The Simple Sentence (part 2)

1546. In poetry, a wish is sometimes thrown into the form of a conditional protasis with sī or ō sī: as, ō sī urnam argentī fōrs quae mihi mōnstret, H. S. 2, 6, 10, oh if some chance a pot of money may to me reveal.

(B.) Exhortation, Direction, Statement of Propriety.

1547. The subjunctive may be used to express an exhortation, a direction, or a statement of propriety.

The subjunctive of exhortation is sometimes preceded in old Latin by utī or ut, originally interrogative. In negative exhortations or directions, nē, nēmō, nihil, or numquam, &c., is used, rarely nōn.

1548. (1.) The present expresses what is to be done or is not to be done in the future: as,

(a.) hoc quod coepī prīmum ēnārrem, T. Hau. 273, first let me tell the story I’ve begun. taceam nunc iam, Pl. B. 1058, let me now hold my tongue. cōnsīdāmus hīc in umbrā, Leg. 2, 7, let us sit down here in the shade. nē difficilia optēmus, V. 4, 15, let us not hanker after impossibilities. (b.) HAICE · VTEI · IN · COVENTIONID · EXDEICATIS, CIL. I, 196, 23, this you are to proclaim in public assembly. (c.) nōmina dēclīnāre et verba in prīmīs puerī sciant, Quintil. 1, 4, 22, first and foremost boys are to know how to inflect nouns and verbs. utī adserventur magnā dīligentiā, Pl. Cap. 115, let them be watched with all due care. nē quis tamquam parva fastīdiat grammaticēs elementa, Quintil. 1, 4, 6, let no man look down on the rudiments of grammar fancying them insignificant.

1549. (2.) The perfect subjunctive is rare: as, idem dictum sit, Quintil. 1, 1, 8, the same be said, once for all. Mostly in prohibitions: as, morātus sit nēmō quō minus abeant, L. 9, 11, 13, let no man hinder them from going away.

1550. In positive commands, the second person singular often has a definite subject in old or epistolary Latin, and particularly sīs, for the imperative es or estō. Usually however an indefinite subject (1030): as,

(a.) eās, Pl. R. 519, be off. hīc apud nōs hodiē cēnēs, Pl. Most. 1129, dine here with us today. cautus sīs, mī Tirō, Fam. 16, 9, 4, you must be careful, dear Tiro. (b.) istō bonō ūtāre, dum adsit, CM. 33, enjoy this blessing while you have it with you.

1551. When a prohibition is expressed in the subjunctive, the second person of the present is often used in old Latin, sometimes the perfect. Later, however, the perfect is generally prevalent. In the classical period, the present is almost confined to poetry. For the imperative in prohibitions, see 1581-1586.

(a.) nē illum verberēs, Pl. B. 747, you mustn’t thrash the man. Once in Horace: nē sīs patruos mihī, S. 2, 3, 88, don’t play stern governor to me. (b.) nē trānsierīs Ibērum, L. 21, 44, 6, do not cross the Iberus. quod dubitās nē fēcerīs, Plin. Ep. 1, 18, 5, what you have doubt about, never do.

1552. (3.) The imperfect or (but not in old Latin) pluperfect subjunctive is sometimes used to express past obligation or necessity: as,

(a.) Imperfect: quae hīc erant cūrārēs, T. Hec. 230, thou shouldst have looked to matters here. paterētur, T. Hau. 202, he should have stood it. quod sī meīs incommodīs laetābantur, urbis tamen perīculō commovērentur, Sest. 54, well, if they did gloat over my mishaps, still they ought to have been touched by the danger to Rome. crās īrēs potius, Pl. Per. 710, you’d better have gone tomorrow, i.e. have resolved to go tomorrow. poenās penderēs, Pl. B. 427, thou hadst to pay a penalty. (b.) Pluperfect: restitissēs, rēpugnāssēs, mortem pugnāns oppetīssēs, Poet. in Sest. 45, thou shouldst have made a stand, fought back, and fighting met thy fate. quid facere dēbuistī? frūmentum nē ēmissēs, V. 3, 195, what ought you to have done? you should not have bought any wheat. Usually, however, past obligation or necessity is expressed by the gerundive construction, or by some separate verb meaning ought (1496).

(C.) Willingness, Assumption, Concession.

1553. The subjunctive of desire may be used to denote willingness, assumption, or concession: as,

ōderint dum metuant, Poet. in Suet. Cal. 30, they are welcome to hate, as long as they fear. nē sit sānē summum malum dolor, malum certē est, TD. 2, 14, grant for aught I care that pain is not the worst evil, an evil it certainly is. nīl fēcerit, estō, J. 6, 222, he may be guiltless, be it so.

II. The Subjunctive of Action Conceivable.

1554. The subjunctive is often used to represent action as conceivable, without asserting that it actually takes place.

In some of its applications, this subjunctive is often more exactly defined by an expression of doubt or of assurance: as, fors fuat an in Plautus, forsitan from Terence on (rarely forsan, fors), fortasse, may be, perhaps; opīnor, haud sciō an, I fancy; facile, easily, sine ūllā dubitātiōne, unhesitatingly, &c., &c. The negative used with this subjunctive is nōn.

1555. This subjunctive is particularly common in guarded or diffident statements: thus, velim, I could wish, nōlim, I should not be willing, mālim, I would rather, dīxerim, I should say, are often preferred to a blunter volō, I insist, nōlō, I won’t, mālō, I prefer, or dīcō, I say.

1556. The present denotes action in an indefinite future: as,

(a.) ego forsitan in grege adnumerer, RA. 89, as for me, I might perhaps be counted in the common herd. mūtuom argentum rogem, Pl. Tri. 758, money I might borrow. haud sciō an rēctē dīcāmus, Sest. 58, I rather think we may say with propriety. (b.) The second person singular generally has an imaginary subject (1030): as, dīcās hīc forsitan, J. 1, 150, here peradventure thou mayst say, i.e. anybody may say. rogēs mē quid sit deus, auctōre ūtar Simōnidē, DN. 1, 60, you may ask me what god is; I should follow the lead of Simonides. migrantīs cernās, V. 4, 401, thou canst descry them on the move (1635). Often with some generalizing word, such as saepe, numquam, plūrēs: as, saepe videās, H. S. 1, 4, 86, thou oft canst see. Fortūnam citius reperiās quam retineās, Publil. Syr. 168, dame Fortune thou mayst sooner find than bind. (c.) nunc aliquis dīcat mihi, H. S. 1, 3, 19, now somebody may say to me (more commonly dīcet aliquis, dīcēs, 1620). forsitan aliquis dīcat, L. 5, 52, 5, perhaps somebody may say. hoc vōbīs incrēdibile videātur, V. 3, 109, this may seem incredible to you.

