cymatium ought to have the height of an 8th. part more than the Crown or Drip.

The Jetting or Projecture of the whole Cornice comprehending the Dentil ought to be equal to the space that there is from the Frise, just to the top of the great Cymatium, and generally speaking all the Jettings or Projectures shall have the better grace when they are equal to the height of the Jetting Members. See Table VII.

Art. VIII.

Of the Corinthian Order.

THE Pillars of the Corinthian Order have no other Proportions than the Ionick, except in the Capital, whose height make them appear slenderer and higher. The other parts or Members, as the Architrave, Frise, and Cornice, borrow their Proportions from the Dorick and Ionick Order, having nothing particular, for the Corinthian Modillons are imitated by the Mutils of the Dorick Order, and the Dentils are the same with the Ionick; this being so, we have nothing to do but to give the Proportions of the Capital, which are these; The Capital comprizing the Abacus, hath for its height, the breadth of the bottom of the Pillar.

To have the true breadth of the Abacus, we must have a care that its Diagonal be double the height of the Capital, the bending that the sides of the Abacus have inward, is a 9th. part of a side, the bottom of the Capital is equal to the Neck of the Pillar. The thickness of the Abacus is a 7th. part of the whole Capital.

Two of these seven parts must be taken for the height of every Leaf, of which there are two Ranks, each of which has four Leaves.

The Stalks or little Branches are likewise composed of other Leaves, and which grow between the Leaves of the Rank above, ought to have two of these seven parts comprising the Volutes.

These Volutes begin within the Stalks, of which, those that are the greatest extend to the Extreme parts of the Angles of the Abacus; the other are below the Roses.

These Roses which are in the middle of every Face of the Abacus, ought to be as great as the Abacus is thick.

The Ornaments of the Corinthian Order, viz. The Architrave, the Frise, and the Cornice, do not in the least differ from those of the Ionick Order. See Tab. IX.

Art. IX.

Of the Compound Order.

VITRUVIUS hath not spoke of the Compound Order, as of an Order distinct from the Corinthian, the Ionick and the Dorick; He only tells us, that sometimes upon the Corinthian Pillar was placed a Capital composed of several parts, which were taken from the Corinthian, the Ionick and Dorick Orders.

But a Consequence may be drawn from thence, that the Order at present called the Compound, might have been in use in the time of Vitruvius, although they then did not make a distinct Order of it; Since that, our Compound Order is not essentially different from the Corinthian, but by its Capital; and so one may say, that this sole difference of the Capital ought to make it a distinct Order from the Corinthian, since according to Vitruvius, the Corinthian Capital alone, made the Corinthian Order.

The parts that our Compound Order borrow from the Corinthian Order, are the Abacus, and the two Ranks of the Leaves of Branch-Ursin, which it has retained, although the Corinthian have quitted them for the Leaves of the Olive.

The other part that it takes from the Ionick, are the Volutes; which it forms in some manner according to the Model of the Volutes of the Corinthian Order, in bending them even as the Abacus; for they are direct upon the Ionick Capital, as well as the Abacus.

The Echine, or Quarter Round, which it has under the Abacus, it borrows rather from the Dorick Order, than from the Ionick; because this Echine is immediately under the Abacus, as it is in the Dorick Order, which is not in the Ionick, which between the Echine and the Abacus, places the Channel which makes the Volute; it may notwithstanding be said, that it imitates the Echine of the Ionick Order, in that it is cut with Oves or Eggs, which is rarely found in the Dorick Capital, but are always in the Ionick.

AN