1557. (1.) The perfect seldom occurs in old Latin. Later, it is rarely used of past time. In this use it resembles the perfect of concession (1553): as,

(a.) forsitan temere fēcerim, RA. 31, peradventure I may have acted rashly. errāverim fortasse, Plin. Ep. 1, 23, 2, I may have been mistaken perhaps. (b.) concēdō; forsitan aliquis aliquandō eius modī quippiam fēcerit, V. 2, 78, I grant it; perhaps somebody, at some time or other, may have done something of the sort. haec ipsa forsitan fuerint nōn necessāria, Br. 52, even this may perhaps have been superfluous.

1558. (2.) The perfect is oftenest used with a future meaning, and particularly the first person singular active of verbs meaning think or say: as,

(a.) nōn facile dīxerim, TD. 5, 121, I could not readily say. hoc sine ūllā dubitātiōne cōnfirmāverim, Br. 25, this I can assert without any hesitation. pāce tuā dīxerim, TD. 5, 12, by your leave I would say. The first person plural occurs first in Cornificius, and is rare: as, hunc deum rīte beātum dīxerīmus, DN. 1, 52, such a god we should be right in pronouncing happy. (b.) plānē perfectum Dēmosthenem facile dīxerīs, Br. 35, you would readily pronounce Demosthenes absolutely perfect (1030). tū vērō eum nec nimis valdē umquam nec nimis saepe laudāverīs, Leg. 3, 1, oh no, rest assured you never can praise him too emphatically nor too often. conluviem istam nōn nisi metū coērcuerīs, Ta. 14, 44, such a motley rabble you can only keep under by terrorism. (c.) forsitan quispiam dīxerit, Off. 3, 29, perhaps somebody may say.

1559. (1.) The imperfect properly denotes action which might have taken place in the past: as,

(a.) nōn ego hoc ferrem calidus iuventā cōnsule Plancō, H. 3, 14, 27, this I should not have brooked in my hot youth, in Plancus’ consulate. (b.) The second person singular, particularly of verbs meaning see, make out, think, say, generally has an imaginary subject (1030): as, vidērēs, H. S. 2, 8, 77, thou mightst have seen. cernerēs, L. 22, 7, 12, you might have descried. nescīrēs, L. 3, 35, 3, you could not have told. tē columen rē̆ī pūblicae dīcerēs intuērī, Sest. 19, you would have sworn you were gazing on a pillar of the state. (c.) quī vidēret, urbem captam dīceret, V. 4, 52, anybody who saw it, would have said it was a captured city. dīcī hoc in tē nōn potest, posset in Tarquiniō, cum rēgnō esset expulsus, TD. 1, 88, this cannot be said in your case; it might have been said in Tarquin’s, when he was driven from the throne. numquam faceret, T. Ph. 121, he never would have done it.

1560. (2.) The imperfect often denotes action not performed at the present time; so especially vellem (nōllem, māllem): as,

(a.) nimis vellem habēre perticam, Pl. As. 589, I wish so much I had a stick. vellem adesse posset Panaetius; quaererem ex eō, TD. 1, 81, I only wish Panaetius could be with us: I should ask him (Panaetius was dead). cuperem voltum vidēre tuum, Att. 4, 16, 7, I should like to see the expression of your face. māllem Cerberum metuerēs, TD. 1, 12, I would rather you stood in dread of Cerberus. possem idem facere, TD. 1, 84, I could do the same. (b.) melius sequerēre cupīdine captam, O. 14, 28, better for thee it were a loving bride to woo. (c.) in hāc fortūnā perūtilis eius opera esset, Att. 9, 17, 2, in the present pinch his services would be extremely valuable.

1561. The pluperfect represents action which did not take place in the past: as,

(a.) vellem quidem licēret: hoc dīxissem, RA. 138, I only wish it were allowed; I should have said so and so. (b.) dedissēs huic animō pār corpus, fēcisset quod optābat, Plin. Ep. 1, 12, 8, you might have given this spirit a body to match; he would have done what he craved to do. (c.) urbēs et rēgna celeriter tanta nēquitia dēvorāre potuisset, Ph. 2, 67, such colossal prodigality might have been capable of swallowing down cities and kingdoms speedily. vīcissent inprobōs bonī; quid deinde? Sest. 43, the good might have overpowered the bad; what next?

1562. It may be mentioned here, that the subjunctive of action conceivable often extends to subordinate sentences: see 1731.

Questions.

1563. I. The subjunctive is often used to ask what action or whether any action is desired, commanded, proper, or necessary.

In many instances a negative answer or no answer at all is expected The negative is nē, sometimes nōn.

(a.) quō mē vertam? Scaur. 19, which way shall I turn? quid faciam, praescrībe :: quiēscās :: nē faciam, inquis, omnīnō versūs? H. S. 2, 1, 5, lay down the law, what I’m to do :: keep still :: wilt have me write, sayst thou, no verse at all? quid igitur faciam? nōn eam? T. Eu. 46, what then am I to do? not go? quid nī meminerim? DO. 2, 273, why should not I remember? or of course I remember. huic cēdāmus? huius condiciōnēs audiāmus? Ph. 13, 16, shall we bow the knee to him? shall we listen to his terms? (b.) quid tandem mē facere decuit? quiēscerem et paterer? L. 42, 41, 12, what in the world ought I to have done? keep inactive and stand it?

1564. Such questions sometimes have the alternative form: as, Corinthiīs bellum indīcāmus, an nōn? Inv. 1, 17, are we to declare war against Corinth, or not? utrum indicāre mē e͡i thēnsaurum aequom fuit, an ego alium dominum paterer fierī hīsce aedibus? Pl. Tri. 175, should I have pointed out the hoard to him, or should I have allowed another to become the owner of this house? here paterer is equivalent to aequom fuit patī (1495).

1565. II. The subjunctive is often used to ask whether action is conceivable: as,

(a.) quis putet celeritātem ingenī L. Brūtō dēfuisse? Br. 53, who can suppose that Brutus lacked ready wit? i.e. nēmō putet (1556), putābit (1620), or putāre potest. sī enim Zēnōnī licuit, cūr nōn liceat Catōnī? Fin. 3, 15, for if it was allowed Zeno, why should not it be allowed Cato? (b.) hoc tantum bellum quis umquam arbitrārētur ab ūnō imperātōre cōnficī posse? IP. 31, who would ever have dreamed that this stupendous war could be brought to a close by a single commander? The imperfect sometimes denotes action not performed at the present time (1560): quis enim cīvis rēgī nōn favēret? D. 6, for what Roman would not feel for the king? (c.) ego tē vidēre nōluerim? QFr. 1, 3, 1, I have objected to seeing you?

1566. The subjunctive is often used in interrogative outbursts of surprise, disapprobation, indignation, or captious rejoinder. In such questions a pronoun, ego, tū (ille), is usually expressed. The negative is nōn.

This subjunctive occurs in Plautus and Terence, in Cicero, oftenest the letters, in Horace, Vergil, and Livy. Not in Caesar nor Sallust.

1567. (1.) The question may have no interrogative word, or may have -ne, especially in comedy: as,

(a.) nōn tacēs? :: taceam? T. Ph. 987, you hold your tongue :: I hold my tongue? nē flē :: egone illum nōn fleam? Pl. Cap. 139, weep not :: what, I not weep for him? tū pulsēs omne quod obstat? H. S. 2, 6, 30, what, you, sir, punch whatever’s in your way? faveās tū hostī? ille litterās ad tē mittat? Ph. 7, 5, you, sir, sympathize with the enemy? he correspond with you? sapiēnsne nōn timeat? Ac. 2, 135, a sage not be afraid? (b.) ego mihī̆ umquam bonōrum praesidium dēfutūrum putārem? Mil. 94, could I have dreamed that I should ever lack the protection of the patriotic? (c.) ‘apud exercitum mihī̆ fuerīs’ inquit ‘tot annōs?’ Mur. 21, ‘to think of your having been with the army, bless my soul?’ says he, ‘so many years.’ (d.) mihī̆ cuiusquam salūs tantī fuisset, ut meam neglegerem? Sull. 45, could anybody’s safety have been so important in my eyes as to make me disregard my own?

1568. (2.) The question may have utī or ut: as,

tē ut ūlla rēs frangat? tū ut umquam tē corrigās? C. 1, 22, any thing break you down? you ever reform? pater ut obesse fīlīo dēbeat? Planc. 31, a father morally bound to work against his son?

1569. (3.) The question with utī or ut is sometimes attended by a remnant of another question with -ne or -n. In this combination, -ne either precedes, joined to an emphatic word, or it is attached directly to utī or ut: as,

(a.) egone ut tē interpellem? TD. 2, 42, what I? interrupt you? illīne ut impūne concitent fīnitima bella? L. 4, 2, 12, what, they be allowed to stir up border warfare with impunity? virgō haec līberast :: meane ancilla lībera ut sit, quam ego numquam ēmīsī manū? Pl. Cur. 615, this girl is free :: my servant-girl? she to be free, when I have never set her free? (b.) utne tegam spurcō Dāmae latus? H. S. 2, 5, 18, what, I’m to shield a nasty Dama’s side? somnium. utine haec īgnōrāret su͡om patrem? T. Ph. 874, oh bosh, not to have known the father that begat her? See 1505 and 1532.

1570. It may be mentioned here, that the interrogative subjunctive is often used in subordinate sentences: see 1731.

The Imperative Mood.

Command.

1571. The second person of the imperative mood is used in commands, either particular or general.

Commands are very often attended by a vocative or vocative nominative, or by tū, sir, sirrah, or vōs, gentlemen, you people (1118). They are of various kinds, as follows: (a.) Order, often to an inferior: thus, to an official: līctor, conligā manūs, Rab. 13, L. 1, 26, 7, Gell. 12, 3, 2, lictor, tie up his wrists. To soldiers: as, dēsilīte mīlitēs, 4, 25, 3, overboard, my men. sīgnifer, statue sīgnum, L. 5, 55, 1, standardbearer, plant your standard. īnfer mīles sīgnum, L. 6, 8, 1, advance your standard, man, or charge. To sailors: as, hūc dīrigite nāvēs, L. 29, 27, 13, head your galleys this way. To slaves: as, convorrite aedēs scōpīs, agite strēnuē, Pl. B. 10, sweep up the house with brooms, be brisk. Also to an equal: as, aperīte aliquis, Pl. Mer. 130, open the door there somebody (1080). Or to a superior: as, heus, exī, Phaedrome, Pl. Cur. 276, ho Phaedromus, come out. (b.) Exhortation, entreaty, summons, request, prayer, imprecation, wish, concession, &c.: as, vōs vōbīs cōnsulite, 7, 50, 5, every man of you for himself. ēs, bibe, animō obsequere, Pl. MG. 677, eat, drink, and be merry. sperne voluptātēs, H. E. 1, 2, 55, scorn thou delights. quīn tū ī intrō, Pl. Most. 815, go in, go in, won’t you go in? (1527). patent portae, proficīscere, ēdūc tēcum etiam omnīs tuōs, C. 1, 10, the gates are open, march forth; take out all your myrmidons with you too. audī, Iuppiter, L. 1, 32, 6, bow down thine ear, Jupiter. ī in crucem, Pl. As. 940, get you gone to the cross. vīve valēque, H. S. 2, 5, 109, long live and thrive, or farewell. tibī̆ habē, Pl. Men. 690, you keep it yourself.

1572. The imperative is often softened by the addition of amābō, obsecrō, quaesō, prithee, I beg, or sīs, sultis, sōdēs, please . It is sharpened by age, agedum or agidum, age sīs, mark me, or ī, go, come on, or by modo, only. The concessive imperative sometimes has sānē, for all me.

1573. In Plautus and Terence, the enclitic dum, a while, a minute, just, is often attached to the imperative: as, manedum, Pl. As. 585, wait a minute. In classical Latin, dum is retained with age and agite: as, agedum cōnferte cum illīus vītā P. Sūllae, Sull. 72, come now, compare Sulla’s life with that man’s (1075).

1574. It may be mentioned here, that the imperative is often used in the protasis of a conditional sentence: as,

tolle hanc opīniōnem, lūctum sustuleris, TD. 1, 30, do away with this notion, and you will do away with mourning for the dead. Once only in old Latin, but often in late Latin, with a copulative: as, perge, ac facile ecfēceris, Pl. B. 695, start on, and you will do it easily.

1575. (1.) The third person, and the longer forms of the second person, are used particularly in laws, legal documents, and treaties, and also in impressive general rules and maxims: as,

(a.) rēgiō imperiō duō suntō, Leg. 3, 8, there shall be two men vested with the power of kings. amīcitia rēgī Antiochō cum populō Rōmānō hīs lēgibus estō, L. 38, 38, 1, there shall be amity between king Antiochus and Rome on the following terms. (b.) vīcīnīs bonus estō, Cato, RR. 4, always be good to your neighbours. mōribus vīvitō antīquīs, Pl. Tri. 295, live thou in old-time ways. The longer forms are often called the Future Imperative.

1576. (2.) The longer forms of the second person are also sometimes used in the ordinary speech of everyday life: as, cavētō, QFr. 1, 3, 8, beware. In old Latin, often ēs, be thou, but in classical Latin, oftener estō (or sīs). Usually habētō, meaning keep, or consider, regularly scītō, scītōte, you must know . In verse, the long forms may sometimes be due to the metre: as, hīc hodiē cēnātō, Pl. R. 1417, take dinner here today. pār prō parī refertō, T. Eu. 445, pay tit for tat. But also without such necessity: as, aufertō intrō, Pl. Tru. 914, take it within. quiētus estō, inquam, T. Ph. 713, be not concerned, I say.

1577. (3.) It may be mentioned here, that the longer forms are very often used in the apodosis of a complex sentence, particularly with a future or a future perfect protasis: as,

sī iste ībit, ītō, Pl. Ps. 863, if he shall go, go thou. medicō mercēdis quantum poscet, prōmittī iubētō, Fam. 16, 14, 1, you must order your medical man to be promised all he shall charge in the way of a fee. ubī̆ nihil erit quod scrībās, id ipsum scrībitō, Att. 4, 8b, 4, when you don’t have anything to write, then write just that. cum ego P. Grānium testem prōdūxerō, refellitō, sī poteris, V. 5, 154, when I put Granius on the witness stand, refute him if you can.

1578. In such combinations, however, the shorter forms are sometimes found: as, ubi volēs, accerse, T. Andr. 848, fetch me when you will. And conversely the longer forms are also found with a present protasis: as, ūnum illud vidētō, sī mē amās, Fam. 16, 1, 2, attend to this one thing, an thou lovest me.

1579. A command is sometimes expressed by the subjunctive, accompanying fac, facitō, fac ut, facitō ut, cūrā ut, cūrātō ut, vidē, vidē ut, volō, or particularly velim: as,

magnum fac animum habeās et spem bonam, QFr. 1, 2, 16, see that you keep up an heroic soul and unabated hope (1712). fac cōgitēs, Fam. 11, 3, 4, see that you bear in mind. cūrā ut valeās, Fam. 12, 29, 3, take good care of yourself. velim exīstimēs, Fam. 12, 29, 2, I should like to have you consider. For commands in the subjunctive alone, see 1547; in the future indicative, 1624; in the form of a question, 1531.

1580. A periphrastic perfect passive form is rare: as, iūre caesus estō, Twelve Tables in Macrob. Sat. 1, 4, 19, he shall be regarded as killed with justifying circumstances. probē factum estō, L. 22, 10, 6, let it be considered justified. at vōs admonitī nostrīs quoque cāsibus este, O. Tr. 4, 8, 51, but be ye warned by our misfortunes too.

Prohibition.

1581. (1.) In prohibitions with the second person, the imperative with nē is used in old Latin, and with nēve as a connective, rarely neque: as,

nē flē, Pl. Cap. 139, weep not. nē saevī tantō opere, T. Andr. 868, be not thus wroth. Sometimes in classical poetry also, in imitation of old style: as, nē saevī, magna sacerdōs, V. 6, 544, rave not, thou priestess grand. Once in Livy: nē timēte, 3, 2, 9, be not afraid.

1582. From Ovid on, nōn is used a few times for nē: as, nōn cārīs aurēs onerāte lapillīs, O. AA. 3, 129, load not with precious stones your ears.

1583. (2.) Prohibitions in the second person are usually expressed by nōlī or nōlīte with the infinitive, particularly in classical prose: as,

obiūrgāre nōlī, Att. 3, 11, 2, don’t scold. nōlīte id velle quod fierī nōn potest, Ph. 7, 25, don’t yearn after the unattainable.

1584. In poetry, equivalents for nōlī are sometimes used with the infinitive, such as fuge, parce or comperce, conpesce, mitte or omitte, absiste: as, quid sit futūrum crās, fuge quaerere, H. 1, 9, 13, what fate the morrow brings, forbear to ask. Livy has once parce, 34, 32, 20.

1585. (3.) A prohibition in the second person is often expressed by the subjunctive accompanying cavē̆, fac nē, vidē nē, vidētō nē, cūrā nē, cūrātō nē, or nōlim, and in old Latin cavē̆ nē: as,

cavē festīnēs, Fam. 16, 12, 6, don’t be in a hurry. cavētō nē suscēnseās, Pl. As. 372, see that thou beest not wroth. hoc nōlim mē iocārī putēs, Fam. 9, 15, 4, I should hate to have you think I am saying this in fun. For prohibitions in the second person with nē and the present or perfect subjunctive, see 1551. For the subjunctive coordinated with cavē̆, see 1711.

1586. In law language, prohibitions are expressed by the third person of the imperative with nē, and with nēve as a connective: as,

hominem mortuom in urbe nē sepelītō nēve ūritō, Twelve Tables in Leg. 2, 58, he shall not bury nor yet shall he burn a dead man in town. mulierēs genās nē rāduntō nēve lessum fūneris ergō habentō, Twelve Tables in Leg. 2, 59, women shall not tear their cheeks nor shall they keen in lamentation for the dead (1257). Likewise with nēmō: as, nēminī pārentō, Twelve Tables in Leg. 3, 8, they shall not be subject to anybody. See also 1548.

Tense.

The Tenses of the Indicative.

The Present Tense.

1587. The present indicative represents action as going on at the time of speaking or writing: as,

scrībō, I write, or I am writing. nunc prīmum audiō, T. Andr. 936, for the first time I hear. notat ad caedem ūnum quemque nostrūm, C. 1, 2, he is marking us out for death, each and all. domus aedificātur, Att. 4, 2, 7, the house is building.

1588. The present is used to denote action customary or repeated at any time, or a general truth: as,

agrī cultūrae nōn student, 6, 22, 1, they do not apply themselves to farming. virī in uxōrēs vītae necisque habent potestātem, 6, 19, 3, the married men have power of life and death over their wives. probitās laudātur et alget, J. 1, 74, uprightness gets extolled, and left out in the cold. dum vītant stultī vitia, in contrāria currunt, H. S. 1, 2, 24, while fools essay a vice to shun, into its opposite they run. mors sōla fatētur quantula sint hominum corpuscula, J. 10, 172, death is the only thing that tells what pygmy things men’s bodies be. stultōrum plēna sunt omnia, Fam. 9, 22, 4, the world is full of fools. rīsū ineptō rēs ineptior nūllast, Cat. 39, 16, there’s nothing sillier than a silly laugh.

1589. The present, when accompanied by some expression of duration of time, is often used to denote action which has been going on some time and is still going on.

This present is translated by the English perfect: as, Lilybaeī multōs iam annōs habitat, V. 4, 38, he has lived at Lilybaeum this many a year. iam dūdum auscultō, H. S. 2, 7, 1, I have been listening for an age. satis diū hōc iam saxum vorsō, T. Eu. 1085, I’ve trundled at this boulder long enough as ’t is. nimium diū tē castra dēsīderant, C. 1, 10, the camp has felt your absence altogether too long. iam diū īgnōrō quid agās, Fam. 7, 9, 1, I have not known this long time how you are getting on. This use extends to the subjunctive and to nouns of the verb also. But if the action is conceived as completed, the perfect is used: as, sērō resistimus ē̆ī quem per annōs decem aluimus, Att. 7, 5, 5, it is too late to oppose a man whom we have been supporting ten long years.

1590. The present is often used to represent past action as going on now. This is called the Present of Vivid Narration: as,

trānsfīgitur scūtum Puliōni et verūtum in balteō dēfīgitur. āvertit hīc cāsus vāgīnam, inpedītumque hostēs circumsistunt, 5, 44, 7, Pulio has his shield run through, and a javelin sticks fast in his sword belt. This mischance puts his scabbard out of reach, and the enemy encompass him in this hampered condition. This present often stands side by side with a past tense. It is common in subordinate sentences also.

1591. The present is sometimes used in brief historical or personal memoranda, to note incidents day by day or year by year as they occur. This is called the Annalistic Present: as,

Proca deinde rēgnat. is Numitōrem prōcreat. Numitōrī rēgnum vetustum Silviae gentis lēgat, L. 1, 3, 9, after this Proca is king; this man begets Numitor; to Numitor he bequeaths the ancient throne of the Silvian race. duplicātur cīvium numerus. Caelius additur urbī mōns, L. 1, 30, 1, number of citizens doubled; Mt. Caelius added to city. in Māmurrārum lassī deinde urbe manēmus, H. S. 1, 5, 37, in the Mamurras’ city then forspent we sleep. Particularly common with dates: as, A. Vergīnius inde et T. Vetusius cōnsulātum ineunt, L. 2, 28, 1, then Verginius and Vetusius enter on the consulship. M. Sīlānō L. Nōrbānō cōnsulibus Germānicus Aegyptum proficīscitur, Ta. 2, 59, in the consulship of Silanus and Norbanus, Germanicus leaves for Egypt.

1592. Verbs of hearing, seeing, and saying are often put in the present, even when they refer to action really past: as,

audiō Valerium Mārtiālem dēcessisse, Plin. Ep. 3, 21, 1, I hear that Martial is dead, i.e. the epigrammatist, 102 A.D. Particularly of things mentioned in books, or in quoting what an author says: as, Hercyniam silvam, quam Eratosthenī nōtam esse videō, 6, 24, 2, the Hercynian forest, which I see was known to Eratosthenes. Platō ‘ēscam malōrum’ appellat voluptātem, CM. 44, Plato calls pleasure the ‘bait of sin.’

1593. The present is sometimes loosely used of future action: as,

crās est mihī̆ iūdicium, T. Eu. 338, tomorrow I’ve a case in court. ego sȳcophantam iam condūcō dē forō, Pl. Tri. 815, for me, a sharper from the market place I’ll straight engage. quam mox inruimus? T. Eu. 788, how soon do we pitch in? This present is also used in subordinate sentences with antequam and priusquam (1912, 1915), with dum, until (2006), and sometimes with sī.

The Imperfect Tense.

1594. The imperfect indicative represents action as going on in past time: as,

scrībēbam, I was writing, or I wrote. ei mihi quālis erat, V. 2, 274, woe’s me, how ghastly he appeared. multōsque per annōs errābant āctī fātīs, V. 1, 31, and they for many a year were roaming round, by fates pursued.

1595. The imperfect often denotes past action lasting while something else occurred: as,

an tum erās cōnsul, cum mea domus ardēbat? Pis. 26, were you perhaps consul at the time my house was burning down? neque vērō tum īgnōrābat sē ad exquīsīta supplicia proficīscī, Off. 3, 100, and all the time he knew perfectly well that he was starting off to suffer studied torments.

1596. The imperfect is used to denote repeated or customary past action or condition: as,

commentābar dēclāmitāns cōtīdiē, Br. 310, I always practised speaking my compositions every day. noctū ambulābat in pūblicō Themistoclēs, TD. 4, 44, Themistocles used to promenade the streets nights.

1597. The imperfect, when accompanied by some expression of duration of time, is used to denote action which had been going on for some time, and was still going on.

This imperfect, which is translated by the English pluperfect, is analogous to the present in 1589: as, pater grandis nātū iam diū lectō tenēbātur, V. 5, 16, his aged father had long been bedridden. hōram amplius iam permultī hominēs mōliēbantur, V. 4, 95, something over an hour a good many men had been prizing away. But if the action is conceived as completed at a past time, the pluperfect is used: as, diem iam quīntum cibō caruerat, 6, 38, 1, four whole days he had gone without eating.

1598. In a few examples, the imperfect is used to denote action suddenly recognized, though going on before: as, ehem, Parmenō, tūn hīc erās? T. Hec. 340, why bless me, Parmeno, were you here all this time?

1599. In descriptions of place or in general truths, where the present might be expected, the imperfect is sometimes used, by assimilation to past action in the context: as, ipsum erat oppidum Alesia in colle summō, 7, 69, 1, Alesia proper was situated on the top of a hill. Often also in subordinate sentences.

1600. For the imperfect indicative of certain verbs relating to action not performed at the present time, see 1497; for the conative use, see 2302.

1601. In letters, the imperfect may denote action at the time of writing, the writer transferring himself to the time of the reader: as,

haec tibi dictābam post fānum putre Vacūnae, H. E. 1, 10, 49, I dictate this for thee behind Vacuna’s crumbling shrine. nihil habēbam quod scrīberem, Att. 9, 10, 1, I have nothing to write. Similarly in the delivery of messages: as, scrībae ōrābant, H. S. 2, 6, 36, the clerks request. The present, however, is very often used where the imperfect would be applicable. Compare 1616.

The Perfect Tense.

1602. The Latin perfect indicative represents two English tenses: thus, the preterite, I wrote, and the perfect, I have written, are both expressed by the perfect scrīpsī. In the first sense, this perfect is called the Historical Perfect; in the second sense, it is called the Perfect Definite.

The Historical Perfect.

1603. The historical perfect simply expresses action as having occurred at an indefinite past time, without implying anything as to the duration of the action: as,

scrīpsī, I wrote. vēnī, vīdī, vīcī, Caesar in Suet. Iul. 37, came, saw, overcame. apud Helvētiōs longē nōbilissimus fuit Orgetorīx, 1, 2, 1, among the Helvetians, the man of highest birth by all odds was Orgetorix. Diodōrus prope triennium domō caruit, V. 4, 41, for nearly three years Diodorus had to keep away from home. in Graeciā mūsicī flōruērunt, discēbantque id omnēs, TD. 1, 4, in Greece musicians stood high, and everybody studied the art (1596).

1604. It may be mentioned here, that in subordinate sentences the historical perfect is sometimes loosely used from the writer’s point of view, instead of the more exact pluperfect demanded by the context: as, aliquantum spatiī ex eō locō, ubī̆ pugnātum est, aufūgerat, L. 1, 25, 8, he had run off some distance from the spot where the fighting had occurred. See 1925.

The Perfect Definite.

1605. The perfect definite expresses action which is already completed at the present time, and the effects of which are regarded as continuing: as,

scrīpsī, I have written. dīxērunt, Clu. 73, dīxēre, Quintil. 1, 5, 43, they have finished speaking. spectātōrēs, fābula haec est ācta, Pl. Most. 1181, ladies and gentlemen, this play is done.

1606. In old Latin, habeō with the perfect participle is sometimes equivalent to a periphrastic perfect: as, illa omnia missa habeō, Pl. Ps. 602, I’ve dropped all that, i.e. mīsī. But in classical Latin, the participle and a tense of habeō are more or less distinct in their force: as, Caesar aciem īnstrūctam habuit, 1, 48, 3, Caesar kept his line drawn up, not had drawn up. Compare 2297.

1607. With verbs of inceptive meaning the perfect definite is equivalent to the English present: as,

cōnsistō, take my stand, cōnstitī, stand, cōnsuēscō, get used, cōnsuēvī, am used, nōscō, learn, nōvī, know. Similarly meminī, remember, and ōdī, hate. The pluperfect of such verbs is represented by the English imperfect, and the future perfect by the English future.

1608. The perfect often denotes a present resulting state: as, vīcīne, periī, interiī, Pl. Most. 1031, my neighbour, I am dead and gone. Particularly in the passive voice: as, Gallia est omnis dīvīsa in partēs trēs, 1, 1, 1, Gaul, including everything under the name, is divided into three parts. Compare 1615.

1609. In the perfect passive, forms of fuī, &c., are sometimes used to represent a state no longer existing: as, monumentō statua superimposita fuit, quam dēiectam nūper vīdimus ipsī, L. 38, 56, 3, on the monument there once stood a statue which I saw not long ago with my own eyes, lying flat on the ground. Similarly, in the pluperfect, fueram, &c.: as, arma quae fīxa in parietibus fuerant, ea sunt humī inventa, Div. 1, 74, the arms which had once been fastened on the walls were found on the floor. Sometimes, however, forms of fuī, &c., fueram, &c., and fuerō, &c., are used by Plautus, Cicero, especially in his letters, Nepos, Sallust, and particularly Livy, in passives and deponents, quite in the sense of sum, &c.

1610. The perfect of some verbs may imply a negative idea emphatically by understatement, as:

fuit Īlium, V. 2, 325, Ilium has been, i.e. Ilium is no more. vīximus, flōruimus, Fam. 14, 4, 5, we have lived our life, we have had our day. fīlium ūnicum adulēscentulum habeō. āh, quid dīxī? habēre mē? immō habuī, T. Hau. 93, I have one only son, a growing boy. Ah me, what did I say, I have? Oh no, have had.

1611. The perfect may denote an action often done, or never done: as,

iam saepe hominēs patriam cārōsque parentēs prōdiderunt, Lucr. 3, 85, time and again have men their land betrayed and parents dear. nōn aeris acervus et aurī dēdūxit corpore febrīs, H. E. 1, 2, 47, no pile of brass and gold hath fevers from the body drawn. multī, cum obesse vellent, prōfuērunt et, cum prōdesse, obfuērunt, DN. 3, 70, many a man has done good, when he meant to do harm, and when he meant to do good, has done harm. Common from Cicero, Sallust, and Catullus on, especially in poetry.

1612. The perfect is sometimes used as a lively future perfect to express completed future action: as,

quam mox coctumst prandium? Pl. R. 342, how soon is lunch all cooked? cui sī esse in urbe licēbit, vīcimus, Att. 14, 20, 3, if he shall be allowed to stay in town, the day is ours. periī, sī mē aspexerit, Pl. Am. 320, I’m gone, if he lays eyes on me.

1613. It may be mentioned here, that the perfect is regularly used in a subordinate sentence denoting time anterior to a present of repeated action (1588). In such sentences the present is preferred in English: as,

reliquī, quī domī mānsērunt, sē atque illōs alunt, 4, 1, 5, the others, that stay at home, always support themselves and the above-mentioned also. sī quī aut prīvātus aut populus eōrum dēcrētō nōn stetit, sacrificiīs interdīcunt, 6, 13, 6, if any man or any community does not abide by their decree, they always debar them from sacrifices. So also with quom or cum, quotiēns, simul atque, ubī̆. Compare 1618.

The Pluperfect Tense.

1614. The pluperfect indicative expresses past action, completed before another past action expressed or understood: as,

scrīpseram, I had written. Pyrrhī temporibus iam Apollō versūs facere dēsierat, Div. 2, 116, in Pyrrhus’s day Apollo had quite given up making poetry. mortuus erat Āgis rēx. fīlium relīquerat Leōtychidem, N. 17, 1, 4, Agis the king had died; he had left a son Leotychides.

1615. The pluperfect often expresses a past resulting state: as,

castra oportūnīs locīs erant posita, 7, 69, 7, the camp was pitched on favourable ground. ita ūnō tempore et longās nāvēs aestus complēverat, et onerāriās tempestās adflīctābat, 4, 29, 2, thus at one and the same time the tide had filled the men-of-war, and the gale of wind kept knocking the transports about. This use is analogous to that of the perfect in 1608.

1616. In letters, the pluperfect is sometimes used to denote action occurring previous to the time of writing, the writer transferring himself to the time of the reader: as,

ūnam adhūc ā tē epistolam accēperam, Att. 7, 12, 1, I have only had one letter from you thus far. This use is analogous to that of the imperfect in 1601, and very often, where this pluperfect would be applicable, the perfect is used.

1617. The pluperfect is sometimes used where the perfect would be expected. Particularly so when it anticipates a past tense to follow in a new sentence: as, quod factum prīmō populārīs coniūrātiōnis concusserat. neque tamen Catilīnae furor minuēbātur, S. C. 24, 1, this terrified the conspirators at first; and yet Catiline’s frenzy was not getting abated. Verbs of saying are also often put in the pluperfect in subordinate sentences referring to a preceding statement: as, Epidamniēnsis ille, quem dūdum dīxeram, adoptat illum puerum surruptīcium, Pl. Men. prol. 57, said man of Epidamnus that I named erewhile adopts said kidnapped boy.

1618. It may be mentioned here, that the pluperfect is used in a subordinate sentence denoting time anterior to a past tense of repeated action. In such sentences the preterite is preferred in English: as,

hostēs ubī̆ aliquōs singulārēs cōnspexerant, incitātīs equīs adoriēbantur, 4, 26, 2, every time the enemy caught sight of detached parties, they would always charge full gallop. Compare the analogous perfect in 1613.

The Future Tense.

1619. The future indicative expresses future action, either momentary or continuous: as,

scrībam, I shall write, I shall be writing, or I will write, I will be writing. The future commonly expresses either prediction, or will, determination, promise, threat: as, (a.) tuās litterās exspectābō, Att. 5, 7, I shall be on the lookout for letters from you. (b.) vīvum tē nōn relinquam; moriēre virgīs, V. 4, 85, I will not leave you alive; you shall die under the rod. But separate forms to mark the sharp distinction which exists between shall and will in the English future and future perfect are utterly unknown in Latin: thus, in occīdar equidem, sed victus nōn perībō, Cornif. 4, 65, I shall be murdered, to be sure, but I will not die a vanquished man, the difference between the prediction contained in I shall, and the determination contained in I will, cannot be expressed in Latin by the future indicative.

1620. The future is often used in diffident assertion, to express an assumption, a belief, conviction, or concession, of the speaker himself, without implying its universal acceptance: as,

dīcēs, TD. 2, 60, you will say. dīcet aliquis, TD. 3, 46, somebody will say (1556). dabit hoc Zēnōnī Polemō, Fin. 4, 51, Polemo will concede this point to Zeno. excūdent aliī spīrantia mollius aera, crēdō equidem, V. 6, 847, with greater grace, I well believe, shall others shape the bronze that breathes. Particularly in conclusions: as, sequētur igitur vel ad supplicium beāta vīta virtūtem, TD. 5, 87, happiness then will walk with goodness even to the scaffold. Or in general truths: as, cantābit vacuus cōram latrōne viātor, J. 10, 22, the pourë man whan he goth by the weye, bifore the thevës he may synge and pleye.

1621. The future sometimes predicts that a thing not yet known to be true will prove to be true: as, haec erit bonō genere nāta, Pl. Per. 645, this maid, you’ll find, is come of honest stock, i.e. esse reperiētur. Compare the imperfect in 1598.

1622. In Plautus and Terence, the future is sometimes used in protestations, wishes, or thanks: as, ita mē dī amābunt, T. Hau. 749, so help me heaven. dī tē amābunt, Pl. Men. 278, the gods shall bless thee. Usually, however, the subjunctive: see 1542 and 1541.

1623. The future is sometimes used in questions of deliberation or appeal: as, dēdēmus ergō Hannibalem? L. 21, 10, 11, are we then to surrender Hannibal? hancine ego ad rem nātam memorābō? Pl. R. 188, am I to say that I was born for such a fate? Oftener the present subjunctive (1563), or sometimes the present indicative (1531).

1624. The future is sometimes used, particularly in the second person, to express an exhortation, a direction, a request, a command, or with nōn a prohibition: as,

crās ferrāmenta Teānum tollētis, H. E. 1, 1, 86, tomorrow to Teanum you will take your tools. bonā veniā mē audiēs, DN. 1, 59, you will listen to me with kind indulgence. tū intereā nōn cessābis, Fam. 5, 12, 10, meantime you will not be inactive. haec igitur tibī̆ erunt cūrae, Fam. 3, 9, 4, you will attend to this then, i.e. haec cūrābis.

1625. It may be mentioned here, that the future is used in sentences subordinate to a future, an imperative, or a subjunctive implying a future: as,

profectō nihil accipiam iniūriae, sī tū aderis, Att. 5, 18, 3, I am sure I shall suffer no harm, if you are with me. ut mēd esse volēs, ita erō, Pl. Ps. 239, as you will have me be, so will I be. ut is quī audiet, cōgitet plūra, quam videat, DO. 2, 242, so that the hearer may imagine more than he sees. But sometimes a present is used (1593).

The Future Perfect Tense.

1626. The future perfect indicative expresses completed future action: as,

scrīpserō, I shall have written, or I will have written. The future perfect is very common in Latin, particularly in protasis with a relative, with cum, ubī̆, &c., with antequam or priusquam, with ut (... ita), as (... so), or with sī, to express action anterior in time to a future; in English, this future perfect is usually represented by a loose present or perfect: as, quicquid fēceris, adprobābō, Fam. 3, 3, 2, whatever you do, I shall think right. Examples will be given further on, in speaking of the complex sentence.

1627. It may be mentioned here that the future perfect in protasis and apodosis both denotes two actions occurring at one and the same time; these actions are usually identical: as,

quī Antōnium oppresserit, is hoc bellum taeterrimum cōnfēcerit, Fam. 10, 19, 2, the man that puts down Antony will put an end to this cruel war, i.e. putting down Antony will be ending the war. respīrārō, sī tē vīderō, Att. 2, 24, 5, I shall take breath again, if I set eyes on you.

1628. The future perfect sometimes denotes a future resulting state: as,

molestus certē e͡i fuerō, T. Andr. 641, at all events I shall have proved a bane to him. meum rē̆ī pūblicae atque imperātōrī officium praestiterō, 4, 25, 3, I will have my duty all done to country and commander too.

1629. The future perfect is sometimes used to express rapidity of future action, often with the implication of assurance, promise, or threat: as,

abierō, Pl. Most. 590, I’ll instantly be gone. iam hūc revēnerō, Pl. MG. 863, B. 1066, I’ll be back here again forthwith. prīmus impetus castra cēperit, L. 25, 38, 17, the first rush will see the camp carried.

1630. The future perfect often denotes action postponed to a more convenient season, or thrown upon another person.

Often thus with post, aliās, and particularly mox: as, vōbīs post nārrāverō, Pl. Ps. 721, I’ll tell you by and by, i.e. I won’t tell you now. ad frātrem mox īerō, Pl. Cap. 194, I’ll to my brother’s by and by, i.e. not yet. fuerit ista eius dēlīberātiō, L. 1, 23, 8, that is a question for him to settle, i.e. not me. Especially vīderō: as, quae fuerit causa, mox vīderō, Fin. 1, 35, what the reason was, I won’t consider now. rēctē secusne aliās vīderimus, Ac. 2, 135, whether right or not, we will consider some other time, i.e. never. vōs vīderitis, L. 1, 58, 10, that is a question for you, i.e. not me.

1631. The future perfect sometimes denotes action which will have occurred while something else takes place: as,

nōn erō vōbīs morae: tībīcen vōs intereā hīc dēlectāverit, Pl. Ps. 573a, I will not keep you long; meantime the piper will have entertained you here. tū invītā mulierēs, ego accīverō puerōs, Att. 5, 1, 3, do you, sir, invite the ladies, and I will meantime have fetched the children.

1632. The future perfect is often not perceptibly different from the future, especially in the first person singular in old Latin: as,

ego mihī prōvīderō, Pl. Most. 526, I’ll look out for myself. erōs in obsidiōne linquet, inimīcūm animōs auxerit, Pl. As. 280, he’ll leave his owners in a state of siege, he’ll swell the courage of the enemy. Similarly Cicero, in the protases sī potuerō, sī voluerō, sī licuerit, sī placuerit.

The Future Active Participle with sum.

1633. The future active participle combined with the tenses of sum expresses action impending, resolved on, or destined, at the time indicated by the tense of the verb: as,

cum hōc equite pugnātūrī estis, L. 21, 40, 10, with this kind of cavalry are you going to fight. bellum scrīptūrus sum, quod populus Rōmānus cum Iugurthā gessit, Sall. I. 5, 1, I purpose to write the history of the war that the people of Rome carried on with Jugurtha. fīet illud, quod futūrum est, Div. 2, 21, whatever is destined to be, will be. Delphōs petiīt, ubī̆ columnās, quibus impositūrī statuās rēgis Perseī fuerant, suīs statuīs dēstināvit, L. 45, 27, 6, he went to Delphi, where he appropriated for his own statues the pillars on which they had intended to put statues of king Perses.

The Tenses of the Subjunctive.

1634. In simple sentences, the tenses of the subjunctive correspond in general to the same tenses of the indicative. But the present has a future meaning; the imperfect sometimes expresses past, sometimes present action; and the perfect sometimes expresses past action, and sometimes future action.

1635. The present subjunctive is sometimes used in reference to past action, like the indicative present of vivid narration (1590): as, migrantīs cernās, V. 4, 401, you can descry them swarming out (1556). comprehendī iussit; quis nōn pertimēscat? V. 5, 14, he ordered them to be arrested; who would not be thoroughly scared? (1565). See also 2075.